21st .. Project Integration Meeting Handout PIM...21st Project Integration Meeting Handout Pasadena Center ... Constant coverage of this phone will be provided and messages will be

..

5101-225

Department of Energy

Flat-Plate Solar Array Project

21st Project Integration Meeting

Handout

Pasadena Center January 12 and 13, 1982

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, California

D-422

Prepared by the Jct Propulsion Labo ratory . California Institu te of Technology, for the Department of Energy through an agreement with the Na tio nal Aeronau tics and Space Administration.

The JPL Flat-Plate Solar Array Project is spo nsored by the Departm.:nt o f Energy (DO E) and fo rm s part o f the Pho tovoltaic Energy Systems Program to initiate a major effo rt toward th e developmen t of cost-compet itive solar arrays.

This rep ort was prepared as an account of work sponso red by the United States Governmen t. Neither the United States nor the United Sta tes Departme nt of Energy, nor a ny of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or th eir employees. makes an y wa rrant y, express or implied , or assumes any legal liability o r responsibili ty fo r the accuracy. com pleteness or usefulness of any informatio n , a pparat us, product or process disclosed. o r represents that its use would not infringe priva tcly o wned right s.

Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by t rade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, docs not necessarily const itute o r imply its endorsement, recommendations. or favor ing by the United States Government or any agency thereof. Th.: views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily s tate or reflec t those of th e United Sta tes Government or any agency thereof.

REMINDER: Please bring this Handout

with you to the PIM

~.

5101-225

Department of Energy

Flat-Plate Solar Array Project

21st Project Integration Meeting

Handout

Pasadena Center January 12 and 13, 1982


California Institute of Technology


D-422

FLAT-PLATE SOLAR ARRAY PROJECT

STAFF

E. CriiHSTENSEN D.G. TUSTIN

PHOTOVOLTAIC COMPONENTS RESEARCH AREA

K.M. KOLIWAD M.H. LEIPOLD

ADVANCED MATERIALS

A. D. MORRISON

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION

C. D. COULBERT

DEVICE AND MEASUREMENTS

A.H. KACHARE

PROCESS RESEARCH

D. B. BICKLER

PROJECT MANAGER W. T. CALLAGHAN

DEPUTY MANAGER R.R. McDONALD

SECY: M.J. PHILLIPS

ANALYSIS AND INTEGRATION

AREA

P.K. HENRY, MGR

- PROJECT INTEGRATION

- ARRAY TECHNOLOGY COSTS

.._ 1:.CONOMICS

FINANCIAL B. S. LENCK, MGR

PROCUREMENT P.S. RYKEN

MANAGEMENT AUDIT W. BISHOP

I ENGINEERING

SCIENCES AREA

R.G. ROSS, MGR

i-- ARRAY DESIGl'J REQUIREMENTS

.__ ARRAY SUBSYSTEM ANALYSIS

.__ ARRAY COMPONENT ANALYSIS

-- RELIABILITY DESIGN

..._ PERFORMANCE CRITERIA AND TEST MEl HODS

I MODULE PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE ANALYSIS

AREA

L. D. RUNKLE, MGR

,- PROBLEM-FAILURE REPORTING AND ANALYSIS

,_ ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS

,- PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS

- FIELD TESTS

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION •••••• . . . . . . . . MAP: Meeting Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGENDA • • • • • • • • . . . . . TECHNICAL SUMMARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

2

3

9

9 Project Analysis and Integration.

Advanced Materials Research

Device and Measurements

Environmental Isolation

Process Research ••

Engineering Sciences

. . . . . . . . . .

Module Performance and Failure Analysis

FSA PROJECT ACTIVE CONTRACTS

FSA PROJECT PUBLISHED DOCUMENTS

COMMERCIAL FLAT-PLATE PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE MANUFACTURERS

MAPS: Pasadena Area and Pasadena Center •••••••••

For Your Information

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

14

23

30

36

43

54

61

65

77

Inside Back

Cover

Check-in: Please check in at the registration desk on the lower level of the conference building before the start of the meeting on Wednesday morning.

Telephone Messages: Incoming calls will be received at JPL on (213) 577-9520. Constant coverage of this phone will be provided and messages will be transmitted.

BADGES: We will appreciate your returning your badges at the end of the meeting. You will find deposit boxes at the lower-level exits.

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INTRODUCTION

The Flat-Plate Solar Array Project (FSA) will convene its 21st Project Integration Meeting (PIM) at the Pasadena Center, Pasadena, California on January 12 & 13, 1983. Registration will begin at 7:30 a.m. on January 12 in the lower level of the Conference Building (see maps on following page and on inside back cover).

The theme for the 21st PIM is FSA Progress and Plans, highlighting three subjects in addition to covering the usual presentations and discussions of FSA activities. The three highlights are: (1) thin-film solar cell and module technology development needs; (2) polysilicon activities; (3) centralstation activities.

During the Wednesday plenary session, presentations will be made on each of these highlights, plus a summary of each workshop or research forum that has been held since the previous PIM (Silicon Material, and Quantifying Degradation). Thursday, after lunch, thin-film deposition technologies for photovoltaics will be addressed by four speakers.

Excellent progress has been achieved in thin-film cell research during the past few years. Increasingly efficient cells that can be duplicated have been fabricated i~ laboratories. A few of these devices now have the efficiency and quality to.warrant the application of resources to begin their transformation from laboratory devices into practical and economically manufacturable products for large-scale use. The development of the necessary technology requires a long-range commitment, the involvement of a broad spectrum of talented personnel, considerable finances, and years of consistent and productive labor. A vital factor is to stimulate and involve people with diverse talents and capabilities who have the potential to contribute to this new thrust in photovoltaics. FSA is initiating activities in thin-film technology development this fiscal year.

Significant progress has been made in developing the technology required for the production of polysilicon. However, more research is needed to acquire knowledge before a commercial plant can be built that can produce high-quality low-cost silicon. Presentations will be made on competing low-cost silicon refining technologies and current silicon refining research activities.

Significant progress has also been made in photovoltaic central-station studies, designs, and an actual installation. These achievements and how they relate to future module and array considerations will be presented.

Historically, FSA Project Integration Meetings have been conducted periodically to provide an exchange of data to permit assessment of recent progress; to identify, implement and evaluate integration activities; to gain perspective of trends and new developments; and to guide the Project's near-term and long-term planning and adjustments in priorities. General information regarding photovoltaic progress that is pertinent and/or informative is highlighted at PIMs.

It is requested that you bring this Handout with you to the meeting, since we published a limited number.

1

EXIT

MEETING LOCATIONS

C 314 C 304 C 306

C 305 C307

I C 310 C 312 I

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LOADING DOCK

21st PIM AGENDA

WEDNESDAY JANUARY 12 1 1983

7:30 Registration EXHIBIT AREA (Lower Lobby)

8:30 Welcome and Announcements

8:40 DOE Viewpoints

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8:50 Polysilicon Refining Progress, Problems, and Promise

Hemlock Dichlorosilane CVD Process Union Carbide Silane Process FSA Silicon Material Workshop Summary

and JPL Fluidized Bed Reactor Status Discussion

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J. J. R.

Callaghan ( JPL)

Prince ( DOE)

Callaghan, Chairman (JPL)

McCormick (Hemlock) Lorenz (UCC) Lutwack (JPL)

9:55 BREAK EXHIBIT AREA

10:15 Thin-Film Solar Cell and Module Technology Development

Introduction and· FSA Plans

K. Koliwad, Chairman (JPL)

K. Koliwad ( JPL) J. Stone (SERI) J. Thornton (Telic)

Promising Thin-Film Solar Cells/Overview Thin-Film Deposition Technologies/Overview Thi n-Film Technology Development Priorities as viewed by:

12 :30 LUNCH

Ametek Boeing Aerospace Energy Conversion Devices

Chemical Reactor Design for Photovoltaics Discussion

1:45 Quantifying Degradation Research Forum Summary

2:05 Central Station Activities

PV Central Station Activities at SMUD ARCO l MW Plant Relative Economic Merit of Fixed and Tracking

Flat Module Arrays Discussion

3: 15 BREAK

3:35 Parallel Technology Sessions

R. Russell l:a:8.u±dhanp:r \2 . ~ I L.L.,_-,:"fll.

R 1?, L"'/Dtav? T.W.F. Russell (Univ of Del)

E. Cuddihy (JPL)

S. Leonard, Chairman (Aerospace)

M. Anderson (SHUD) R.E.L. Tolbert ( ARCO) G. Jones (Sandia)

EXHIBIT AREA

Silicon Sheet Growth and Characteristics C124 Module Tec hnology C105

5: l 5 SOCIAL HOUR

THURSDAY , JANUARY 13 1 1983

.§..:.QQ_ Parallel Technology Sessions

Advanced Materials Cell and Processes Module Technology Environmental Isolation Engineering and

Module Performance and Failure Analysis Project Analysis and Integration

10:00 COFFEE AVAILABLE 9:15 - 11:00

12:00 LUNCH

C101 C124 Cl05 C104 C105

C102

EXHIBIT AREA

10 min

10 min

20 min 20 min 20 min

5 min

20 min



5 min 20 min

75· min

20 min


10 min

20 min

100 min

4 hrs

1:30 Thin-Film Deposition Technologies for PV

Chemical Vapor Deposition

C124 E. Christensen, Chairman (JPL) 90 min

v. Dalal (Chronar) Glow Discharge Physical Vapor Deposition (Sputtering and

Physical Evaporation) Characteristics of Thin Films

3:00 BREAK

3:20 Summaries: FSA, Lead Center, DOE

4:50 End of Meeting

3

A. Madan (Chevron/SERI) L. Hughes (Airco Temescal)

J . Thornton (Telic)

EXHIBIT AREA

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20 min

90 min

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WEDNESDAY,_JANUARY 12, 1983

PARALLEL TECHNOLOGY SESSIONS

SILICON SHEET GROWTH AND CHARACTERISTICS - Room C124 - 3.35 p.m. MODULE TECHNOLOGY - Room C105 - 3:35 p.m.

CHAIRMAN: R. Kachare

Stress/Strain in High Speed Ribbon Growth, Mini-Workshop

Dendritic Web Ribbon Stress Studies in EFG Cell Fabrication and Silicon

Sheet Evaluation Characterization of Silicon

Sheet Properties Discussion

J. Liu Westinghouse Mobil Solar

ASEC

D. Ast


20 min

20 min 10 min

CHAIRMAN: C. Coulbert

Accelerated Testing of Encapsulation Systems

Encapsulation Design Analysis Using Encapsulation Material

Testing to Assess Module Electrostatic Bonding for

Hermetic Seal· Thin-Film Encapsulating Costs

Springboro Labs Spectrolab

Life C. Coulbert

Spire R. Aster

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30 min 20 min

20 min

10 min 20 min

ADVANCED MATERIALS - Room C101 - 8:00 a.m.

CHAIRMAN: A. Morrison

Refinement of Metallurgical Grade Silicon via Dichlorosilane

Hydrochlorination Process Refinement of Metallurgical

Grade Silicon via Silane JPL Fluidized Bed Reactor

Silicon Deposition Research Internally Heated Fluidized

Bed Reactor Resear.ch Particle Growth Research in

Modified Space Reactor Silicon Cost Sensitivity Discussion Ubiquitous Crystallication

Process Cast Silicon Characteristics Quantitative Analysis of

Defects and Impurity Evaluation Technique

Semiconductor Materials Surface Studies

Discussion

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Hemlock Solarelectronics

Union Carbide

G. Hsu

O. Levenspiel

R. Flagan Glyman/Reiter

SEMIX, Inc. S. Hyland

Materials Research

S. Danyluk

THURSDAY, JANUARY 13, 1983

PARALLEL TECHNOLOGY SESSIONS

CELL AND PROCESSES - Room C124 - 8:00 a.m.

20 min 20 min

20 min

20 min

20 min


20 min 20 min

20 min

20 min 10 min

CHAIRMEN: D. Bickler/R. Kachare

Effects of Impurities on Silicon Solar Cell Performance

High-Efficiency Silicon Solar Cell Structures by Molecular Be am Epitaxy

Multi-layer Silicon Solar Cells Micro-Crystal Hetero-Junction

Silicon Solar Cells Discussion Advanced Metallization and

Conductive Coatings All Metal Thick-Film Systems

Using Cu Metal Thick-Film Through

Si3N4 Metallization Cost Comparison Discussion Junction Formation and BSF

on Web Non-Mass Analyzed Ion

Implantation Ion Implantation and Pulsed

Electron Beam Annealing of Dendritic Web and Cast Silicon Materials

Processing of Cast Silicon Discussion

r:r· 3 ~ j

C. T. Sah

Allen/Daud M. Wolf

ASEC

Spectrolab

Bernd Ross Assoc.

Photowatt H. Awaya

Westinghouse

Spire

Spire Solarex

20 min

20 min 10 min

10 min 5 min

20 min

20 min


20 min

20 min

20 min 20 min

5 min

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THURSDAY, JANUARY 13, 1983

TECHNOLOGY SESSION

MODULE TECHNOLOGY - Room C105 - 8:00 a.m.

CHAIRMAN: R. Ross

Long-Term Module Testing Results at Wyle Labs D. Otth 20 min

Solar Cell Durability Testing J. Lathrop 20 min Glass Breaking Strength

Revisited D. Moore 20 min Module Performance vs.

Angle of Incidence A. Wilson/R. Ross 20 min Module Power and Energy

Performance vs Irradiance Level C. Gonzalez 20 min

THREE PARALLEL SESSIONS

ENGINEERING AND MODULE PERFORMANCE - Room C105 - 10:00 a.m. ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION - C104 - 10:00 a.m.

CHAIRMAN: R. Ross

Fatigue Performance of Clad-Metal Instruments G. Mon

Bypass Diode Encapsulation Guidelines General Electric

Array Subsystem Safety Considerations Underwriters Labs

Residential Array Wiring Requirements Underwriters Labs

Experience with the Use of the AM 1.5 Filter with the LAPSS R. Mueller

Experience with the Use of the Portable Data Logger R. Weaver

20 min

20 min

20 min

20 min

20 min

20 min

CHAIRMAN: C. Coulbert

Bond Durability Research EVA Modeling Polymer Stabilization Mini-Module Test Status Interface Diagnostics Photothermal Characterization

Rockwell J. Guillet O. Vogl A. Amy J. Koenig R. Liang

PROJECT ANALYSIS AND INTEGRATION - C102 - 10:00 a.m.

CHAIRMAN: P. Henry

R&D Processes Costing Methodology New Allocation Guidelines FSA Priorities from an

Economic Viewpoint

J. Glyman R. Aster

P. Henry

20 min 20 min 20 min 20 min 10 min 20 min

35 min 15 min

30 min

TECHNICAL SUMMARIES

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In-House Program

PRQJECT ANALYSIS AND IN.I'EGRATION



Basic Process Unit (BPU) Costing

A summary will be given on JPL work performed under SERI Contract RW-1-9342. This describes the development of the BPU methodology for the costing of Advanced Thin Film PV cell concept options with 1990 manufacturing technology. The rationale for development of the sixteen generic processes (BPU's) as well as cost data - value added, cost drivers and sensitivity analysis data will be presented.

