2012 Proceedings of 3rd ISOCARD Conference

Proceedings of the3rd Conference of the International Society of Camelid Research and Development

Sultan Qaboos UniversityCollege of Agricultural and Marine Sciences

Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences

Royal Diwan

Muscat Pharmacy

Abu Ali Al-MadaniTrading LLC

Omani National Livestock Development

Company S.O.A.C.

The Research Council Ministry of Agricultureand Fisheries Wealth

Ministry of SportsAffairs

Foreword

OnbehalfoftheOrganizingandScientificCommittees,IamgladtopresenttheProceedingsoftheThirdConferenceoftheInternationalSocietyofCamelidResearchandDevelopment(3rdISOCARD),whichisbeingheldinMuscat,SultanateofOmanfrom the29thof January to the 1st ofFebruary2012.TheConferencehas attracted200participantsfrom39countries.Overonehundredoralpresentationswillbegiven,andparticipantswillhavetheopportunitytoseeapproximately85posterpresentations.We are sure that the selected topicswill provide awealth of information andmanyopportunitiesfordiscussions.Theinvitedspeakers’paperswillbepublishedinaspecialissueoftheJournalofCamelidScience. Thethemeforthe3rdISOCARDConferenceis“ChallengesFacingCamelidsinaChangingWorld”.Itincludesvarioussessions,namely:physiology,biochemistryandpharmacology,medicine,healthandinfectiousdiseases,immunology,reproduction,anatomyandsurgery,pastoralsystems,geneticsandbiotechnology,meatandproducts,milk and nutrition. The latest research findings by scientists from a broad range ofcamelresearchbodiesaroundtheworld,includingresearch,governmentagenciesandindustry are included in the proceedings.They reflect important advances pertainingtocamelidhealthandproduction.Wetrusttheproceedingswillpromoteinternationalcommunicationincamelidscience. Iwould like to thankall the authorswhohavecontributed to thepublicationof theproceedings. Iwouldalso like togivemyspecial thanks toProfessorEugeneH. Johnson, Professor Osman Mahgoub, Professor Abdallah Jack, Dr. MohammedTageldin,Dr.PatrickAkinBobade,Dr.WaleedSaidAl-Marzooqi,Dr.DawoodSulimanAl-Ajmi,Dr.YasminEl-TaherAhmedandMr.CesarSimeonMascarinaforexcellentwork in preparing and editing the proceedings. In addition, I would like to expressmy utmost appreciation to the Scientific Committee, ISOCARD Executive Councilandtheparticipantsfor theircontributionto thesuccessof thisconference.Finally,Iwould like to thankSultanQaboosUniversity,DiwanRoyalAffairs, theMinistryofAgricultureandFisheryWealth,andTheResearchCouncil,fortheirfinancialsupporttotheconference.

Prof.IsamT.Kadim,ChairmanOrganizingCommitteeofthe3rdISOCARD2012

Edited by:

Prof.EugeneH.Johnson Prof.OsmanMahgoub Prof.AbdullahH.Eljack Prof.IsamT.Kadim Dr.PatrickAkinBobade Dr.MohammedH.Tageldin Dr.WaleedSaeedAl-Marzooqi Dr.YasminElTahirAhmed

Layout by:

Mr.CesarSimeonMascarina

1

3rd ISOCARD International Conference

TABLE OF CONTENT×

ORAL

Genetics and Biotechnology

1. Molecular Characterization of Kachchhi Camel (Camelus dromedarius) using

Microsatellite Markers R.C. Parikh, N. A. Patel, Y.D. Padheriya, K.N. Wadhwani and D.N. Rank 17

2. Animal Genetic Resource Management by Camel Breeders in

Ansongo Region, Mali B. Traore, B. Ouologuem, P. Leroy and N. Antoine-Moussiaux 19

3. Anafi, Bishari and the Cross Breed: Sudan Racing Camels, A Review M.O. Eisa and Y.M. Abdalatif 21

4. Suggestions for Genetic Improvement of Camels in Sudan I.A. Ishag, M.O. Eisa and M-K. A. Ahmed 23

5. The Role of Embryo Transfer in Accelerating Genetic Improvement in

Lactating Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) P. Nagy and J. Juhasz 26

6. Status of Cloning by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) in Camels N.A. Wani 28

7. Result and Shortcoming of Camel DNA Paternity Testing A. Al-Jaru, S. Saleem, N. Karruvantevida, H. Maliakkal, F. Ali, R. Manoly, A. Ul Haq

and K. Khazanehdari 30

8. From the Bush to the Genome: Genetic Identification of the Last Wild Old World

Camel Species Camelus Ferus

P.A. Burger, P. Charruau, D. Enkhbileg, Y. Adiya, L. Yuan, H. Jianlin, M. Banabazi,

and C. Walzer

32

9. Body Measurements of Saudi Arabia Camel Breed (Camelus dromedarius)

H.R. Abdallah and B. Faye. 34

10. A Comparative Study on Camel Breeds For Growth and Digestibility

S. Basmaeil, A.M. El-Waziry and A.N. Al-Owaimer 36

11. Evaluation of 39 Camelid Microsatellite Markers in Various Breeds of the

Dromedary Camel

H. Khoory, S.Saleem, G.K. Tay and K. Khazanehdari 38

12. Genetic Diversity and Relationships of Indigenous Saudi Arabia Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) Populations F.S. Almathen, J. Mwacharo and O. Hanotte 40

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Physiology, Biochemistry, Pharmacology and Immunology

13. Major Proteins and Enzyme Gelatinoletic Activities in Camel Seminal Plasma

M. Hammadi, I. Salhi, A. Barmat and T. Khorchani 44

14. Peripheral Concentrations of Glucose, Metabolic and Steroid Hormones Relative to

Birth Date, Live Body Weight and Average Daily Gain in Prepubertal Shami

Female Dromedaries

S.A. Salhab, D.H. Keisler, M.F. Smith, M.B. Al-Daker, A. Al-Assad and A. Nooh 46

15. Serum Protein Capillary Electrophoretic Patterns in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius): Influence of Age and Sex N.M. Elkhair and H. Hartmann 49

16. A Survey on Antimicrobials Utilized in Camel Practice by Private Veterinary

Practitioners in Oman S. Mathan Kumar and E.H. Johnson 52

17. Preventive and Curative Ethnoveterinary Plant Remedies Applied by the Rendille

and Gabra Camel Keepers of Marsabit District, Northern Kenya G.W.J. Njoroge 55

18. Incidence of Mastitis in One-Humped Camels (Camelus dromedarius) Under

Pastoral Management in Semi-Arid North-Eastern Nigeria B.F. Muhammad, H.A. Alkali and D.J.U. Kalla 56

19. Pyrethroid (Lambda cyhalothrin) Poisoning in Camels

M.I. Abubakr, M.N. Nayel, A.O. Abdelrahman, S.A Abuobida, A.T. Ahmed,

and E.F. Mirghani 58

20. Search for the Best Adjuvant for Use in Dromedaries

J. Kinne, A.M. Eckersley and U. Wernery 62

21. Identification of Nanobodies for Screening Breast Cancer Patients S. Muyldermans, U. Wernery, R. Wernery, K. Khazanehdari, I. Vaneycken, N Van Gassen,

C. Vincke, C. Xavier , T. Lahoutte, V. Caveliers and N. Devoogdt 64

Medicine, Infectious Disease and Health

22. Observations on Total and TCA-Soluble Plasma Copper Levels in Omani Camels

During Winter and Summer Seasons Nur El Huda I.E.D. Osman 67

23. Challenges of Veterinary Care in a Large-Scale Dairy Farm and the Effect of Health

Status on International Trade of Camel Milk (Camelus dromedarius) J. Juhasz and P. Nagy 69

24. Breed Variation in Serum and Tissue Copper, Zinc, Manganese and Magnesium of

Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia M. Abdelrahman, R. Aljumaah and M. Ayadi 71

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25. Selenium Toxicity in the Dromedary Camels R. Seboussi, B. Faye and G. Alhadrami 73

26. Sero-Epidemiology and Mapping of Johne's Disease (Paratuberculosis) in Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) of the Sultanate of Oman M. H. Hussain, A. Al-Rawahi, M. Al-Maawali, M. Saqib, K. Al-Lamki, S. Al-Mkhaldi

and M. Somar 77

27. Sero-Epidemiology and Mapping of Brucellosis in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of

The Sultanate of Oman A. Al-Rawahi, M. Saqib, I. Robertson, M. H. Hussain, M. Al-Maawali, Q. Al-Rawahi

and M. Somar 79

28. Wasm - An Ethnoveterinary Practice for Treatment of Camels in Oman S. Mathan Kumar, E.H. Johnson and M.H. Tageldin 81

29. Occurrence of Cystic Hydatidosis in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Dhofar,

South Region of Oman Fadya Al-Kitani, Sabra Al-Yahyai, M.H. Hussain, M.K. Mansoor, M. Saqib, F.F. Salem,

A. Al-Rawahi and Q. Al-Rawahi 84

30. Sero-prevalence of Cystic Echinococcosis in Camels (Camelus dromedarious) in the

Sultanate of Oman: A Preliminary Investigation Fadya Al-Kitani, M.K. Mansoor, M.H. Hussain, F.F. Salem and A. Al-Rawahi 87

31. The First Cases of Lancet Fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) Infections in Alpacas in

Sweden K. de Verdier, B. Sandros and S. Bornstein 89

32. Emerging Infectious Diseases in Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius) J. Kinne and U. Wernery 91

33. Molecular Diagnosis of Camel Diseases F. Hakimuddin, F. Abidi, F. Abdushakur, O. Jaffer, U. Wernery and K. Khazanehdari 93

34. Muscular Sarcosporidiosis of Dromadary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in

Mauritania and Chad Y. Kane, P. Vounba, M.Y. Diop, O.B. Gbati, M.C. Kadja, Y. Barry, M.L. Dia

and Y. Kaboret 95

35. Subclinical Goiter in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Dhofar Region of Oman M.H. Tageldin, H. Abu Damer, M.A. Adam and O.N. Ishmael 98

36. Mycoplasmosis - A New Disease in Camelids U. Wernery and J. Kinne 100

37. Ticks of Camels in Oman S. A. Al-Riyami, P.A. Bobade, R.M. Al-Busaidi, A. Latif and H. Heyne 102

38. Bacterial Camel Mastitis in the Kingdom of Bahrain M.I. Abubakr, A.O. Abdelrahman and E.F. Mirghani 105

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Reproduction

39. Incidence of Early Pregnancy Loss in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) N. Pratap, B.M. Manjunatha and S. Al Bulushi 109

40. Characteristics of Ovarian Follicular Dynamic in Dromedary Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) During Breeding and Non-Breeding Season B.M. Manjunatha, N.Pratap and B.E. Hago 111

41. Evaluation of an Extraction Method for Progesterone Determination in Dromedary

Feces by Radioimmunoassay S. BenBelgacem, M. Hammadi, M. Atigui and T. Khorchani 113

42. Fetal Age Estimation in Dromedary Camels using Developmental Horizons M.L. Sonfada, H.D. Kwari, A.A. Umar, S.A Shehu, I.M. Wiam, S.A. Hena, A. Danmaigoro

and B.I. Onyeanusi 115

43. Polymelia in a Third Trimester Camel Fetus: A Case Report M.L. Sonfada, S.A. Shehu, A.A. Umar, A. Bello, F.O. Oyelowo, J.E. Onu

and A. Danmaigoro 118

44. Some Observations on Breeding and Reproductive Behavior of Camelus

Dromedarius A. Iqbal, M.Younas and B.B. Khan 121

45. Effect of a Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and GnRH

Administration on Ovarian Follicular Dynamics of Female Dromedary Camel

During Seasonal Anestrus Period D. Monaco, G.M. Lacalandra, E.E. El-Hassanein, S. Rateb, O. Salama

and K.A. El-Bahrawy 123

46. Effect of Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and PMSG on Ovarian

Activity of Primiparous and Pluriparous Dromedary Camel During Seasonal

Anestrus Period D. Monaco, G.M. Lacalandra, E.E. El-Hassanein, S. Rateb, O. Salama

and K.A. El-Bahrawy 125

47. Studies on Common Reproductive Disorders in Dromedary Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) in United Arab Emirates (UAE) Under Field Conditions A. Al-Juboori and M. M. Baker 127

48. Reproductive Performance Improvement of Maghreby Negga by Zootechnic

Practices K. Mounir and J. Borni 129

49. Effect of Female Camel Urine on Different Teseosterone Levels in Adult Male Rats M.E.S. Khogali, M.A.D. Abdalla and M.N. Elbagir 131

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Anatomy and Surgery

50. The Cerebral Ventricular System of the Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius):

Anatomical Aspect and CSF Sampling Techniques M.R. Achaaban, I. Kerbal, M. Baiss, H. Bouaouda, M. Ouassat; N. Tligui, M. Oukessou

and K. El Allali 134

51. A Study on the Radiological Anatomy of the Foot of Camels by Digital Radiography

and Computed Tomography M. Gahlot and T.K.Gahlot 136

52. Surgeries of Head and Neck Region of Camels T.K.Gahlot 138

53. General Anaesthesia in Camelids: An Overview T.K.Gahlot and A.Meena 140

54. Radiographic and Utlrasonographic Appearance of Mature Dromedary Camel

Tarsus (One Humped Camel) U. Hagag, R. Omar, A. Al Mubarak, A. El Nahas, W. Brehm and K. Gerlach 143

55. The Microanatomy of the Cerebellum Cortex of the One Humped Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) F.Z. Djazouli Alim, M.H. Benaissa, N. Lebaili and N. Mahy 145

56. Congenital Anomaly of the Coronary Arteries in the Camel Heart (Camelus

dromedarius) Marwa, A.M.Babiker and A.A.M.Taha 147

57. Computed Tomography and Cross Sectional Anatomy of the Metacarpus and Digits

of the One-Humped Camel and Egyptian Water Buffalo A. El-Shafey and A. Sayed-Ahmed 150

58. Histological and Hormonal Studies of the Goiter in the Dromedary (Camelus

dromedarius) A. Rejeb, A. Amara, M. Rekik and H. Rezeigui 152

59. Surface Morphology Investigation of Tunisian Dromedary Hair T. Harizi, S. Dhouib, S. Msahli, M. Moslah, M. Hammadi, F. Sakli and T. Khorchani 153

Pastoral Systems

60. Camel Production Systems in Egypt and their Role in Rural Livelihoods A. Aboul-Naga, E. Abdel-Aal, M. Madboly, M. Osman, F. Abo-Amo and B. Rischkowsky 156

61. Farmers' Attitude Towards Interventions Regarding Camel Calf Health Care and

Management Practices Under Pastoralists Conditions S. Ahmad, M. Yaqoob and A. Iqbal 158

62. Description of Two Complex Traditional Fostering Husbandry Techniques used by

Camel Pastoralists in the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula M. Dioli 160

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63. Husbandry Practices of Camel Herders in the Region of El-Oued (Southern-East of

Algeria) M.H. Benaissa, R. Mayouf , B. Hamad, M. Saidi, A. Mehdaoui and M. Belhamra 163

64. First Results of Using Electronic Boluses for Dromedary Identification O.H. Salama, G. Caja, H. El-Sayed, M.H. El-Shafei, A.A.K. Salama and M.Ayadi 165

65. The Semi Intensive Camel Farming a Newly Adopted System in Sudan: Description

and Role in Food Security for Herders' Communities E.S. Shuiep, El Zubeir and E.M. Ibtisam 167

66. Impact of Farming System on Calving Interval of Sudanese Camels S.A. Bakheit, A.M. Faye, C. Majid, A.M. Abu-Nikheila and M. Afaf Eisa 170

67. Camel Terminology of the Omani Bedouins D. Eades and Janet Watson 172

68. Reproduction and Breeding of Dromedary Camels: Insights from Pastoralists in

Some Selected Villages of the Nigeria-Niger Corridor A.M Abdussamad, M.S. Suleiman, M.B. Bello, W. Holtz and M. Gauly 174

69. Pilot Introduction of Camel Draught Power into Mixed Farming Systems of Eastern

Kenya F.J. Musembi, J.N. Kihumba,

M.Younan, Tura Isako,

J.M. Miriti

and

Janet Kithome 177

70. Constraints of the Saharan Rangeland on Camels S. Abdelhakim and B. Youcef 180

71. Sociocultural Importance of Camels Among the Pastoralists of Northern Kenya D.D. Wako, M. Younan, M.P.O. Baumann, I.V. Glücks and T.S. Tessema 182

72. The Economic Potential of the Dromedary Camel Meat M.D. Mbaga 185

Meat and Products

73. Analysis of Camel Hides Production, Marketing and Utilisation by Local Leather

Goods Manufactures in Kenya A. Kagunyu and Lengarite Matiri 189

74. Quality Characteristics of Infraspinatus, Triceps Brachii, Longisimus Thoraces,

Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus Muscles of Dromedary

(Camelus dromedarius) Camel I.T. Kadim, A. Al-Karousi, O. Mahgoub, R. Al-Maqbali and S.K. Khalaf 191

75. Comparative Chemical Composition and Quality Attributes of Camel Meat and

Beef H.K.Mohamed and Y.I. Manal 193

76. Some Aspects of the Nutritive Value of the Dromedary Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) Meat O.M.A. Abdelhadi, S.A. Babiker, J. F. Hocquette and B. Faye 196

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77. Levels of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 in Meat of Moroccan One-Humped Dromedary

Camels (Camelus dromedarius) M. El Khasmi, R. Bergaâ, F. Riad, A. Safwate, E.H Tahri, M. Farh, N. El Abbadi,

R. Abouhafs and B. Faye 198

78. Nutritional Value and Organoleptic Qualities of Camel Meat Marketed by Butchers

in Tunisia K. Mounir, T. Lasaad, B.R. Mustapha, A. Zeineb, J. Borni and B. Ridha 200

79. Distribution and Measurements of Bone in the Omani Camel Carcass O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim, W. Al-Marzooqi, S.M. Al-Lawatia and A.S. Al-Abri 202

80. A Review on Camel Meat as a Valuable Source of Nutrition A. M. Ahhmed and H. Yetim 204

81. Machine Separation of Guard Hair from Fine Fibre of Camel Fleece M. Moslah, M. Hammadi, T. Harizi and T. Khorchani 206

82. Characteristics of the One Humped Camel Leather M. Salehi, H.R. Ansari Renani, J. Mirabdolbaghi, A. Babak and S. Shahkarami 208

83. Evaluation of Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Crossbred (Dromedarius

and Bactrianus) Camel Meat in Different Parts of the Carcass Z. Ebadi, H.R. Ansari Renani, M. Salehi and A. Kamalzare 210

84. Effect of Age on Fiber Characteristics of Semnan Dromedary Female Camels H. R. Ansari-Renani, S. Moradi, H. R. Baghershah and M. Salehi 212

Milk and Nutrition

85. Impact of Long-Term Feeding Atriplex (Saltbush) on Camel's Milk Production

Under Arid Conditions Safinaz M. Shawket and A.H. Ibrahem 215

86. Camel Gruyere Cheese Making G. Konuspayeva, B. Faye, A. Baubekova and G.Loiseau 218

87. The Effect of Parity Number on Some Mineral Level Rations in Camel's Milk.

A Case Study: North Kordofan State, Sudan A.A.H.M. Elnour and S.A. Bakheit 220

88. Comparison of the Composition of Milk from Humans, Camels and Cows with

Commercial Infant Formulas E.H. Halima, G. Lamia, S. Imed, J. Zeineb and K. Touhami 222

89. Medicinal Properties in Camel Milk for Treatment of 'Epidemic' Diseases R. Wernery and R. Yagil 225

90. Isolation and Characterization of Camel Milk Protein Hydrolysate with Ace

(Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme) Inhibitory Activity L.C. Laleye, H. Habib, H. Kamal and A. Wasesa 228

91. Chemical Properties and Acceptability of Yoghurt Made from Camel-Sheep Milk I.E.M. El Zubeir, R.M.E Babekir and E.S. Shuiep 230

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92. Effect of Pasteurization on the Keeping Quality of Camel Milk I.M.A. Mohamed and I.E.M. El Zubeir 232

93. Thermographic Study of the Dairy Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Mammary Gland

Before and After Machine Milking M. Ayadi, E. M. Samara, A. Al-Haidary, R.S. Aljumaah, M.A. Alshaikh

and G. Caja 234

94. Thermal Characteristics of Different Components of Camel Milk H. Al-Hamani, M.S. Rahman, A. Al-Alawi and I. Al-Marhubi 236

95. Synergic Effect of Nutrition on Work Performance of Indian Camels J.L. Chaudhary 228

96. Diversity of The Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Foregut's Bacteria A. A. Samsudin, A.D.G. Wright and R. Al Jassim 240

97. Fibrolytic Bacteria in the Foregut of the Feral Arabian Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) A. A. Samsudin, A.D.G. Wright and R. Al Jassim 242

98. Organic Matter Digestibility and Gas Production Characteristics of Some Camel

Feeds in Butana Area-Sudan M.H.M. Elbashir, B. Alwasila and A.A. Mohammed 244

99. Effect of Replacing Organic with Inorganic Ingredients on the Efficacy of Mineral

Supplements for Camels in the Arid Northern Kenya S.G. Kuria, H.K. Walaga and I.A. Tura 247

100. Feed Intake, Digestability and Milk Production in Mid Lactation of Tunisian

Maghrebi Camels Fed Alfalfa-Based Diet M. Hammadi, A. Barmat and T. Khorchani 251

101. Nutrient Utilization and Performance of Pregnant Camels Kept on Different Levels

of Energy S. M. Shawket, M. K. Mohsen, E.S.M. Abdel-Raouf and A.M. Rabee 253

102. Feeding Preferences of One-Humped Camels (Camelus dromedarious) on a Semi-

Arid Thornbush Savannah in East Africa. Adaptive Advantages in View of

Increasing Aridity of the Environment H.J. Schwartz, W. Schultka and I. Learamo 255

POSTERS

Genetics and Biotechnology

1. Phenotypic Characteristics of Two Sudanese Camel Ecotypes (Camelus

dromedarius) Raised in Butana Area M.H.M. Elbashir, B.E. Abdel-Aziz and I.A. Ishag 259

