71 CHAPTER-5 CEMENTING Oil well cementing falls into three categories. -primary cementing job on a casing string -squeeze cementing -plugs Primary Cementing: Casing strings are usually cemented : -to isolate troublesome behind the casing from deeper formations to be drilled, -to isolate high-pressure formations below the casing from the weaker shallow zones behind the casing, -to isolate producing zones from water bearing sands. The cement is normally placed behind the casing in a single or multi-stage technique. The single stage technique pumps cement down the casing and up to annulus. The heavier cement in the annulus is prevented from U-tubing by back- pressure valves in the bottom of the casing string. The initial stage of multi- stage job is usually planned as if it were a single stage effort. Cement is pumped down and up to annulus. The next stage is pumped through a special port collar at the desired location up to annulus. The port is opened after the initial stage is cemented.
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CHAPTER-5
CEMENTING
Oil well cementing falls into three categories.
-primary cementing job on a casing string
-squeeze cementing
-plugs
Primary Cementing:
Casing strings are usually cemented :
-to isolate troublesome behind the casing from deeper formations to be drilled,
-to isolate high-pressure formations below the casing from the weaker shallow
zones behind the casing,
-to isolate producing zones from water bearing sands.
The cement is normally placed behind the casing in a single or multi-stage
technique. The single stage technique pumps cement down the casing and up to
annulus. The heavier cement in the annulus is prevented from U-tubing by back-
pressure valves in the bottom of the casing string. The initial stage of multi-
stage job is usually planned as if it were a single stage effort. Cement is pumped
down and up to annulus. The next stage is pumped through a special port collar at
the desired location up to annulus. The port is opened after the initial stage is
cemented.
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Squeeze Cementing:
A common method for repairing faulty primary casing jobs or performing
remedial operations on the hole is squeeze cementing. Major applications:
-supplement a faulty primary casing cement job,
-reduce water-oil, water-gas and gas-oil ratio
-repair casing leaks,
-stop lost circulation in an open hole while drilling
-bring a well under control.
Placement techniques and slurry design are important considerations
squeeze operations. Supplementing a faulty or ineffective primary casing cement
job is the most prominent application for squeeze cementing.
Cement Characteristics
The cement slurry pumped into oil and gas wells includes cement, special
additives and water. Portland cement is most commonly used. The additives are
used to control characteristics such as thickening time, density and compressive
strength. Water is an important agent in the cementing.
Portland Cement:
Portland cement is manufactured by calcining limestone, clay, shale, and
slag together at 2000-2600 oF in a rotary kiln. The resulting material, clinker, is
cooled and inters ground with small percentages of gypsum to form Portland
cement. In addition to the raw materials, other components such as sand, bauxite,
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and iron oxide may be added to adjust the chemical composition of the clinker for
the different types of Portland cement. The principal components of the finished
Portland cement are lime, silica, alumina, and iron. Each component affects the
slurry in a different manner. When water is added to cement, setting and
hardening reactions begin immediately. The chemical compounds in the cement
undergo hydration and re-crystallization, resulting in a set product. The API has
established a classification system for cements used in oil and gas operations.
Slurry Features
Variables involved in the design of the slurry include:
yield, density, mix water, thickening time, compressive strength, fluid loss
and downhole temperature.
-The yield of the cement in cubic ft per sack, is the volume of space that will
be occupied by the dry cement, water and additives when the slurry is mixed
according to design specifications. A major factor affecting the slurry yield is
the density, since water must be added in significant volumes to achieve low
weight cements that will not fracture shallow, weak zones.
-The density of cement is an important design criterion. It must be sufficient
to prevent kick and blow-outs yet it should not cause lost circulation.
-The mixing water requirements will vary, depending primarily on cement class
and slurry density. Most cement jobs use well site water. Quality of mixing water
is an important parameter in cement planning. The hydration and curing of the
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slurry will react differently with varying amounts of salt, calcium, or magnesium
the mix water.
-Thickening time is the amount of time that cement remains pumpable with
reasonable pressures. This is the perhaps the most critical property in the
displacement process. Factors affecting the thickening time include cement
composition and temperature. The compressive strength is measured in pounds
per square inch. A 500psi minimum compressive strength is generally
recommended before drilling operations resume, but higher strengths are
preferred.
-Temperature affects the compressive strength of the cement. Higher
temperatures reduce the time for the cement slurry to reach some compressive
levels. However, at temperatures above 230 oC, cement strength begins to
decrease.
-Fluid loss is the water lost from the slurry to the formation during slurry
placement operations. If a large volume of water is lost, the slurry becomes too
viscous or dense to pump. Neat cement, or cement with no special additives has
a fluid loss rate in excess of 1000 cc/30 min.