9

In-House Program

PROJECT ANALYSIS AND INTEGRATION



Metallization Cost Comparison

A study was undertaken by the A. &. I. area to evaluate values added for the various metallization schemes and methods available to the PV industry. The purpose of this study is to compare the metallization methods on a cost and efficiency basis.

A simple tradeoff methodology will also be presented.

Approval Signature

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PROJECT ANALYSIS & INTEGRATION

In-House Program

SILICON COST SENSITIVITY STUDY

A stochastic approach to silicon cost analysis using the SIMRAND (SIMulation of Research ANd Development) model and the IPEG costing method will be presented. First, the !PEG approach will be validated for the Si manufacturing process. Then, using the capabilities of SIMRAND, stochastic inputs to a step-by-step analysis of the actual manufacturing process of Union Carbide and Hemlock Semiconductor are combined to yield cost probability distributions. The implications of the final results as well as some of the intermediate results and original, encoded distributions will be discussed.

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In-House Program

THE NEW ALLOCATION GUIDELINES

FSA PA&I

New Allocation Guidelines will be presented in a poster session and will be discussed on Thursday morning. The Allocation Guidelines are a Project management tool for FSA which provide consistent and meaningful targets for R&D which addresses the costs of critical components of PV modules.

These guidelines are revised when necessary to reflect new information and new programmatic direction. They replace the Price Allocation Guidelines which were last issued in January of 1980 (JPL report 5101-68, Rev. A). Significant changes include the following:

o The Allocation Guidelines are now generic in that they are not limited to particular sheet technologies.

o Efficiency is treated parametrically with cells and sheet receiving larger allocations if they can provide greater efficiency.

o Advanced PV module concepts have also received a set of Allocation Guidelines.

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THIN FILM ENCAPSULATING COSTS

FSA PA&I

Encapsulation materials and process steps for conventional PV modules have been extensively developed and tested. This study estimates a lower bound on encapsulating costs for any type of module using a glass superstrate encapsulant design.

It turns out that module size and design is important. Encapsulating costs are largely area related, with large modules requiring at least $15/sqm for materials and processing and small modules (1 foot by 1 foot) requiring at least $24/sqm. Sensitivity to module efficiency will also be examined.

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13

In-House Program

ADVANCED MATERIALS RESEARCH TASK


Pasadena, CA

Properties Modification of Silicon-Effect of Environments

In order to study the effect of environments on the mechanical properties and/or cracking of silicon, double torsion (OT) and microhardness indentation testing methods were recently applied for the FSA Advanced Materials Research Task. The environments of interest include light, heat, chemical (contact fluids), and electrical and magnetic fields. However, initial efforts are focused on studying the effects of light, heat, and electric fields.

Base-line data were generated on Cz silicon fractured along (111) in air at room temperature (23°C). The fracture toughness (Kic) measured by the OT method was found to be 0.715 to 1.0 MNm-3/z. These values are within the scatter of the previously published data measured by the controlled flaw/bend bar method. The OT test data provide higher precision and are more useful for design application than data from the controlled flaw/bend bar method.

Preliminary tests on the effect of light on the mechanical strength of silicon were made. It was found that the strength of silicon increased appreciably under infrared irradiation (IR) in comparison with silicon tested in darkness.· However, the strength of silicon remained unchanged (compared to darkness strength) when tested under intensified visible light. A better, controlled IR light source and testing set-up are being prepared for the detailed testing on the effect of light irradiation.

Preliminary microhardness tests have begun on single-crystal Cz material with and without an applied current/voltage passing through the samples. An initial test consisting of thirty microhardness indentations.indicated a softening effect in the silicon [(211) surface] when impressed with 10 volts at the time of indentation. A delta softening effect of approximately.25% was recorded. However, subsequent tests have failed to reveal this same electromechanical softening effect. These results are somewhat consistent with reports in the literature, where there is no consensus on the existence of an electromechanical effect in semiconductors. Ongoing work at JPL includes new sample configurations, standarized surface preparation techniques, and an optimized electric circuit arrangement for studying the effects of electric fields on silicon.

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In-House Program



Pasadena, CA

Fluidized-Bed Reactor Research

During this period, the six-inch-diameter fluidized-bed reactor (FBR) system was modified, checked out, and operated for selective parametric experiments. The three-zone external heater, consisting of two 3.5-inch SiC high-density rod heaters plus a six-inch hot-wire/ ceramic heater, delivered a desirable temperature profile with the assistance from distributor cooling devices, keeping the distributor at temperatures below the· initial silane decomposition temperature (400°C), while heating up the bed temperature to 650°C within three inches above the distributor. A number of gas distributor configurations were tested. A 325-mesh screen supported on a 1/20"-thick perforated plate was found to be the best distributor tested so far. Four different cooling methods were also investigated in the study.

Ten parametric experiments to identify key operation effects in FBR silicon deposition from silane were successfully conducted. The essential results, using clean seed particles of 200-µm size at 650°C, U/Umf = 5 (ratio of gas velocity to the minimum fluidization velocity) , and two-foot bed height, are summarized as follows: (1) 20% silane-in-hydrogen feed for 90 minutes: deposition rate of

1 kg/hr was achieved. (2) High silane feed concentration of 20% up to 100% for two hours

(average silane concentration around 57%): deposition rate of 3 kg/hr was achieved.

(3) 80% silane-in-hydrogen feed for three hours: deposition rate of 3.5 kg/hr was achieved.

The experimental reproducibility was established. The effluent dust level was below 11% in all cases. No wall deposit and bed agglomeration were observed in the above runs. At 650°C bed temperature, essentially complete conversion of silane to silicon was found by gas chromatography and exhaust flare color, while 550°C bed temperature yielded incomplete conversion. Mass balance data further established that in most cases more than 90% of the silicon was deposited in the bed. The color of the deposits was dull gray, indicating coherent and dense deposition according to past scanning electron microscope examinations. Samples are being analyzed for growth pattern, morphology, and surface purity.

The results of these preliminary experiments with high silane feed concentrations have confirmed the feasibility of using the FBR to achieve production of low-cost silicon.

15

Advanced Materials Research Task

Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation

Hemlock, Michigan

Contract Title: Development of A Polysilicon Process Based on Chemical

Vapor Deposition

Contract No. : 955533

Hemlock Semiconductor Corporation has completed work on Phase 2 development activity for the production of silicon using dichlorosilane in a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. A major problem observed in this CVD process has been the deposition_ or silicon on the reactor vessel (bell jar) wall and the consequential breakage of the bell jar. Efforts to reduce deposition of silicon on the bell jar have had variable success.

Use of mixed chlorosilane feeds has reduced deposition and increased jar life. Unfortunately deposition rate on the silicon rods is also reduced using the mixed feeds and does not allow overall program goals to be met.

Post run etching of silicon from the bell jar has increased jar life by a factor of two. This technique appears to be both feasible and practical as a method to control deposition. No production inefficiencies are introduced as this step is not part of the deposition process.

Current efforts include the use of a cooled wall reactor to reduce silicon deposition on the bell jar. All piping and controls have been installed for this activity. Initial runs have been made to check out equipment but no quantitative results are available at this time.

Economic evalµation of the dichlorosilane CVD process coupled with a hydrochlorination process indicate a manufacturing cost of $15.60/kg (1980 $) is possible.

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Contract Title:

Contract No.:

ADVANCED ~ATERIALS RESEA..~CH TASK

Mobil Solar Energy Corporation

Waltham, Massachusetts 02254

Stress Studies in EFG

956312

A program to study stress generation processes in silicon sheet growth was started at Mobil Solar Energy Corporation in July 1982. The purpose of the research is to develop a model for obtaining temperature field-residual stress relationships in sheet growth and to test the model predictions experimentally in an EFG ribbon system. The initial subtasks underway are focused on development of computing capabilities to: (i) model temperature field-stress relationships in steady-state ribbon growth, and (ii) provide a means to calculate realistic temperature fields in ribbon, given growth system component temperatures as boundary conditions.

In the one subtask, a finite element analysis technique for calculating the stress distribution in the silicon sheet is being developed at Harvard University. Novel features of this approach incorporate a two-dimensional calculation domain to allow investigation of the stress dependence on ribbon width and provide for modeling of plastic deformation effects and their dependence on growth speed. The subtask at Mobil Solar is concerned with the development of a numerical calculation scheme to predict temperature profiles in ribbon grown in an EFG system for 10 cm wide ribbon. This work is to be supported by experiments which are to provide data to guide the modeling.

The computer code for residual stress calculations is operational. Sensitivity analysis involving parameters such as growth speed, temperature and stress boundary conditions, and strain rate is in progress. Calculation schemes for obtaining ribbon temperature profiles in the 10 cm cartridge system are being evaluated, and experimentation has been started on approaches to test the modeling.

17

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SEMIX, IlXDRPORATED

Gai thershrrg, Md

WORK. SUM.Ml\RY

DE-FC01-80ET 23197

Activities in the current period have been directed towards 1) developing a method for determining whether impurities or structural defects are the primary loss mechanism in semicrystalline silicon; 2) determining the causes for the generation of locally high densities of sub-grains; 3) identifying the crystallographic nature of grain boundary interfaces and relating them to the electrical activity of the boundaries; and 4) fabricating high efficiency 10cm x 10cm and 2cm x 2cm semicrystalline silicon solar cells.

A contactless method for measuring the lifetime combined with dislocation etching has allowed for the determination of the primary loss mechanisms in the material. Cell results are presented that confirm the validity of the technique.

Sub-grains delineated by pure dislocation boundaries (polygonization) have been determined to be generated by deformation processes. Localized strain fields have been observed to be associated with the formation of the subgrain volumes.

Boundary planes between crystallites having a second order twinning relationship have been identified in wafers of semicrystalline silicon. Electrical activity of the boundary planes has been found to be associated with the coherency of the boundaries.

Fifty 10cm x 10cm cells having an average and maximum efficiency of 13.4% and 14.1%, respectively, were fabricated from UCP material. Also, fifty 2cm x 2cm cells having an average and maximum efficiency of 15% and 15.3%, respectively were fabricated.

12/2/82

18

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SOLARELECTRONICS, INC.

BELLINGHAM, MASSACHUSETTS.

Contract Title: INVESTIGATION OF THE HYDROCHLORINATION OF SiC14


The research and development program on the hydrochlorination of sicl4 and m.g. Si metal to SiHC13 has been extended to include more basic research orientea studies. The goal is to provide a basic unders·tanding on this reaction which is a new and efficient way to make trichlorosilane. The revised Program Plan extends the reaction kinetic measurements over a wide range of reaction conditions; temperature from 350°C to 650°C, pressure from 500 psig to as low as 25 psig and H2/sicl 4 feed ratio up to 5.0. These additional rate data are needed in the theoretical studies for the development of a rate equation for the hydrochlorination reaction and for the computation of importnat thermodynamic functions.

Experiments were carried out to measure the equilibrium constants, K, for the hydrochlorination reaction at the temperature range of 500°C to 515°C. The heat of reaction,

~H, was calculated by the Second Law method by plotting ln K versus 1/T in the Van't Hoff equation to give a value of 10.6 Kcal/mole. A number of reaction kinetic models for the hydrochlorination reaction was tested. Preliminary results showed that the rate of formation of SiHC13 fits reasonably well in the psuedo-first order rate equation. The rate constant, k 1 , was measured over a temperature range of 4 5 0 °c to 55 o 0c. The activation energy, /J. E, was determined by plotting ln k 1 versus 1/T in the Arrhenius equation to give a value of 13.2 Kcal/mole. The hydrogen and sicl4 concentrations showed a small effect on the reaction· rate. The rate constants slightly decrease with a decreasing H2/sicl 4 feed ratio. The effect of pressure on the reaction rate was studied over a wide range from 25 psig to 500 psig. The psuedo-first order rate constant decreases with increasing reaction pressure.

A quartz hydrochlorination reactor was designed and built to study the deuterium kinetic isotope effect. This quartz reactor can also be used for experiments at temperatures 600°c and above, where the stainless steel reactor would fail. Kinetic isotope effect is a powerful tool to study the reaction mechanism. A positive deuterium kinetic isotope effect can provide useful informations on the activation process and on the nature of the activated complex.

December 2, 1982.

Date

19

ADvru,;QD MATERTI\IS RESEARCH TASK

UNION CARBIDE CORPO;RATION WASHOUGAL, WASHINGTON

Contract Title: Fluid Bed Si lane Decomposition R & D

Contract No.: 954334

The objective of the current R & D phase of contract is to develop fluidized bed silane decomposition technology for producing semiconductor grade silicon for photovoltaic application. A fluid bed process development unit (PDU) was operated with silane feed concentrations up to 25 percent in hydrogen. Several deposition runs were made under various operating conditions. A suitable 'operating window' was identified, and a consecutive series of experiments was conducted under steady conditions. A total of 33 hours consecutive run duration was accumulated, during which time approximately 26 kg of silicon product was withdrawn in batches, while fresh seed material was added to replenish the bed. Complete silane conversion within the fluidized bed reactor was achieved.

The most critical operating parameter was found to be temperature distribution from the gas distributor to the top of the fluid bed. For efficient reactor operation, the most suitable conditions were observed to be the following:

• Gas distributor temperature of approximately 300°C

• Fluid bed temperature of about 550°C at the bottom and 750°C at the top, and

• Gas velocity equal to 4 times the minimum fluid-ization velocity at the bottom of the bed.

The PDU at Union Carbide's Tonawanda, N. Y. laboratories was dismantled and shipped to Washougal, Washington, where it is currently being reinstalled for further R & D work using high-purity silane.

The fluid bed experiments to date have been very promising. The next phase of work will focus on determination of purity of silicon from the fluid bed reactor •

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Sridhar K. Iya

Approval Signature

20

November 24, 1982

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Contract Tit I e :

Contract No. :

Advanced Materials Research Task

University of Illinois at Chicago

Chicago, Illinois 60680

SURFACE PROPERTY MODIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS BY FLUID ADSORPTION

956053

The fundamental mechanisms of surface property modification of silicon by fluid adsorption is being investigated. Abrasion by diamond, microhardness and fracture of silicon in fluids is being pursued. The abraded surfaces are being examined by scanning electron microscopy to deduce the removal mechanism; microhardness tests are used to determine the changes in surface hardness due to fluid adsorption; fracture of the silicon abraded in fluids is being conducted to determine how the subsurface damage due to abrasion is affected by fluid adsorption.