2. Factors Affecting the Performance of Racing Camels in the United Arab Emirates

S.A. Al-Shorepy and A.M. Yousef 261

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3. Genetic Characterization of Local and Crossbred Racing Camels in the United Arab

Emirates A.M. Yousif, M.A. Aly and S.A. Al-Shorepy 263

Physiology, Biochemistry, Pharmacology and Immunology

4. Antimicrobial Activity of Camel’s Colostrum Against Listeria Innocua J. Zeineb, El Hatmi Halima, Arroum Samira, A. Isabelle, O. Nadia, D. Pascal

and K. Touhami 266

5. Production and Application of Camelid Antibodies S. Joseph, P. Varghese, R. Wernery, N. Georgy, R. Herwig, R.A. Harrison and U. Wernery 268

6. Humoral Immune Response in the Dromedary: Kinetic of the Production of

Immunoglobulins and their Physicochemical Characteristics I. Salhi, S. Bessalah, T. Khorchani and M. Hammadi 270

7. Trypaonocidal Effect of Cannabis Sativa on Experimental Camel Trypanosomiasis S.H. Abdelrahman, M.M. Israa, M.E.K Salwa

and A.A. Ismail 273

8. Assessment of Changes in Body Surface Temperature Associated with Ambient

Temperature using Infrared Thermography in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) K.A. Abdoun, E.M. Samara, A.B. Okab and A.I. Alhaidary 275

9. Pharmacopathological Effect of Cymelarsan and Oxytetracycline Interaction in

Camels Infected Naturally with Trypanaosoma Evansi F. M. Youssif, K. H. Elmalik and T. Hassan 277

10. Relationship Between Copper and Ceruloplasmine in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) H. Elrayah 279

11. Effect of Sex Factor on Macrominerals Profile in Vital Organs of Dromedary

Camels in Western Darfur, Sudan

A.B. Mustafa, E. Haroun, A.A. Khadiga and S.H.M. Alsharif 280

12. Use of Exogenous Creatinine to Evaluate Kidney Function in Hydration and

Dehydration Conditions of Camels A. Kamili, M. Bengoumi, M. Oukessou, B. Faye and H. Lefebvre 282

13. Comparative Assessment of Some Trace Minerals Level in Camel Tissues From

West Darfur State, Sudan E.Haroun, A.B.Mustafa and A.A Khadiga 285

14. Erythrocyte Osmotic Fragility Curve of Male and Female Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) Alia S.A. Amin, K.A. Abdoun and A.M. Abdelatif 288

15. Effect of Disease and Physiological Conditions on Drug Pharmacokinetcs in Animals A. Mahrous 290

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16. Serum Protein Electrophoresis of Dromedary Camels in Tunisia: Early Tool for

Prediction and Diagnosis in Trypanaosoma evansi Infections

R.B. El Andalousi 291

17. Mycobacterium Avian Subsp. Paratuberclosis in Camels: An Epidemiological Study

S.E.A. Abdel Rahim and M.Y. Al Saiady 294

18. Purification, Physico-Chemical and Bio-Chemical Characterization of the Major

Camel Immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM and IgA) M.M. Musa and I.E. Hajar 296

Medicine, Infectious Disease and Health

19. A Note on Rabies in a Camel

D.V. Joshi, B.J. Patel, R. Singh, R. Mahesh, S.S.Galakatu and J.K.Balani 298

20. A Deadly Respiratory Camel Disease A. Raziq, A. Khudaidad and M. Hamza 299

21. Composition and Anti-Hypoglycemic Effect of Camel Milk A. El Imam Abdalla 300

22. Health Considerations in Intensive Camel Dairy Farming Units: The Case of

Southern Tunisia M.M. Seddik and T. Khorchani 302

23. Molecular Characterization of Pseudocowpoxvirus (PCPV) Isolates From Indian

Dromedarian Camels G. Nagarajan, S.K. Swami, S.S. Dahiya, G.Sivakumar, F.C.Tuteja and N.V. Patil 305

24. Study on the Incidence of Blood Parasites in Camels of Sistan and Bluchestan

Province (South-East Iran) S. Ranjbar-Bahadori and A. Afshari-Moghadam 308

25. Investigation of Occurrence and Persistence of Brucellosis in Chronically Infected

Dromedary Dams (Camelus dromedarius) and their Calves M.D. von Hieber and U. Wernery 310

26. Relevant Dromedary Parasites in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) R.K. Schuster and J. Kinne 312

27. Diagnosis of Brucellosis in Camels N.A. Ivanov, A.N. Kozhaev and F.A. Bakiyev 314

28. The effectiveness of the Allergic Complex in the Diagnosis of Brucellosis in Camels N.A. Ivanov and A.N. Kozhaev 316

29. Experiences from a National Health Care Program in Swedish Camelids K. de Verdier, Karin Lindqvist Frisk and Andrea Holmström 317

30. A Study of Dental Abnormalities of Camels in Nigeria A. Yahaya, O. Akinlosotu, J.O. Olopade and H.D. Kwari 318

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31. Most Common Medical Conditions of Camels in Oman Observed by Veterinatians

in Private Practice: A Practitioner Survey S. Mathan Kumar, E.H.Johnson and M.H. Tageldin 319

32. An Outbreak of Severe Dermatophylosis in Young Omani Camels O. Mahgoub, M.H. Tageldin, A. Nageeb, S.A. Al-Lawatia, M.H. Al-Busaidi,

A.S. Al-Abri and E.H. Johnson 321

33. Use of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for Identifying Sensitive and Resistant

Isolates of Trypanosoma evansi from Selected Sites of Sudan A.E. Abdel Gadir, K.M. Saeed, K.H. Elmalik and I. Aradaib 323

34. Studies on Pathological Changes of Contagious Skin Necrosis (CSN) in Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) in Hail Region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia A.O. Bakhiet, A.G. AlKanzee, A.B.Hassan, S.O.Yagoub and G.E. Mohammed 325

Reproduction

35. The Appropriate Time Required for New-Born Calf Camel to get Optimal Amount

of Colostrum Immunoglobulin (IgG) with Relation to the Levels of Cortisol and

Thyroxin. A.M. Besher and A.B. Magdub 328

36. A Preliminary Study on the Effect of Follicle Numbers Recruited into a Follicular

Wave on Superovulatory Response in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) B.M. Manjunatha, N. Pratap and S. AL-Bulushi 330

37. Motion Characteristics of Inra 96 Diluted Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Semen Stored at 4O

C N. Pratap, B.M. Manjunatha and S. Al-Bulushi 332

Anatomy and Surgery

38. Histological and Histochemical Study of Skin in Camel (Camelus dromedarius) A.A. Sawad and H.M. Ali 335

39. Rectal and Reproductive Tract-Associated Lymphoid Tissue in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) M.S. Abubakar, B.K. Tanimomo , M. Zamri-Saad and M.Y. Fatihu 337

40. Anatomical Characterics of the Kidney in the one Humped Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) in Sudan I.M.M. Dowelmadina 340

Pastoral Systems

41. The Role of the Camel in the Preservation of the Flora Covered Rangeland

H. Trabelsi, A. Chehma, A. Senoussi and B. Faye 344

42. A Photo-Essay on Dromedary Camels in Sudan M.Z. Musa1, M.O. Eisa and A. Majed 346

12


43. Camel Welfare: A New Challenge O. Souilem and K. Barhoumi 349

44. Dromedary Camels in Mauritania D.M. Lamine 351

45. Kohi Camel: A Viable Working Animal In Mountainous Ecosystem of Balochistan A. Raziq, Khudaidad and Zia ur Rehman 354

46. Advocacy for Camel Research and Development in Kenya K.J. Ngeiywa 355

47. Effect of Management System on Camels’ (Camelus dromedarious) Blood

Composition S.A. Bakheit, B. Faye, A.M.M. Abu-Nikheila, A.M.A Majid and A.M.A. Eisa 356

48. Characterization of Indigenous Tunisian Camel (Camelus dromedarious)

Populations: Implications for their Conservation M.O. Ahmed, F.B. Salem, S. Bedhiaf, B. Rekik and D. M‘Naouer 357

49. A Joint Project on Contemporary and Future Camel Production - For a Global

Review A. Raziq, K. de Verdier and A. Saeed 358

50. Unexpected Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Northern Mauritania Affects Camels,

Small Ruminants and Humans B.O. Elmamy 359

51. Theories of the Dromedary Camel Entry into Africa Based on the Archeological

Evidence, A New Concept A.S. Saber 360

52. Camel Management and Utilization Pattern in Changing Socio-Economic Scenario

of Arid Region of India C. Bhakat and N.V. Patil 362

53. An Epidemiological Study of Internal Parasites and Trypanosomiasis in Camels in

Gedarif and Kasala States of Eastern Sudan I.A. Goreish, A.M. Magid, A.A. Ismael and A.H.A. Rahman 365

54. Camel Production and Management in Selected Areas of the Somali Region,

Ethiopia Y. Mehari, G. Gebru, and Z. Mekuriyaw 368

55. Camel Research Status and Future Research Strategy in the Somali Regional State

of Ethiopia S. Tilahun 370

13


Meat and Products

56. Evaluation of Camel Crossbred (Dromedarius and Bactrianus) Carcass Traits Z. Ebadi, H.R. Ansari Renani, A. Kamalzare and N. Asadzadeh 373

57. Evaluation of Carcass and Hide Production from Camels M. Salehi, N. Taherpour Dari, Z. Ebadi, A. Babak and S. Shahkarami 375

58. Comparison of Carcass Yields in Two Algerian Camel Populations: The Targui and

the Sahraoui A. Adamou 377

59. pH Measurement of Six Muscles of Bactrian Camels (Camelus bactrianus) From

Kazakhstan G. Raiymbek, B. Faye, G. Konuspayeva and I.T. Kadim 379

60. Effect of Feed Intake on Composition of the Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Muscles A. H. Al-Kharusi, I.T. Kadim, O. Mahgoub and W. Al-Marzooqi 381

61. The Relevance of Camel Meat for the Human Society C.E.A. Albrecht 384

62. Effect of Storage Time on Physical and Chemical Properties of Burgers Made with

Different Amounts of Camel Meat I.A. Ghada and I.A. Nour 385

63. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy to Dose Zinc in Camel Skin in the South of

Morocco A. Kamili, B. Faye, M. Bengoumi, N.S. Tligui, Y. Mbesse and G. Taieb 386

Milk and Nutrition

64. Pregnant Female Camels Response to Energy Levels in the 9th

and 10th

Months of

Pregnancy S.M. Shawket, M.K. Mohsen, E.M. Abdel-Raouf and A.M. Rabee 389

65. Floristic Diversity of the Camel Diet in Northern Algerian Sahara A. Chehma, N. Amira, H. Trabelsi and B. Faye 391

66. Serum Mineral Content of Omani Racing Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius) Yasmin Elhag Eltahir, H. Mohammed Ali, M.H. Mansour and O. Mahgoub 393

67. Water Intake in Omani Camels Kept on Various Levels of Feed Intake O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim, W. Al-Marzouqi, S.A. Al-Lawatia and A.S. Al-Abri 395

68. Separation and Characterization of Major Milk Proteins of Algerian Dromedary

(Camelus dromedarius) S. Zennia-Si Ahmed, C. Senoussi, N. Mahboub, R. Smail, S. Boudjenah, O Siboukeur

and A. Mati 397

69. FAR-M®: New Support For Camel Cheese Production

R. Saltini 399

14


70. Detection of the Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Milk Adulteration With

Bovine Milk Using a PCR Assay M.H. Yahyaoui and T. Khorchani 400

71. Comparative Study of Milk Clotting Activity of Crude Gastric Enzymes Extracted

From Camels' Abomasa at Different Ages and Commercial Enzymes (Rennet and

Pepsin) on Bovine and Camel Milk Saliha Boudjenah-Haroun, L.C. Louis, Farida Moulti-Mati, Saliha Si Ahmed, M. Nasma

S.O. Elkhir and M. Abderrahmane 402

72. Could the Total Mixed Ration Increase the Yield of Camel Milk? A.A. Hassabo and A. Abdelgader 404

73. Composition Analysis and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Camel Colostrum and

Mature Milk M. O‘haj, A.A. Mohamedani, H.K. Obied, S. Agboola and A. Rehman 406

74. Milk Potencial of the Maghreby Negga (Camelus dromedarius) in Tunisia K. Mounir, J. Borni and Z. Kamel 407

75. The Most Important Findings in Camel Milk for its Export U. Wernery, P. Nagy and J. Juhasz 409

76. Pattern of Consumption of Camel Milk in Khartoum State, Sudan R.H. Zayed

and O.E. Yassin 411

77. In-Vivo Evaluation for Antidiabetic Activity of Kucchi Camel Milk in Wistar Rats K.N.Wadhwani, D.K. Barot, S.K. Bhavsar, S. Kumar, K.A.Vihol and Y.D. Padheriya 412

78. Technology for Obtaining Probiotic Products From Camel Milk A.D. Serikbayeva, S.N. Sarimbekova, G.S. Konuspayeva, M.H. Narmuratova and

A.A. Meldebekova 414

79. Utilization of Kachchhi Camel Milk For Manufacturing Medium Fat Ice Cream P. Prajapati, S.V. Pinto, K.N.Wadhwani and A.B.Patel 416

80. Fatty Acid Profile of Sudanese Fermented Camel's (Camelus dromedarius) Milk

Gariss A. I. Ahmed, B. E. Mohamed, N.M. Elkhatim, B, Faye, G. Loiseau and D. Montet 419

81. Protection Against Lead Contamination by Strains of Lactic Acid Bacteria From

Fermented Camel Milk S. Akhmetsadykova, G. Konuspayeva, G. Loiseau, A. Baubekova, S. Kanayat,

N. Akhmetsadykov and B.Faye 420

82. Milk Components Relationship and Energy Corrected Milk Standardization for

Dairy Camels R.S. Aljumaah, M. Ayadi, M.A. Alshaikh, R.Casals

and G. Caja 423

83. Place Bacteriocins (Nissin Type), In The System Self-Purification of Camel Milk A. Siboukeur and O. Siboukeur 425

15


84. Milk Fat Content of Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) in Dairy Camels Fed Different

Levels of Sunflower Oil S.N. Al-Dobaib and H. Kamel 427

85. Antiulcerogenic Effect of Camel Milk Against Ethanol and Aspirin–Induced Gastric

Ulcers in Rats N. A. Al Wabel, A.H. Atta, H.I. Abass and H.M. Mousa 428

86. Effects of Season on Haematological Parameters in Omani Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) R.H Al-Nasri, O.A. Al-Rasheid and A. Rivzi 430

THE AUTHORS INDEX 432

16


Genetics

and

Biotechnology

17


1. Molecular Characterization of Kachchhi Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Using

Microsatellite Markers

R. C. Parikh

1, N. A. Patel

1, Y. D. Padheriya

2, K. N. Wadhwani

2* and D. N. Rank

1

1Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding,

2Department of Livestock Production, and

Management, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbundary,

Anand Agricultural University, Anand - 388 001, Gujarat, India.

Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Camel genetic resources of India consist mainly of single humped (Camelus dromedarius)

and a few double humped camels (Camelus bactrianus). There are eight recognized camel breeds in

India viz., Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Marwari, Mewari, Jalori, Mewati, Kachchhi and Malvi

(www.nbagr.res.in/regcamel.html). The Kachchhi breed is a good milk yielder and is probably the

only Indian breed adapted to marshy land. Distribution of Kachchhi camels is restricted to Gujarat

state; their habitat encompasses Kachchh and Banaskantha districts. The 2007 Livestock Census of

the Government of India shows drastic decline in the camel population, in the last decade were 29,920

Kachchhi camels. However, some recent survey by a local agency reports only 13,483 Kachchhi

camels in the Kachchh district (Das et al., 2011). The rapid decline in the Kachchhi camel population

warrants conservation. Characterization of breeds is the first step in the conservation programme. The

microsatellite markers are considered as the most powerful genetic markers for characterization of

plant and animal genetic resources (Goldstein and Pollock, 1997). The present study planned to

investigate the genetic variation in the Kachchhi breed of camel using sixteen microsatellite markers.

Materials and Methods

A total of 74 blood samples were randomly collected from non-related animals belonging

different areas of Kachchh district of Gujarat state aseptically into vacutainers coated with EDTA (0.5

mM, pH 8.0). A total of 16 microsatellite markers - VOPL03, YWLL40, LCA66, LCA63, YWLL44,

VOPL08, VOPL32, YWLL59, YWLL38, VOLP67, LCA59, LCA56, YWLL29, YWLL08, YWLL36

and VOPL10 were used to assess the genetic variation in the Kachchhi breed. Genomic DNA was

isolated from blood samples using standard phenol: chloroform extraction method (John et al., 1990).

These 16 microsatellite marker loci were amplified in five multiplex PCR panels. The amplified

products were sized by fragment analysis on ABI automated DNA sequencer using GSLiz500 as size

standard.

Results and Discussion

Out of the 16 microsatellite markers, 14 loci were found to be polymorphic whereas two loci

YWLL40 & YWLL08 were monomorphic with a size of 172bp and 155 bp respectively. The number

of alleles in the polymorphic markers ranged from 2 (VOPL32, YWLL59, LCA56 and YWLL29) to 7

(VOPL10). A total of 51 alleles were observed at 16 microsatellite loci. The observed and expected

mean number of alleles (MNA) were 3.18 and 2.06 respectively. Comparable estimates are observed

in other dromedary camel breeds e.g. 2-5 alleles in Jaisalmeri Indian camel (Gautam et al., 2004), 2-7

alleles in Bikaneri Indian camel (Mehta et al., 2007), 4-6 alleles in Baladi, Somali, Sudani, Maghrabi

and Mowallad camels (Karima et al., 2011).

As a measure of deviation from HW equilibrium, the Chi-square and likelihood ratio test

showed a total of six loci with P-value indicating deviation from HW expectations. The FIS values for

these marker loci were positive except for LCA59 (-0.0163). The mean FIS value of 0.1354 indicates

sizable level of inbreeding in this breed. Although the range is wide, the mean observed and expected

heterozygosity were 0.364 and 0.421 respectively. The values of PIC are lower than heterozygosity

for the corresponding marker. The PIC values ranged from 0.206 to 0.711 with PIC more than 0.50 at

only four loci. The low MNA and narrow allele size range observed in the present investigation could

be due to use of less polymorphic markers and probably does not indicate lower genetic variability of

this breed. Higher genetic variability was observed for this and other Indian camel breeds when other

sets of microsatellites were used (Vijh et al., 2007; Mehta S. C. personal communication).

Since the population of Kachchhi camel breed has been reduced drastically, genetic effects of

reduction in population size require evaluation. The BOTTLENECK program was used to test for

18


genetic bottleneck in the recent breeding history of this breed (Cornuet and Luikart, 1996). Under the

assumption of the stepwise mutation model (SMM), the most suitable model for microsatellite

evolution, neither the sign and standardized differences tests nor the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

revealed any significant result (p> 0.05). These findings indicated the absence of genetic bottleneck in

the investigated population, and the population can be considered in mutation drift equilibrium.

However, thetypical L-like distribution of the allele frequencies was not observed.

The present study contributes to the knowledge on population structure and assessment of

existing genetic diversity in the Kachchhi camel population. Further genetic analysis of other Indian

camel and their comparisons need to be carried out to determine the phylogenic evolutionary

relationships and genetic distances among the indigenous camel breeds.

References

Cornuet, J. M. and Luikart, G. (1996). Descripion and power analysis of two tests for detecting recent

population bottleneck from allele frequencies data. Genetics. 144 : 2001-2014.

Das, sabyasachi, Mehta, Umesh and Patel, Jatin (2011). Kachchhi and Khariya camel : present status,

challenges and future prospects. Pp. 17 – 23. Proceedings of the Swarnim Gujarat Camel

Seminar on Technology Interventions to Enhance Camel Productivity organized by Anand

Agricultural University at Bhuj on 13th March, 2011, Gujarat, India.

Gautam, L., Mehta, S. C., Gahlot, R. S. and Gautam, K. (2004). Genetic characterisation of Jaisalmeri

camel using microsateIlite markers. Indian Journal of Biotechnology 4 : 457-59.

Goldstein, D. B. and Pollock, D. D. (1997). Launching microsatellite : A review of mutation

processes and method of phylogenetic inferences. Journal of Heredity. 88 : 335-42.

htpp// www.nbagr.res.in/regcamel.html

Jianlin, H., Mburu, D., Oching, J., Kaufmann, B., Rega, J. E. O and Hanotte O (2000). Application of

New World Camelidae microsatellite primers for amplification of polymorphic loci in Old

World Camelids. Anim Genet. 31 : 404-419.

John, S. W. M., Weitzner, G., Rozen, R. and Scriver, C. R. (1990). A rapid procedure for extracting

genomic DNA from leukocytes. Nucleic Acids Research. 19(2) : 408.

Karima, F. M., Hassan A. I. R., Sekena H. A., Mohamed A. E. M., and Dalia M. H. (2011). Genetic

variations between camel breeds using microsatellite markers and RAPD techniques. J. Appl.

Biosci. 39 : 2626 – 2634.

Livestock census (Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India), 2007.

Mehta, S. C., Goyal, A. and Sahani, M. S. (2007). Genetic differentiation of Indian camel breeds

using random oligonucleotide primers. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 6 : 336 -339.

Vijh, R. K., Tantia, M. S., Mishra, B. and Bharani, S. T. (2007). Genetic diversity and differentiation

of dromedarian camel of India. Animal Biotechnology. 18(2) : 81 – 90.

19


2. Animal Genetic Resource Management by Camel Breeders in Ansongo Region, Mali

B. Traore

1,2, B. Ouologuem

1, P. Leroy

2 and N. Antoine-Moussiaux

2,*

1Agricultural Economics Institute of Sotuba, Bamako, Mali

2Tropical Veterinary Institute, University of Liege, Belgium

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Introduction

Several more or less recent evolutions threaten the pastoral livelihoods and the genetic

diversity that they fostered and that supported them for centuries. In particular, the status of camel

genetic resources is poorly understood, as well as the ongoing transformation of the livelihood

systems that cradled them. In Mali, most the studies about camel breeding date back to the 1980‘s.