0-200 cc/30 min Good control
200-500 cc/30 min Moderate control
500-1000 cc/30 min Fair control
Over 1000 cc/30 min No control
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Cement Additives
Neat slurry is a mixture of water and cement only. Special chemicals are
often added to the slurry to achieve some desired purposes. These additives are:
Accelarators, retarders, density adjuster, dispersants, fluid loss additives
Accelarators: Most operators wait for cement to reach a minimum of 500 psi
compressive strength before resuming operations. At temperatures below 100 oF
common cement may require a day or two to develop 500 psi strengths.
Accelerators are useful at reducing the amount of waiting-on-cement (WOC)
time. Low concentration of cement accelerators, usually 2-4 % by weight of
cement, shorten the setting time of cement and promote rapid strength
development. Calcium chloride is perhaps the most commonly used chemical for
this purpose.
Retarders: High formation temperatures associated with increased well depths
necessitate the use of chemicals that retard the setting time of the cement; i.e.
increase the pumping time. The most common retarder may be calcium
lignosulfonate. Its effectiveness is limited in temperatures above 200 oF. Other
retarders such as carboxymethyl-hydoxyethylcellulose, can be used to about 240
oF.
Density Adjusters: High formation pressures for neat slurry densities require
additions in cement density. Formations with low fracture gradients require
reductions in cement weight. Dispersants as an additive can increase slurry
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densities to 17.5 ppg due to their effect on viscosity. Adding more water to the
slurry and adding materials to prevent solid separation achieve density
reductions.
Dispersants: Dispersants provide several beneficial features for the slurry.
-reduce slurry viscosity
-allow slurry turbulence at lower pump rates
-assist in providing fluid loss control for densified slurries
Fluid Loss Additives: Fluid loss agents are used in cement slurries for the
following reasons:
-minimize cement dehydration in the annulus
-reduce gas migration
-improve bonding
-minimize formation damage.
Slurry Design
A well plan is not complete until the cement slurry has been designed.
Major aspects of the design are as follows:
-Volumetric requirements for the casing and annulus
-cement
-mixing water
-density selection
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Calculation of slurry density or “weight” usually expressed in pounds per gallon, is
based on the following equation.
Slurry weight = (lb cement + lb water + lb addit.) / (gal cement + gal water
+ gal addit.)
Cement has a bulk density of 94 lb/cu ft, an absolute density of 94/0.48 = 195.8
lb/cu ft and an specific gravity of 195.8/62.4 = 3.14.
The absolute volume of all solid constituents must be calculated in gallons, where:
Absolute Volume, gal = (lb of material) / (8.34 lb/gal x spec. grav. of
material)
The volume of slurry to be realized from 1 sack of cement when mixed with a
specified amount of water and possibly other additives is called the yield. The
yield in cubic feet per sack of cement is :
Yield = (gal cement + gal water + gal additive) / 7.48 gal/cu ft
Example 4-1
Calculate the weight, percent mix and yield or set volume of a slurry given?
Water-cement ratio = 5.5 gal/sx
Spec. Grav. of cement = 3.14
1 sx = 1 cu ft = 94 lb
Density of water = 8.34 ppg
Solution:
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Slurry weight = (lb cement + lb water + lb additive) / (gal cement + gal water +
gal additive)
Slurry weight = [(94 lb/sx + (5.5 gal/sx x 8.33 lb/gal)] / [(94 lb/sx / 8.33 lb/gal x
3.14) + 5.5 gal/sx]
Slurry weight = 15.4 lb/gal
Yield = (gal cement + gal water + gal additive) / 7.48 gal/cu ft
Yield = [(94 lb/sx / 8.33 lb/gal x 3.14) + 5.5 gal/sx] / 7.48 gal /cu ft
Yield = 1.215 cu ft
Absolute Volume, gal = (lb of material) / (8.34 lb/gal x spec. grav. of material)
Absolute Volume = 94 lb/sx / (8.34 lb/gal x 3.14)
Absolute Volume = 3.6 gal/sx
Percent Mix = (5.5 gal/sx x 8.34 lb/gal x 100) / 94 lb/sx
Percent Mix = 48.8 % by weight of cement
Example 4-2
Calculate the number of sacks of cement and bentonite required to obtain
cement returns on surface casing.
Volume of 9 5/8 inch 40 lb/ft casing = 0.4256 cuft / lin ft
Class-A cement with 4 % gel
Water-cement ratio = 7.73 gal/sx
Slurry weight = 14.10 lb/sx
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Casing to be landed at 1400 ft
Excess cement required = 35 %
Solution:
Cement left in casing = 30 ft x 0.4256 cu ft / ft
Cement left in casing = 12.77 cu ft
Cement required to fill annulus = 1400 ft x 0.3469 cu ft / ft x 1.35
Cement required to fill annulus = 655.64 cu ft
Total Cement required = 12.77 cu ft + 655.64 cu ft = 668.41 cu ft