The results of our work may be sununarized as follows:

(a) Multiple-Scratch Diamond Abrasion Test. The abrasion rate of silicon by diamond in ethanol is twice as high as in water, all other experimental conditions being held constant. The rate depends on the diamond shape and the dead load on the diamond. There are no obvious differences in abrasion rate or the abraded surface morphology between (100) n-type or (111) p-type silicon. The depth of damage beneath the groove and surface cracks on the side walls of the groove also depends on the fluid properties. The abrasion rate for a multiple-scratch circular abrasion groove can be described approximately by A= (tan6wFN/2n 2H)•t for a brittle surface. When plasticity is 'vident in the groove, the rate can be described by A= 0.58$/(nS)7 6

• FN • w / (Ki~3H112) • t where A is the cross-sectional area of the abraded groove and t is the abrasion time. The fluid properties dictate whether the surface is brittle or ductile. (b) Microhardness Tests in Fluids. The surface hardness of the silicon was tested in: toluene, acetone, ethanol, methanol, glycerol and de-ionized water. The surface hardness varied between 1374±89 kg/mm 2 for ethanol and 1845±150 kg/mm.2 for de-ionized water. The microhardness correlates with the dielectric constant,£, of the fluid. (c) Fracture Strength After a Multiple-Scratch Linear Groove is Formed in Fluids. A linear multiple-scratch groove generated in ethanol and acetone was used as a "thwnbnail" crack in a 3-point bend test. The fracture strength varies for the grooves generated in the two fluids and a measure of the mirror radius, r, on the (110) fracture surface and fracture strength; Op, yields the constant A in Opr~ = A. The constant A is 1. 87 and 2. 20 MN/m3/2 for grooves formed in ethanol and acetone. This difference in A confirms that chemomechanical effects are dominant in the fracture behavior of silicon.

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21

ADV~~CED MATERIALS RESEARCH TASK

Westinghouse Research and Development Center

Pittsburgh, PA 15235

Contract Title: ADV~~CED DENDRITIC WEB GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

Contract No.: 955843 The long range goals of the program are:

• continuously-melt-replenished growth period of 65 hours with area rate of growth greater than 25cm2/minute .

. length of web crystal greater than 10 meters .

. dislocation density below 104/cm2 . • terrestrial solar cell efficiency greater than 15%. Achievement of these

goals is expected to satisfy the sheet growth requirement for photovoltaic commercialization late in this decade at costs substantially below 70¢ per peak watt (in 1980 dollars).

Of the above list, except for the first goal, all goals are essentially satisfied. The first goal requires major additional development and, consequently, is the principal effort of the current phase of this program. Although much of this goal has been obtained, the major remaining unfinished part of the goal is the attainment of sufficiently high area growth rate. It has been conclusively shown that thermally generated stress is the direct cause of limiting the area rate of growth. Thus the main thrust of the current work is to obtain an understanding and implemerit the control of thennally generated stress, and attain increased area rate of growth.

Development of the computer models continued at a reduced rate during this reporting period. First, a graphics output was added to the temperature model and has provided a capability to evaluate a larger number of hypothetical thermal cases and at a lower cost per case. In another action, the buckling model was evaluated and verified for application to the wider web which is now being developed.

Models were used in a variety of applications. Initially, the models were verified by comparing the model predictions with the known growth behavior of several experimentally-derived thermal configurations. Next, a large number of hypothetical configurations were evaluated by models. Successive refinements and evaluations resulted in the selection of a new generation growth configuration for fabrication and experimental evaluation. With the new configuration;~model evaluation and experimental evaluation were carried out concurrently and were in good agreement. The new configuration produced substantially improved growth; some of the results are shown in the list below. Evaluation of new hypothetical candidate configurations has begun for the purpose of selecting the next generation growth configuration.

Experimental web growth is a major segment of the overall program effort and is closely correlated with the modeling described above. Some of the significant progress since the last PIM is: . growth width at standard thickness increased by 30% • . maximum low-stress growth width increased by 12% • . quasi-steady-state area growth rate increased by 60% . . ::1}!:efficiency of~ 17% achieved. ~ ~sf1d-c:

Approval Signature

22

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In-House Program

DEVICE AND MEASUREMENTS RESEARCH TASK

Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, California

Studies using infrared microscopy revealed the existence of stress fields at the sharp "points" of SiC inclusions in EFG silicon ribbons and Semix UCP cast silicon. These stress fields are suspected of attracting impurities from the bulk silicon during crystal growth, cleaning the bulk but making the SiC particles more likely to cause junction damage.

A number of impurity analyses on various photovoltaic materials and devices were performed using the Cameca-3F ion microprobe. For example, experiments on Sb-doped-silicon layer on silicon substrate grown by molecular beam epitaxy at UCLA revealed the existence of carbon contamination at the substrate surface and lateral inhomogeneity in Sb doping. Both sodium and aluminum segregations were found at SiC precipitates in Semix UCP samples.

Enhanced diffusion of phosphorus at grain boundaries in cast polycrystalline photovoltaic materials {Silso, HEM, and UCP) was studied. It was found that the enhancements for the three materials are the same, indicating that the properties of boundaries are similar, even though they are grown by different techniques. In addition, it is observed that grain boundaries capable of enhancing the diffusion always have strong recombination activities. The study 9ives the first evidence that incoherent second order twins of tlll}/{115} type are diffusion-active.

Investigation of above three types of cast silicon by etch and optical microscopy revealed that there is little structural difference between silicon cast by these methods, with the exception of the HEM, which displayed a cellular structure of nondislocated areas of single crystal surrounded by dislocation "walls". Solar cell fabrication supported the idea that these materials are quite similar.

A theoretical modelling of a multijunction silicon solar cell for obtaining higher efficiency has been started. This concept takes advantage of enhanced collection due to the proximity of junctions and reduced losses in the front region due to reduction in current density. A comparative study with a conventional single junction solar cell will be made to assess the advantage.

dYK2 A<}J)JtfL-Approval Signature

23

Contract Tit I e :

Contract No. :

DEVICE AND MEASUREMENT

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY CORPORATION CITY OF INDUSTRY, CALIFORNIA

SILICON SOLAR CELL PROCESS, DEVELOPMENTt FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS

955089

The objective of this program is to investigate, develop, and utilize technologies to assess and improve the efficiency of solar cells made from various unconventional silicon sheets. The materials studied in this period included UCP (SEMIX), HEM (Crystal System) and SILSO (Wacker).

Another UCP Ingot C4-21A ( lOxlOxlOc .m 3, 2kg) was sectioned and 2x2cm 2

baseline solar cells were fabricated in various positions of the ingot. A parallel set of samples went through a gettering process (875°C-30 min) and then the baseline process was applied. The results from these tests and backup measurements showed that this ingot was a much better quality ingot than Ingot 5848-13C. These data will be presented. Also small mesa diodes were made on some of these UCP wafers and a study of the effect of grain boundaries will be presented.

Another study done in this period was a comparison of the three cast materials; namely the new SILSO, HEM and UCP. Selected wafers, believed to be representative of these three materials, were processed together to fabricate baseline solar cells, and high efficiency solar cells. Also, a set of wafers went through a (950°c - 1 hour) gettering process before baseline cells were fabricated. These results will also be presented. Although the casting methods are different, the three cast materials show very similar performance. The factors limiting this performance are slightly different for the three forms of cast Si.

~proval SigndtiJre Date

24

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DEVICE AND MEASUREMENTS

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY CORPORATION City of Industry, California 91746

Contract Title: MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON GROWTH FOR HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS


The objective of this new program is to investigate a new heterojunction structure for silicon solar cells, consisting of microcrystal (M-Si) with a 1 .. 72 eV band gap grown on single crystal (C-Si) sub layers, with band gap -1.leV.

Previous M-Si grown on stainless steel substrate has demonstrated a Voe compariable to Si solar cell. With the higher band gap, a p-type M-Si layer on N-type single crystal Si substrate can potentially have a higher Voe. A systematic study of growth parameters of M-Si will be conducted to maximize Voe and solar cell performance.

Also p-M-Si will also be grown on top of a p/n single crystal Si solar cell to serve as a passivation window layer to see if Voe can be enhanced.

~proval Signature 25

I~ - I]- i:i.__ Date

DEVICE AND MEASUREMENI'S RESEARCH TASK

CDRNELL UNIVERSTIY

Ithaca, N.Y.

Contract Title: Structura 1 , E 1 ectri cal and Chemi ca 1 Properties of Si Sheet Material


Between April 82 and Dec 82, the following work was carried out:

a) The structure of second and third order twin boundaries in Si was determined by high resolution transmission electron microscopy, using lattice fringe (structural image) techniques. A general model was developed for the construction of tilt boundaries between O and 109 degrees, using repeating groups. The prediction of the model were in good agreement with the HRTEM observations. The model predicts that symmetric tilt boundaries (e.g. 221/221) do not contain broken bonds, whereas asymmetric tilt boundaries (e.g. 111/115) must contain broken bonds.

b) The electrical activity of twin boundaries in HEM was studied with electron beam induced current microscopy (EBIC). All symmetric tilt boundaries (e.g. 112/112 first order) were found to be not or only very weakly electrically active, even when higher order (e.g. 221/221 second order) in agreement with the above model.

c) The structure of low angle tilt boundaries was studied with HRTEM using structural imaging techniques. The dislocation arrangement in these boundaries is complex and the nature of the dislocations (i.e. their burgers vectors) depends on the orientaion of the boundary. Dislocations with burgers vectors of a/2[110], a/2[112] and a[lll] where observed in boundaries with (110) , (112) and (111) median planes.

d) The effects of processing on the defect structure of EFG was studied with a variety of transmission electron microscopy techniques (TEM, STEM, weak beam, chemical analysis by STEM and dispersive x-ray analysis).

Approval Signature

(D.G.Ast) 26

Dec, J, J 982 Date

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Device and Measurements Research Task

Materials Research, Inc.

Centerville, Utah 84014

Contract Title: Analysis of Defect Structure in Silicon


Statistically significant quantitative structural imperfection measurements were made on samples from Ubiquitous Crystalline Process (UCP) Ingot 5848-13C. Important trends were noticed between the measured data, cell efficiency, and diffusion length. Grain boundary substructure appears to have important effect on conversion efficiency of solar cells from Sem.ix material.

A chemical surface preparation technique to obtain proper contrast of structural defects suitable for QTM analysis of Semix samples was perfected, and is now being routinely used. Statistical quantitative techniques were applied with good degree of confidence.

Measurements were made to determine the relationship between carrier mobility and grain boundary density in the above material. Carrier mobility was measured via the Hall effect using the van der Pauw technique. Grain boundary density was measured by quantitative microscopy. Resistivity, carrier type, and carrier concentration were also measured. Mobility was found to vary inversely with grain boundary density.

The measured data indicated several important trends. The twin boundary density (expressed as length/unit area) decreases as a function of the distance from top of the ingot. The dislocation density exhibited an inverse trend with respect to the large precipitate density. An approximate inverse relationship was observed between cell efficiency versus twin boundary density. The significance of such a relationship is that the grain boundary substructure may influence cell efficiency in Semix material more than grain boundary itself. An approximate inverse relationship was observed between diffusion length and dislocation density. The twin boundary density varied from 2 to 12 times the corresponding grain boundary density. It was observed that as the grain boundary density increases, the twin boundary density increases rapidly at first, then levels off, and gradually decreases.

12/01/82

Approval Signature Dote

27

DEVICE AND MEASUREMENTS RESEARCH TASK

University of California at Los Angeles

Los Angeles, CA 90024

Contract Title: "Silicon Sheet with MBE for High Efficiency Solar Cells"

Contract No.: 956 233

Goals: To fabricate special profile high-efficiency silicon solar cells by MBE and to compare results with theoretical predictions.

Activities: During the first seven months of this program emphasis has been on characterizing silicon MBE-grown films and junctions. Studies of carrier concentration and Hall mobility inn-type (Sb) and p-type (Ga) films show near bulk-like properties. SEM and etch pit studies indicate low dislocation concentration. Diffusion lengths in substrates did not degrade during MBE processing. SIMS analyses of MBE films showed unexpected carbon and boron impurities. One solar cell was made from an MBE-grown n-film on a p-substrate with contact added at JPL. Solar cell parameters could be measured but were poor due to high reverse leakage. Causes for the latter are being studied.

Problems-Uncertainties: Since silicon MBE is as yet exploratory, it w1ll probably requ1re more than the first year to produce and analyze high efficiency solar cells as projected in this program.

App'rovol Signature Date

28

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Contract Tit I e :

Contract No. :

Device and Measurement

University of Pennsylvania

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Development & Analysis of Silicon Solar Cells of Near 20% Efficiency

956290

This project started in September 1982. The purpose is to explore the capabilities of certain process approaches with respect to yielding material properties adequate for the preparation of very high efficiency silicon solar cells, that is over 20% airmass one.

One promising design for such cells contains multilayer structures even for the front region, with layer thickness up to several tens of micrometers. One relatively easy way for forming such structures is CVD (chemical vapor deposition) epitaxial growth. One drawback of the method is the relatively high temperatures (between 1000 and 1200°C) needed for deposition, depending on the source gas used. There exist questions with respect to the material quality achievable in such CVD epitaxially grown layers, about the density of recombination centers-formed at the interface between the substrate and the grown layer, and with respect to possible minority carrier lifetime degradation in the substrate.

Suitable p-type substrate wafers of 0.2-0.4 Ohm cm resistivity with minority carrier lifetime above 600µs will be supplied by Wacker Chemie. MA Com will deposit the epitaxial layers for a multivariable experiment involving primarily dopant species and deposition temperature

A definitive determination of the front region minority carrier lifetime has always been difficult. It has been found that the LBIC (light beam induced current) method, applied in the 300 to 500 µm wavelength range, involves only the front region and therefore is uniquely suited· for this measurement. However, the layer.thickness has to be varied in order to achieve sensitivity. A thin layer will .. provide only information about the s-µrface recombination velocity, while a laye~ thickness within an order of magn~tude of the diffusion length provides good resolution for the latter. It is planned· to corroborate all data obtained by measurements using a second, completely independent method.

,4£~£4 11/29/82 Date

29

In-House Program ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION TASK

Photothermal Characterization of Encapsulation Materials

Ranty H. Liang

Jet Propulsion Laboratory California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, California 91109

One of the activities in assessing and demonstrating life potential of low-cost encapsulation designs is photothermal characterization of encapsulation materials. This involves measurements of chemical/physical properties and performance parameters (e.g., electrical, optical, mechanical, thermal properties) as a function of aging in an accelerated stress environment. Photothermal characterization of all candidate encapsulant materials is being carried out to achieve this goal. Field test validation with 2·cell mini-modules were also being carried out.

Materials tested were Ethylene/vinylacetate (Springborn A9918, EVA) Ethylene/methylacrylate (Springborn A13404 EMA), Polyvinylbutyral (Monsanto PVB Saflex), silicon rubber (RTV 615 G.E.), Aliphatic polyurethane (Quinn and Development Associates 22591), T~dlar (Du Pont UTBlOO), Korad (Hexel), Acrylar (3M X22416/17) and other encapsulation materials developed at JPL. Results of these tests have been used to develop a photothermal ranking scheme of encapsulation materials. Critical experimental parameters have been identified for monitoring of degradation. They are weight loss, change in transmission, tensile modulus, crosslinking density, formation of carbonyl and hydroxyl functional groups, and electrical resistivity.

Degradation of a polymeric material system formulated with stabilizers is expected to have a complex time dependence. The principal processes leading to initial degradation were found to be evaporative loss of stabilizers and photothermal oxidation. Since most unstabilized polymers undergo rapid degradation in a short period of time, this gradual loss of stabilizers will control the overall rate of degradation of the polymer. It may also cause inhomogeneous degradation as a concentration gradient of stabilizers may be set up. All of the encapsulation materials tested exhibited weight loss as a function of photothermal aging. Energies of activation of these weight loss data were determined to be between 10-15 Kcal/mole. Rates of physical loss of stabilizers is thus chiefly responsible for the observed rate of weight loss. Common oxidation products such as carbonyl and hydroxyl groups were monitored as a function of photothermal aging in order to assess rates of oxidation of polymers under various conditions. In addition, it is well established that carbonyl chromophores undergo photolytic bond cleavage, thus generating radicals (molecular fragments) that are highly reactive in the presence of oxygen. As a result, photothermal oxidation will take place in an exponential manner after an initial induction period.