Since 2000, the negotiated peace between government and the Tuareg rebellion gave rise to a renewed

national interest in camel breeding. This survey aimed at identifying the camel herders strategies and

constraints before further productivity assessment and genetic improvement studies. Aspects of

mobility and genetic resource management are emphasized in the present paper.

Material and Methods

A survey was conducted from November 2010 to January 2011 among 100 camel herders in

the Ansongo region, Mali, and covered 4 districts, differing by their distance to the Niger river and

their ecological conditions. With an area of 23‘614 km2, 132‘205 inhabitants and an arid to semi-arid

climate, the Ansongo region officially harbors 28‘380 camel heads. The districts of Talataye and Tin

Hama are respectively located 180 and 60 km from the river (north-east); they are part of the so-called

Hausa zone. The two other districts, Ouatagouna and Tessit, are part of the so-called Gurma zone;

these are closer to the river and more humid areas. The questions addressed the major characteristics

of the household, herd structure, breeding aims, constraints, practices and their rationale. A particular

attention was paid to their strategy regarding mobility and genetic resources management through

several open questions.


Livestock was the main activity for 95% of the surveyed households; half of them had no side

activity. Herd management practice and production performance were markedly affected by their

general remoteness. Across the whole region, over 90% of breeders had no regular access to

veterinary services. Ethno-veterinary practice was well-developed and shared although some breeders

lacked the necessary knowledge (5%). Beyond salt supplementation, which was widely used (95% of

herds), nutritional supplementation with cotton seed oilcake was practiced by 18% of breeders.

Located in Tin Hama and Talataye, the herders had benefited of their previous inclusion in an

experimental protocol and adopted supplementation on that occasion. Vaccination and deworming

were also more applied by these breeders for the same reason. As Talataye is most remote area, with

movements continuous, irregular and involved the whole family (nomadism). It was also a district in

which the use of veterinary services and nutritional supplementation was best adopted comes in

contradiction with literature (Chaibou and Faye, 2005). The explanation provided here above suggests

that awareness can partially circumvent the effects of remoteness or nomadism. The integration of

camel breeding and agriculture through agreements for crop residues grazing was seldom practiced

(13% of herds).

Besides the obvious rationale for mobility that are food and water seeking, other motivations

were mentioned as participating to traditional festivals (25%) and avoiding conflicts with peasants

(15%). Trade and social cohesion were also cited. A last common rationale for mobility was that it is

a physiological need of the camel. Movements occurred all year round and annual distances were

highly variable (10 to 500 km). The decisions regarding mobility (timing, route) were taken by the

head of household in 58% of cases and were otherwise collective, involving both men and women.

Movement concerned the whole household in Talataye while herd splitting was most commonly

practiced in other districts. Labor was hired for camel herding in 27% of households. Insecurity along

herding routes was cited as a major constraint to mobility.

Regarding genetic resources, the evolution of livestock portfolios was strongly divergent

between districts, with a substitution of cattle to camels in the less arid zone of Tessit, while camel

20


were still the first choice of breeders in Tin Hama or Talataye. The description of camel types was

different between the Hausa and Gurma zones. In the former, breeders described two main types: the

Tilabayaten type, which is high and slender with good milking ability, and the Talmorokit, told to be

smaller and best fit for transport. In the Gurma zone, numerous types were cited, most of the names

then referring to the color rather than to the complete phenotype of the camel (Emalli, white; Akawal,

black; Abzaw, dark grey; Ezagague, red; Awrague, yellowish; Azaref, brown). The multicolored

Azarghaf was also present in the Gurma. Some particular cases were the Awinague, which refers to a

white animal with vision problems, and the Adignas, meaning trust and referring to resilience. This

classification gives a wider insight in camel diversity in the region compared to the four

denominations reported by Ouloguem et al. (2004). The names Talmorokit and Tilabayaten are

common to the latter and the present studies. The Azarghaf is a well-known phenotype present in the

Sahel region, while the here-mentioned Abzaw seems close to the Abzin, studied by Chaibou and

Faye (2004) in Niger.

Breeding management mostly consisted in the choice of breeding males. Only 15% of the

breeders used males from outside, either by buying them or through agreements with other breeders.

Citation frequency of selection criteria were similar (khi-square test; p>0.5) between Hausa and

Gurma zones. The first criteria cited were beauty (27.5%) and milk (25%), followed by work ability

(19%) resilience (16%) with racing performance listed last (12.5%).

Conclusion

Mobility was substantially affected by factors such as insecurity, agricultural encroachment

and climatic evolutions. Differences in mobility strategies were accompanied with differences in

decision making in the household as well as different evolutions of livestock portfolios.Important

evolutions of pastoral systems harboring camel genetic diversity are thus at play while almost no

knowledge of this diversity is available. Part of this knowledge deficit is due to the difficulty of

gathering correct information about this diversity and its management through household surveys.

Interesting elements were collected in the present survey, as the distinct classification given by

breeders in the Hausa and the Gurma zones. Focus groups might be used as a better tool to disclose

the informational framework needed to establish the foundations of performance evaluation, diversity

monitoring and genetic improvement.

Reference

Chaibou, M., Faye, B. (2004). Milk production of Abzin camels reared by Tuaregs in Niger. In :

Proceedings of the Workshop on Camel Milk Value Chain in Africa, Ed. Lhoste, F., FAO, 17-

32, available on-line, URL : ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/aj038f/aj038f00.pdf

Chaibou, M., Faye, B. (2005). Herding strategies of camel husbandry in Agadez suburban area in

Niger : typological survey. Revue Elevage Medecine veterinaire Pays tropicaux, 58 (4), 273-

283.

Ouologuem, B., Kouryba, A., Soumare, A. (2004). Etude et dromedaries du système d‘élevage

camélin dans la dromed de Gao. Research report, Cattle Program, Agricultural Economics

Institute of Sotuba, Bamako. Mali.

21


3. Anafi, Bishari and the Cross Breed: Sudan Racing Camels, A Review

M.O. Eisa¹* and Y.M. Abdalatif²

¹Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Omdurman Islamic University

²Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Gadarif State


Introduction

The last estimation of camels population in the Sudan was about 3,908,000 heads (Ministry of

Animal Resources, 2005). Camels in the Sudan are classified as pack (heavy) and riding (light) types

according to the function they perform and probably as a result of selection applied for these traits by

the various camel-owning tribes (Gillespie, 1962). The present study is literature review on

phenotypic descriptions, owner tribes and area of Sudan racing camels.

Racing Camel Areas

Riding camels are restricted to the north-east of the country between the Nile and Red Sea.

The Anafi type is generally found in Gadaref state (eastern Sudan); Gezira and Sinnar states (Central

Sudan), while the Bishari camel is mainly found in the Eastern Sudan (Kassala and Gadaref states).

Owner Tribes The Anafi breed is usually found in small numbers and raised with other types of camels. It is

owned by Rshaida and Lahween tribes (Gadaref state), Shukria, Bataheen and Ahameda tribes (Gazira

State), Rufaa and Kenana tribes (Sinnar state), Gaaleen, Hawaweer, and Hussania (in River Nile

state). The Bishari camel is mainly found in eastern Sudan (Kassala and Gadaref states) and bred by

Bishareen, Amarar, Beni Amir and Hadendowa tribes; it is also breed with other tribes (Shukria and

Lahween) but in small numbers with other types (Sakr and Majid, 1990).

Phenotypic Descriptions

Anafi breed

Is a fast racing camel used for short distance races. It has a long head and erect ears, (Sakr and

Majid, 1990). The white color is predominant in this breed, but animals with yellowish color are also

found. The hair is short and soft and the hump is small, erect and located in the middle to the back.

The females have small size udders and teats. Is also said to be a good riding animal, although not of

outstanding quality since it is bred for speed rather than for stamina. It is less robust than the Bishari,

but fast and smooth, having no rival for distances of up to 40km (Ishag et al., 2011).

Bishari breed Is a famous for long distance racing. It has short, wide concave for head, Roman nose; short

and strong legs (Sakr and Majid, 1990). This breed is distinguished by its white or yellowish coat

color, short hair and concave face profile. The hump size is small to medium, located in the middle of

the back with erect orientation. The udder and teats of Bishari camel are also characteristically of

small size (Ishag et al., 2011 )

Bashandi or (As-hab)

Is a Cross breed, known as good racing camel. This group is believed to be a cross between

Alrabi type female with Anafi or Bishari male. It has a fine skeleton with fine legs, a medium body

size with a mean live weight of adult males is 350 kg. It is distinguished by its short hair and white

color (Sakr and Majid, 1990).

22


Table 1. Body measurements and weights of camel racing breeds in the Sudan.

Breed Barrel girth

(m)

Heart girth

(m)

Height at shoulder

(m)

Body weight

(kg)

Anafi 1.32±0.04 2.86±0.02 2.75±0.01 315.84±12.20

Bishari 1.34±0.04 2.86±0.02 2.75±0.01 316.26±12.46

Source: Ishag et al., (2011)

Table 2. Camel speed of the two breeds (Annafi and Bishari), (Darosa and Agab, 2007)

References

Darosa, A.E.M(2007), Riding and racing camel in Sudan, J.of Sci.&Tech. Vol 8 (2) :3-11.(Arabic)

Gillepsie, I. A. (1962) Riding Camels of Sudan. Sud. J. V. Sci. Anim. Hus. 3:37-4

Ishag, I.A., Eisa, M.O. and Ahmed, M.K.A. (2011) Phenotypic characteristics of Sudanese camels

(Camelus dromedarius), Livestock Research for Rural Development 23 (4) 2011.

Ministry of Animal Resources (2005) Department of Statistics and Information, Khartoum-Sudan.

Sakr, I. H. and Majid, A. M. (1990)The social economic of camel herders in eastern Sudan. The camel

applied research and development network/CARDN /ACSAD/Camel/p30/ 1-27.

Breed 3 km 6 km 8 km 10 km

Bishari 4.55 min. 9.55 min. 14.0 min. 18.30

Anafi 4.55 min. 10.30 min 13.50 min. 17.30

23


4. Suggestions for Genetic Improvement of Camels in Sudan

I.A. Ishag1, M.O. Eisa

2 and M-K.A. Ahmed

3

1Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sinnar

2Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Omdurman Islamic University

3Department of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Faculty of Animal Production,

University of Khartoum


Introduction

We will attempt to offer some suggestions for genetic improvement of Sudanese camels.

Camels of Sudan were estimated to be 4.406 millions (Ministry of Animal Resources, 2008); and

Sudan is rated the second in camel population in the world. However, till now there is no genetic

improvement policy adopted by camel owners in the Sudan. Improvement goals of camels must be

matched with production objectives of the owners, the management potentials and with the prevailing

environment. Therefore, production systems, production constraints and available infrastructure must

be seriously considered in the planning and implementation of sustainable improvement program.

Genetic improvement must be built on scientific facts and indigenous knowledge of camel owners.

Selection Objectives and Goals

Camel owners usually keep camels due to their appreciated productive potential and

adaptability. Productive traits such as growth rate, milk yield and fertility have a high priority as they

influence the sale of animals and the use of milk to satisfy family needs (Ishag and Ahmed, 2011). In

addition, adaptive traits such as disease resistance, drought tolerance in addition to the low cost of

breeding are extremely important considering the highly unfavorable production conditions in arid

and semi-arid areas (Ishag and Ahmed, 2011). Consequently, it is important to keep the adaptive

characteristics at their present level. Generally, genetic improvement goals include the improvement

of meat and milk production (dual purpose animals with high growth rate and sustainable lactation

milk yield), productive herd-life, tolerance to prevailing disease and fertility traits (age at first calving

and calving interval). The traits related to growth are relatively easy to improve through a breeding

program (mass selection) and usually have moderate to high heritability estimates (Hermas, 2009 and

Alnajjar et al., 2009). On the other hand, traits related to adaptation are difficult to measure and to

select for. In any case, it is difficult to improve upon the present adaptability of most Sudanese camel

breeds and hence the main aim will be to prevent any deterioration of adaptability traits. Production

traits should be selected in the given production environment (Franklin, 1986), thus allowing

adaptation to respond as a correlated set of traits as an option for improving both the production and

the adaptation of animals (Horst, 1983).

Young sire breeding system

A young sire breeding system could be adopted in camel production systems and is already

practiced. Breeding camels are selected from within young males based on information about

performance of dam, sire and about their own production performance and evaluation. Enhancing

these endogenous practices by introducing performance and pedigree recording and using available

information about relatives, a young breeding camel program seems to be most appropriate. The tribal

set up may be used as an advantage in to organize such a system. Since each ecotype is mainly raised

by a specific tribe, the tribal authority and tribal elders can help in the selection and rotation of sires.

A progeny testing scheme is organizationally not applicable, as it is too costly and time consuming.

Nucleus breeding schemes

Breeding programs will only be successfully implemented where accurate recording is

possible. Accurate record keeping under field conditions requires financial means, expertise and well-

developed infrastructure such as transport and communication structures. Due to lack of a recording

system and a relatively small herd size, breeding programs must be built on alternative means of

recording and on different selection methods. Open nucleus breeding schemes with controlled mating

and the formation of pedigrees are widely suggested to circumvent the high costs arising from field

performance recording and selection. The genetic progress in the nucleus as a result of recording,

24


selection and planned mating, can be disseminated to the participating herds through use of males

originating from the nucleus. In such schemes, the best males are kept for breeding in the nucleus,

while the remaining selected males are used for breeding in the commercial herds.

It will be necessary to establish four nucleus herds distributed over camels breeding regions:

two in Kordofan, Darfour (western Sudan), one in Butana plain (eastern Sudan) and one in Sinnar

state (central Sudan). These nucleus herds will contain mainly Arabi camels which are dual purpose

animals (meat and milk). The number of females in each herd should be about 400 plus 10 males with

1:40 male: female ratio. The nucleus herd should be formed by selection of superior females and

males from camel populations in the region on the basis of their performance and performance of

dams and sires. The nucleus herd could be kept permanently in station or it may be allowed seasonal

movement according to the station circumstances (availability of feeds and disease prevalence).

Traditional natural mating would be practiced in nucleus herds and participants‘ herds. Breeding

camels could be kept for a maximum of 4 years in herd to prevent inbreeding. The suggested open

nucleus scheme may consist of three levels, the first level is the nucleus herd, and the second level is

the propagation herds, while the third level is the herds of camels‘ owners that were not included in

the propagation herds. The camel owners in the second level (propagation herds) are to be selected

according to their herd size, willingness to participate and level of education. Also as far as possible

they should be able to keep records. Breeding camels and young females not needed in the nucleus

herds should be moved to propagation herds, while only superior females are to be moved from

propagation herds to the nucleus herds. Breeding males and young females not needed in propagation

herds should be transferred to herds in the third tier. Table 1 shows assumptions of reproduction and

management parameters for genetic improvement of camels.

Table1. Reproduction and management parameters for genetic improvement of camels in Sudan

Parameters Values

Sex ratio 1:1

Calving interval 2 years

Fertility rate 80%

Survival rate among calves 80%

Preselection for growth and appearance traits

for males and females

60% and 80%

Pedigree selection rate for males and females 4% and 80%

Productive life of males 4 years

Replacement rate of males and female camels 30% and 20%

The nucleus herd with the above assumptions would produce a proximately 128 male calves

and 128 female calves every year. On the basis of preselection 76 male calves and 103 female calves

will remain in the nucleus. The best 3 and 80 young male and female calves have to be selected from

among preselected calves to be used as breeding replacement in the nucleus herd. Since the size of the

nucleus herd must remain constant, male and female camels are annually screened for comparative

performance and other functional defects and replacements decided accordingly. The remaining 72

males and 22 females would be sold to the participants in propagation herds (2nd

level). The size of

propagation herds is assumed to be 4000 females and 100 males. Again preselection and selection will

be practiced within this tier. Twenty Eight young males will be selected and added to those males

coming from the nucleus herds (72) to be used as breeding males. The remaining males and females

from this tier would be sold to participants or owners in the 3rd

level.

The young sire breeding program have quick turn-over rate of male breeding camels

compared with the progeny testing breeding scheme. On the other hand, half sib breeding program is

affective as young sire program, while the high accuracy gain of this program compared to young sire

program is nullified by prolongation of the generation interval. The young sire breeding program

seems to be most adequate for camel breeding.

References

Alnajjar, K.; Al-Asaad, A.; Al-Zzawi, W. and Mohammed, U. (2009). Genetic parameters of some

productive characteristics on Shami camels in Syria.Second conference of the international

society of camelid research and development. Abstract, pp 170. Djerba, Tunisia.

25


Franklin, I. R. (1986). Breeding ruminants for tropics. In: proceedings of the third world congress on

genetics applied to livestock production, vol. 11, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA, 16-22 july 1986,

pp. 451-461.

Hermas, S. (2009). Genetic and environmental factors affecting camel heifers reproduction. Second

conference of the international society of camelid research and development. Abstract, pp

172. Djerba, Tunisia.

Horst, P. (1983). The concept of ―productive adaptability‖ of domestic animals in tropical and

subtropical regions. J. S. African Vet. Assoc. 3:159

Ishag, I. A. and Ahmed, M-K. A. (2011). Characterization of production system of Sudanese camel

breeds. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 23 (3).

Ministry of Animal Resources (2005). Department of Statistics and Information, Khartoum- Sudan.

26


5. The Role of Embryo Transfer in Accelerating Genetic Improvement in Lactating

Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

P. Nagy and J. Juhasz

Emirates Industries for Camel Milk & Products, P.O. Box 294236, Dubai, U.A.E.

Corresponding author email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Introduction

Dromedaries have not been specifically selected for high milk production. For this reason,

average daily production is similar across different geographical regions, different breeds and

management systems. However, there is significant individual variation in milk production among

dromedaries (Juhasz et al., 2009). There are several reasons behind the slow genetic improvement for

milk production. First of all, there are no reliable, long-term production reports of a large camel

population that could be the base for genetic selection. Secondly, dromedaries are known to have low

reproductive efficiency and pregnancy rates (40 %; Tibary and Anouassi, 1997). Thirdly, the calving

interval is as long as 2.5 to 3 years due to ―lactation anoestrus‖, management practice (mating after

weaning) and to the fact that camels dry off within 3 months of conception (Nagy and Juhasz, 2010).

During the last 20 years, embryo transfer has been studied and applied in racing dromedaries

(Skidmore et al, 2002).

The aims of this presentation are (1) to demonstrate the effect of early breeding on milk

production, (2) to describe the benefits of embryo transfer in a dairy operation (3) and to show the

results of our embryo transfer program using high producing and low producing dromedaries as

donors and recipients, respectively.


Eleven, multiparous camels in mid lactation were selected for the 1st study. The camels were

milked by milking machine twice a day and milk quantity was recorded. Ovarian activity was

monitored with ultrasonography (Aloka 500, 5 MHz, Japan) at regular intervals. All camels were

mated when the size of the dominant follicle reached 1.2-1.5 cm. Pregnancy was diagnosed by

ultrasonography and progesterone determination. Average milk production of 2 week periods was

compared from 2 months before until 2 months after conception. At the end of the 2 month period, 4

pregnant dromedaries were given PG F2-alpha (Cloprostenol, 500 g/animal, i.m.; Estrumate,

Schering-Plough, USA) to induce embryonic mortality. Production data of the entire lactation were

collected and compared between pregnant and non-pregnant camels. The effect of pregnancy on milk

production was tested with analysis of variance.

In the 2nd

study, 10 high producing lactating dromedaries were selected as donors at the end

of the breeding season. Follicular activity was monitored by regular ultrasonography. Donors were

given 20 g Buserelin i.v. (Receptal, Intervet, Holland). Starting on day 4 after GnRH, each donor

was treated with a combination of 2000 IU eCG im., (Folligon, Intervet, Holland) administered as a

single injection and a total dose of 700 IU/400 mg, pFSH (Folltropin, Bioniche Animal Health,

Ireland) twice daily in declining doses over a period of 4 days. Donors were mated with a fertile bull

twice 24 hours apartwhen follicles reached 10 to 15 mm in diameter and embryo recovery was carried

out on Day 7 after ovulation. Recovered blastocysts were transferred non-surgically into recipients

that had been induced to ovulate 1 day after the donors. Pregnancy was diagnosed by ultrasonography

and serum progesterone determination at 14, 21, 35, 60 days and 5 months.


In the 1st study, all camels had follicular development and were mated (20 cycles). Seven of

11 animals conceived 284 21.5 days post-partum. There was a significant effect of time (P<0.001),

pregnancy (P<0.05) and interaction (P<0.001) on average milk yield. In non-pregnant dromedaries,

milk decreased slowly over time. In pregnant camels, a slow decrease until Day 30 was followed by a

sudden drop from 8.8 0.24 to 6.3 0.16 kg/day by Day 60 of gestation. Total milk production and

length of lactation was significantly higher in non pregnant compared to pregnant camels (P<0.001).

In the 2nd

study, average total milk production per lactation and daily yield were 3345 199.7 kg and

8.1 0.4 kg per donor (mean SEM), respectively. Superovulation was successful in 9/10 camels

resulting in the development of an average of 19.6 2.8 follicles and 14.3 2.0 corpora lutea per

27


donor. A total of 56 embryos were recovered (6.2 1.5 embryos/donor) with significant variation in

recovery rate between camels (12 to 76 %). Embryos were transferred into 46 recipients (36 single

and 10 twin transfers) and pregnancy rate at 60 days was 34.8 % (16/46). Pregnancy loss between 21

to 60 days was 20 % (4/20).

We conclude that pregnancy significantly decreases milk production in dromedary camels.

For this reason, early mating of high producing camels – in order to decrease calving interval – results

in important milk loss. On the other hand, the long lactation period and late mating impede the genetic

potential of these dromedaries. Embryo transfer is an excellent solution to overcome this problem.

Multiple offsprings could be obtained from camels of high genetic potential during lactation without

any adverse effect on milk production. Hence, we conclude that embryo transfer has a great potential

and vital role in accelerating genetic improvement in lactating dromedaries.