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ROCKWELL INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE CENTER

THOUSAND OAKS, CA

Contract Title: STUDY PROGRAM FOR ENCAPSULATED MATERIALS INTERFACE FOR FLAT PLATE SOLAR ARRAYS


The goal of this study is to generate and validate new design and process principles for achieving long term interface bond stability in advanced FSA encapsulant systems.

I. Interfacial Bonding Stability

Controlled chemical bonding at the interface between the encapsulant and the surfaces of the solar array is under study. A computer aided model for relating polymer chemistry to physical properties has been applied to analyze the linear polymer properties of 13 commercially important reactive s~lanes. The effects of partially and completely hydrolyzing the alkoxyl groups were investigated by the model. A wide range of physical properties is displayed by the model, probably indicating a wide range in selectivity of these silanes as coupling agents.

The thermophysical properties of three of the silanes (silanes 6020, 6030, and 6031) were measured via thermal mechanical analysis (TMA). The data showed that silanes polymerized at 130°c (as recommended in customary processing conditions) have rather low glass transition temperatures. However, postcuring raised the Tg substantially. Therefore, the effects of processing and outdoor exposure conditions on the thermophysical properties of silanes in laminated solar cells should not be neglected.

Environmental effects on interfacial bonding stability will be investigated by measuring the degradation of shear strength of silane EVA on glass and metal substrates.

II. I-V Modeling and AC Impedance Correlations

A quantitative analysis of the effects of small changes in solar cell series Rs and shunt RsH resistance upon the maximum power output Wm has been completed. The calculations are useful in clarifying correlations between solar cell properties and effective power output. A second analysis specifically focussed on the effects of controlled changes in Rs and RsH upon the detailed shape of the I-V curve for single cells and short series coupled strings. A third computation indicates that in-phase impedance measurements can detect and separate small changes in Rs and RsH which are not readily sensed by changes in I-V response and effective string power output.

Approval Signature

31

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Date

ENVIOOR,,1ENTAL ISOIATION RESEARCH TASK

Spectrolab, Inc.

Sylmar, California

Contract Tit I e : The Design, Analysis, and Test Verification

of Advanced Encapsulation Systems


The objective of this program is to develop analytical methodology for advanced encapsulation designs. From these methods design sensitivities will be established for the development of photovoltaic module criteria and the definition of needed research tasks.

The program has been extended and a new Phase III added replacing the original plan. During Phase III the following items will be covered:

1.

2.

Correction of identified deficiencies and/or discrepancies between analytical models developed during Phase I and relevant test data obtained during Phase II of the above contract.

Improvement and extension of prediction capability of present analytical models.

3. Generation of encapsulation engineering generalities, principles, and design aids for photovoltaic module designers.

From these items the sensitivity of module performance to various material properties will be determined. This study will enable the intelligent direction of research into assessment of module life potential by analyzing those materials and their properties which through aging would most influence module performance.

During the last six months, a master curve for structural deflection has been developed.

Optical modeling has shown the importance of AR coating properties and transmittance in the 600-900 nanometer range. Sensitivity to index of refraction changes are relatively small.

Electrical modeling has been modified using NASTRAN to take into account electrical field·crowding effects at the edge of cells. The interrelationship between the radius of curvature and the distance to a ground plane is important.

Approval Signature

32

1 December 1982

Date

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,...,., ENVIRORv1ENl'AL ISOIATION RF.sFAROI TASK

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSErTS mmRST, MA

Contract Title: POLYMERIC ULTRAVIOLET ABSORBERS


POLYMERIC ULTRAVIOLET ABSORBERS. A.C. Albertsson, S.J. Li and O. Vogl, Polymer Science and· Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003.

In our continued work on new polymeric systems with improved photo- and thermal oxidative stability we have continued to search for new polymerizable ultraviolet stabilizers and antioxidants.

Several new classes of 2( 2-hydroxyphenyl) 2H-benzotriazoles have been synthesized and some of these compounds have been transformed into polymerizable ultraviolet absorbers. Resorcinol and phloroglucinol, especially in strongly basic solution, couples readily with more than one mol of o-nitrobenzenediazonium chloride which, after reductive cyclization, gave the corresponding di- and tribenzotriazolized compounds. The mono-benzotriazolized compounds could also be prepared. All compounds could be converted with acryl- or methacryl chloride to the corresponding acrylates and methacrylates. 2-Hydroxybenzo(or aceto) phenones also underwent diazonium coupling reactions and gave (after reductive cycli zation) compounds that had 2-hydroxybenzophenones and 2(2-hydroxyphenyl) 2H-benzotriazole in the same molecule the acetophenones are potential intermediates for introducing vinyl- or isopropenyl groups into the 2( 2-hydroxyphenyl) 2H-benzotriazole groups containing molecules.

We also determined the reactivity ratios of 2H SV and 2~ SP with styrene, methyl methacrylate, and n-butyl acrylate. 2H SV and 2H SP were also incorporated into unsaturated polyesters, copolymerized with styrene and/or polymerizable antioxidants.

33

December 7, 1982

Date

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION TASK

Springborn Laboratories, Inc.

Enfield, Connecticut

Contract Tit I e : Aging and Corrosion Behavior of FSA


The goal of this program is to identify, develop and evaluate materials and processes for the low cost encapsulation of silicon photovoltaic cells consistant with the FSA objective of achieving a solar array at a manufactured cost of $0.70 per peak watt ($70/m2 ) (1980 dollars).

Four pottants were developed in this program; EVA and EMA for lamination, butyl acrylate and aliphatic urethane for the casting process. Work is continuing on the "technology readiness" phase of these materials, which includes extended studies of antioxidants, ultraviolet absorbers, metal deactivators, crosslinking agents and test methodologies. Candidate formulations are being evaluated for long term stablity by exposure to a variety of accelerated stress conditions, including RS/4 sunlamp, thermal aging in air and nitrogen, RS/4 with water spray and Controlled Envir9nment Keactors (JPL furnished). Outdoor exposures in Florida and Arizona are also included.

The aging of these materials is determined by measuring properties considered to be life-limiting in a module application. These are: mechanical properties, optical transmission, dielectric strength and metallic corrosion.

Ultraviolet resistance, based on RS/4 exposure, appears to be very good for all the candidate pottants and to date the EVA formulation has accumulated 40,000 hours of exposure with no significant change in properties.

Interim results indicate that the polyolefin pottants (EVA & EMA) also have very good thermal stability and survive temperatures as high as 130°C for 1,000 hours (to date). The urethane is not as stable, however, and may be limited to temperatures as low as ao~c due to the optical losses. No significant deterioration of dielectric properties is found for any materials, except where extensive degradation has occurred (Urethane-130~C). The most conspicuous degradation results from exposure to metallic copper, which appears to catalyze the oxidation of all types of pottants. Metal deactivators are being evaluated to inhibit this effect.

Data resulting from these experiments is empirically useful due to the similarity to module operation conditions, however, attempts are being made. to develop a predictive technique based on correlations of stress condition with property change or induction time.

Paul B. Willis 12/15/82 Approval Signature Date

34

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Contract Title:

Contract No. :

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION TASK

SPRINGBORN LABORATORIES, INC. Enfield, Connecticut 06082

INVESTIGATION OF TEST METHODS, MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND PROCESSES FOR SOLAR CELL ENCAPSULANTS

954527

The goal of this program is to identify, develop and evaluate materials and processes for the low cost encapsulation of silicon photovoltaic cells. Material selections are based on performance criteria and the FSA objective of achieving a solar flat-plate or concentrator array at a manufactured cost of $0.70 per peak watt ($70/m2) (1980 dollars).

Work is continuing on the "technology readiness" phase of encapsulation materials, which includes extended studies of antioxidants, ultraviolet absorbers, metal deactivators, crosslinking agents and test methodologies. Candidate formulations are being evaluated for long term stability by exposure to a variety of accelerated stress conditions, including RS/4 sunlamp, thermal aging in air and nitrogen, RS/4 with water spray and Controlled Environment Reactors (JPL furnished).

The aging of these materials is determined by measuring properties considered to be life-limiting in a module application. These are: mechanical properties, optical transmission, dielectric strength and metallic corrosion.

The test results to date indicate that the first property to change is color and that dielectric, mechanical and overall transmission values follow later. The degradation behavior is predominately "induction period" in behavior. RS/4 exposures indicate that most of the pottants have excellent UV resistance and EVA has survived almost 40,000 hours to date. Thermal aging resistance (dark) is also very good with EVA surviving 7,200 hours at 90°C. The 130°C condition was more severe and gave life limits of 2,000 hours for EVA and 250 hours for the urethane. The most severe test condition was found to be copper catalyzed degradation at 105°C. All pottants are degraded within 400 hours. Exposure of pottants to copper metal should be avoided.

Modules evaluated for fire rating in rooftop applications indicate that a potential problem exists with dripping of burning pottant. A large number of fire retardant formulations were evaluated. None proved effective, however the incorporation of non-woven glass cloth totally prevented the dripping problem.

Anti-soiling treatments for the outer surfaces of PV modules were evaluated by outdoor exposures. The most effective, based on fluorosilane chemistry, appears to last for about one year before requiring re-treatment. New candidates have been started.

12/15/82

Approval Signature Date 35

In-House Program

PROCESS RESEARCH TASK


Pasadena, California 91109

Pulsed Plasma/Cluster Ion Processing

A pulsed plasma source is being developed at JPL as a spin-off from NASA electric propulsion technology. The source is being evaluated for depositing energy and/or materials on silicon surfaces. This type of source may be applied to several different solar cell processes, including pulse annealing, combined ion implant/anneal, sintering metals, forming nitride layers, "driving in" liquid dopants, etc. Some preliminary experimental results have been obtained.

Module Formation

A large double chamber vacuum laminator was fabricated in-house for research into the processing requirements of encapsulants and primers. This work has produced bubble free glass laminated modules as large as four feet square. In addition, experimental four foot square flexible laminations have been successfully constructed. Adhesion difficulties occurred at the metallic interfaces and these problems were remedied by special primer formulations.

Metallization

A broad variety of metallization processes has been expe~imeata.l with·;: most of them involving commercial metals. These experiments have substantiated the need for developing diffusion barriers to prevent shunting of the solar cell junctions. Work is proceeding towards the lower temperature systems as they are applicable to a variety of semiconductor contacts.

Approval Signature Date

36

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ROCESS RF.SFARCH '12-\SK

SOLAREX CORPORATION

ROCKVILLE, MD 20850

Contract Title: Process Research of Polycrystalline Silicon Material


In this program Solarex is studying the mechanisms that limit the photovoltaic conversion efficiency of semicrystalline silicon and then developing processes to optimize the performance. The efforts since the last PIM meeting have included:

• •

•

•

Preparation of a MEPSDU Summary Report

Fabrication of cells via a controlled process on both semicrystalline and single crystal silicon for various resistivities (O.l to l<Jn-cm) and thicknesses between 100 and 300 microns. To date seven lots have been run over this resistivity range. The preliminary results indicate the main parameter limiting semicrystalline silicon performance is the bulk diffusion length not grain boundary effects.

Fabrication of 400 mini-cells on a single 10cm x 10cm wafer has begun in order to evaluate the effects of microstructure (grain boundaries and defects) and macrostructure (position in the brick). A stepping test block has been designed and is now being fabricated.

A hot sprayed double layer AR coating system of TiOx bottom layer and an Al

3o

3 top layer was developed. It is a low cost

method of proviaing extremely good optical coupling, especially for polycrystalline silicon, that cannot be texture etched. Single crystal cell efficiencies in excess of 17.5% AM1-25°C have been achieved with this hot spray double layer AR coating system. A paper on this AR system was presented at the IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist Conference in San Diego in September, 1982.

November 30, 1982

Date

PROCESS RESEARCH

Spectrolab, Inc.

Sylmar, CA 91342

Contract Title: Development of Metallization Process


The objective of this contract is the optimization, evaluation, and demonstration of a novel metallization applied by a screenprinting process. The process will be evaluated on both CZ and non-CZ silicon wafers.

Pastes have been formulated using Mo, Sn, and TiH powders in an organic vehicle. A paste consisting of 80 parts Sn, 19.5 parts Mo, and 0.5 parts TiH has been the most successful. Cells with efficiencies of 10.6% have been made as non-AR coated cells. This is comparable to silver paste contacts. The paste is first fired in air to burn off organics, and then refired in a reducing atmosphere to create ohmic contact.

Approval Signature

38

1 December 1982

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Contract Title:

Contract No. :


Spire Corporation Bedford, MA 01730

Development and Fabrication of a Solar Cell Junction Processing System

DOE/JPL 955640

22 March - 3 December 1982

The objectives of this program are to build experimental equipment and to develop processes to ion implant and pulse anneal junctions for 4" diameter solar cells.

Since the last report, all· of the experimental work needed to design the ion implanter has been completed. This experimental work used a temporary apparatus to test the beam defocus system at full beam power. Final results showed a 4" by 6" beam spot on the wafer with a uniformity of ±-1096 with a 12.4 mA phosphorous beam.

Subsequently, we have completed detail design and fabrication of all parts and are now assembling the eguipm ent.

The implanter should be ready to process wafers by April 1982.

12/3/82

Date

39



Contract Title: Hermetic Edge Sealing of Photovoltaic Modules


A program was begun in November, 1982, to investigate a novel method for fabricating hermetic metal to glass edge seals without the use of sealants or adhesives. This approach is particularly useful for modules which must endure severe environments or which have components sensitive to atmospheric constituents such as water vapor or pollutants.

An aluminum foil gasket is attached by electrostatic bonding (ESB) to the perimeter of a sheet of glass which is to be the module's superstrate. A cell circuit is then laminated or potted by standard techniques, with an aluminum foil back cover. The back cover foil is then sealed to the foil gasket with an ultrasonic welding process. The combination of a permanent chemical bond between the glass and the aluminum foil gasket, and the metallurgical bond between the two aluminum foils, provides the hermetic edge seal.

Experiments are widerway for optimizing the ESB process. An ultrasonic welding process will be developed. Tooling is being designed and fabricated for producing prototype small area (up to 20 cm square) dummy modules. These modules will be subjected to helium leak testing to demonstrate the effectiveness of these techniques.

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WESTINGHOUSE ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEMS DIVISION

PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA 15236

Contract Title: PROCESS RESEARCH OF NON-CZ SILICON MATERIAL


The objective of this contract is to investigate high-risk, high-payoff research areas associated with the Westinghouse process for producing photovoltaic modules using non-CZ sheet material. All investigations are being performed using dendritic web silicon, but all processes under study are directly applicable to other ribbon forms of sheet material. The contract is separated into the following tasks:

A. Liquid Junction Technical Feasibility Study

In this task, the technical feasibility of forming front and back junctions in non-CZ silicon using liquid dopant techniques will be determined. Numerous commercially available liquid phosphorus and boron dopant solutions will be investigated. Work to date has been restricted to boron junction formation, and results are extremely positive.

B. Liquid Diffusion Mask Feasibility Study

In this task, the technical feasibility of forming a liquid applied diffusion mask to replace the more costly chemical vapor deposited Si02 will be determined. Extensive data have been generated establishing that the liquid mask, when properly applied, is equally effective to the CVD process.

C. Liquid Coating Application Studies

In this task, the technical feasibility of applying liquid solutions to dendritic web silicon using meniscus coating equipment will be established. Using Westinghouse capital funds, a meniscus coater has been procured; and experiments are underway to determine its effectiveness for application of boron and phosphorus dopants, diffusion masks, antireflective (AR) coatings and photoresist (PR) coatings to dendritic web silicon.

D. Ion Implantation Study

In this task, dendritic web material will be provided to JPL for ion implantation of junctions by another vendor. Compatibility of the ion implanted cells with the remainder of the Westinghouse process sequence will be determined. A comparison of efficiency levels and parameter reproducibility will be made between baseline junction formation techniques and ion implantation. The first batch of web material for ion implantation has been prepared and shipped to JPL.

c.m.~ f}()1J'-.-2 3,, f 982. Approval Signature Date

41

Contract Title:

Contract No. :

CELL AND MODULE FORMATION RESEARCH TASK

BERND ROSS ASSOCIATES

SAN DIEGO, CA 92109

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALL-METAL THICK FILM COST EFFECTIVE METALLIZATION SYSTEM FOR SOLAR CELLS

955688

This summary covers work done from April 1982 to January 1983. The objective of this investigation is the study of thick film Solar cell electrodes based upon screenable base metal compositions.

A solar cell experiment was carried out to determine the feasibility of using copper based all metal inks fired in CO atmospheres as front contacts to silicon solar cells. A number of cells had oxidized surfaces to determine if this helped prevent junction penetration. The analysis was hampered by the number of cells available, marginal adhesion generally and adhesion problems at the lowest temperature (550°C) and breakage. Cells having screened back contacts only, without eutectic alloy additions, averaged 6% efficiency and gave fill factors of 0.55 as before. Cells in which both fronts and backs were provided with screened contacts had poor curve shapes, efficiencies and fillfactors. Cells in which the front only was screened over oxide (~1000!) gave the worst results with performance parameters of approximately 50% of the front and back screened cells. Reference contacts and control cells were provided titanium silver electrodes. These reference cells gave efficiencies of 7.6%.

Experiments with fritted and fritless silverpastes were conducted on bare silicon and aluminized silicon substrates. Good adhesion was obtained with both pastes on both types of substrates.

Since hydrogen fired contacts were previously found to have particularly poor adhesion, analytical methodes were explored to determine if the silicon surface was altered in the hydrogen firing step. Silicon samples prepared by firing in various atmospheres were examined by N15 beam nuclear reaction analysis (W.A.Lanford SUNY). The initial experiment gave ambiguous data, partially due to sample size and shape, as well as lack of resolution of the hydrogen profile within a few lattice spaces of the surface. A second experiment is in progress.

Approval Signature

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January 1983

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In-House Program

ARRAY REQUIREMENTS

ENGINEERING SCIENCES AREA

Jet Propulsion Laboratory Pasadena, California

The Array Requirements activity addresses the identification and development of detailed design requirements and test methods at the array level. Continuing areas of activity that addressed improved definition of array requirements included the establishment of module and array electrical safety criteria and the development of array-to-power conditioner electrical interfaces.

Safety Requirements

In support of array safety, Engineering Sciences and Procurement personnel attended a Design and Contract Status Review on Protective Bypass Diode Chip Encapsulation at General Electric, Valley Forge, PA on October 26, 1982. The objective of this contract is to research techniques for using PN junction or Schottky diode chips (dies) as bypass diodes within glass-laminate type PV modules with current ratings from 2 to 20 amps. The program is divided in three parts--requirements definition, design synthesis, and component· and module mockup evaluation. Emphasis of the status review was on the third part addressing specific design layouts to be fabricated.

Research aimed at developing module/panel and array subsystem electrical and fire safety requirements continued with the publication in August 1982 of UL's draft final report that emphasizes work at the module level (first phase) and includes UL's "Proposed Standard for Safety, Flat-plate Photovoltaic Modules and Panels." The final draft supersedes JPL Document 5101-164 (same title).

Engineering Sciences Area participated in the first meeting of Underwriters Laboratories'Industry Advisory Group (IAG) for photovoltaics in Chicago on June 29-30. The seven PV-industry persons who make up the IAG and provide a non-UL indepth review of UL's Standard for Safety for Flat-plate PV Modules and recommended a variety of changes to the draft standard prior to its final publication.

Approval Sign~ Dote

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Power Conditioning Interface

Specific areas of activity on the array-power conditioner task during this reporting peruod included: (1) submittal of the final revisions for the array-power-conditioner interface requirements document to Sandia for their Power Conditioning Specification. Revisions stemmed from discussions generated during a joint meeting with Sandia personnel at JPL on April 9, 1982 and corresponding expansion of the written input and tabulated data has provided an improved format for the specification, (2) the December 1982 release of the final report draft that sumnarizes the array-power-conditioner interface studies conducted by Engineering Sciences Area personnel. The final report presents the computer simula-tion study results used to define the array operating characteristics and extreme output limits necessary for the systematic design of array-load interfaces under a wide variety of U.S. climatic conditions. A paper entitled "Characterization of the Electrical Output of Flat-plate Photovoltaic Arrays" by c.c. Gonzalez, G.M. Hill and R.G. Ross Jr. was given at the 16th IEEE Photovoltaics Conference in San Diego, September 27-30, 1982. The paper presents the above computer simulation study results as normalized ratios of power-conditioning parameters to array parameters to make the results universally applicable to a wide variety of system sizes, sites and operating-modes.

Hot-Spot Heating

Work continued to focus on final additions and major revisions to the task report draft submitted for review in late September which summarizes the Engineering Sciences Area Hot-Spot heating research. Detailed discussions of the analytical model developed for the task and specific conclusions comparing model results and laboratory hot-spot test data are being collated into the report. The report was rescheduled for release in April 1983 to provide additional time for reformatting and revising specific sections.

ARRAY SUBSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

The Array Subsystem Development activity is focused on the development of conceptual designs for integrated flat-plate array module/support structures as a key approach to minimizing total array costs. An important output of array conceptual designs is the definition of specific design requirements addressed to functional performance, interface and maintainability (at the array level).

Integrated Residential Arrays

Supporting the development of cost effective residential array support structures JPL Engineering Sciences Area in-house efforts have focused on the environmental durability of black PVC vinyl extrusions for direct mounted residential array designs. The concept test model which used black PVC plastic vinyl extrusions to support

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twelve frameless 2' x 4' Block IV modules on a portable 45 degree ·slope roof section was located on a JPL field site for weathering studies. In addition, accelerated UV aging tests were conducted on black polycarbonate (PC) and chlorinated polyvianal chloride (CPVC) extrusions. To date these plastic extrusions have shown no changes in mechanical properties. However, a linear weight loss with time after an equivalent 6 year exposure was recorded. Both CPVC and PC extrusions are experiencing obvious cosmetic degradation on the sunlit surfaces. The tests are scheduled for forty weeks and use bi-weekly inspections, which are equivalent to a years exposure of UV, to gather a 20 year life performance on these materials.

RELIABILITY/DURABILITY RESEARCH

Reliability and durability development efforts are addressed to provide the technical base required to achieve reliable modules with 20-year lifetimes. Activities are conducted to clarify design tradeoffs, develop analysis tools and test methods and provide generalized design solutions for the PV community. Specific activities during this reporting period included; (1) Cell-Temperature/Humidity Testing, (2) Module Voltage Isolation, (3) Interconnect Fatigue, (4) Array Soiling, (5) Module Temperature/Humidity Testing and (6) Module/Array Reliability.

Cell_!empe~ature/Humidity Endurance (Clemson)

The encapsulated cell testing program which includes 6 different cell types and more than 8 different encapsulated systems/combinations have shown no electrical degradation after completing 250 hours of exposure at 85°C/85% RH. However, noticeable physical changes were observed on two Springborn Laboratories EVA encapsulated test samples. Springborn has been contacted and will participate in the followup investigation on physical changes in EVA samples.

A draft Progress Report for the 1981 calendar year from Clemson University was released in September 1982 and includes cell reliability testing leading up to the current Encapsulated Cell Test Program.

Module Voltage Isolation

Voltage isolation studies continue to focus on the source and magnitude of leakage currents to ground caused by material aging. Ongoing tests include voltage breakdown of polymeric back cover films that have been thermally aged at s5oc for 700 hours and for 1400 hours. The probability versus voltage profiles generated for these materials will be used to predict module life and identify voltage withstand capability of PV design materials after thermal aging.

Several modules featuring copper cells, EVA or EMA encapsulants and various polymeric back cover films have been tested in the AC/corona mode of the Biddle Partial Discharge Detection System, a key research tool in studying degradation processes in PV insulation systems.

45

Location and quantization of discharges for improved sample voltage withstand capability plus the determination of electrical discharges in module insulation are some of the operational features of the Biddle.

Interconnect Fatigue

Examination of the mechanical-fatigue life of cell interconnects is continuing in an effort to obtain a 20 year life predictive model. Fractograph photos were used to show that crack propagation initiates on the concave surface of a fatigued interconnect, which analysis revealed to be the most highly stressed surface. The result suggested the use of bimettalic interconnects or clad laminate interconnects with the more highly fatigue resistant metal on the outside for an improved operating life. Mechanical fatigue life testing of thick clad laminates followed with sample copper invar materials supplied by Texas Instruments in an effort to obtain a 20 year life predictive model. Two clad Cu-invar-Cu materials used in the fatigue tests had the same cladding ratios, but different metallurgical treatments.

A reliability design procedure was completed that includes trade-offs of design, fatigue resistance, electrical performance and economic costs for copper, aluminum, copper clad invar and copper clad stainless steel interconnects. A paper describing the procedure entitled "Design Solutions for Solar Cell Interconnect Fatigue Fracture Problem," by G. R. Mon and R .G. Ross was presented at the 16th IEEE PV Specialists Conference-in San Diego, CA.

Module Temperature/Humidity Testing (Wyle)

A total of 90 mini-modules, including Block III and IV designs, have been incorporated into the temperature/humidity test series at Wyle Laboratories. Six environmental tests currently in progress include 85°C/85% RH, 85°C/70% RH, 70°C/85% RH, 40°C/93% RH, 85°C and 100°c chambers with half of the test lot in a forward voltage bias mode. The reduction of visual and electrical performance data is being used in the development of humidity degradation rate curves based on comparisons of humidity testing cycles and humidity temperature data from the SOLMET weather tapes.

Initial observations from the Wyle tests have revealed; (1) the importance of foil back covers over Tedlar in protecting PVB encapsulated modules, (2) electro-chemical degradation of grid line ends occurs on both print-Ag and Ti-Pd-Ag metallizations and (3) the high resistivity of silicone over PVB and EVA encapsulants to discoloration from long temperature exposure.

Array Soiling

Tests were conducted on smooth and stippled glass superstrate modules to measure power losses from shadowing of soiling particles as well as losses from Fresnel and cosine (of angle of incidence) effects.

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Results showed that estimates of annual energy output can be overestimated by 6.5% for smooth glass modules; (10% soiling) and 6.2% for stippled glass modules (15% soiling) if one only considers cosine effects and neglects Fresnel and soiling losses. Dramatic overestimates up to 20% in annual power output were obtained with heavily soiled stippled glass superstrate modules.

Module/Array Reliability

IIT Research Institute (IITRI) Chicago, Illinois completed their final report entitled "Reliability Engineering Analysis Research for Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Modules/Arrays." The IITRI research was performed as a support effort within the FSA Engineering Sciences Area and consists of an overview of component failures and reliability within modules and arrays. The report was distributed to the PV Connnunity and DOE National Laboratories.

ENGINEERING SUPPORT

Engineering interface activities that provide for transfer of array requirements, design guidelines, analysis tools and test methods to the overall photovoltaic connnunity continued in several areas.

Engineering Sciences Area personnel supported the development of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) Project in several key areas which included--reviews of design criteria and module specification drafts, the establishment of the electrical and mechanical subsystem functional requirements, natural frequency analysis of the tracking array, design reviews and an array-power conditioner interface analysis for concept selection. JPL conducted a Safety Workshop and participated in a Power Conditioner Workshop involving personnel of SMUD, Acurex and California Energy Council, DOE, Sandia Labs, EPRI and the Aerospace Corporation. In addition, JPL installed a field test experiment to measure variations in soiling rates at the SMUD PV System Ranch Seco site. Plans also include the acquisition of an On-Site Data Acquisition System (ODAS) from Sandia Lab for SMUD to record local insolation and weather data. These data will aid in the design of photovoltaic systems for SMUD as weekly telephone transmissions of ODAS data will be made to JPL for storage and analysis.

Engineering Sciences Manager (Ron Ross) participated in a meeting of the U.S. Technical Advisory Group to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) photovoltaic technical connnittee (TC-82) in Phoenix, AZ on August 2-3. Dr. Ross was nominated as a candidate for the U.S. delegate to Working Group 2 on Module Environmental Testing and Electrical Measurements.

Engineering Sciences personnel participated in the ASTM meeting of Subcommittee E 44.09 on Photovoltaics held September 13-16, 1982 in Reno, Nevada. Meeting highlights included reviews of three newly revised Draft Standards and a Subcommittee vote made to resolve "negatives" received on another Draft Standard which had been through

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Subcommittee/Committee Ballot. An Action Item was taken to have JPL/FSA personnel play an active role in the development of a Draft Standard on "Standard Method for Performing Hail Test on Photovoltaic Modules" at the next ASTM meeting in March, 1983.

Members of the Engineering Group participated in a Research Forum on Quantifying Degradation of Materials and Material Systems for Terrestrial Service held in Williamsburg, VA on December 6-8. The mini-conference of about 75 researchers covered many degradation disciplines including fatigue, glass breakage, soiling, polymer degradation and corrosion. R. Ross presented the theme presentation for the conference. Technical presentations were made by G. Mon, D. Moore and R. Ross of the FSA Engineering Sciences Area.

Recent Engineerin~ Area Publications

o "Characterization of the Electrical Output of Flat-plate Photovoltaic Arrays," by C.C. Gonzalez, G.M. Hill and R.G. Ross, Jr., 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, September 27, 1982.

o "An Accelerated Stress Testing Program for Determining the Reliability Sensitivity of Silicon Solar Cells to Encapsulation and Metallization Systems," by J.W. Lathrop and E. Royal. 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, September 27, 1982.

o "Design Solutions for the Solar Cell Interconnect Fatigue Fracture Problem," G.R. Mon and R.G. Ross, Jr., 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, September 27, 1982.

o "Development of a Photovoltaic Module Qualification Test Based on Combined-Environment Accelerated Stress Data, by S.E. Trenchard, E. Royal and R.T. Anderson. 16th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, September 27, 1982.

o "Photovoltaic Array Power Conditioner Interface Requirements," c. Gonzalez, !SES Annual Meting, June 1982.

o "Advanced Residential Photovoltaic Array Designs," R.S. Sugimura, N.E. Shepard and G. Royal, ISES Annual Meeting, June 1982.

o "Photovoltaic Array Grounding and Electrical Safety," A. Levins and R. S.. Sugimura, !SES Annual Meeting June 1982.

o "Solar Cell Interconnect Design for Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules", by G.R. Mon and D.M. Moore, FSA Task Report 5101-173 presented at ASME Annual Meeting, April, 1982.