References

Juhasz, J., Marko, O., Thomas, S., Nagy, P. (2009). Milk Production Potential, Quality of Raw Milk

and Reproductive Efficiency of Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). Proceedings of

the FAO/IAEA Symposium on Sustainable development on animal production and health. 8-

11 June, IAEA Vienna, Austria

Nagy, P, Juhasz, J. (2010). How to decrease calving interval in lactating dromedaries (Camelus

dromedarius). Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 2010.45 (Suppl. 3).100.(P152)

Skidmore, J.A., Billah, M., Allen, W.R. (2002). Investigation of factors affecting pregnancy rate after

embryo transfer in the dromedary camel. Reprod.Fertil.Dev., 14.109-116.

Tibary, A., Anouassi, A. (1997). Reproductive management of Camelidae. In: Theriogenology in

Camelidae. Pp. 459-479., Institute Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II, Rabar, Maroc

28


6. Status of Cloning by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) in Camels

N.A. Wani

Reproductive Biology Laboratory

CRC, Post Box 79914, Dubai, UAE


Cloning by SCNT has a special significance in the genetic improvement of camels and can be

used to produce elite males; racing champions; animals with the highest potential for milk production,

or the prized beauty camels. Optimization of the techniques for dromedary oocyte maturation (Wani

and Nowshari, 2005, Wani and Wernery, 2010), ultrasound guided transvaginal ovum pick-up (Wani

and Skidmore, 2010), chemical activation of mature oocytes (Wani, 2008), and in vitro embryo

culture (Wani 2008, 2009) during the past few years was the basis for our recent success in production

of world‘s first cloned camel, named Injaz, (Wani et al., 2010). Injaz, who was born on April 8th 2009,

has been produced from the embryo reconstructed with cumulus cell obtained from a slaughtered

animal. However, our second cloned camel named Bin-Soughan, who was born on Feb 23rd

2010, has

been produced from the embryo reconstructed with the skin fibroblast of an elite live bull. Live cloned

offspring‘s have resulted from SCNT with cumulus cells, granulosa cells, oviductal, uterine, and

ovarian epithelial cells, mammary gland cells, skin fibroblasts and blood cells in other animal species.

The easiest and non-invasive method of harvesting the nuclear donor cells from an elite animal,

however, remains to be either from its skin or blood. We have demonstrated that both cumulus and

skin fibroblast cells from camel can be reprogrammed in reconstructed embryos and such embryos

can not only develop in vitro but also lead to gestation and the birth of a cloned calves following

embryo transfer. This has opened doors for the amelioration and preservation of genetically valuable

animals by harvesting the donor cells from a small skin sample from such animals. We have also

demonstrated, for the first time, that adult fibroblasts (from both cumulus cells or skin cells) can be

cultured, expanded, and frozen without losing their ability to support the development of cloned

embryos, a technology that may potentially be used to modify fibroblast genome by homologous

recombination so as to generate genetically altered cloned animals. This technology can also be used

to store the cells from valuable animals for possible use in SCNT or related techniques in future.

The potential applications of somatic cell nuclear transfer in camels are currently, however,

constrained by low pregnancy rates from the transferred reconstructed embryos. Currently, the

efficiency for nuclear transfer in animals including camels is between 0–10%, i.e., 0–10 live births

after transfer of 100 cloned embryos. We have obtained better pregnancy rates from some cell lines,

however, overall it is still low when compared to other assisted reproductive techniques. Many factors

including recipient cytoplast source, their preparation, nuclear donor cell and their treatment,

influence the success of cloning process. Presently, we have very little information about the

fundamental molecular and cellular events that could be involved in reprogramming the nucleus of an

adult somatic cell after embryo reconstruction and its activation. However, tissue of origin, age of

donor, cell culture conditions and length have been shown to influence the development of

reconstructed embryos. The objectives of our research concentrated on the optimization of the nuclear

transfer procedure to make efficient use of the limited number of oocytes available in this species. We

compared the use of in vitro matured oocytes obtained from slaughterhouse ovaries and in vivo

matured oocytes obtained from stimulated donors by ultrasound guided transvaginal ovum pick-up for

their developmental potential after embryo reconstruction by SCNT. We also compared different cell

types and cell treatments in the development of reconstructed embryos in vitro, their in vivo

development after transfer into recipient surrogate mothers and live births. Studies were also

conducted on the synchronization of recipients and their management after cloned embryos were

transferred to them. This presentation will discuss the present status of cloning by somatic cell nuclear

transfer, the current challenges and the future strategies to be applied in order to enhance the use of

this technology for application in camelids.

References

Wani NA. Chemical activation of in vitro matured dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) oocytes:

Optimization of protocols. Theriogenology 2008; 69: 591-602.

29


Wani NA. In vitro embryo production in camel (Camelus dromedarius) from in vitro matured oocytes

fertilized with epididymal spermatozoa stored at 4°C. Anim Reprod Sci 2009; 111: 69–79.

Wani NA, Nowshari MA. Kinetics of nuclear maturation and effect of holding ovaries at room

temperature on in vitro maturation of camel (Camelus dromedarius) oocytes. Theriogenology

2005; 64:75-85.

Wani NA, Skidmore JA (2010). Ultrasonographic-guided retrieval of in vivo matured oocytes after

super-stimulation in dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Theriogenology 74; 436–442.

Wani, NA, Wernery U (2010). Effect of different protein supplementations and epidermal growth

factor on in vitro maturation of dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) oocytes.

Reproduction in domestic animals 45, e189–e193

Wani NA, Wernery U, Hassan FAH, Wernery R, Skidmre JA. Production of the First Cloned Camel

by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer. Biology of Reproduction 2010; 82: 373-379.

30


7. Result and Shortcoming of Camel DNA Paternity Testing

A. Al-Jaru1, S. Saleem

1, N. Karruvantevida

1, H. Maliakkal

1, F. Ali

1, R. Manoly

1,

A. Ul Haq2 and K. Khazanehdari

1

1Molecular Biology & Genetics, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Dubai, U.A.E.

2Camel Hospital, Dubai, U.A.E.


Summary

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) has played a key role in the history of man and

civilizations. Beyond providing transport, meat and milk, the camel also serves as a means of

entertainment and competition. An accurate method for paternity assessment has become of

importance in the case of highly priced animals in the racing and breeding industry. This has put a lot

of emphasis on establishing a registry for camel breeding.

Microsatellites are the markers of choice for a variety of genetic analyses including

population genetic, linkage analysis, genome mapping as well as parentage verification and individual

identification. A total of 110 published microsatellite markers from New World camelids (NWC) and

Old World camelids (OWC), eight of which have been reported for dromedary, were assessed for

their suitability for parentage verification in the dromedary camel. Efficient amplification was

observed for 50 markers, a subset of which was used to create a panel of markers that are highly

informative and undoubtedly reliable for parentage testing in camels. Implementation of this

microsatellite panel in racing industry will be discussed.

Introduction

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is one of the most economically important

domesticated species in Arabian Peninsula, North Africa and Middle East. Camels have played a vital

role influencing every aspect of daily life (Mariasegaram et al., 2002; Spencer et al., 2010). Beyond

providing transportation and food, the camel also serves now a day as a mean of entertainment and

competition. This has put a lot of emphasis on establishing an accurate method for paternity

verification especially for racing and breeding industry.

Microsatellite markers are abundant and highly polymorphic sequences that dispersed

throughout eukaryotic genome. Microsatellites are transmitted from one generation to the next

through simple and stable inheritance. Accordingly, microsatellites are the markers of choice for

parentage verification (Tozaki et al., 2001).

Many microsatellite markers have been isolated from NWCs and OWCs; however, only eight

have been reported, by CVRL, for the dromedary. A total of 110 published microsatellite markers

from NECs and OWCs, Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), llama (Lama glama), guanaco (Lama

guanicoe) and alpaca (Vicugna pacos) as well as dromedary (Camelus dromedarius), were assessed

for their suitability for parentage verification in the dromedary camel.


A total of 200 camel blood samples were collected from UAE camel farms for evaluation of

110 microsatellite markers in this study.The data were analyzed and the polymorphic information

content of efficiently amplified markers was calculated. The successfully amplified markers were

assigned to different cocktails. The information generated from analysis of these markers was then

used to create two panels for parentage verification.


Efficient amplification was observed for 50 markers of dromedary camel, three of which were

monomorphic. Allele sizes, PIC, observed (Ho) and estimated (HE) heterozygosity as well as

probability of exclusion (PE) for candidate parent from parentage were calculated for each marker.

The information generated a set of 34 microsatellite markers, two panels, which are highly

informative and undoubtedly reliable for camel parentage testing.

31


The results reveal that these markers have effectively provided robust data that can be used to

verify parentage. Since the camel genome has not been explored to a great extend, as in the case of

equine and bovine, the new panels will ensure high integrity and pedigree information for the racing

and breeding industry. So far, around 4600 samples, 100 hair and 4500 blood samples, collected from

UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait and Oman camel farms, have been genotyped using these markers.

This has contributed in formation of a database for camel parentage verification. This database is an

invaluable tool for setting up a camel registry in the region which would assist breeders to maintain

accurate pedigree records and minimize inbreeding in their herds.

References

Mariasegaram M., Pullenayegum S., Jahabar Ali M., Shah R.S., Penedo M.C.T., Wernery U. and

Sasse J. (2002). Isolation and characterization of eight microsatellite markers in Camelus

dromedarius and cross-species amplification in C. bactrianus and Lama pacos.Animal

Genetics,33, 385 – 387.

Spencer P.B.S., Wilson K.J. and Tinson A. (2010). Parentage testing of racing camels (Camelus

dromedarius) using microsatellite DNA typing. Animal Genetics, 41 (6), 662 – 665.

Tozaki T., Kakoi H., Mashima S., Hirota K., Hasegawa T., Ishida N., Miura N., Choi-Miura N. and

Tomita M. (2001). Population study and validation of paternity testing for thoroughbred

horses by 15 microsatellite loci. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 63 (11), 1191-1197.

32


8. From the Bush to the Genome: Genetic Identification of the Last Wild Old World

Camel Species Camelus Ferus

P.A. Burger1,2*

, P. Charruau1,2

, D. Enkhbileg3, Y. Adiya

4, L. Yuan

5, H. Jianlin

6,

M. Banabazi7 and C. Walzer

2

1Institute of Population Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Vetmeduni Vienna, Austria

2Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, Vetmeduni Vienna, Vienna, Austria

3Wild Camel Protection Foundation, Ulaanbataar, Mongolia

4Mammalian Ecological Laboratory, Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences,

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 5Lop Nur Wild Camel National Nature Reserve, Urumqi, P.R. China

6International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya

7Department of Biotechnology, Animal Science Research Institute of Iran, Karaj, Iran


Introduction

Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from

other such groups (Mayr, 1995). The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is one of the most widely

accepted definitions of a species. In the case of Old World camelids (Camelini), however, this concept

cannot be applied appropriately. Despite their divergence five to eight millions years ago (mya), C.

bactrianus and C. dromedarius still interbreed and generate fertile descendants over several

generations. A third species in the ―Old World‖ is concerned of this specific feature: the Wild camels

(C. ferus) are highly threatened by hybridization with their domestic relatives.

The last wild representatives of Old World camelids are critically endangered (IUCN 2010)

and exist today only in small numbers (approx. 1600) in the cold deserts of Mongolia and China. For

a long time they have been discussed very controversially to be either feral or truly wild and the

ancestors of the domestic Bactrian camels. However, the International Commission of Nomenclature

(ICN 2003) fixed the first available specific name based on a wild population ―Camelus ferus‖ for the

Wild camel discovered by Przewalski in 1878, therewith classifying it as separate species (Gentry et

al., 2004). Using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analysis we give evidence for the genetic

differentiation of Wild camels and identify them as separate species Camelus ferus.


For the genetic differentiation between wild (n=94) and domestic (n=166) Bactrian camels we

sequenced 804 bp of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and analysed 19 microsatellite loci as described

previously (Silbermayr et al., 2010a and 2010b). For the whole-genome analysis of a single Bactrian

camel (Zoo Herberstein, Austria) we used 5µg DNA for paired-end read sequencing (2x101 bp) on a

Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx. After trimming and quality check of the reads we created a de novo

assembly using CLC Genomic Workbench. In the next step, we mapped the reads with BWA against

the de novo assembled Bactrian camel genome and estimated basic population parameters like the

population mutation rate = 4Neµ and the sequencing error rate using mlRho (Haubold et al., 2010).


The analysis of mtDNA revealed a monophyletic clustering of all Wild camels and a high

genetic differentiation with the domestic Bactrian camels of 1.8%. This is comparable with previous

analysis of wild and domestic Bactrian camel mitochondrial genomes (Ji et al., 2009) and with

thedivergence seen in wild and domestic New World camelids (Silbermayr et al., 2010a). Similar high

levels of genetic differentiation between wild and domestic Bactrian camels could be observed on the

nuclear DNA level (FST = 0.34). It is important to note that we found 13 domestic/ hybrid camels

among the 94 Wild camel samples collected in the strictly protected areas of Mongolia and China.

The separation between the Wild and domestic Bactrian camel was estimated at 0.2 - 0.7 mya in the

Pleistocene (Ji et al., 2009), long before domestication took place (4,000 – 5,000 ya). Consequently,

we can exclude that the wild camel populations in Mongolia and China are the direct ancestors of

their modern domestic relatives.

mailto:[email protected]

33


Contrary to other livestock species for which the genome is already known or currently

studied (e.g. dromedary; Al-Swailem et al., 2010) nuclear genomic data from the domestic Bactrian

camel have been missing so far. Using genomic DNA of a single Bactrian camel we created a de novo

assembly obtaining 2 Gb genomic sequence corresponding to almost two thirds of the Bactrian camel

genome With an average 5.3-fold sequence coverage we

discovered 304,232 polymorphic single nucleotide

polymorphisms and obtained a likelihood estimation of the

population mutation rate of 1.29 × 10-3

with a sequencing

error rate of 6.64 × 10-4

. Compared to other domesticated

ungulates the observed nucleotide diversity in camels is

higher than in cattle, but similar to pig.

We conclude that the Wild camels are a separate

species based on monophyletic clustering and high genetic

differentiation with their domestic relatives and we exclude

them as direct ancestors of today‘s domestic Bactrian camel

populations. We note that hybridization between these two

species can be observed. Our results provide a basis for the

in-situ conservation of Wild camels and for the investigation

of selection under domestication and genome-wide association studies.

References

Al-Swailem, A.M., Shehata, M.M., Abu-Duhier, et al. (2010). Sequencing, analysis and annotation of

expressed sequence tags for Camelus dromedarius. PLoS One, 5: e10720.

Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. and Groves, C.P. (2004). The naming of wild animal species and their

domestic derivates. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31: 645-651.

Haubold, B., Pfaffelhuber, P. and Lynch, M. (2010). mlRho – a program for estimating the population

mutation and recombination rates from shotgun-sequenced diploid genomes. Molecular

Ecology, 19: 277-284.

Ji, R., Cui, P., Ding, F., et al. (2009). Monophyletic origin of domestic bactrian camel (Camelus

bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the extant wild camel (Camelus bactrianus

ferus). Animal Genetics, 40: 377-382.

Mayr, E. (1995). Species, classification and evolution. In: Biodiversity and Evolution, Eds. Arai, R.,

Kato, M. and Doi, Y., P. 3-12, National Science Museum Foundation, Tokyo, Japan.

Silbermayr, K., Orozco-terWengel, P., Charruau, P., et al. (2010a). High mitochondrial differentiation

levels between wild and domestic Bactrian camels: a basis for rapid detection of maternal

hybridization. Animal Genetics, 41: 315-318.

Silbermayr, K., Tero, N., Charruau, P., et al. (2010b). Isolation and characterization of nine

microsatellite loci in the domestic Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and amplification in

the wild camel (C. ferus). Molecular Ecology Resources, 10: 1106-1108.

Maximum Likelihood tree based on the mt-

genomes of Camelini & Lamini.

34


9. Body Measurements of Saudi Arabia Camel Breed (Camelus dromedarius)

H.R. Abdallah1 and B. Faye

1,2

Camel and range Research Center, P.O. Box 322, Al-Jouf, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia

FAO/CIRAD-ES, Campus international de Baillarguet, TA C/dir B 34398 Montpellier, France


Introduction

The total population of dromedary in the Arabian Peninsula was estimated at approximately

1.6 million camels, about 53% in Saudi Arabia (Al-Eknah, 2008).The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is

probably one of the main area where the dromedary camel was domesticated 5000 to 6000 years ago

(Uerpman and Uerpman, 2002), and is the place where the camel biodiversity is one of the most

important in the world. The selection for milk or meat or race purpose as well as the selection for coat

color lead to a high variety of breeds and types which have been described by several authors. The

present study aimed to classify the camel breed of Saudi Arabia on the base of their body

measurements in an attempt to identify groups with similar conformation.


Total of 152 camel owners were visited in 9 regions of the kingdom (Al-jouf, Ar,ar, Tabuk,

Tabarjal, Riyadh, Qassim, Hail, Jazan and Al-bahah). They were selected on the basis of variability in

breed composition of their camel farm. In each farm, a questionnaire was applied and measurements

were taken from female and male camels regarded by their owner as the more characteristic for a

given breed. Data from 212 camels (155 female and 57 males) belonging to 12 different camel breeds

or types were collected.

The measurements were taken on standing animals with a measuring tape in cm. The

following measurement were taken: (i) the length of the head from nose to occipital (LH), (ii)The

length of the neck (lower part) from base of head to the chest (LN), (iii) The circumference of the

neck at the middle of the neck (CN), (iv)The height at the withers (HW), (v) girth circumference at

the middle of the thigh (TC), (vi) The length of the left front teat (LT), (vii) The length of the udder

from the front to hind attach (LU).

The mean of the different measurements was computed (Table 1). In a second step, a table

including the 12 identified breeds (in row) and the different mean values of body measurements (in

column) was analyzed by automatic clustering, achieved for assessing the proximities between the

different breeds according to their mean body measurements.

Results The Body measurements for female Saudi camels is given in Table 1 and their clustering is

given in Figure 1.

Table 1. Mean body measurements of 12 types or breeds of female camel of Saudi Arabia (in cm)

Breed Lhead Lneck cNeck Lteat Ludder Height GirthC ThighC

Adhana 42.1 87.8 74.8 4.2 17.0 173.0 180.5 73.3

Aouadi 42.4 97.6 79.3 4.7 15.7 174.3 191.3 83.6

saheli 42.8 96.2 86.4 5.1 16.7 176.0 195.9 84.3

shageh 39.3 92.3 92.0 5.2 17.0 182.7 180.7 90.3

Awrc 41.5 92.0 88.8 4.6 18.5 199.3 201.0 88.8

Zargah 40.5 87.0 91.0 4.5 22.0 185.0 222.0 86.5

Asail 42.3 94.3 86.3 2.0 6.3 185.8 199.3 78.3

Homor 46.5 107.1 83.9 4.7 25.6 186.7 217.3 93.1

Majaheem 46.9 110.7 89.4 6.8 25.0 192.2 219.2 94.9

Shaele 46.9 104.5 83.0 4.1 24.8 187.0 213.5 86.9

Sofor 48.1 98.7 81.0 4.3 22.7 185.3 220.9 85.3

Wadda 47.4 108.6 79.0 4.8 25.4 186.7 221.8 93.0

35


Figure 1. Classification of the 12 female

camel breeds of Saudi Arabia according

to their body measurements showing four

types of camels

Discussion The body measurements for phenotyping had been used in the camel (Ishag et al., 2011).

Except for the thigh circumference, the body measurements are poorly correlated, i.e, relatively

independent of the different parameters chosen. The classification of Al-Eknah is based on ecosystem

(desert, hill, coast) or use (riding, racing or production), and the present phenotyping was close to this

classification.

References

Al-Ekna 2008.

Ishag I.A., Eissa M.O., Ahmed M.K.A., 2011. Phenotypic characteristics of Sudanese camels

(Camelus dromedarius). Liv. Res. for Rural Develop., 23(4), article# 99

Uerpmann H.P., Uerpmann M., 2002. The Appearance of the Domestic Camel in SE-Arabia. Journal

of Oman Studies, 12, 235-260

Majaheem

Sofor

Shaele

Homor

Wadda

Asail

Zargah

shageh

Aouadi

saheli

Adhana

Awrc

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Dissimilarité

36


10. A Comparative Study on Camel Breeds For Growth and Digestibility

S. Basmaeil*, A.M. El-Waziry and A. N. Al-Owaimer

Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences,

King Saud University, P. O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia


Introduction

The population of camels in the Arab world is nearly 11 million heads. Representing

approximately 76% of the global total (19 million (. About 14% of the total animal units in the Arab

countries. Camels are in most Arab countries, but they are concentrated in Somalia (56%), Sudan

(24%), Mauritania (7%) and Saudi Arabia (3.5%).

Saudi Arabia has many camel breeds, spreading all over many regions. Camels in Saudi

Arabia are classified according to their colors, and use for milk and meat production. The main types

of camels in Saudi Arabia are Majaheem camel (black, dark color and high-lactation milk), Wodoh

camel (a medium-sized, moderate in milk production), Suffr camel (large to medium-size, color

mixture between the white and red) andSho'l camel (the colors overlap between red and blond).

There is no information on Saudi camel breeds regarding their meath production, nor their

growth requirements or nutrition and husbandry.

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of Saudi camel breeds (Majaheem, Suffr,

Sho'l, Wodoh) on growth and digestibility coefficients.


Young male camels of the Majaheem, Suffr, Sho'l, Wodoh breeds, 6-9 months old with average

weight 133.83±2.83 kg. Animals entailed three animals in four replicates for each breed. A balanced

energy/protein ration (Alfalfa hay and concentrate mixture 16% CP) were used to ensure that animals

get their nutrient requirements using ad lib twice feeding system. The experiment lasted for 204 days.

Feed intake for each group was recorded weekly and daily feed intake was calculated. The animal's

weights were recorded every two weeks, before the morning meal. The daily gain weight and feed

conversion ratio was calculated. At the end of trials, one animal from each replicate (four animals per

breed) was used in the digestibility study.

Feed and feces were analyzed according to AOAC (1995). Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid

detergent fiber (ADF) were determined according to Van Soest et al. (1991).The data were analyzed

according to SAS (1998).


The results obtained from the growth trial indicated that final weight of animals after 204

days was 291.78 ±2.53, 278.17 ±5.68, 283.56 ±10.95 and 269.61 ±5.35 kg for Majaheem, Wodoh,

Suffr and Sho'l, respectively with an average weight of 280.78 kg. The average daily gain was 0.767,

0.698, 0.730 and 0.686 kg for Majaheem, Wodoh, Suffr and Sho'l respectively. Feed intake was 4.73

±0.05, 4.68 ±0.05 and 5.24 ±0.42 and 4.53 ±0.13 kg for Majaheem, Wodoh, Suffr and Sho'l,

respectively. Majaheem breed had the best feed conversion efficiency compared to other breeds. The

camel is distinguished from other animals as it only needs small amounts of food to cover their

requirements. It can also compensate for the loss quickly upon re-feeding back to the normal level

(Wilson, 1984). The present results are in agreement with the results of Basmaeil (1989) and Farid et

al. (1990).

The water intake ranged from 11.65 to 12.96 liter /day, and these results show that the amount

of water consumed has no effect on the quantities of feed intake by the camels in this study. Hermas

(1990) found that the average daily consumption of water per head of camels through the seasons of

the year was around 23 liters in the spring, 55 liters in summer and 40 liters in autumn and 16 liters in

winter. These results are disagreement with the results of this study which ranged from 11.65 to 12.96

liters /day and this difference may be due to the quality of breed, pasture, type of diet or feeding

system.

The Majaheem breed had the best digestibility of dry matter and crude protein, crude fat and

soluble carbohydrates compared to other breeds, but Suffr breed recorded the best digestibility

37


coefficience of crude fiber compared to other breeds. El-Ashry and Sooud (1983) reported that the

digestibility of dry matter, crude fiber and nitrogen free extract (NFE) of the camel is more efficient

than sheep when fed a low concentration of energy in the diet. The present results demonstrated that

there is an effect on feed digestibility. The Majahim had the highest average daily gain, feed

conversion and digestibility, followed by Wodoh, Suffr and Sho'l and thus have the ability to utilize

the protein and energy food, which would increase the growth and carcass weight and meat quality.

References

A.O.A.C. (1995). Official Methods of Analysis. ―Association of Official Analytical Chemists‖.

Washington DC.

Basmaeil, Saeid (1989) The nutrition of Arabian camels under controlled management in: Galal, E.

et.al. Ruminant production in the dry subtropics constraints and potentials., Proc. Int. Symp.

in Cairo 5-7 Nov. 1988 EAAP Publication No. 38 Wageningen : 259-261.

El-Ashry, M. A. and Sooud, A.O. (1983). Nutritional aspects of camels and sheep. Animal

production in the Trropics.Aven,New York 10175. USA.

SAS, 1998. SAS User‘s Guide: Statistics, SAS Inst. Cary, NC. Rel. Eigh.

Van Soest, P.J., Robertson, T.B. and Lewis, B.A. (1991). Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent

fiber and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci., 74: 3583-

3597.

Farid, M. F. A., Shawket, S. M. and Abo Al-Nasr, H. M. (1990). The maintenance requirements of

camels (A preliminary Evaluation). Alex. J. Agric. Rec., 1:59-66.

Wilson, R.T. (1984). The camel. Longman. London and New York.

Hermas, S. (1990). Measuring the rate of growth of young Jamahiriya camels. International

Conference on the development and the development of production camels 10 to 13

December, 1990. Tobruk-Libya, bulletin camel patrol, 7:38.

38


11. Evaluation of 39 Camelid Microsatellite Markers in Various Breeds of the

Dromedary Camel

H.Khoory*1,2,3

, S. Saleem3, G.K. Tay

1 and K. Khazanehdari

3

1Centre of Forensic Science, The University of Western Australia. 35, Stirling Highway,

Crawley WA 6009, Australia. 2Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Dubai Police, United Arab Emirates

3Molecular Biology and Genetics, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory,

PO Box 597, Dubai, UAE.


Introduction

Camelus dromedarius, often referred to as Arabian camel, is an important species especially

in the Arabian Peninsula. In addition to distinct differences among camel species, there are also clear

phenotypic variations among breeds or within breeds. They are classified according to color,

geographic area, habitat and function. They vary in size and color. Color is the most common

phenotypic characteristic used to classify camel breeds (Andersen, 1996).

One particular useful tool for studying genetic traits is molecular markers. Availability of

markers would facilitate the precise mapping of desirous or deleterious trait within a family; this

would ultimately result in the discovery of genes responsible for these traits. Furthermore, molecular

markers can be used for studying relationship within population. So far about 110 dinucleotide

markers have been identified from new and old world camelid species (Mate et al., 2005; Penedo,

1999a & b; Sarno, 2000) of which only eight microsatellite markers have been isolated from

dromedary camels (Mariasegaram et al., 2002). In this study we investigated the usefulness of 39 of

these microsatellite markers for breed identification in dromedaries.


All samples were collected from different camel farms in Dubai, United Arab Emirates and

from other Gulf countries. A total of 584 animals of different Arabian camel breeds (Mahali, Omani,

Saudi, Sudanese, Moroccan, Beauty camel and Muhajan) were included in this study. High molecular

weight intact genomic DNA was isolated using the Nucleon Blood and Cell Culture DNA extraction

kit (Tepnel Life Sciences PLC, UK) from camels‘ whole blood, collected in EDTA tubes. The

quantity of DNA was adjusted to 50-100ng/ µl to be used for PCR.

PCR amplifications forthe 39 markers used were performed in six different cocktails. The

forward primers were labelled with VIC, FAM, NED or PET (Applied Biosystems USA).

The amplified fragments were analysed on ABI 3730 XL. Genotypes of individual animals

were scored using the GeneMapper software version 4.1.

Preliminary genetic analysis was performed using the GenePop software (Curtin University,

Australia) and Cervus software (Field Genetics, UK). Total number of alleles per locus, allele

frequency per locus, observed and expected heterozygosity and Polymorphic Information Content

(PIC) value for each locus was calculated and compared across breeds.

Results

All 39 microsatellite loci were amplified successfully in the 7 breeds of Arabian camel;

showing a total of 373 alleles (range 1- 27, mean 9.56). Two loci named LGU79 and LGU83 were

found to be monomorphic.The He (expected heterozygosity) value ranged between 0.52-0.58 whereas

the Ho (observed heterozygosity) values were found to be in the range of 0.48-0.56 with Omani

population on the lowest side and Moroccan population on the highest extreme. The average PIC

values for the 39 loci for each breed ranged between 0.458-0.518. Certain alleles seem to be specific

for certain breeds only but these alleles cannot be used as diagnostic alleles for that breed. We cannot

exclude the possibility of these private alleles existing in other breeds as the sample size for certain

breeds was very small (e.g. 10 samples for Moroccan breed). The reason for having a small sample

size is the difficulty in obtaining samples from pure breeds. There are certain alleles that have been

39


found in subpopulations of Sudanese (Anafi population), and appeared only in local, and Muhajan

that have been cross bred with Anafi.

References

Andersen H.T. (1966). – Desert, man and camel. Nord Med., 75 (3), 61-3.

Mariasegaram M., Pullenayegum S., Jahabar Ali M., Shah R.S., Penedo M.C. and Wernery U., et al.

(2002). – Isolation and characterization of eight microsatellite markers in Camelus

dromedarius and cross-species amplification in C. bactrianus and Lama pacos.Animal

Genetics, 33 (5), 385 – 387.

Mate M.L., Bustamante A., Giovambattista G., Lamo D., Thungen J., Zambelli A., et al (2005). –

Genetic diversity and differentiation of guanaco populations from Argentina inferred from

microsatellite data. Animal Genetics, 36 (4), 316 – 321.

Penedo M.C.T. (1999a). – Eight microsatellite markers for South American camelids. Animal

Genetics, 30 (2), 166 – 167.

Penedo M.C.T. (1999b). – Six microsatellite markers for South American camelids. Animal genetics.,

30 (5), 399.

Sarno J.R. (2000). – Development of microsatellite markers in the guanaco, Lama guanicoe: utility

for South American camelids. Molecular Ecology, 9 (11), 1922.

40


12. Genetic Diversity and Relationships of Indigenous Saudi Arabia Camel Camelus

dromedarius Populations

F.S. Almathen1, 2, 3*

, J. Mwacharo2 and O. Hanotte

2

1Department of Public Health and Animal Welfare, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal

resource, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, P.O. Box 1757, Saudi Arabia. 2Institute of Genetics, School of Biology, The University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.

3NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility – Sheffield, University of Sheffield, Department of Animal and

Plant Sciences, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.


Introduction

The one humped dromedary (Camelus dromedaries) and two humped Bactrian (C.

bactrianus) camels are the largest mammalian species, which are adapted to the desert with its

environment of high temperature and extreme desiccation. The camel provides humanity with a range

of products and services that make them unique livestock animals adapted for food and agricultural

production under harsh semi-desert environments (Kohler-Rollefson, 1993). The dromedary (also

called Arabian camel) is one of the best-known members of the Camelidae. Arabian camel played a

major role in the daily life and culture of earlier Arab people in the Arabian Peninsula. It was used as

a mean of transport and its meat and milk as source of food. They are called "the Gift of God" and

"the Ships of the Desert" appreciations to their capability to withstand in arid environment (Sweet,

1965). Today, people in the Arabian Peninsula still drink camel milk and eat camel meat. In recent

years, in the Arabian Peninsula, the interest in camels has again increased in racing and beauty

contests. Camel racing is an enormous industry in the Gulf countries, with many camels worth in

excess of SR 20 million each. The total population of dromedary is estimated to be around 1.6

million camel within the Arabian Peninsula (Al-Eknah, 2008).

Camels in Saudi Arabia

The two-humped camels geographic distribution span the cold desert regions of the southern

Mongolia and northwestern China to central Kazakhstan where they withstand snow and well below

zero degree Celsius temperatures. They are no established two-humped camel population within Saudi

Arabia. While the dromedaries distribution includes the subtropical dry zones of western Asia,

northwest India and North Africa, being poorly adapted to humidity and low temperatures (Kohler-

Rollefson, 1993). There are about 1 million feral dromedaries in Australia following introduction in

the 19th century (Spencer and Woolnough, 2010). Dromedaries were also introduced into parts of the

United States of America, Central America, the Caribbean, southern Africa and Europe (Al-Eknah,

2008). In Saudi Arabia there are nine dromedary populations recognized as true populations (no

crossbreed was identified): Almagaheem, Almagatter, Alsufur, Alshual, Alhurra, Alshahlia,

Alhadana, Alawadi,and Alawarik (Al-Eknah et al., 1997, unpublished). They show difference in

morphology (hair structure, colour and body conformation), production traits (meat, milk and sports

performances) and adaptive traits (e.g. climate and diseases).

There is no clear classification of Saudi Arabia camel populations with ecological,

morphological and utilities criteria generally mixed. Kohler-Rollefson, (1993), divides dromedaries

into mountain and plain camels, with the first category subdivided into baggage and riding camels and

the latter category subdivided into desert and riverine camels. Al-Eknah et al. (1997) divides Saudi

Arabian indigenous camel populations into two distinct utility groups; racing and productions camels.

The latter group further subdivided into desert, beach and hill camels. Within group and subgroups

populations are separated based on morphological criteria or simply on the community owing them. In

fact, the naming of the dromedary populations often reflects the locality or country where the camel

populations are raised, the Arabs and Bedouin tribes who breed them or simply the animals' colour. It

remains largely unknown if these populations are genetically separated from each other.

Molecular Genetics Studies in Saudi Dromedary In contrast with many other domestic animals, including some Camelid species, there has

been no in-depth study on the genetic history of the domestic Saudi Arabian camel populations.

Genetic diversity studies in dromedaries have been performed in some countries (Kenya, South

41


Africa, India, the Caribbean and Australia), using microsatellite markers (Mburu et al., 2003, Nolte,

2005, Mehta and Sahani, 2007, Spencer and Woolnough, 2010). Previous genetic studies in Saudi

Arabian dromedaries are limited to a restricted small number of samples, often from a single

population or a specific region. For example, Mburu et al.,(2003) included 22 camel samples from

Saudi Arabia as reference population in their study of Kenyan dromedary genetic diversity. Al-

Swailem et al. (2007 and 2009) used RAPD and microsatellite markers and assess the usefulness of

these markers in paternity testing in three camel populations of central Saudi Arabia.

In the above context, a comprehensive classification of Saudi Arabian camel populations

including genetic data will be particularly welcome providing important baselines information for the

future management of the domestic species. For the purpose of this study we used the classification of

Al-Eknah et al. (1997) as reference classification. The present study will therefore aimed to study

Saudi Arabian camel populations using microsatellite marker to address questions about their genetic

relationship and diversity.


Field trips over the raising areas of camel populations in Saudi Arabia have been achieved

with support and help of Agriculture and/or Camel Research Centers. The localization of the sampling

was based on a previous survey study (Al-Eknah et al., 1997) which indicates the geographic

distribution of the indigenous camel populations. A total of 455 samples were collected from

unrelated (first and second degree relatives, following the interview of the owners) representing the

common camel types in Saudi Arabia.

The DNA extraction procedure from filter papers was optimized with the following protocol

modified from Smith and Burgoyne (2004) providing the best result.

Nineteen microsatellite loci have selected from recommended list of The Food and

Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the International Society for Animal Genetics (ISAG) livestock

diversity committee.

The nineteen markers were initially tested on 24 (unrelated) camels from one population.

Gradient PCR (55-65 C°) were performed to test suitable annealing temperature for each marker. PCR

is carrying out using the Qiagen Multiplex PCR kit PCR reactions. A volume of 1 µl of 1:10 water

diluted PCR product was mixed with loading mix, containing Formamide (Applied Biosystems) and

Rox 500 size standard (Applied Biosystems), and then denatured for 3 min at 95OC and analyzed in a

Genetic Analyzer ABI 3730 DNA sequence (Applied Biosystems).

Results

The result reveals three genetically separated groups of dromedary in Saudi Arabia with

distinct, although likely overlapping, geographic distribution in the Southern west region (Alawarik,

Alawadi, Alhadana and Alshahlia), East region (Almagaheem and Alshual) and Northern part

(Almagatter, Alsufur, and Alhurra) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia respectively. The results also

highlight that the Alawarik and Alawadi camel populations are genetically distinct from the other

camel populations. Phylo-genetic analysis of Saudi and some out-group camel populations from

Africa and Asia indicates that most of the genetic diversity of dromedary camels occurs within the

Saudi Arabian camel population (Almathen et. al,. unpublished). It also supports Saudi Arabia is a

likely centre of origin for the domestic dromedary camel. The results obtained will provide

evolutionary insights on the history and local adaptation of Saudi Arabian dromedary and contribute

to the design of breeding strategies for the conservation of dromedary genetic diversity and the

improvement of their productivities.

References

Al-eknah, M., Elsammani, E. & Baksh, A. 1997. Description, classification & comparative

performance of indigenous camel breeds in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh: King Abdul Aziz City for

Science and Technology.

Al-eknah, M. M. 2008. International Camel Encyclopedia, Al-Ahsa, King Faisal University.

Al-Swailem, A. M. 2009. Evaluation of the genetic variability of microsatellite markers in Saudi

Arabian camels. Food, Agriculture & Environment, 7, 3.

Kohlerrollefson, I. 1993. Camels And Camel Pastoralism In Arabia. Biblical Archaeologist, 56, 180-

188.

42


Mburu, D., Ochieng, J., Kuria, S., Jianlin, H., Kaufmann, B., Rege, J. & Hanotte, O. 2003. Genetic

diversity and relationships of indigenous Kenyan camel (Camelus dromedarius) populations:

implications for their classification. Anim Genet, 34, 26-32.

Mehta, S. & Sahani, M. 2007. Microsatellite markers for genetic characterisation of Bikaneri camel.

Indian Journal Of Animal Sciences, 77, 509-512.

Nolte, M. K., a. Van Der Bank, F.H. Grobler, J.P. 2005. Microsatellite markers reveal low genetic

differentiation among southern African Camelus dromedarius populations. South African

Journal of Animal Science, 35, 152-161.

Spencer, P. B. S. & Woolnough, A. P. 2010. Assessment and genetic characterisation of Australian

camels using microsatellite polymorphisms. Livestock Science, 129, 241-245.

Sweet, L. E. 1965. Camel Raiding Of North Arabian Bedouin - A Mechanism Of Ecological

Adaptation. American Anthropologist, 67, 1132-1150.

43


Physiology

Biochemistry

Pharmacology

and Immunology

44


13. Major Proteins and Enzyme Gelatinoletic Activities in Camel Seminal Plasma

M. Hammadi, I. Salhi*, A. Barmat and T. Khorchani

Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands Institute 4119 Medenine Tunisia


Introduction

Numerous proteins including proteolytic enzymes are found in mammalian sperm. The role of

these proteins may be related to their interaction with sperm plasma membranes to maintain optimal

conditions during storage and the recognition, binding and penetration of ovum (Morton, 1977). Most

proteinases described for seminal plasma are serine proteases and metalloproteases (Cesari et al.,

2010). Seminal plasma proteolytic enzymes are involved in coagulation and liquefaction of human

sperm (Matsuda et al., 1994).

Studies on camel semen are relatively scarce but it is known that ejaculated semen is very

viscous, which needs to be liquefied before its evaluation (Wani et al., 2008). The objective of this

project was to study major proteins and to identify proteolytic enzymes in camel seminal plasma. The

proteolytic pattern of seminal plasma was compared with that of bovine bull.


Semen samples were obtained from 2 mature Maghrabi camels (Camelus dromedarius) and 2

bullocks (one Schuitz and one Holstein breeds). Semen was collected using an artificial vagina in

January-March period. Camel and bovine bulls were fertile and ejaculates were well characterized.

Viscosity of sperm varied between very viscose to slightly viscose in camels and viscose in bovine

bulls. After collection, seminal plasma was obtained by two-step centrifugation, the first at 1000 g for

10 min to eliminate spermatozoids and the second at 8000 g for 15 min to eliminate debris. Protein

concentration of seminal plasma was determined by Bradford method. SDS-PAGE was performed

according to Leammli (1970) to characterize major proteins. Gelatinolytic activity was assessed in

10% polyacrylamide gels containing 0.1% gelatin. After electrophoresis, the gels were washed in

Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) containing 1% Triton X-100 and incubated at 37°C for 24 h in the same buffer with

200 mM NaCl and 5 mM CaCl2 or 5 mM EDTA. We assumed that stimulation by Ca2+

and inhibition

by EDTA indicate the presence of metalloproteases. Proteins were stained with Coomassie Blue.

Areas of proteolysis appeared as clear zones against a blue background. Data are presented as mean ±

S.E.M.

Results and Discussion Total seminal plasma protein concentration was 2.0 ± 0.2 g/L in camels and 44.7 ± 1.6 g/L in

bovine bulls. Agarwal et al. (2005) reported a concentration value equal to 9.2 ± 1.1 g/L in dromedary

camels. Mosafari et al. (2005) found 22.0 ± 1.0 g/Lin Bactrian species.

In camels as well in bovine bulls four major proteins were visualized in seminal plasma.

These major proteins have been found in bovine, human, goat and in many other mammals. However,

the molecular weights of these proteins differ according to species. Camel proteins had 10, 15, 18 and

30 kDa molecular weights. The major proteins in bovine seminal plasma represent a family named

Bovine Seminal Plasma (Manjunath and Sairam, 1987). They are designated BSP-A1, BSP-A2, BSP-

A3 and BSP-30 kDa. Four bands (49.7, 33.2, 26.4, and 19.5 kDa) are found in dogs in which the

majority (85%) have molecular weights below 17 kDa, with the 15.6 kDa in high concentrations (de

Souza et al., 2007). Contrary to that in bulls, proteins in camel seminal plasma are affected by hot

temperature, the 30 kDa protein disappeared after boiling.

Gelatin zymography of seminal plasma revealed numerous distinct proteases ranging from 25

to 72 kDa. In camels, two gelatinolytic band groups could be considered. The first group included

proteases with molecular weight less than 54 kDa and the second one regrouped bands higher than 54

kDa. Proteases with low molecular weights (47, 41 and 36 kDa) were more active than the high

molecular weight protease (72 kDa). Boiling cleaved the band of 72 to 60 kDa and the band of 36 to

32 kDa. On the other hand, proteases with low molecular weights were more important in viscose

sperm. Only 36 kDa band was observed in slightly viscose sperm but 47, 41 and 36 kDa bands

appeared in plasma of viscose sperm.

45


Besides differences in molecular weight, proteolytic enzymes could also be distinguished by

inhibition by EDTA. It is known that the addition of EDTA both in the absence or presence of

calcium ions resulted in profiles of gelatinolytic activities similar to these obtained without any

additives in development solution. All the calcium-activated and EDTA-inhibited bands are

metalloproteases. In camels, inhibited enzyme had molecular weight of 72 kDa. However, at least

three bands of 47, 55 and 61 kDa metalloproteases were observed in bovine seminal plasma.

Gelatinolytic profile of camel seminal plasma metalloproteases is different to matrix-metalloproteases

activities observed in epididymal fluid of many other domestic mammals (Métayer et al., 2002).

Considering the independence of serine proteases from Ca2+

, it could be observed that there is no

serine-like proteases with molecular weights >54 kDa.

It was concluded that camel seminal plasma is characterized by a low protein concentration,

four major proteins and several gelatinoletic activities proteases, including metalloproteases and

serine-proteases.

References

Agarwal, V.K., Ram, L., Rai, A.K., Kanna, N.D. and Agarwal, S.P. (2005). Physical and biochemical

attributes of camel semen. Journal of Camel Sciences, 1: 25-30.

Cesaria, A., Monclus, M.A., Tejón, G.P., Clementi, M. and Fornes, M.W. (2010). Regulated serine

proteinase lytic system on mammalian sperm surface: There must be a role. Theriogenology,

74: 699-711.

de Souza, F.F., Barreto, C.S. and Lopes, M.D. (2007). Characteristics of seminal plasma proteins and

their correlation with canine semen analysis. Theriogenology, 68: 100-106.

Leammli, U.K. (1970). Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of

bacteriophage T4. Nature, 227:6 80-685.