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA AND TEST STANDARDS

Active interfaces were maintained between the FSA Engineering activities and the SERI Performance Criteria/Test Standards (PC/TS) project to establish Performance Criteria and Test Standards covering

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both flat-plate and concentrator arrays. The Interim Performance Criteria (UPC) Issue 2 containing Performance and Criteria (Vol. I) and Test Methods (Vol. II) for both flat-plate and concentrating photovoltaics was published and released by SERI to the PV Community. Environmental test methods included in the document were compiled by JPL Engineering Sciences Area personnel and represent a concensus of the JPL Block V Procurement and the PV industry qualification test methods.

Arizona State personnel chaired an Electrical Performance Subgroup meeting August 18, 1982, to finalize reformatted copies of electrical performance test methods for concentrating photovoltaics.

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Contract Title:

Contract No. :


Clemson University

Clemson, SC 29631

INVESTIGATION OF RELIABILITY ATTRIBUTES AND ACCELERATED

STRESS FACTORS ON TERRESTRIAL SOLAR CELLS

954929

The objective of this study is the investigation of the reliability attributes of terrestrial solar cells through the development and use of accelerated test methods. The overall program approach involves analyzing the physical and electrical changes which occur when cells are subjected to various overstress conditions in the laboratory involving accelerating factors of humidity, temperature, current, and the rate of change of temperature with time. Unencapsulated cells, which can be stressed up to the solder melting temperature, can be used to determine the sensitivity of cells to both diffusion and corrosion phenomena, while encapsulated cells can be used to investigate the ability of encapsulants to retard corrosion related effects.

A new round of unencapsulated cell testing on state of the art cells is well underway with the test results being transmitted directly to contributing manufacturers as they become available. Changes can now be observed in as little as 250 hours of testing as a result of experience gained in interpreting the test data, and the use of computerized measurement methods.

A test program involving encapsulated minimodules is being implemented. Some of the samples have been encapsulated by cell manufacturers using both their cells and their encapsulation techniques, while other samples were fabricated by Springborn Laboratories using a variety of cell types and several different "standard" encapsulation processes. Results indicate that some cell types deteriorate faster in a high humidity ambient when encapsulated in a non-hermetic substrate configuration than when unencapsulated. This is attributed to Schottky barrier formation at the back contact due to increased oxygen concentration.

Jigging is being prepared which will permit unencapsulated cells to be operated under load in a natural environment (outdoors) in hopes of finding a correlation with accelerated test results.

Preliminary work on establishing electrical measurement methods suitable for use with the accelerated testing of amorphous silicon cells have begun.

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General Electric Company King of Prussia, PA 19406

Contract Title: Photovo 1 ta i c Modu 1 e Bypass Di ode Encapsu 1 at ion Research


This research is an outgrowth of the bypass diode integration activity performed as part of JPL Contract 955894. This previous work led to the conclusion that the direct mounting of diode chips onto heat spreader plates for lamination within the module encapsulant offers an attractive installation option with the following advantages,

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the thermal resistance from the diode junction-to-heat sink can be somewhat lower with the chip, since the case, which is associated with the packaged diode, has been eliminated and replaced with a relatively large heat spreader plate, the mounted chip is much smaller than the packaged diode and therefore its placement in the module is not limited to locations that are large enough to accommodate the rather bulky diode case, and the environmental protection and electrical insulation are provided by the module encapsulant.

The objective of the current contract is to research the design and processing techniques necessary to incorporate a bypass diode/heat spreader assembly within the module encapsulant. A comprehensive survey of available pad-mounted PN junction and Schottky diodes led to the selection of Semicon PN junction diode cells for the application. Diode junction-to-heat spreader thermal resistance measurements, performed on a variety of mounted diode chip types and sizes, have yielded values which are consistently below 1°c per watt.

Based on the results of a detailed thermal analysis, which covered the range of bypassed currents from 2 to 20 amperes, representative experimental modules, each incorporating integral bypass diode/heat spreader assemblies of various sizes, were designed and fabricated. Thermal testing of these modules has enabled the formulation of a recommended heat spreader plate sizing relationship.

An interim report on this activity, dated December 10, 1982, is scheduled for distribution in mid-January 1983.

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12/09/82 Date

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Contract Tit I e :

Contract No. :


UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES INC. Melville, New York

Development of Photovoltaic Array and Module Safety

Requirements

955392

During the contract period, effort has been expended in information 9athering on wiring methods currently used in photovoltaic systems. This has been accomplished by a review of reports, as well as in-person consultations with module and system manufacturers. The field experience relating to existing wiring systems, the attributes desired in the wiring, and the economics of several schemes were among the items considered.

The present Underwriters Laboratories Inc. requirements of Type TC cable, Type UF cable, Type FCC cable, and Flexible Cords have been considered with a view toward developing appropriate modifications to the requirements for such to cover environmental and other use conditions. This may allow the use of such materials (with changes in wire designation, if necessary) for photovoltaic use.

An evaluation of a photovoltaic module to the UL Proposed Standard for Safety - Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Modules and Panels, UL 1703, to determine the viability and usefulness of the document has been undertaken. Revisions to the Proposed Standard as a result of both (a) this submittal, and (b} a meeting of the UL Photovoltaic Module and Panel Industry Advisory Group are in progress. A new draft of the Standard will form a part of the Second Phase Final Report.

Safety systems considered desireable for use as a part of photovoltaic installations have been conceived and evaluated in terms of viability and usefulness. Various grounding schemes for both the array frame and circuit, ground fault detectors and response circuits, blocking diodes, bypass diodes, and fuses are among the subsystems that combine in various combinations to form the safety systems.

Explanatory material for the proposed Photovoltaic System Article (Article 690) for the National Electrical Code (NEC) is being developed, particularly in the area of array disablement. This material is expected to be helpful to a local inspector evaluating the photovoltaic installation for compliance with the NEC.

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Contract No. :

ENGINEERIN; SCIEl'CES ARFA

WYLE LAOORATORIFS Huntsville, AL

Technical Support in the Development of Durability/Reliability Performance Criteria and Test Methods for Array Subsystem Elements

955853

The long-term accelerated environmental testing being conducted at Wyle Laboratories began in July of 1981. Since that time, ninety-one photovoltaic modules of various manufacture have been exposed to several temperature/humidity environments and periodically inspected and electrically tested to determine the effects of these environments on module performance.

The purpose of this testing is, first, to identify all mechanisms contributing to performance degradation, such as corrosion or delamination, and then to determine the rate of the degradation as a function of the particular environment to which the module is exposed.

To gather information on the role of temperature, humidity, and module electrical activity in degradation, modules are divided into two groups to be exposed to different temperature/humidity environments and, within each group, half the modules are electrically biased. The three 11 pairs 11 of environments being investigated at present are:

85°6/85%RH 108 C/<2%RH 85 C/70%RH

40°C/93%1lH 85°C/-2%RH 70°C/85%RH

Gradual discoloration of module substrates, delamination of anti-reflective coati'ngs, and corrosion of metalization and interconnects are the most frequently observed changes in module appearance, accompanied by a gradual decline in module current, voltage, and power. No catastrophic failures have been observed, and none are expected in the steady-state environments used. Changes in appearance related to the biasing of modules have also been observed.

Because modules of the same manfacture (both biased and unbiased) are exposed to at least two distinct temperature/humidity environments it will be possible to assess the effects of combined environments and, in some cases, distinguish the effects of temperature, humidity, and bias .on module physical and electrical degradation.

it is hoped that the information derived from these studies can be correlated with field test site data so that predictions of module life and performance can be made with greater confidence than is currently possible.

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MODULE PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE ANALYSIS AREA

In-House Program



All Block IV activity was concluded during this reporting period. Photowatt modules passed the qualification test program and all contractors delivered the full complement of "production-run" modules. The "User Handbook for Block IV Silicon Solar Cell Modules," JPL Publication 5101-214, by M.I. Smokler was published September 1, 1982.

Purchase orders were issued to the Block V contractors for the delivery of 10 modules, now designed as Group I modules, which are to be tested to the requirements of the Block V specification. ARCO Solar Inc., and General Electric Company have delivered these modules. Mobil Solar Energy Co., Solarex Corp. and Spire Corp. are the other contractors. As a follow-on to the Block V efforts to date, contracts have been written with ARCO, Mobil, Solarex and Spire for an iteration on the design following test of the Group I modules, which will result in an additional 10 modules to be known as Group II modules. Contracts similar to the Group II have been also executed with ASEC, Solavolt, Photowatt, and Solenergy.

In the field testing activity, all Block IV modules destined for JPL field test sites, are installed. This includes the site at the Florida Solar Energy Center. Work on the 400 volt, 40 ampere portable Jata logger has been completed, and the logger has been used to take I-V characteristics of several of the test and applications experimental installations in the United States.

In the module performance task, the procedure for flashing modules in the LAPSS with an optical filter to modify the spectrum to AM 1.5 has been adopted as standard.

Approval Signature

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Contract No. :

MODULE PERFORMANCE.AND E.A.ILURE ANALYSIS

APPLIElJ SOLAR ENERGY CORPORATION City of Industry, California 91745

FLATE-PLATE SOLAR ARRAY PROJECT, MODULE PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE ANALYSIS AREA

956359

The objective of this contract, initiated September 15, 1982, is to redesign the ASEC 36 Cell Commercial Module No.60-3079 and fabricate ten modules for evaluation per JPL. Document 5101-161, "Design and Test Specification for Intermediate Load Modules .- 1981". Modules per original design were delivered to JPL and have undergone testing against Block V specifications since May 1982.