Manjunath, P. and Sairam, M.R. (1987). Purification and biochemical characterization of three major

acidic proteins (BSP-A1, BSP-A2 and BSP-A3) from bovine seminal plasma. Biochemical

Journal, 241: 685-692.

Matsuda Y., Oshio S., Yazaki T., Umeda T. and Akihama S. (1994). The effect of some proteinase

inhibitors on liquefaction of human semen. Human Reproduction, 9: 664-668.

Métayer, S., Dacheux, F., Dacheux, J-L. and Gatti, J-L. (2002). Comparison, characterization, and

identification of proteases and protease inhibitors in epididymal fluids of domestic mammals.

Matrix metalloproteinases are major fluid gelatinases. Biology of Reproduction, 66: 1219-

1229.

Morton, D.B. (1977). The occurrence and function of proteolytic enzymes in the reproductive tract of

mammals. In: Proteinases in Mammalian Cells and Tissues. Barrett AJ, editor, vol. 2, P. 445-

478, Biomedical Press. Elsevier: North-Holland.

Mosaferi, S., Niasari-Naslaji, A., Abarghani, A., Gharahdaghi, A.A. and Gerami, A. (2005).

Biophysical and biochemical characteristics of Bactrian camel semen collected by artificial

vagina. Theriogenology, 63:92–101.

Wani, N.A., Billah, M. and Skidmore, J.A. (2008). Studies on liquefaction and storage of ejaculated

dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) semen. Animal Reproduction Science, 109: 309-

318.

46


14. Peripheral Concentrations of Glucose, Metabolic and Steroid Hormones Relative to

Birth Date, Live Body Weight and Average Daily Gain in Prepubertal Shami Female

Dromedaries

S.A. Salhab1, D.H. Keisler

2, M.F. Smith

2, M.B. Al-Daker

3, A. Al-Assad

3 and A. Nooh

1Dep. of Anim. Prod., Fac. of Agric., Univ. of Damascus, Syria

2Anim. Sci. Res. C., Fac. of Agric., Food and Natur. Res., Univ. of Missouri, Columbia,

MO.65211, USA.

3Anim. Wealth Res. Admin., General Commission for Sc. Agric. Res., Syria


Introduction

Nutritional status, season of birth, and breed of camel can affect the onset of puberty (Tibary

et al., 2005). The reproductive performance of animals is related positively to the animal‘s body- fat

mass (Kennedy, 1953). Insulin-like growth factor-I (Velazqueza, et al., 2008) and leptin (Moschos et

al., 2002) have been found to act as a metabolic signal that allows reproductive events to occur. A

significant positive correlation between body condition score and plasma leptin levels is found

(Delavaud et al., 2000). Prolactine has actions on the whole animal with high concentrations from

birth onwards in cows (Schams and Reonhardt, 1974). Camels can maintain blood concentrations of

glucose, but metabolic body size affects both its entry and utilization rates (Chandrasena et al., 1979).

Levels of estrogen and progesterone during the dromedary cycle in mature, but not in immature

females have been studied widely (Agarwal et al., 1991).This paper aimed to determine the peripheral

concentration of glucose, IGF-1, leptin, prolactin, estrogen and progesterone relative to age, live body

weight and average daily gain during the growing prepubertal stage in Shami female dromedaries.


Ten post weaningShami female dromedaries (27 weeks of age) with an average body weight

at birth of 28 ± 2 kg and born between January to May raised at Shami Camel Research Station in

Syria were used. Body weight was measured and blood samples were collected weekly from the

jugular vein for 6 months. Serum was separated by centrifugation (2,300 × g for 25 min; 4°C) and

stored at −20°C for later analysis. Glucose was determined using a colorimetric glucose oxidase kit

(Kolath et al.,2006) and validated for camel serum. Serum concentrations of prolactin, leptin, insulin-

like growth factor-I (IGF-1), estradiol-17b, and progesterone were all assayed using bovine

radioimmunoassay procedures (Scharf et al., 2010) and validated for camel serum. The glucose and

protein hormone assays were analyzed in triplicate and the steroid hormone assays were analyzed in

duplicate. Inter- and intra-assay CV‘s were less than 10%. Serial dilutions of pooled aliquots of camel

serum were linear (log/log it transformation; R2> 0.98) and parallel to both standard curve

concentrations and serial dilutions of pooled aliquots of bovine serum. Dromedary heifers were

classified according to their birth date, BD into three groups (G1, n=3 from Jan. to Feb., (G2, n=3 :

born in March and G3,n=3 : Apr. to May); to their live body weight, BW at last blood collection into

two groups: (G1, BW is < 210 kg, n=4 and G2 is > 210 kg, n=6); or according to their average daily

gain ,ADG (G1, n=4 ADG is < 450g and G2. n =6 is > 450g). Variations in the plasma concentrations

of studied parameters within and between groups and the effect of age, BD, BW and ADG were tested

and assessed by analysis of variance using the general linear model, repeated measurements

procedures of the SAS.


Analysis of variance indicated no significant effect for BD, BW or ADG on the glucose,

leptin prolactine or progesterone levels, but there were significant effects (p<0.05) for ADG and BW

on estradiol-17 β and IGF-1, levels, respectively. Animals in G3 showed greatest values of estrogen

and dromedary heifers having higher BW (G2) showed greater values of IGF-1.

Results indicated that plasma glucose concentrations (188± 4.1 mg/dl) were higher than those

(100-138mg/dl) reported in mature dromedary females (Kumar and Banerjee, 1962; Al-Ali et al.,

1988) and in true ruminants (45-55 mg/dl; Ballard et al., 1969). Concentrations of IGF-1 in Shami

dromedary heifers (222 ± 6.27) exceeded largely those in growing heifers of different beef breeds (94

to 129 ng/ml; Jones et al., 1991) and almost similar to those of ewe lambs ( 249 ± 8 ng/ml; Roberts et

http://www.domesticanimalendo.com/article/S0739-7240(08)00077-5/abstract


47


al.,1990). Leptin concentration (13.38 ± 0.16 ng/ml) was three times higher than in mature dromedary

females (Delavaud et al., 2004) much higher than in cattle (6 -7 ng/ml; Chilliard et al., 2005,). It

seems, this high level of leptin, in prepubertal dromedary heifers might be involved in accelerating the

onset of puberty. Results showed a considerable secretion of prolactine (6.07 ± 0.32 ng/ml) which was

two folds higher than in prepubertal gilts (2.3 to 6.6 ng/ml; Diekman et al., 1983). Varying

concentrations of estradiol from 0.01 to 3.12 pg/ml probably reflects to some degree the presence of

ovarian activities in prepubertal Shami dromedary heifers. This agrees with results reported for

Turkmenistan dromedary heifers aged 8 to 12 months and showing normal follicular dynamics

(Abdunazarov, 1970) and with those reported in mature Chaambi dromedary females(< 0.5 pg/ml)

during the onset of the breeding season in Algeria (Adamou et al., 2009). Serum progesterone

concentrations (0.07 to 0.1 ng/ml) were low through the prepubertal period in Shami dromedary. This

is in agreement, but with lower values reported for ewe lambs (< 0.2 ng/m; Ryan et al., 1997), for

prepubertal cattle heifers (0.26 ± 0.08 ng/ml; Gazal and Anderson, 1995). However, the source of

progesterone in this study needs to be investigated.

Conclusion

Such information might be helpful for specialists to search for the role of these hormones in

the reproductive function during the early life of this species and to develop programs to reduce the

period of onset of puberty and increase the reproductive performance of dromedary camels which

have a tremendous socio-economic important role in the dry area.

References

Abdunazarov NH. Biological characteristics of reproduction in the one humped camel. Trudy

Turkman- selkhas Inst. Anim. Breed., 1971; 15:134-141.

Adamou A, Bairi A. peripheral levels of estradiol-17 β and progesterone in Chaambi dromedarycamel

during beginning of sexual season. 2ed

International Society of Camel Research and

Development. Djerba, Tunisia, March 12- 14th., 2009; Abstract# 179, p 145 -146.

Agarwal SP, Rai AK, Khanna ND. Serum progesterone levels in female camels during estrus cycle.

Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 1991; 61(1):37-99.

Al-Ali AK, Husyni HA, Power DM. A comprehensive biochemical analysis of the blood of the

camel (Camelus dromedarius). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A: Physiol..1988; 89B:35-37.

Chandrasena LG, Emannuel B, Glianpour H. A comparative study of glucose metabolism between

the camel and the sheep. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A: Physiol., 1979; 62A:837-840.

Chilliard Y, Bengolumi M, Delavaud C, Faulconnier Y, Faye B. Body lipids and adaptation of camel

to food and water shortage: New data on adipocyte size and plasma leptin. In: Desertification

combat and food safety; The added value of camel producers, Faye B and Esenov P (ed)

NBato Science Series 1., 2005;362:135-145.

Delavaud C, Bocquier F, Chilliard Y, Keisler DH, Gertler A, Khann G. Plasma leptin determination in

ruminants: Effect of nutritional status and body fatness on plasma concentration assessed by a

specific RIA in sheep. J. Endocrinol., 2000; 165: 625-637.

Delavaud C, Bengoumi M, Faye B, Tabarani A, Faulconnier Y, Sghiri A, et al. Plasma leptin

measurement in the dromedary camel and its relationship to adiposity and feeding level.

Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2004:8:45 [special issue].

Diekman MA, Trout WE, Anderson LL. Serum profiles of LH, FSH and Prolactin from 10 weeks of

age until puberty in gilts. J. Anim. Sci., 1983; 56(1):139-145.

Gazal OS, Anderson LL. Opioids modulate progesterone production in prepubertal Bunaji heifers.

Biol. Repro., 1995; 53: 1075-1080.

Jones EJ, Armstrong JD, Harvey RW. Changes in metabolites, metabolic hormones, and luteinizing

hormone before puberty in Angus, Braford, Charolais and Semintal heifers., J. Anim. Sci.,

1991; 69:1607-1612.

Kennedy GC. The role of depot fat in the hypothalamic control of feed intake in the rat. Proceeding of

the Royal Society). 1953; 140: 578 -592.1953.

Kolath WH, Kerley MS, Golden JW, Keisler DH.. The relationship between mitochondrial function

and residual feed intake in Angus steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2006; 84:861–865.

Kumar M and Banerjee S. Biochemical studies on Indian camel (Camelus dromedarius). Plasma

insulin-like activity and glucose tolerance. J. Sci. Indian. Res., 1962; 21: 291-292.

48


Moschos S, Jean L, Christos SM,Leptin and reproduction: a review. Fertil. Steril. 2002; 77(3): 433-

444.

Roberts CA, McCutcheon SN, Blair HT, Gluckman PD, Breier BL. Developmental patterns of Insulin

- like growth factor 1 concentrations in sheep. Domes Anim Endocrinol., 1990;7(4):457- 464.

Ryan KD, Koodmab Rl, Karsch FJ, Legan SJ, Foster DL. Patterns of circulating gonadotropins and

ovarian steroids during the first periovulatory period in the developing sheep. Biol. Repro.,

1997:45:471-477.

Schams D, Reonhardt V. Influence of the season on plasma prolactin level in cattle from birth to

maturity. Hormon. Res., 1974; 5:217-226.

Scharf, J. A. Carroll, D. G. Riley, C. C. Chase, Jr., S. W. Coleman, D. H. Keisler, R. L. Weaber, and

D. E. Spiers. Evaluation of physiological and blood serum differences in heat tolerant

(Romosinuano) and heat susceptible (Angus) Bos taurus cattle during controlled heat

challenge. J Anim Sci..2009; v1:2551. [Abstract] .

Tibary A, Annouassi A, Sghiri A. Factors affecting reproductive performance of camels at the herd

and individual level. Desertification Combat and Food Safety. B. Faye and P. Esenov (Eds.),

IOS Press 2005, 97-114.

Velazqueza MA, Spicerb LJ, Wathesc DC. The role of endocrine insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-1)

in female bovine reproduction. Domes. Anim. Endocrinol., 2008; 35(4):325-342.



49


15. Serum Protein Capillary Electrophoretic Patterns in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius): Influence of Age and Sex

N M. Elkhair1 and H. Hartmann

2

1Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum (Sudan);

2Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Free University of Berlin (Germany)


Introduction

Plasma proteins are known to comprise about 6-7 g/dl (Eckersall, 2008). Functionally, plasma

proteins are involved in nutrition, maintenance of osmotic pressure, buffering acid-base balance,

transport of smaller ions and molecules, haemostasis and protective effect of the immune proteins

(Eckersall, 2008). Many of these plasma protein change markedly in diseases (Abate et al., 2000;

Rasouli et al., 2005) and with age (Keay and Doxy, 1982; Chaudhary et al., 2003).

Capillary electrophoresis of serum proteins (CE) is an established and effective method which

has been used as a screening tool for the clinical diagnosis of many diseases in humans (Jellum et al.,

1991; Gay-Bellile et al., 2003) and animals (Camacho et al., 2005). Normal serum proteins

electrophoretic patterns are composed of five fractions, albumin, α1-globulin, α2 globulin, β-globulin

and γ- globulin (Eckersall, 2008). Therefore, the clinical interpretation of CEP is based on the

variation in the content of one or more of these five major fractions. However, species differences

between the animals have been observed by Keay and Doxy, (1982). Therefore, the aim of the study

was to validate the use of CE in camels and to determine the normal serum protein capillary

electrophoretic pattern in relation to the age and sex.


Blood samples were collected form fourteen healthy young camels (7 males and 7 females,

age: 3-5 months) and 22 adult camels (12 male and 10 female, age: 5-8 years) by using plastic

syringes (7.5 ml, Pirmvetta®, Laboratory Technique, GmbH, Germany). The samples were

centrifuged and the serum was collected in sterile containers and frozen at -20OC. The fractionation of

serum proteins was determined by using a capillary electrophoresis technique by with a biochemical

analyser (Roche Hitachi Modular, Roche).

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS for Windows Version 17.0. The distribution of

the individual data was determined by using a One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smimow adjustment test.

The statistical measurements of serum total protein fractions were estimated by using descriptive

statistics procedures of the same programme. ANOVA tests (Levine‘s Test and Post Hoc Test) were

used to assess the possible significant differences between the age groups. The mean difference was

considered significant at P ≤0.05.

Results

Figure 1 shows the normal pattern of CE in dromedary camels. The pattern of CE identified

one albumin, two α- globulin (α1 and α2), one β-globulin and one γ-globulin fractions.

Figure 1. Serum protein capillary

electrophoresis pattern of healthy

camels (Camelus dromedarius) of

various ages and sex (n = 36).

The mean values of serum total protein and CE fractions are shown in Table 1. The higher

significant (P<0.05) mean value for serum- [Protein] of 63.7±6.6 g/l (reference range= 51-74 g/l) was

observed in the female camels compared to the other age groups. Adult male camels showed a highly

significant (P<0.0001) higher percentage of albumin fraction (60%) compared to the other age groups.

50


α1 and α2 globulin fractions showed a significant (P<0.01) higher mean values in young camels

compared to the other groups (3.5% and 8.5%, respectively). β-globulin fraction was not affected

significantly by the age. Lactating female camels showed a significant (P<0.01) higher mean value of

γ- globulin fraction (26%) compared to the other age groups. The lowest significant (P<0.001) A/G

ratio (1%) was observed in lactating females.Sex had no significant effect on serum protein fraction.

Discussion

The main finding of the present study is that CE has been applied to the serum of dromedary

camels. CE produced five peaks comprising one albumin, α1 and α2, β and γ- globulins fractions

(Figure 1). However, in camels Chaudhary et al., (2003) have reported that serum protein

electrophoresis on agarose gel produced six peaks comprising one albumin, α1 and α2, β1 and β2 and

γ- globulin fractions. The variation in the serum electrophoresis pattern between the present study and

the study conducted by Chaudhary et al., (2003) may be due to differences in methodologies used.

The reference range of serum- [Protein] obtained in the present study for adult camels (51-74

g/l) was similar to the values reported previously for adult racing camels (Abdalla et al., 1988, 59-64

g/l; Mohamed and Hussein 1999, 53-78 g/l). However, the mentioned range was lower than that

reported by Bogin 2000 (63-88 g/l). The mean value reported for young camels (54.8±4.0 g/l) was

within the reference range reported for young camels at the age of 1 year old (Haroun 1994, 49-85

mmol/l). The variations in the concentration of serum total protein can be explained by the variation

in the nutritional status of the animals. In lactating female camels, the higher mean value of serum-

[Protein] (63.7 g/l) can be due to the higher concentration of γ- globulins observed (26%=16.8 g/l)

(Table 1).

Albumin represented the main fraction of serum proteins determined by CE in all groups (50-

60%, Table 1). α1 and α2, β and γ- globulin fractions represented about 3-4%, 9-10%, 10-12% and 18-

26%, respectively (Table 1). These findings are higher than those reported for adult and young camels

(Chaudhary et al., 2003). Furthermore, the present results indicate that there was a significant

difference between the adult male, female and young camels in the fraction of albumin, α1, α2, and γ-

globulin. The variation in these values can be considered as an age-dependent relationship between

the groups.

Table 1 Serum protein capillary electrophoresis pattern of healthy camels (Camelus dromedarius) of

various ages

Conclusion

The present results indicate that variations in the serum electrophoresis pattern of the camels

between the present study and those reported previously in the literature may be due to the age factor.

The physiological and the nutritional status of the animals may play a significant role in these

variations.

51


References Abate, O., Zanatta, R., Malisano, T and Dotta, U. (2000). Canine serum protein patterns using high-

resolution electrophoresis (HRE). Vet. J., 159: 154-160.

Abdalla, O.M., Wasfi, I.A and Giddier, F.A. (1988). The Arabian race camel normal parameters-

Haemogram, enzymes and minerals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol A., 90 (2): 237-239.

Bogin, E. (2000). Clinical pathology of camelides: present and future. Revue. Méd. Vét., 151(7): 563-

568.

Camacho, A.T., Guttian, F.J., Pallas, J.J., Olmenda, S., Goethert, H., Telford, S and Spielman, A.

(2005). Serum protein response and renal failure in canine babesia annae infection. Vet. Res.,

36: 713-722.

Chaudhary, Z.I., Iqbal, J and Rashid, J. (2003). Serum protein electrophoretic pattern in young and

adults camels. Aust. Vet. J., 81(10): 625-626.

Eckersall, P.D. (2008). Proteins, proteomics and the dysproteinemias. Chapter 5. In: Clinical

Biochemistry of Domestic Animals, Ed. Kaneko, J.J., Harvey, J.W and Bruss, M.L, 6th

edition, P. 117-155, Academic Press, Elsevier Inc. USA.

Gay-Bellile, C., Bengoufa, D., Houze, P., Le Carrer, D., Benlakehal, M., Bousquet, B., Gourmel, B

and Le Bricon, T. (2003). Automated multicapillary electrophoresis for analysis of human

serum protein. Clin. Chem., 49(11): 1909-1915.

Haroun, E.M. (1994). Normal concentrations of some blood constituents in young Najdi camels

(Camelus dromedarius). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Comp. Physiol., 108(4): 619-22.

Jellum, E., Thorsrud, A.K and Time, E. (1991). Capillary electrophoresis for diagnosis and studies of

human disease, particularly metabolic disorders. J Chromatogr, 559:455–465.

Keay, G. and Doxy, D.L. (1982). A comparison of the serum proteins electrophoretic of young and

adult animals. Vet. Res. Commun., 5: 271-276.

Mohamed, H.A. and Hussein, N.A. (1999). Studies on normal haematological and serum biochemical

values for the Hijin racing camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kuwait. Vet. Res. Commun., 23:

241-248.

Rasouli, M., Okhovatian, A and Enderami, A. (2005). Serum protein as indicator of malignancy:

multivariate logistic regression and ROC analyses. Clin. Chem. Lab. Ned., 43(2): 918-918.

52


16. A Survey on Antimicrobials Utilized in Camel Practice by Private Veterinary

Practitioners in Oman

S. Mathan Kumar* and E.H. Johnson

Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, CAMS, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman


Introduction Antimicrobial therapy ideally is determined by isolation of the offending organisms and

determination of their antibiotic susceptibility pattern. This information is usually not available in the

field, where veterinarians often make treatment decisions based on the likelihood of an organism

being assumed to be the etiologic agent after considering the clinical signs of the patient. In addition,

antimicrobials are often administered by the camel owners in Oman. This practice raises important

concerns relative to the possibility of inducing antimicrobial resistance. Compounding this reality is

that the dosages for camels are often extrapolated from other large animals and this assumption might

not be accurate (Ali et al., 1996). The present study aimed to develop a data base of antimicrobial

agents that are commonly used by private veterinarians in Oman working with camels.


A questionnaire was presented to clinical veterinarians, listing forty antimicrobials, and

asking the number of patients that they treat, their preferred route of antimicrobial administration both

to adult patients and to camel calves and the percentage of cases they were able to personally follow-

up. The survey was pretested with two veterinarians to check the appropriateness of the language

utilized in the survey. They took approximately 30 minutes to complete the survey. They did not have

any difficulty in understanding the questions, which ruled out the need for a bilingual questionnaire

(English/Arabic). All the participating veterinarians were briefed about the survey on the first visit

and the questionnaires were collected on the next visit to the practice. A total of 23 questionnaires

were distributed among the private vets of different regions in Oman such as Ash Sharqiyah (n=9), Al

Batinah (n=12), Al Dakhliyah (n=1) and Al Buraimi (n=1). Responses were analyzed and the results

were shown in terms of the most preferred antimicrobials, and the number of patients that they treat

on an average per month. The questionnaire also asked why follow-ups were not conducted and listed

possible reasons (Table 2). The survey responses were analyzed in Microsoft ExcelR2010, using

general tools as filtering and percentile to check the frequency preference of the antimicrobials listed

in the questionnaire.

Results

From a total of twenty three veterinarians, who received the questionnaire, there were twenty

respondents. One veterinarian declined to participate and two had not filled in their questionnaire in

time for their results to be analyzed and include in these preliminary results. The results of this study

are summarized in the Table 1.