The module has overall dimensions of 3l"xl3.3"x2" and incorporates a stainless steel chassis with glass superstrate. Module capabilities have been improved with a sealed junction box, water tight connector, maximum diode protection against hot-spot stress, additional dielectric protection, and modified edge seal.

~~~/ Appro?al Signature

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Contract Title:

Contract No. :

M::>DULE PERFORMAN::E AND FAILURE ANALYSIS AREA

Photowatt International, Inc. Tempe, AZ

Intermediate Load Modules for Test & Evaluation

956351

This is the initial reporting period of the contract. The contract involves the environmental testing {Block V) of ten previously supplied intermediate load modules which utilize 125mm diameter cells, module design modifications as might be necessitated by that testing, a design review, fabrication of ten modules with the necessary design modifications, and the associated documentation.

During this reporting period, the ten qualification test modules were delivered to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the modules readied for testing. In a related effort to assess cell temperature coefficients and spectral response, ten individual 125mm diameter cells were delivered to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

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IDDULE PEREORMAN::E AND FAILURE ANALYSIS AREA

Solarex Corporation

Rockville, Maryland

Contract Tit I e : Block V Documentation and Solar Cell Modules


The Solarex Block V effort is divided into two distinctly different module efforts. The first module has the following features:

40 Non P - BSF Nickel-Solder Metallized Cells

10cm x 10cm Semicrystalline Silicon

Four Integral Feedthroughs Per Cell

17.5" x 42" Framed Module

Interconnects Provide In-Plane Stress Relief

40 Cells in Series - Diodes Incorporated For System Application

1/8" Glass, EVA, Tedlar, Encapsulation Package

Twenty solar cells have been furnished to JPL per terms of the contract. The first ten modules are being fabricated.

The second module has the following features:

78 Nickel Solder Metallization Cells

10cm x 15cm Semicrystalline Cells

2 Parallel, 39-Series Cell Arrangement

Three By-Pass Diodes

Frameless Module - 37.8 inches x 54.1 inches

Power Output Designed to be Approximately 100 Watts

Equipment to manufacture the larger cells and module has been developed, adapted, or procured. Silicon has been procured and cell fabrication is to start within the next few weeks.

57

December 2, 1982

Dote



Contract Title: Block V Documentation and Solar Cell Modules


This program is a continuance of work being done under JPL purchase order #BQ-754191. Under that purchase order, Spire is fabricating 10 solar cell modules for the Block V procurement.

These modules, designated the Group I modules, will be documented under this contract (956334). After delivery of the Group I modules and documentation, JPL will perform environmental testing.

Also under this contract, Spire will design and fabricate 10 more Block V modules, designated as Group II modules. These will be similar to the Group I modules unless module failure occurs in environmental testing. In that event, the module design will be revised to correct the problem area.

The i:najor features of the Spire Block V module are:

• Frameless design for residential application • Ion implanted cell junctions and back surface fields • Crack tolerant interconnect design -- maximum area loss from single

straight-line crack is 8%. • Integrally encapsulated by-pass diodes • Electrical performance predictions:

Encapsulated cell efficiency: Module efficiency: Power per module:

58

Peak Conditions

14.3% 11.196 75.4 watts

Average Conditions

12.5% 9.7%

52.3 watts

12/1/82

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SOLAVOLT INTERNATIONAL

.Phoenix, AZ.

Contract Title: Intermediate Load Modules for Test and Evaluation


The objective of this contract is to develop photovoltaic modules with appropriate design and manufacturing documentation to satisfy che requirements of Jf>L Block V Qualifications, Spec. No. 5101-161, Design and Test Specification for Intermediate Load Modules - 1981. Evaluation testing will be conducted on twenty modules.

Ten modules with documentation have been submitted to JPL and have been tested. Based on test results several changes have been incorporated into the module design. The updated documentation reflecting these changes will be submitted to J~L in early January, 1983, with a design review tentatively planned for late January, 1983.

Bruce Larson 12/15/82

Approval Signature Date

59

CONTRACTS AND DOCUMENTS

LJ FSA PROJECT ACTIVE CONTRACT LIST

LJ EXPECTED START COMPLETION CONTRACT

NAME DATE DATE NUMBER TASK DESCRIPTION

LJ ADVANCED MATERIALS RESEARCH TASK:

HEMLOCK SEMICONDUCTOR INC. 10/79 12/83 955533 DEVELOPMENT OF A POLYSILICON HEMLOCK, MI PROCESS BASED ON CHEMICAL VAPOR

DEPOSITION

MOBIL SOLAR ENERGY CORP 07/82 08/83 956312 CRYSTAL GROWTH BY EDGE-DEFINED WALTHAM, MA FILM-FED GROWTH TECHNIQUES (EFG)

OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY 09/81 05/83 956133 DEVELOPMENT OF FLUIDIZED BED CORVALLIS, OR SILICON TECHNOLOGY

SOLARELECTRONICS 07/82 02/83 956061 INVESTIGATION OF THE LJ BELLINGHAM, MA HYDROCHLORINATION OF SiHCl4

UNION CARBIDE CORP. 10/75 09/83 954334 SILANE TO SILICON EPSDU WASHOUGAL, WA

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 06/81 08/83 956053 STUDY OF THE ABRASIVE WEAR CHICAGO, IL RATE OF SILICON

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP 10/82 12/83 955843 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EFFORT TO PITTSBURGH, PA OPTIMIZE SILICON DENDRITIC WEB

GROWTH

LJ DEVICE AND MEASUREMENTS RESEARCH TASK:

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY CORP. 05/78 12/82* 955089 SILICON SOLAR CELL PROCESS CITY OF INDUSTRY, CA DEVELOPMENT, FABRICATION AND

ANALYSIS

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY CORP. 10/82 10/83 956369 MICROCRYSTALLINE SILICON GROWTH CITY OF INDUSTRY, CA FOR HETEROJUNCTION SOLAR CELLS

C. T. SAH ASSOCIATES 07/82 07/84 956289 STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS OF URBANA, IL MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND HIGH L.J

EFFICIENCY SOLAR CELL PERFORMANCE ON MATERIAL COMPOSITION

LJ CORNELL UNIVERSITY 06/81 05/82* 956046 INVESTIGATION OF PHYSICAL STRUCTURE ITHACA, IL AND THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF DEFECTS

IN SILICON SHEET MATERIAL

MATERIALS RESEARCH, INC. 06/80 09/82* 955676 ANALYSIS OF DEFECT STRUCTURE CENTERVILLE, UT IN SILICON

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 03/82 03/83 956233 FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS OF ULTIMATE AT LOS ANGELES EFFICIENCY SILICON SOLAR CELL LOS ANGELES, CA SUBSTRATES

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA 09/82 09/83 956290 DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS OF SILICON PHILADELPHIA, PA SOLAR CELLS OF NEAR 20j EFFICIENCY

LJ

• Contract is in process of being extended.

LJ

61

EXPECTED START COMPLETION

NAME DATE DATE

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOLATION RESEARCH TASK:

ROCKWELL INTERNATIONAL (X)RP 03/77 12/83 THOUSAND OAKS, CA

SPECTROLAB, INC. 11179 12/83 SYLMAR, CA

SPRINGBORN LABORATORIES, INC. 05/76 08/84 ENFIELD, CT

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS 08/79 09/83 AMHERST, MA

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO 01/80 06/84 TORONTO, CANADA

PROCESS RESEARCH TASK:

BERND ROSS ASSOCIATES 05/80 01/83 SAN DIEGO, CA

SOLAREX CORPORATION 11 /80 09/83 ROCKVILLE, MD

SOLLOS, INC. 07/82 01/83 LOS ANGELES, CA

SPECTROLAB, INC. 04/82 04/83 SYLHAR, CAL

SPIRE CORP. 11/82 06/83 BEDFORD, MA

WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORP. 11 /80 09/83 PITTSBURGH, PA

ENGINEERING SCIENCES AREA:

CLEMSON UNIVERSITY 12/77 09/83 CLEM.SON, SC

UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES, INC 05/79 04/83 MELVILLE, LI, NY

WYLE LABORATORIES 08/08 09/83 HUNTSVILLE, AL

62

CONTRACT NUMBER TASK DESCRIPTION

954739 STUDY PROGRAM FOR ENCAPSULATION INTERFACE

955567 DESIGN, ANALYSIS, AND TEST VERIFICATION OF ADVANCED ENCAPSULATION SYSTEMS

954527 MODULE ENCAPSULATION TASK

955531 DEVELOPMENT OF SYNTHETIC PROCEDURES FOR POLYMERIC ULTRAVIOLET STABILIZERS AND ABSORBERS

955191 MODELING OF PHOTODEGRADATION IN MODULES OF SUBSTRATE AND SUPERSUBSTRATE DESIGN MADE WITH TEHYLENE VINYL ACETATE AS POTTANT MATERIAL

955688 DEVELOPMENT OF AN ALL METAL THICK FILM COST EFFECTIVE METALLIZATION SYSTEM FOR SOLAR CELLS

955902 PROCESS RESEARCH OF POLYCRYSTALLINE SILICON MATERIAL

956276 INVESTIGATION OF NICKEL-SILICON METALLIZATION PROCESS

956205 DEVELOPMENT OF METALLIZATION PROCESS

956392 HERMETIC EDGE SEALING OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES

955909 PROCESS RESEARCH OF NON-CZ SILICON MATERIAL

954929 INVESTIGATION OF RELIABILITY ATTRIBUTES AND ACCELERATED STRESS FACTORS ON TERRESTRIAL SOLAR CELLS

955392 INVESTIGATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY AND MODULE SAFETY REQUIREMENT

955853 TECHNICAL SUPPORT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DURABILITY/RELIABILITY PERFORMANCE CRITERIA AND TEST METHODS FOR ARRAY SUBSYSTEM ELEMENTS

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EXPECTED START COMPLETION CONTRACT

NAME DATE DATE NUMBER TASK DESCRIPTION

MODULE PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE ANALYSIS AREA:

ARCO SOLAR, INC. 11/82 07/83 956336 BLOCK V DOCUMENTATION AND SOLAR CELL MODULES

APPLIED SOLAR ENERGY CORP. 09/82 07/83 956350 INTERMEDIATE LOAD MODULES FOR TEST CITY OF INDUSTRY, CA AND EVALUATION

MOBIL SOLAR ENERGY CORP 09/82 08/83 956335 BLOCK V DOCUMENTATION AND SOLAR CELL WALTHAM, MA MODULES

PHOTOWATT INTERNATIONAL 09/82 09/83 956351 INTERMEDIATE LOAD MODULES FOR TEST TEMPE, AZ AND EVALUATION

SOLAREX CORP. 09/82 08/83 956333 BLOCK V DOCUMENTATION AND SOLAR L.J ROCKVILLE, HD CELL MODULES

SOLAVOLT INTERNATIONAL 09/82 07/83 956349 INTERMEDIATE LOAD MODULES FOR TEST PHOENIX, AZ AND EVALUATION

SOLENERGY CORP. 09/82 09/83 956347 INTERMEDIATE LOAD MODULES FOR TEST WOBURN, MA AND EVALUATION

SPIRE CORP. 11/82 07/84 956334 BLOCK V DOCUMENTATION AND SOLAR CELL L..J

BEDFORD, MA MODULES

L.J

LJ

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63

LJ

n

bJ 15 October 1982

Document Number

5040-29 ERDA/JPL-1012-76/3

5101-2 ERDA/JPL-1012-76/1

5101-5 ERDA/JPL-1012-76/4

5101-7 ERDA/JPL-1012-76/6

5101-8 ERDA/JPL-1012-76/7

5101-10 ERDA/JPL-1012-77/1

5101-12

5101-13

5101-14

5101-15

FSA PUBLIC IX)CUMENTS

Author/Date

Doane, J. W. June, 1976

PROJECT OFFICE January, 1976

PROJECT OFFICE April, 1976

PROJECT OFFICE October 8, 1976

PROJECT OFFICE July 30, 1976

PROJECT OFFICE

Zoutendyk, J. October 28, 1976

Gonzalez, C. C. February 14, 1977

Edelson, E. January 26, 1977

Chamberlain, R. G. September 1977

65

Prepared by: Solar Data Center ext. 9519

Document Title

The Cost of Energy From Utility-owned Solar Electric Systems

Proceedings of the First Task Integration Meeting

Proceedings of the Second Project Integration Meeting

LSA First Quarterly Report - April 1976 to June 1976

Proceedings of the Third Project Integration Meeting

LSA Second Quarterly Report - July 1976 to September 1976

Progress in Silicon Crystal Technology for Terrestrial Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion

Availability or Ultraviolet Radiation Data (for Encapsulation System Design)

Preliminary Analysis of Industrial Growth and the Factors That Affect Growth Rate

Samics (Solar Array Manufacturing ' Costing Standards) Workbook

5101-16 Rev. A DOE/JPL-1012-78/10

5101-19

5101-20

5101-21 Rev. B

5101-24 ERDA/JPL-1012-77/2

5101-31

5101-32 ~E/JPL-1012-77/3

5101.-33

5101-36

5101-39

5101-40

5101-43

FSA PUBLIC DOCUMENTS

LSA. ENGR. AREA November 1, 1978

Moore, D. February 28, 1977

Cantu, A.H. February 28, 1977

Bishop/Anhalt November 3, 1978

PROJECT OFFICE

Stultz/Wen July 29, 1977

PROJECT OFFICE

Chamberlain/Aster September 10, 1977

Smokler, M. October 15, 1977

Jaffe, P. August 3, 1978

Coulbert, C. D. June 8, 1977

Grippi, R. A. October 7, 1977

66

Block IV Solar Cell Module Design and Test Specification for Intermediate Load Center Applications

Cyclic Pressure - Load Developmental Testing of Solar Panels

Test Program on Low-Cost Connector for Solar-Array Modules

Acceptance/Rejection Criteria for JPL/LSA Modules

Project Quarterly Report - 3 for the Period October 1976 to December 1976

Thermal Performance Testing and Analysis of Photovoltaic Modules in Natural Sunlight

Quarterly Report - 4 for the Period ·January 1977 to March 1977

Interim Price Estimation Guidelines: A Precursor and an Adjunct to SAMIS III, Version One

User Handbook for Block II Silicon Solar Cell Modules

LSA Field Test Activity System Description

Development & Validation of A Life-Prediction Methodology for LSA Encapsulated Modules

Module Efficiency Definitions, Characteristics and Examples

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5101-45

5101-46 DOE/JPL-1012-77/4 JPL Pub!. 1178-9

5101-51

5101-53 DOE/JPL-1012-77/6

5101-54 Vol. I DOE/JPL-1012-78/1

5101-5 4 Vol. II DOE/JPL-1012-78/1

5101-55 DOE/JPL-1012-78/2

5101-56 DOE/JPL-1012-78/3

5101-57 DOE/JPL-1012-78/7

5101-58

5101-59


Gonzalez, C. C. December 6, 1977

PROJECT OFFICE June, 1977

Praturi/Lutwack/ Hsu July 17, 1977

O'Donnell/Leipold/ Hagan March 1, 1978

Smith, J. L. April 1978

Smith, J. L. March 1, 1978

PROJECT OFFICE

Turner, G. B. March 1, 1978

Chen, C. P. February 22, 1978

Estey, R. S. March 15, 1978

Environmental Hail Model for Assessin~ Risk to Solar Collectors

Project Quarterly Report-5 for the Period April - June 1977

Chemical Vapor Deposition of Silicon from Silane Pyrolysis

Compatability Studies of Various Refractory Materials in Contact with Molten Silicon

Historical Evidence on Importance to the Industrialization of Flat-Plate Silicon Photovoltaic Systems: Executive Summary

Historical Evidence of Importance to The Industrialization of Flat-Plate Silicon Photovoltaic Systems

Project Quarterly Report-6 for the period July 1977 - September 1977

Structure of Deformed Silicon and Implications for Low Cost Solar Cells

Multi-Wire Slurry Wafering Demonstrations

Measurement of Solar and Simulator Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance

Chamberlain, R. G. SAMICS Usage Update No. 1 February 1, 1978

67

5101-60 Rev. B

5101-61

5101-62 DOE/JPL-1012-78/6

5101-65 D0E/JPL-1012-78/7A

5101-68 Rev. A DOE/JPL-1012-47 JPL Pub 1. 180-51

5101-69

510i-70 Rev. B

5101-71 Rev. B

5101-72

5101-73 DOE/JPL-1012-78/8


Metcalf, M. S. April 21, 1980

Cuddihy, E. April 13, 1978

Moore/Wilson October 15, 1978

LSA ENGH. AREA March 24, 1978

Aster, R. W. January 15, 1980

Daud/Koliwad June 15, 1978

Standard Assembly-Line Manufacturing Industry Simulation (SAMIS) Computer Program User's Guide-Release 3 Release 2

Encapsulation Material Trends Reliability 1986 Cost Goals

Photovoltaic Solar Panel Resistance to Simulated Hail

Photovoltaic Module Design, Qualification and Testing Specification