Table 1: Frequency of use of antimicrobial agents

Name of the antimicrobial Frequency of Use (%)

Oxy tetra cycline-Long acting-200mg/ml 98.75

Tylosin 98.75

Trimethoprim /Sulfonamide combination 87.5

Strepto penicillin 82.5

Enrofloxacin 81.25

Amoxycillin (Long acting) LA 78.75

Sulphadimidine 75

Sulfamethazine 73.75

Sulfadiazine 67.5

Penicillin procaine 63.75

Sulfaguanidine 63.75

Benzyl penicillin (Penicillin G) 62.5

Ampicillin 61.25

Neomycin 56.25

Amoxycillin + Cloxacillin 53.75

53


Benzathine penicillin 52.5

Cefalexin/Cephalexin 51.25

Oxy tetra cycline-Plain-50mg/ml 48.75

Norfloxacin 47.5

Ampicillin + Cloxacillin 43.75

Lincomycin 36.25

Doxycycline 30

Chloramphenicol 28.75

Kanamycin 28.75

Colistin 27.5

Erythromycin 26.25

Gentamicin 26.25

Spectinomycin 21.25

Bacitracin 17.5

Fusidic acid 13.75

Novobiocin 12.5

Tilcomicin 10

Ceftiofur 8.75

Florphenicol 8.75

Amikacin 7.5

Cefazolin 6.25

Cefuroxime 3.75

Monensin 3.75

Rifampicin 1.25

Lasolacid 1.25

Ten veterinarians treat less than 50 camel patients a month, six veterinarians treat between 50-

100 camel patients and four veterinarians treat between 100-200 camel patients per month. On an

average 65% of the clinical situations required antimicrobial treatment. From these treatments they

were able to conduct follow-ups on 71% of the patients. In Table 2 reasons for not being able to

conduct follow-up treatments are shown. The preferred route of antimicrobial administration in adult

camels was the intravenous route (92.5%) and the per os route in camel calf patients (86.25%).

Table 2: Reasons for not following-up patients treated with antimicrobial agents

Reasons Yes No

Not

answered

Percentage of their

agreement with the reasons

cited

Camel herds are often remotely

located from your clinic 10 9 1 50

Persisting owner‘s demand, that

they would take care of the

follow-up

13 6 1 65

Owner‘s affordability in bearing

your visit charges for repeat visit

days

9 9 2 45

Non availability of Para

veterinary professionals like

Veterinarian assistants and

technologists

9 8 3 45

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge this is the first study in Oman undertaken to ascertain

information from field veterinarians in regards to the use of antimicrobials commonly encountered in

their camel practices. The results showed that three out of five preferred antimicrobials belonging to

the older antimicrobial groups such as tetracyclines, streptomycin, penicillins, and sulphonamides.

The least preferred antimicrobials belonged to the newer generation of cephalosporins,

aminoglycosides and thiopenicols. As there is an increase in antimicrobial resistance worldwide

against the older antimicrobial agents, such as tetracyclines, streptomycin, penicillins, sulphonamides,

and less prevalent against the newer cephalosporins, quinolones, and macrolides (Morley, 2005) it is a

fair assumption to question the effectiveness of camel treatments and the possibility of diminishing

54


effectiveness of these antimicrobial agents against bacterial pathogens. Compounding the problems

associated with the use of antimicrobial agents is the fact that many camel owners administer

treatments to their animals and that inappropriate doses may be used, as the amounts given are often

merely extrapolated from other large animals and this assumption might not be accurate. It would be

highly desirable to have regional diagnostic laboratories where bacterial diagnostics could be carried

out and susceptibility tests performed so that emerging trends of resistance could be monitored and

clinical veterinarians could be advised on appropriate antimicrobial treatments to administer to their

camel patients.

References

Ali, B.H., Oukessou, M., and Bashir, A.K. (1996). Pharmacokinetic Considerations in the Camel

(Camelus dromedarius): A Review Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 115(1): 1-9.

Morley, P. S., Apley, M. D., Besser, T. E., Burney, D. P., Fedorka-Cray, P. J., Papich, M. G., Traub-

Dargatz, J. L. and Weese, J. S. (2005). Antimicrobial Drug Use in Veterinary Medicine. JVet

Intern Med19:617–629

55


17. Preventive and Curative Ethnoveterinary Plant Remedies Applied by the Rendille

and Gabra Camel Keepers of Marsabit District, Northern Kenya

G.W.J. Njoroge

BVM, Msc - University of Nairobi


The need for increasing the options for prophylactic and therapeutic inputs and services

against livestock diseases/ailments among the resource poor camel keeping pastoral communities of

Marsabit District is evident. Due to the vastness and the remote residence of camel keepers, access to

modern veterinary inputs and services is limited or totally non-existened. This is because camels in

Kenya are reared far from any conventional veterinary delivery systems. In addition not many

veterinarians or even veterinary para-professions are willing to set up practices in ASAL regions of

the country due to the high operational costs. On the other hand the Government veterinary outreach

is also inadequate and where it exists, the personnel are usually poorly facilitated to offer meaningful

services to the camel keeper. As a result of this inherent benign animal health delivery challenges,

Rendille and camel keepers of Northern Kenya have developed an elaborate traditional camel health

care and healing system that has served them well. However continued use of flora based ethno-

veterinary practices is threatened by the gradual loss in biodiversity. This is a result of environmental

degradation occasioned by a combination of many factors that include: increasing sedentarization and

changing pastoral life styles, over grazing, impact of climate change and global warming among

others.

The study involved identification of livestock traditional healers and assessment of the level

of existing veterinary knowledge (EVK) and practices; collection, documentation and botanical

identification of the plant species and materials that were considered usable for managing livestock

diseases by the study communities and screening of all the medicinal plants cited for antimicrobial

activity.

In total, 72 plant species in 34 families were inventorized as medicinal plants applied by the

two communities in the prevention and curation of more than 20 livestock diseases. Some non-plant

based folk practices were also documented. Burseraceae, Caparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Mimosoideae

and Solanaceae were the five most common plant families. They contained 22 out of the 72 medicinal

plant species identified. Most of the diseases/ailments treated using the plant remedies could be

visualized into several broad but distinct categories. These included: internal disorders; external

injuries or ailments; eye infections; infertility and retained afterbirth (RAB) and mineral deficiency.

Sensitivity tests revealed that some of the herbal plants in use by the two communities like Terminalia

brownii have very high antibacterial activity. This was demonstrated by use of Muller-Hinton-Agar

(MHA) inoculated with Micrococus lutea and Bacillus cereus, using both the well and disc reservoir

methods and utilizing water and ethanol as the solvents. Out of the 36 medicinal plant species

available for screening for antibacterial activity, 21 were from Rendille community while 15 were

gathered from Gabraland. Terminaliabrownii from Rendille region showed the highest activity against

M.lutea, with an inhibition zone (diameter) of 24.0 mm and 25.0 mm with ethanol and water extracts

respectively, using the disc-method. Using the well-method, the same herb showed an inhibition zone

of 24.0 mm and 23.0 mm with ethanol and water extracts, respectively. Water extract of Balanites

aegyptiaca from Gabraland using disc-method gave an inhibition zone of 10.0 mm and 7.0 mm

against Bacilus cereus and Micrcoccus lutea respectively. Under the same extraction method,

Solunum incunum showed 9.0 mm and 9.0 mm for B. cereus and M. lutea respectively. Cucumis

dipsaceus gave the highest inhibition zone (14.0 mm) with B. cereus compared to 7.0 mm showed by

M. lutea after ethanol extraction in well- method while water extraction of Commiphora flaviflora

gave 10.0 mm and 9.0 mm against B. cereus and M. lutea respectively.

Based on these findings, it can be concluded that folk veterinary practices among the Rendille

and Gabra communities of Marsabit District exist and that some of the medicinal plants used by these

ethnic groups contain demonstrable antibacterial activity. It is therefore recommended that, there is a

need for further research to carry out clinical trials that would validate the efficacy of these remedies

and develop treatment regimes/crude dosing guidelines for the proven remedies. This should be based

on locally available gadgets (e.g. how much handful of roots should one boil in how much water to

obtain an equivalent of how many 300 mls bottles of ''Coca Cola soda'' to get an effective dose?

56


18. Incidence of Mastitis in One-Humped Camels (Camelus dromedarius) Under

Pastoral Management in Semi-Arid North-Eastern Nigeria

B.F. Muhammad1*

, H.A. Alkali1 and D.J.U. Kalla

2

1Department of Animal Science, Bayero University, PMB 3011, Kano-Nigeria.

2Animal Production Programme, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University,P.M.B. 0248, Bauchi-Nigeria.


Introduction

Mastitis, an inflammation of the udder, could be a potential source of low milk yield and

income in postoral camel herds (Blowey, 1999), especially in nothern Nigeria. The disease can be

infectious, caused as a result of physical injury to the mammary gland or contagious caused by

microorganisms. The inflammatory responses result in higher blood proteins and white blood cells in

the mammary tissues, which passes into the milk. The quality of milk is altered by changes in

composition and by increase in somatic cells. Edmonson (2004) reported a low milk calcium and

potassium levels in mastitic milk. The initial micro flora of milk reflects microbial contamination

during production process. Sub-clinical camel mastitis drastically reduces milk yield. The loss in milk

as a consequence of mastitis was ranked high by herdsmen than the loss of calf (Younan et al., 2004).

In northern Nigeria, camel milk is extensively consumed by nomads, fresh and soured and sometime

mixed with cow milk make cheese (Kalla, et al., 2007). The current study was designed assess the

incidence of mastitis in local camel herds under extensive pastoral management system.

Materials and Method

The study was conducted in Azare and Gamawa Local Government Areas of Bauchi State,

Nigeria. Bauchi State lies between latitudes 9o.3

‘ and 12

o.3

‘N and longitudes 8

o.5‘ and 11

o.0‘E. It has

a human population of 2,826,440 (BSADP, 2006).The State lies within the Sudan Savannah

ecological zone. The rainfall in the area ranges between 1000mm and 1300mm/annum. The relative

humidity ranges from about 12% in February to about 68% in August. The pastoralists managed their

animals extensively.

A total of 100 quarter milk samples were collected from 25 lactating camels at different

stages of lactation and analyzed for composition and presence of mastitis causing organisms as

described by Younan et al. (2000). Camels herds were at three different locations of approximately

50 km apart (Azare, Udubo and Yaba). Antibiotic sensitivity tests were carried out on all the isolates

using commercially available antibiotic (Nilsson et al., 1994). The data were analysed for variance

and the frequency of mastitis causing isolates, sensitivity test results and staining properties were

expressed as percentages.


The camel milk used in the study showed a significant difference in percentage milk protein due

to location of herd. However, no significant difference was recorded on fat, lactose, moisture and

solids not fat (SNF).Table 1 shows the distribution of bacterial isolates in camel milk during the

study. Staphylococcus aureus was the dominant isolate (24%). Others included: Klebsiella spp (16%),

Streptococcus spp (16%) and β-haemolytic streptococcus (12%). E.coli was the least frequent isolate

(8.0%). A mixture of Staphylococcus and Streptococcus made up 16% of the isolates.

Table 1. Percentage of isolates of camel milk in the study area.

Isolates Herds

A ( n=9) B ( n=7) C (n= 9) Total (n=25)

Staphylococcus aureus 33.33 (3) 42.86 (3) 0 24.0 (6)

Klebseilla spp 11.11 (1) 42.86 (3) 0 16.0 (4)

Streptococcus spp 11.11 (1) 42.86 (3) 0 16.0 (4)

-Haemolytic Streptococcus 11.11 (1) 14.29 (1) 11.11 (1) 12.0 (3)

Steptococcus feacalis 11.11 (1) 14.29 (1) 11.11 (1) 12.0 (3)

- Haemolytic streptococcus 0 14.29 (1) 22.22 (2) 12.0 (3)

Eschericia coli 0 0 22.22 (2) 8.0 (2)

Klebsiella +Staphylococcus 11.11(1) 22.22(2) 0 12.0(3)

Staphylococcus+ streptococcus 11.11(1) 42.86(3) 0 16.0(4)

57


No growth 44.4(4) 14.29(4) 22.22(2) 40.0(10)

Figures in parenthesis are the frequencies

Abdel Gader et al. (2005) reported Staphylococcus aureus to be the main pathogenic bacteria occurring

in camel milk The sensitivity and efficacy of various antibiotics on bacterial isolates in camel milk is

shown in Table 2. Results indicated that the isolates were sensitive to Gentamycin (100%) then

Chloramphenicol (85.7%) Sparflox, Augmentin, Erythromycin and Streptomycin (71% each).

Ampicillin had the least effect on the isolates 28.6%. The isolate α-haemolytic streptococcus was

sensitive to all the antibiotics. However, Staphylococcus aureus was sensitive to most of the test

antibiotics except Penicillin, Amoxicillin and Streptomycin. Gentamycin like other quinolone class

was effective against Staphylococci and showed excellent activity against gram negative bacilli (Kalla,

et.al., 2008). Most of the organisms were resistant to ampicillin and this agrees with the report of

Mekonnen et.al. (2005).

Table 2. Percentage Sensitivity of Isolates to test Antibiotics

*Antibiotics Isolates % Sensitivity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Penicillin R S R S R S R 57.0

Amoxicillin R S R S R S S 57.0

Ampicillin S R R R R S R 28.6

Cloxacin R S R R S S S 57.0

Streptomycin S S R S S S R 71.0

Chloramphenicol S S S S R S S 85.7

Erythromycin S S R S R S S 71.0

Tetracycline S R R R S S R 42.0

Augmentin S R S S R S S 71.0

Gentamycin S S S S S S S 100.0

Spafloxacin S R R S S S S 71.0

1= Staphylococcus aureus;, 2= Klebsiella spp; 3= Streptococcus spp; 4=β-haemolytic streptococcus; 5=

Streptococcus feacalis;6= α-haemolytic streptococcus;, 7= Escherichia coli; R= Resistant; S= Sensitive. *Trade

names

The staining property indicated that 60% of the total isolates were gram positive cocci in singles, 24%

gram positive cocci in chain, 12% gram negative bacilli while the least was gram negative rods

(12%). Higher bacterial cell counts were observed in late lactation (216×103 cell/ml) compared to

early (132.66×103cell/ml) and mid (177.56×10

3 cells/ml) lactations.

Conclusion

It was concluded that the microflora isolated from the camel milk in the study is a potential

cause of mastitis in dromedary camel. The antibiotics tested (especially gentamycin) had higher

potency against the mastitis causing microrganisms.

References

Abdul Gader, A., Hildebrandt, G., Kleer, J.N., Molla, B., Kyule, M. and Baumann, M. (2005).

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Mastitis Based on

Bacteriological Examinations in Selected Regions of Ethiopia. J. Camel Pract. Res. 12:33-36.

B.S.A.D.P (2006). Bauchi State Agricultural and Rural Development Program Annual report and

Publication.

Edmonson, P. (2004). Selling out. Express Milk Partnership, Express Dairies, April-04, p16.

Kalla, D.J.U., Bustwat, I.S.R., Mbap, S.T., Abdussamad, A.M., Ahmed, M.S. and Okonkwo, I.

(2007). Microbiological examination of camel milk and sensitivity of milk microflora to

commonly available antibiotics in Kano, Nigeria. Savannah Journal of Agriculture2:1-9.

Kalla, D.J.U., Zahraddeen, D. and Yerima, J. (2008). Reproductive performance of one humped camel

at the Komodugu-Yobe River Basin, Nigeria. WBC/ICAR Satelite meeting on Camelid

Reproduction. Pp 77-81.

Nilsson, L. (1994). Studies on diagnosis according to a new method MASTRISTIP.

Proc.XV11Nordict Vet. Cong. 1994, 26-29thJuly 2:35-37.

Younan, M, Ali, A.M. and Bornstein, S. (2004). Streptococcus agalactiae infection in camels

(Camelus dromedarius) In Kenya. Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pays trop., 53(2): 169-171.

58


19. Pyrethroid (Lambda cyhalothrin) Poisoning in Camels

M.I. Abubakr1, M.N. Nayel

1, A.O. Abdelrahman

1, S.A. Abuobida

1, A.T. Ahmed

2

And E.F. Mirghani1

1Royal Court Veterinary Unit, P.O. Box 28532, West Riffa, Kingdom of Bahrain 2Dept.Chem.College Science, P.O. Box 32038, IsaTown, Kingdom of Bahrain


Introduction

Synthetic pyrethroids are neuropoisons acting on the axons in the peripheral and central

nervous systems by interacting with sodium channels in mammals and/or insects (Ruigt et al., 1986,

Vijerberg et al. 983, Wang et al., 2007). Lambda cyhalothrin is a pyrethroid insecticide used for

controlling pest insects in agriculture, public health and in construction and households (European-

Commission, 2001, Lawler et al., 2007). Under alkaline conditions it hydrolyses to form cyanohydrin

which degrades to form hydrocyanic acid and the corresponding aldehyde (He LM et al., 2008). It is

highly toxic for zebrafish, shrim fish, frogs, rats, and bees (Kumar et al., 2007, Ruigt et al.1986,

Smart, et al., 1982, Verschoyle, et al., 1980).

Studies using laboratory animals showed that Lambda cyhalothrin may induce neurotoxic

effects such as staggering gait, muscle tremors and convulsions. (Kumar, et al. 2007, Van Den

Bercken, et al., 1979, Vijverberg, et al., 1982, 1982 b, 1983).

In humans, the clinical signs of poisoning include irritation of the eyes, irritability, headache,

dizziness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation, fatigue, muscle twitching, fluids in the

lungs, muscle twitching, and seizures (Gu BG, et al. 2007). No records were obtained on Lambda

Cyhalothrin poisoning in field animals.

Case History Lambda Cyhalothrin acute poisoning occurred amongst a herd of 132 hungry adult female

camels that grazed on Sesuvium vericusum plant, (family Aizoaceae) sprayed with this insectside. The

morbidity rate was 100%. The mortality rate was very high 81.82%, (Figure 1).

The clinical signs appeared 15-20 minutes after the consumption of the sprayed plant. Death

occurred 2-4 hours after the onset of the clinical signs. Due to the lack of oxygen, the brain and heart

were the first to be affected. The affected camels showed an increased rate of respiration and pulse

rate, muscular tremors, incoordination (Figure 2), staggering gate, excitement, salivation, vomiting

(Figure 3), defecation (Figure 4), bloat, blue coloration of the mouth and eyes mucous membranes,

recumbency, terminal convulsions and death. At postmortem the venous blood was bright red in color.


Sprayed plant, blood and serum, stomach and intestinal contents, liver, kidney, heart, brain

and abomasum were collected for toxicological examination. The blood was examined using Vetscan

HM 5 Hematology system. The serum was examined using ACE Alera Clinical chemistry System.

Small intestine, kidney, liver, heart, brain and abomasum were immediately fixed in formal saline.

Later they were embedded in paraffin wax, sectioned and stained with haematoxylin-eosin stain.

Laboratory Findings

The blood showed no significant changes. Serum examination showed significant increase in

creatine kinase (CK), y-glutamyltransferase (GGT), glucose, urea, alkaline phosphatase (ALP),

triglyceride (TRI), and sodium levels. A significant decrease was seen in uric acid and magnesium

levels (Table1). The kidney showed intertubular and glomerular hemorrhages, degeneration (Figure 5,

and Figure 6), and peripheral hemorrhages with separation and distension of the renal capsule. The

liver (Figure 7) and abomasum (Figure 8), showed severe hemorrhages and cellular degeneration. The

heart showed severe hemorrhages and fragmentation and separation of myofibers, due to the

hemorrhages, and cellular infiltration (Figure 9). The brain showed diffused liquefaction necrosis

which destroyed most of the grey matter (Figure 10). The small intestine showed severe hemorrhagic

enteritis (Figure 11). Screening of the stomach and intestinal contents using gas chromtograph and

mass spectrophotometer of the stomach and intestinal contents revealed the presence of the ingested

Prethroid insecticide.

59


Treatment

Due to the acuteness of toxicity it was too late to treat an affected animal after the signs were

recognized. Only supportive intravenous treatment was given in the form of liters of 2 Linger Lactate

and 3 liters of Normal Saline given simultaneously.

Discussion

The significant increase in CK resulted from the muscular dystrophy and myocardial

infarction. The significant increase in ALP, GGT, and GLU, and the decrease in Uric Acid and MG

indicates liver damage. The increase in Urea and TRI and NA, and the decrease in MG indicates renal

failure due to decreased glomerular infiltration rate as a result of renal insufficiency.

Table 1 : Serum biochemical values in 9 poisoned camels

CK: Creatine Kinase ALP: Alkaline Phosphatase GLU: Glucose

GGT: Y-Glutamyltransferase UA: Uric Acid MG:Magnesium

NA: Sodium TRI: Triglyceride

Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3.

Very high mortality rate Incoordination Vomiting

Parameter CK ALP GGT GLU UREA UA MG TRI NA

NORMAL

RANGE

26-69.8

U/L 41-103 U/L

5-24

U/L

103-157

U/L

6-24

MG/DL

2.6-7.2

MG/DL

1.9-3.5

MMOL/L

3-30

MG/DL

114-133

MMOL/

L ANIMAL NO.

1 154 118 77 260 57.4 0.39 1.23 170 178 ANIMAL NO.

2 148 175 29 175 60.4 0.38 0.89 66 186 ANIMAL NO.

3 304.1 215 28 167 75.7 0.36 1.39 42 197 ANIMAL NO.

4 155 187 34 183 48.9 0.27 1.01 33 178 ANIMAL NO.

5 976.4 180 32 215 47.2 0.27 0.7 43 185 ANIMAL NO.

6 3127.6 229 29 164 54.3 0.36 0.86 37 188 ANIMAL NO.

7 558.3 178 31 166 48.5 0.36 1.01 75 177 ANIMAL NO.

8 1328.6 252 32 192 75.5 0.39 0.93 50 179 ANIMAL NO.

9 914 167.4 213 213 64 0.53 1.26 139 175

60


Figure 4 Figure 5. Figure 6.

Defecation. Kidney: Intertubular and Kidney: Intertubular

glomerular hemorrhages and hemorrhages and degeneration.

degeneration.

Figure 7. Liver: Severe Figure 8. Abomasum: Figure 9. Heart: Figure 10. Brain

hemorrhages and Severe hemorrhages Severe hemorrhages diffused liquefaction

cellular degeneration. & cellular degeneration & fragmentation & necrosis

separation of myofibers

References European-Commission (2001) Review report for the active substance lambda-cyhalothrin. 7572/

VI/97-final. 25 January 2001.

http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/protection/evaluation/existactive/list1-24_en.pdf.