Price Allocation Guidelines January 1980

Effect of Grain Boundary in Silicon Sheet on Minority Carrier Diffusion Length and Solar Cell Efficiency

Chamberlain/Firnett Standard Assembly-Line Manufacturing /Horton Industry Simulation SAMIS Design April 21, 1980 Document Release 3

Chamberlain, R. G. April 21 , 1980

Maxwell, H. June 15, 1978

Von Roos, o. May 31, 1978

68

Standard Assembly-Line manufacturing Industry Simulation (SAMIS) Computer Program Source Code/Release 3 Release 2

Encapsulant Candidate Materials for 1982 Cost Goals

Determination of Bulk Diffusion Lengths for Angle-Lapped Semiconductor Material via the Scanning Electron Microscope -A Theoretical Analysis ,

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5101-75

5101-76 DOE/JPL-1012-78/9

5101-77

5101-79

5101-81 DOE/JPL-1012-78/13

5101-82 DOE/JPL-1012-79/6

5101-83 DOE/JPL-1012-78/14

5101-84 DOE/JPL-1012-78/11

5101-85 DOE/JPL-1012-78/12

5101-88 DOE/JPL-1012-2 JPL Publ. #79-14

5101-91, Vol. I DOE/JPL-1012-25,Vol.1 JPL Publ. 179-103,Vol.1


Smith, J. L. May 30, 1978

Stultz, J. W •. July 31, 1978

Gupta, A August 10, 1978

Gupta, A. August 18, 1978

PROJECT OFFICE November 15, 1978

Smokler, M. I. February 1, 1979

LSA ENGR. AREA November 1, 1978

Hoffman/Miller October 15, 1978

Jaffe, Peter September 15, 1978

PROJECT OFFICE

Smith, J. H. January 15, 1980

69

The Penetration of the International Market by Domestically Produced Photovoltaic Power Systems: A Survey of Recent Estimates

Thermal and Other Tests of Photovoltaic Modules Performed in Natural Sunlight

Photodegradation of Polymeric Encapsulants of Solar Cell Modules

Effect of Photodegradation on Chemical Structure and Surface Characteristics of Silicon Pottants Used in Solar Cell Modules

Project Quarterly Report-7 for the Period October 1977-December 1977

User Handbook for Block III Silicon Solar Cell Modules

Block IV Solar Cell Module Design and Test Specification for Residential Applications

Bias-Humidity Testing of Solar Cell Modules

LSA Field Test Annual Report August 1977- August 1978

Project Quarterly Report-8 for the Period of January - March 1978

Handbook of Solar Energy Data for South-Facing Surfaces in the United States-Volume I: An Insolation, Array , Shadowing, and Reflector Augmentation Model

5101-91, Vol. II DOE/JPL-1012-25,Vol.2 JPL Publ. 079-103,Vol.2

5101-91, Vol. III DOE/JPL-1012-25,Vol.3 JPL Pub!. 079-103,Vol.3

5101-93 DOE/JPL-1012-79/5

5101-94 DOE/JPL-1012-78/17

5101-96 OOE(JPL-1012-23

5101-98 DOE/.JPL-1012-79/1

5101-99 DOE/JPL-1012-3

5101-100 DOE/JPL-1012-4 JPL Publ. 079-16

5101-102

5101-103 D0E/JPL-l0l2-79/8A




Chamberlain, R. G. January 15, 1979

Aster, Robert December 1, 1978

Tsou/Schwartz March 1 , 1979

Griffith, John S. January 1, 1979

PROJECT OFFICE

PROJECT OFFICE

Slonski, M. L. February 15, 1979

Repar, John February 15, 1979

70

Handbook of Solar Energy Data for South-Facing Surfaces in the United States-Volume II: Average Hourly and Total Daily Insolation Data for 235 Localities (Alaska-Montana)

Handbook of Solar Energy Data for South-Facing Surfaces in the United States-Volume III: Average Hourly and Total Daily Insolation Data for 235 Localities (North Carolina-Wyoming

A Normative Pirce for a Manufactured Product: The SAMICS Methodology Volume I: Executive Summary/Volume II: Analysis

Economic Analysis of A Candidate 50¢/WPK Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology

Module Performance Assessment: Laboratory and Field Environment

Environmental Testing of Block II Solar Cell Modules.

Project Quarterly Repor-9 for the Period April - June 1978

Project Quartgerly Report-10 for the Period July - September 1978

Energy Systems Economics Analysis (ESEA) Methodology & User's Guide

Experience with Silicones in Photovoltaic Modules

CJ '.

5101-104 D0E/JPL-l0l2-79/7B

5101-105 DOE/JPL-1012-20

5101-106 DOE/JPL-1012-21

5101-107 DOE/JPL-1012-18

5101-108 OOE/JPL-1012-19

5101-109 OOE/JPL-1012-26

5101-112 OOE/JPL 1012-27

5101-131 DOE/ JPL-1012-49 JPL Pub. 180-87

5101-133 DOE/JPL-1012-29 JPL Publ. #79-88

5101-134 OOE/JPL-1012-30 JPL Publ. #79-96

5101-135 OOE/JPL-1012-31 JPL Publ. I 79-92


Goldsmith/Bickler August 30, 1978

Praturi, A.K. April 15, 1979

Praturi, A. K. April 1, 1979

Rhein, Robert A. April 15, 1979

Rhein, Robert A. April 15, 1979

PROJECT OFFICE

PROJECT OFFICE

Hoffman/Maag November 1, 1980

PROJECT OFFICE

Griffith, J. S. September 1, 1979

Laue/Gupta Septmber 21, 1979

71

LSA Project Technology Development Update

Modeling of Silicon Particle Growth; a A Progress Report

On the Modeling os Silane Pyrolysis in a in a Continuous Flow Reactor

Purification of Silicon by the Silicon Fluoride Transport Process-A Thermochemical Study

Silicon Preparation and Purity from the Reaction of Sodium with Silicon Tetrafluoride and Silicon Tetrachloride-A Thermochemical Study

11th Project Integration Meeting/ Quarterly Report for 10-12/78

Progress Report 12 for the period January to April 1979 and Proceedings of the 12th Project Integration Meeting

Photovoltaic Module Soiling Studies May 1978-0ctober 1980

Progress Report 13 for the period April 1979 to August 1979 and Proceedings of the 13th Project Integration Meeting

Enviornmental Testing of Block III Solar Cell Modules/Part I: Qualification Testing of Standard Production Modules

Reactor for Simulation and Acceleration , of Solar Ultraviolet Damage

5101-137 DOE/JPL-1012-32 JPL Publ. #79-102

5101-138 DOE/JPL-1012-36

5101-139 OOE/JPL-1012-34 JPL Publ. #79-116

5101-141 DOE/JPL-1012-38 JPL Publ. #80-5

5101-142 OOE/JPL-1012-42 JPL Publ. 180-21

5101-143

5101-144

5101-146 DOE/ JPL-1012-37 JPL Pub. f/80-25

5101-147 OOE/JPL-1012-40 JPL Publ. #80-12

5101-148 DOE/JPL-1012-41 JPL . Pub 1. #80-34


Chen, C. P. October 15, 1979

LSA ENGINEERING January 15, 1980

Salama, A. M. November 1, 1979

Jaffe, Peter December 15, 1979

PROJECT OFFICE

PROJECT OFFICE January 1980

Cuddihy,E. F. January 15, 1980

Leipold/Radics/ Kachare February 15, 1980

Bouquet, F. L. February 1, 1980

Moore, D. M. March 1, 1980

72

Fracture Strength of Silicon Solar Cells

1982 Technical Readiness Module Design and Test Specification-Intermediate Load Applications

Characterization of Deliberately Nickel-Doped Silicon Wafers and Solar Cells

LSA Field Test Annual Report August 1978 - August 1979

Progress Report 14 for the P~riod August 1979 to December 1979 and Proceedings of the 14th Project Integration Meeting

Electricity from Photovoltaic Solar Cells/Status of Low-Cost Solar Array Project

Encapsulation Materials Status to December 1979

Cost of Czochralski Wafers as a Function of Diameter

Glass for Low-Cost Photovoltaic Solar Arrays

Proposed Method for Determining the Thickness of Glass in Solar Collector Panels

L:.J

l..:..:...J

L.J

L.J

5101-150

5101-151 OOE/JPL-1012-44 JPL Publ. #80-27

5101-154

5101-155

5101-156 Rev. A

5101-158 Rev. A.

510h-159 Rev. A.

5101-160 DOE/JPL-1012-51 JPL Pub. 180-100

5101-165 DOE/JPL-1012-53 JPL Pub 1181 - 30

5101-166 DOE/JPL-1012-52 JPL Pub. 1181-12

5101-169 DOE/JPL-1012-50 JPL Pub. 1181-1


Christensen, E.

JPL April 1980

Electricity from Photovoltaic Solar Cells/LSA Project/As displayed at Congressional Hearings February 1980

Progress Report 15 for the period December 1979 to April 1980 and Proceedings of the 15th Project Intregration Meeting

Chamberlain/Aster/ SAMICS Cost Account Catalog/Version 4 Firnett April 21 , 1980

Christensen, E. uune 1980

Firnett, P. J. November 17, 1980

Aster/Chamberlain Miller/Firnett November 17, 1980

National Photovoltaic Progam/Electrical Power from Solar Cells

Improved Price Estimation Guidelines (IPEG) Computer Program User's Guide Release 2

Improved Price Estimation Guidelines (!PEG) Design Document Release 2

Chamberlain/Firnett Improved Price Estimation Guidelines Miller (!PEG) Computer Program Source Code November 17, 1980 Release 2

Project Office

WILSON, A.H. June 15, 1981

Jaffe, Peter December 30, 1980

Seaman, C.H. January 15, 1981

73

Progress Report 16 for the period April to September 1980 and Proceedings of the 16th Project Integration Meeting

Low-Cost Solar Array Structure Development

LSA Field Test Annual Report August 1979-August 1980

The Correction for Spectral Mismatch Effects on the Calibration of a Solar

5101-170

5101-171 DOE/ JPL-1012-55 JPL Pub. #81-37

5101-172 OOE/JPL-1012-54 JPL Pub. IJ81-35

5101-173 DOE/ JPL-1012-62 JPL Pub. 1181-111

5101-175 OOE/JPL-1012-61 JPL Pub. 181-112

·5101-176 OOE/JPL-1012-56 JPL Pub. IJ81-64

5101-177 DOE/JPL-1012-60 JPL Pub. #81-102

5101-178C

5101-186 DOE/ JPL-1012-58 JPL Pub 181-94

5101-187 DOE/JPL-1012-66 JPL Pub • 182-9


Engineering Area May 20, 1980

Mokashi/Kachare March 15 , 1981

LSA Project

MON/MOORE/ROSS March 1 , 1982

Mokashi, A. R. December 15, 1981

DAUD/CHENG November 1, 1981

CARROLL/COULBERT CUDDIHY/GUPTA LIANG June 1 , 1982-

LSA Project July 1981

PROJECT OFFICE

JPL February 1, 1982

74

Flat-Plate Photovoltaic Module & Array. Circiot Design Optimization Workshop Proceedings-May 19 & 20, 1980

Sensitivity Analysis of the Add-On Price Estimate for the Edge-Defined Film-Fed Growth Process

Progress Report 17 for the Period September 1980 to February 1981 and Proceedings of the 17th Project Integration Meeting

Interconnect Fatigue Design for Terrestrial Photovoltaic Modules

Sensitivity Analysis of the Add-on Price Estimate for the Silicon Web Growth Process

Measurement of Surface Recombination Velocity for Silicon Solar Cells Using a Scanning Electron Microscope with Pulsed Beam

Photovoltaic Module Encapsulation Design and Materials .Selection: Volume I

Electricity form Photovoltaic Solar Cells-Low Cost Solar Array Project As Displayed at the 15th Photovoltaic Specialist Conference-May 1981 Revised for Project Integration Meeting

Progress Report 18 for the Period February to July 1981 and Proceedings of the 18th Project Integration Meeting.

Proceedings of the Low-Cost Solar Array Wafering Workshop (8 - 10 June 1981, The The Pointe, Phoenix, Arizona)

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L.u OOE/JPL-1012-69 JPL Pub. 82-28

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,..,,,, QOE/JPL/1012-65 JPL Pub 1182-3

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Burger, D.R. January 15, 1982

K. A. Yamakawa September 1, 1981

PROJECT OFFICE

JAFFE/WEAVER/LEE December 15, 1981

WEN, L. March 1982

VON ROOS, O. H. February 15, 1982

JPL March 1, 1982

JPL

LIANG/GUPTA

FRICHLAND/REPAR April 6, 1982

75

Vacuum Lamination of Photovoltaic Modules

The Effects of Impurities on the Performance of Silicon Solar Cells

Progress Report 19 for the Period July to November 1981 and Proceedings of the 19th Project Integration Meeting

FSA Field Test Annual Report August 1980-August 1981

An Investigation of the Effect of Wind Cooling on Photovoltaic Arrays

Mathematical Analysis of the Photovoltage Decay (PVD) Method for Minority Carrier Lifetime Measurements

Introduction to SIMRANS Simulation of Research and Development Project

Progress Report #20 for the Period November 1981 to April 1982 and Proceedings of the 20th Project Integration Meeting

Photothermal Characterization of Encapsulant Materials for Photovoltaic Modules

Experimental Evaluation of the Battelle Accelerated Test Design for the Solar Array at Mead, Nebraska ,

5101-212 DOE/ JPL-1012-74 JPL Pub • 1182-65

5101-214 DOE/JPL-1012-75

5101-216 DOE/JPL-1012-77 JPL Pub. /182-81

5101-217 DOE/JPL-1012-78 JPL Pub. 182-82

5101-221 OOE/JPL-1012-76 JPL Pub. #82-79


MOKASHI, A. R. September 15, 1982

SMOKLER, M. I. September 1, 1982

CUDDIHY, E. September 1, 1982

COCKRUM, R.H. September 15, 1982

JPL September 15, 1982

Price Estimates for the Production of Wafers from Silicon Ingots

The SIMRAND Methodology/SIMulation of Research ANd Development Projects

Photovoltaic Module Encapsulation Design and Materials Selection, Volume I (Abridged)

A System fro Measuring Thermal Activation Energy Levels in Silicon by Thermally Stimulated Capacitance

Summary of Flat-Plate Solar Array Project Documentation, Abstracts of Published Documents, 1975 to June 1982

Please contact the Solar Data Center for those documents which do not carry a DOE number. (213) 577-9519 or 577-9520

76

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cn+!ERCIAL FLAT-PIATE PHO'IOVOLTAIC t-DDULE MANUFACTURERS

DECEMBER 1982

lhe following listing includes cbose U.S. cxganizatioas whicn co Che best of our 1m0Wled1Je are now manufaccudng pnocovolcaic flat axiules for sale to Che public. JPL disclaims an~ responsibility for any unintentional emission, and does aot eriacxse cne products of any of Che manufacturers listed.

APPLIID SOI.All ENmGY CDRP. 15251 Ease D:ln .l.alian P.oad P. o. Box 1212 Cicy of Industry. CA 91749 Attn: 1hcmas J. Brawley

Vice President-L"1Brketing (213) 968-6581

~ SOU&, L.'C. 21011 Wamer Center I.me P.O. Box 4400 tbxiland Hills, CA 91365 A.cm: Robert Nath

Vice Pres idenc Mldceting Jay Oleacbam Vice President~"ln"kecing Tim Geiser :bc'tb A:Dedcan Regiooal Mgr. Dick ~aenkel ta tin Jmerican Regioaal Mgr •

(213) 700-7000

FREE ENERGY SYSnMS, I.a.'£. Price and Pine Streets lblmes Industrial Parle H:>lmes, PA 19403 Atm: Mark Sanderson

Sales Manager (215) 583--4780

~IL SOLAR ENmGY CDRP. 16 Hickory Ikive ~laltbaa, MA 02254 Attn: Bob Hmmcnd

Marketing Manager (617) 890-0909

pfmON PGml, IN:. 13 'Ebt.mders Blvd. EL Paso. 'IX 79906 Acm: Marcin F. ~zler

Marlcecing Director (915) i79-7774

PH1IOWAT1' INmNATIONAL, I.a.'£. 2414 West l4tn Street Tempe, IZ 85281 Attn: Gr&§ T. IDve

Marketing Director (602) 894-9564

SIUCDN SENSCBS, U£. Hipay 18 Fast D:xigeville, w"I 53533 Attn: P.obert Bachner

President Pai Ignacius Plant Manager

(608) 935-2707

77

·1 i"

SOLAR POWEll CORP. 20 Cabot Road Wlbum, MA 01801 Attn: Bill Brusseau

Marketing Manager Robert P. Carter Incematioaal :-tanager

(6li) 935--4600

SOUREX CORP. 1335 Piccat'd Drive P.odcville, MD 20850 Att:n: Ted Blunanstock

Director of Sales (202) 948-0202

SOLAVOLT L.'ll"ERNAnONAL Silicon Division P.O. Box 2934 Eboenix, Kl. 85062 Acm: ayda Ragsdale

Mat'kecing Manager (602) 244-7325

SOLS: INl'ElUfAnONAL, nc •. 12533 Cbadroa AYen.Je Hawtbome, CA 90250

. Atm: Vincent D. De Leo MITketing Mlnager

(213) 970-0065

scn.ENmGY CDRP. 171 Mani.mac Street t-bbum, MA 01801 Att:n: c. William Cl.ark

Vica Presidenc~"farkecing (617) 938-0728

SOL/IDS, UC. 1519 O:mstock Avenue tos qeles, CA 90024 ACt:n: Dr. Milo Micha

President (213) 203-0728

TIDELAND SIGNAL (X)RP. 4310 Directo~'s PDW P.O. Box 52430 H:>uston, tx 77052 Atm: Ca"C'l l{Qtila

ASsiscanc Mmager tncernatioaal Operacioas

(713) 681-6101

UNitm ENERGY CORP. 420 Lincoln Centte Drive Ebs cer Ci ey. c.A '14404 Aten: Ernest: Lampert

President (425) Si0-5011

PASADENA CENTER 300 E. Green Stree1

Pasadena, CA

(2131 577-4343

HILTON HOTEL-PASADENA 1 50 South Los Robles Avenue

Pasadena. CA (2131 577-1000

HUNTINGTON-SHERATON HOTEL 1401 Soulh Oak Knoll Avenue

Pasadena, CA

(2131 792-0266

TRAVELODGE PASADENA

2767 Eas1 Colorado Blvd.

Pasadena, CA

(2131795-721 3

HOLIDAY INN 303 Cordova

Pasadena, CA (2 131 449-4000

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