Gu BG, Wang HM, Chen WL, Cai DJ, Shan ZJ (2007) Risk assessment of lambda-cyhalothrin on

aquatic organisms in paddy field in China. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 48:69-74.

He LM., Troiano J., Wang A, Goh K. (2008) Environmental chemistry, ecotoxicity, and fate of

Lambda-Cyhalothrin. Rev. Environ Contam Toxicol., 195, 71-91.

Kumar A., Sarma B., Pandey RS. (2007). Preliminary evaluation of the acute toxicity of

cyprermethrin and Lambda-cyhalothrin to Channa Punctatus. 79, (6), 613-616.

Lawler SP, Dritz DA, Christiansen JA, Cornel AJ (2007) Effects of lambda-cyhalothrin on mosquito

larvae and predatory aquatic insects. Pest Manag Sci 63:234-240.

Lund, A. E. & Narahashi, T. (1983) Kinetics of sodium channel modification as the basis for the

variation in the nerve membrane effects of pyrethroids and DDT analogs. Pestic. Biochem.

Physiol., 20: 203-216.

Ruigt, G.S.F. & Van Den Bercken, J. (1986) Action of pyrethroids on a nerve muscle preparation of

the clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol., 25: 176-187.

Smart, L.E. & Stevenson, J.H. (1982) Laboratory estimation of toxicity of pyrethroid insecticides to

honeybees: Relevance to hazard in the field. Bee World, 63(4): 150-152.

Van Den Bercken, J., Kroses, A.B.A., & Akkermans, L.M.A. (1979) Effects of insecticides on the

sensory nervous system. In: Narashashi, T., ed. Neurotoxicology of insecticides and

pheromones, New York, London, Plenum Publishing Corporation, pp. 183-210.

10. Verschoyle, R.D. & Aldridge, W.N. (1980) Structure-activity relationships of some

pyrethroids in rats. Arch. Toxicol., 45: 325-329.

61


Vijverberg, H.P.M. & Van Den Bercken, J. (1982) Action of pyrethroid insecticides on the vertebrate

nervous system. Neuropathol. appl. Neurobiol., 8: 421-440.

Vijverberg, H.P.M., Van Der Zalm, J.M., & Van Den Bercken, J. (1982b) Similar mode of action of

pyrethroids and DDT on sodium channel gating in myelinated nerves. Nature (Lond.), 295:

601-603.

Vijverberg, H.P.M., Van Der Zalm, J.M., Van Kleef, R.G.D.M., & Van Den Bercken, J. (1983)

Temperature- and structure-dependent interaction of pyrethroids with the sodium channels in

the frog node of Ranvier. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 728: 73-82.

Wang W, Cai DJ, Shan ZJ, Chen WL, Poletika N, Gao XW (2007) Comparison of the acute toxicity

for gamma-cyhalothrin and lambda-cyhalothrin to zebra fish and shrimp. Regul Toxicol

Pharmacol 47:184-188.

62


20. Search For The Best Adjuvant For Use in Dromedaries

J. Kinne, A.M. Eckersley and U. Wernery

Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CRVL), Dubai, UAE

Correspoding author email: [email protected]

Introduction

Immunological research of the camel has highlighted the benefits of this animal as a model

for pathogenic diseases and as a potent source of antibody production (Abbas and Agab, 2002)

including the development of novel antisera, serological testing methods, and even biomarkers

(Deffar et al., 2009). Discovered by Ramon et al, in the 1920s (Ramon, 1925), adjuvants are

compounds that augment or prolong a specific immune response when injected in conjunction with an

antigen, without having any antigenic properties themselves (Vogel et al., 1998). At the Central

Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL) in Dubai, both FCA and FIA had been previously used to

enhance antibody production in the dromedary camel. Unfortunately, this use was associated with

severe inflammatory reactions at the injection site. However, to maximise antibody production, a

camel must be re-inoculated multiple times with up to six booster vaccine doses before a suitable

antibody titre can be reached. Subsequently, other adjuvants needed to be tested in camels.


Seven different adjuvants were used in the trial: oil-based emulsion adjuvants such as Gerbu

Vet and Montanide ISA and IMS; the polysaccharide-based adjuvant, Advax XLTM XL™ and the

Poly(gamma-glutamic acid) adjuvant. Gerbu Pharma consists of biodegradable cationised lipid

nanoparticles, whereas Montanide Pet Gel A (PGA) consists of a high molecular weight polyacrylic

polymer in water. Finally, Sigma Aldrich Plc.‘s Aluminium Hydroxide Gel was also included. Advax

XLTM

was developed by Dr. Nickolai Petrovski et al (Vaxine Pty Ltd., Australia) and formulated

specially for the use in this trial. It consists of a nanocrystalline isoform of inulin, a polysaccharide

consisting of a linear chain of fructose capped by glucose (Petrovski et al., 2004). One viral antigen

(killed African Horse Sickness Virus-AHSV) and one bacterial antigen (killed B. mallei) were used.

Antigen-specific antibody responses and measures of reactogenicity (inflammation, skin thickness and

pyrogenicity) were assessed.

A total of 18 camels were used, stabled at CVRL. Camels were checked that they had not

been previously immunised with either B. mallei or AHSV prior to this study. Eight camels were

injected with antigen-adjuvant mixtures on either side of the neck (AHS antigen on to one side, B.

mallei on to the other side). Another 8 camels were injected with pure adjuvant (without antigen) on

one side. The last 2 camels were injected with pure antigen (without adjuvant) on one side. Camels

receiving adjuvanted-AHS4 vaccines were given a single booster dose three weeks post-inoculation,

whereas camels receiving B. mallei vaccines were boosted every week up to a total of 5 booster doses

post-inoculation. In a second trial, using B. mallei antigen, a six booster regime was applied.

Adjuvants which caused severe inflammatory responses (Montanide ISA, Gerbu Vet and Gerbu

Pharma) were left out since the six booster regime would be too traumatic to the camels. Only

Montanide IMS, Montanide PGA, Alum, and Advax XLTM

were used in this second trial.

Results

The oil-based emulsion adjuvants such as Gerbu Vet and Montanide ISA whilst enhancing

antigen-specific antibody production, suffered from high levels of reactogenicity. By contrast, two

newer particulate adjuvants, the polysaccharide-based adjuvant, Advax XLTM XL™, and the

Poly(gamma-glutamic acid) adjuvant, Montanide PGA were not associated with significant

reactogenicity. Of all the adjuvants tested Advax XLTM XL™, showed the most favourable overall

response, enhancing high levels of specific antibody to both African Horse Sickness and B. mallei

whereas Montanide PGA induced antibodies to only African Horse Sickness.

In general, it was observed that all adjuvants mixed with B. mallei produced more

inflammation when compared to that of AHS. It can therefore be assumed that differences in severity

are caused by the antigen itself. Antigens injected without adjuvants did not induce any inflammatory

responses, or antibody production. This means that there was no immune response to antigens injected

without adjuvants.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18041033


63


Conclusion

The main aim of this trial was to find the best adjuvant for antibody production in the

dromedary camel. This adjuvant will have had to stimulate a high antibody titre to both a viral and

bacterial antigen, without inducing a severe local reaction. The adjuvant Advax XLTM

generated a

high antibody titre to both bacterial and viral antigens and did not induce any significant inflammatory

reaction. Montanide PGA and Alum both gave high antibody titres with the viral antigen without

inducing inflammation. However, they did not stimulate an antibody response to the bacterial antigen.

Montanide ISA, Gerbu Vet and Gerbu Pharma all produced a good antibody titre to the viral antigen,

but generated severe inflammation at the same time. Montanide IMS, did not produce antibodies of

any kind to both bacterial and viral antigens. Through this trial, Advax XLTM

has therefore proved to

be the best adjuvant because it produced antibody to both antigens tested, without inducing

inflammation. Montanide PGA succeeded in this, with respect to viral antigen exposure, and therefore

also has the potential to become a very useful adjuvant for the future.

References

Abbas, B. and Agab, H.( 2002). A review of camel brucellosis. Preventative Veterinary Medicine, 55

(1): 47-56.

Deffar, K., Hengliang, S., Liang, L., Xingzhi, W., Xiaojuan, Z. (2009). Nanobodies, the new concept

of antibody engineering. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8 (12): 2645-2652.

Petrovski, N. and Aguilar, J.C. (2004). Vaccine Adjuvants: Current State and Future Trends.

Immunology and Cell Biology, 82: 488-496.

Ramon, G. (1925). Sur L‘augmentation anormale de l‘antitoxine chez les chevaux producteurs de

serum antidiphterique. Bull. Soc. Centr. Med. Vet., 101: 227-234

Vogel, F.R., Brown, F., Haaheim, L.R. (1998). Adjuvants in Perspective. Modulation of the Immune

Response to Vaccine Antigens. Dev. Biol. Stand, 92: 241-2458.

64


21. Identification of Nanobodies for Screening Breast Cancer Patients

S. Muyldermans1,2

*, U. Wernery3, R. Wernery

3, K. Khazanehdari

3, I. Vaneycken

4, N. Van Gassen

1,2,

C. Vincke1,2

, C. Xavier4. T. Lahoutte

4,5, V. Caveliers

4, 5 and N. Devoogdt

4

1Department of Molecular and Cellular Interactions, VIB, Brussels, Belgium.

2Department of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.

3Central Veterinary Research Laboratories, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.

4In vivo Cellular and Molecular Imaging Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.

5Nuclear Medicine Department, UZ Brussel, Brussels, Belgium


Introduction

Camelids have unique antibodies circulating in their blood (Hamers-Casterman et al., 1993).

These so-called Heavy-chain antibodies lack an immunoglobulin light chain, which means that the

antigen is recognized by one single domain, known as the nanobody. Using standard genetic

engineering techniques we developed a strategy to clone a library of nanobodies from the

lymphocytes of an immunized dromedary (or llama). By displaying the cloned nanobodies at the tip

of bacteriophages, it becomes possible to select the antigen-specific nanobodies (Saerens et al., 2004).

The selected, recombinant nanobodies have many useful properties for biotechnological applications

and even for diagnostic or therapeutic applications. Because of their small size, the nanobodies are

expected to diffuse rapidly throughout the body to reach their target organs, while the excess of

nanobodies will be rapidly cleared from the body via the kidneys. Therefore radio-labeled nanobodies

should be a potent tool to trace in vivo the presence of tumors in a non-invasive approach.

To test this idea, we decided to generate nanobodies against the human epidermal growth

factor receptor or HER2 since human cancers of epithelial origin such as breast cancers are often

overexpressing this membrane protein that is generally associated with poor prognosis. Potent

therapeutic anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies (Trastuzumab and Pertuzumab) are available, however,

the use of these expensive therapeutics is only effective to treat the HER2 positive breast cancers. To

determine the appropriate therapy, the HER2 status of breast tumors is currently assessed invasively

in tumor biopsies. It is our objective to replace the invasive tumor biopsies by a non-invasive in vivo

radioimmunodetection of HER2 positive tumors using nanobodies and single photon emission

computed tomography (SPECT).


A dromedary was immunized with recombinant HER2 mixed in Gerbu adjuvant (Vaneycken

et al., 2011). The generation of the library of nanobodies, the selection of HER2-specific nanobodies,

the expression and purification of nanobodies and their biochemical characterization (yield, stability,

affinity, epitope mapping) was as described by Saerens et al., (2005). Labeling of nanobodies with 99m

Tc was according to Vaneycken et al., (2011). The reactivity of the nanobodies to HER2 positive

SKOV3 cells with either cold or 99m

Tc-labeled anti-HER2 Nanobodies, the biodistribution and tumor

targeting potential was evaluated in nude mice bearing HER2 positive LS174T and HER2 negative

MDAMB435D xenografts for two selected nanobodies (2Rs15d and 1R136d) via in vivo pinhole

SPECT/micro-CT. The exact protocols are published in Vaneycken et al. (2011).


Forty nanobodies against HER2 were retrieved from the nanobody library cloned from an

HER2-immunised dromedary. By biosensor measuremetns (Biacore T100) it was shown that these

nanobodies have low nanomolar affinity for their cognate antigen. We then continued with those

nanobodies that could be purified with a yield above 1 mg per liter of bacterial culture and lacking

reactive amino groups (lysines) in their antigen binding loops. The nanobodies were 99m

Tc-labeled and

purified to a final radiochemical purity of more than 99%. Saturation binding studies showed that 99m

Tc labeling was in general not associated with a great reduction of immunoreactivity. Most

nanobodies (but not all) are apparently not competing for HER2 binding with the therapeutic

antibodies Trastuzumab or Pertuzumab (Hoffman-La Roche).

The in vivo biodistribution of the labeled nanobodies indicated that tumor accumulation

65


varied between 0.78 and 4.44 percent injected radio-activity per gram of tissue (% IA/g). Three 99m

Tc-

nanobodies tested in HER2 positive SKOV3 xenografts, have a tumor uptake of more than 4 % IA/g.

Two of these show high tumor uptake (3.760.82 and 4.320.92 % IA/g) in HER2+ LS174T

xenografts, but low uptake in HER2ˉ MDAMB435d xenografts (0.710.07 and 0.730.35 % IA/g).

Importantly, apart from the specific tumor uptake and high non-specific renal uptake, all 99m

Tc-

nanobodies displayed low non-specific accumulation in the liver, muscle and blood, resulting in high

tumor-to-background ratios.

The potential of two nanobodies (2Rs15d and 1R136d) to recognize the HER2 antigen on

LS174T cells (HER2 positive) or MDA-MB-435D (HER2 negative) cells when present in female

athymic nude mice was tested by non-invasive in vivo imaging (Figure 1). These results demonstrate

the potential of 99m

Tc-Nanobody 2Rs15d as tracers for non-invasive imaging of HER2 expressing

tumors, and this nanobody is identified as our lead for a phase I clinical study.

Figure 1. Representative transverse, coronal and sagital views of fused SPECT/CT images of HER2ˉ

MDAMB435D and HER2+

LS174T tumor-bearing mice 1h after i.v. injection of 99m

Tc-labeled nanobodies

showing good tumor targeting in the HER2+

tumorand poor tumor accumulation by anti-HER2 99m

Tc-

Nanobodies in HER2- tumor.

References

Hamers-Casterman C., T. Atarhouch, S. Muyldermans, C. Hamers, G. Robinson, E. Baiyana Songa,

N. Bendahman, & R. Hamers. (1993) Naturally occurring antibodies devoid of light chains.

Nature 363, 446-448.

Saerens D., Hassanzadeh Gh.Gh., Muyldermans S. (2008). Single domain antibodies as building

blocks for novel therapeutics. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 8, 600-608.

Saerens D, Kinne J, Bosmans E., Wernery U., Muyldermans S., Conrath K. (2005).Single domain

antibodies derived from dromedary lymph node and peripheral blood lymphocytes sensing

conformational variants of prostate-specific antigen. J.Biol.Chem.279, 51965-51972.

Vaneycken I., Devoogdt N., Van Gassen N., Vincke C., Xavier C., Wernery U., Muyldermans S.,

Lahoutte T., Caveliers V. (2011). Preclinical screening of anti-HER2 nanobodies

for molecular imaging of breast cancer. FASEB J, 25, 2433-2446.

66


Medicine

Infectious Disease

and

Health

67


22. Observations on Total and TCA-Soluble Plasma Copper Levels in Omani Camels

During Winter and Summer Seasons

Nur El Huda I.E.D. Osman

Open University of Sudan


Introduction

Seasonal variation in plasma Cu status has been reported in goats in Oman (Osman et al,

2003) and in Pakistan (Khan et al., 2007). Cu deficiency was reported in Oman in livestock (Ivan et

al, 1990). This report aimed to study plasma Cu levels in Omani camels in winter and summer

seasons.


Female camels, (n=25 in Winter and n=35 in Summer) all above 8 years of age, were picked

at random from a large herd raised and kept for racing and festivals on a large farm north of Muscat.

The herd was housed in half shaded good ventilated large pens. The camels were given in groups

fresh alfa alfa (20 kg/head/d containing (mg/kg DM): 9.4 Cu and 566.3 Fe, and dates (5 kg/head/d

containing Cu (7.57) and Fe (317.1) and mineralised salt blocks containing Cu (300) and Fe (1500),

ad libitum. Fresh water was provided freely. The animals were dewormed twice a year. Total plasma

and TCA-sol Cu in blood samples collected in heparinized vaccutaner tubes from the jugular veins of

the camels, during winter and summer seasons, and in dried samples of dates and alfa alfa, were

determined following methods described by Osman et al, 2003. Effects of season on measured TCu

and TCA-sol (mg/l) and the calculated proportion of TCA-sol/TCu was studied using General Linear

Model procedure using SPSS 19 (2010) personal computer package.

Results

In both groups of camels the mean TCu concentrations were within deficient to marginal

levels (Table1). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference between means of TCu in camels bled

in Winter and those bled in Summer (Table1). The mean of TCA-sol tended to be higher (P = 0.075)

in Summer than that in Winter. The proportion of TCA-sol/TCu was higher (P = 0.002) in Summer

than in Winter

Table 1 Means (± SE) of measured TCu, TCA-soluble (mg/l) and the calculated proportion of

TCu/TCA-soluble Cu in camels that had their TCu within normal (> 0.699 mg/l) or low (< 0.70 mg/l)

ranges, and the total group during winter and summer seasons

Winter bleeding Summer bleeding Significance

of season

effect Total Normal Low) Total Normal Low

N 25 6 19 35 4 31

TCu 0.55±0.05 0.76±0.06 0.47±.03 0.50±0.03 0.75±0.09 0.46±0.03 P<0.05

TCA-sol 0.39±0.04 0.60±0.07 0.30±0.04 0.46±0.03 0.72±0.08 0.42±0.03 P=0.075

TCA-

sol/TCu

0.74±0.06 0.80±0.1 0.72±0.07 0.93±0.03 0.96±0.12 0.93±0.04 P=0.002

Discussion

The main feature observed in this study was that a large proportion of camels (76 and 89% in

winter and summer, respectively), had their TCu within marginal to deficient levels, as suggested for

cattle (Perry, T. W., 1980) in both seasons. Means of 0.9 – 1.0 mg/l were found in camels in Sudan

(Naway, 1983), 0.86 ± 0.24 mg/l in Bactrian camels in China (Zong-Ping et al, 1994) and 0.9 – 1.0

mg/l for dromedary and 0.8 - 0.9 mg/l for Bactrian camels reported by the Zoological Society of

London (Higgins and Kock, 1986). In closer regions serum Cu was reported in UAE as 61.1 µg/100

ml (Fey, et al., 2005) and 71.51±0.05µg/dL in Al-Shargia region in Oman (Eltahir, et al., 2010). The

dietary Cu levels in the current study were adequate, which suggests secondary causes to affect these

TCu levels in the studied region. Current dietary Fe level was considered high enough to interfere

with Cu metabolism in cattle (Bremner, et al, 1983). Furthermore, the high TCA-sol/TCu,

particularly in winter, suggests the presence of high Mo and S in these diets. The reduction in blood

68


Cu to the level of 0.28 ± 0.17 mg/l was also observed in Chinese Bactrian camels fed from pastures

containing Mo at 4.8 ± 0.25 mg/kg DM and Cu at 6.5 mg/kg DM (Zong-Ping, et al., 1994). The

results presented by Ivan et al (1990) in Oman provided a Mo level of 2.8 Mg/kg DM and 0.37 % Of

S in alfa alfa samples. These levels were enough to affect the Cu metabolism in sheep (Suttle, 1974).

The diets of fresh alfa alfa fodder further reduce the availability of dietary Cu in the presence of small

increases in Mo compared to corresponding increases in hay (Suttle, 1978).

References

Bremner, I.; Phillipo, M.; Humphries, W.R.; Young, B.W. and Mills, C.F. (1983) Effects of iron and

molybdenum metabolism in calves. In: Trace elements in animal production and veterinary

practice: Occasional Publication No. 7 – British Society of Animal Producton. Edited by N.F.

Suttle, R. G. Gunn, W. M. Allen, K.A. Linklater and G. Wiener.

Eltahir, Y.E., Ali, H.M., and Mahgoub, O. (2010) Serum mineral contents of the Omani racing

Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 9:764-

2010.

Fey, B., Seboussi and, M. (2005) Trace elements and heavy metals in healthy camel blood of United

Arab Emirates. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 12:1-6.

Higgins, A.J. and Kock, R.A. (1986) A guide to the clinical examination, chemical restraint and

medication of the camel. P 21 – 40. In: The Camel in Health and Disease. Edited by Andrew

Higgins. Published by Bailliere Tindall, London.

Ivan, M., Hidiroglou, M.; Ismaily, S.I.; Al-Sumry, H.S. and Harper, R.B. (1990) Copper deficiency

and posterior paralysis (Shalal) in small ruminants in the Sultanate of Oman. Trop. Anim.

Hlth Prod. 22: 217-225

Khan, Z.A., Hussain, A., Ashraf, M., Ashraf, M.Y., McDwell, L.R. and Huchzermeyer, B. ( 2007).

Copper nutrition of goats grazing native and improved pasture with the seasonal variation in a

semiarid region of Pakistan. Small Ruminant Research, 67:138-148.

Naway, N. G. (1983). Studies on the normal clinical values, haematology and serum constituents of

the one humped camel (Camillus dromedarius). MVSc thesis, May 1983; Dept of Medicine,

Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum.

Osman, N.H.I.; E.H Johnson, R. Al-Busaidi and N.F. Suttle (2003). The effects of breed, neonatal

age and pregnancy on the plasma copper of goats in Oman. Veterinary Research

Communications, 27:219-229.

Perry, T. W. (1980) Mineral requirements of beef cattle. p 33-48 In: Beef cattle feeding and

nutrition. Academic Press, New York.

Suttle, N.F. (1974) Effects of molybdenum and sulphur at concentrations commonly found in

ruminant diets on the availability of copper in sheep. P. 612-614 In : Hoekstra, W.G.,

Ganther, H.E.; Mertz, W.; editors. Trace element metabolism in animals-2 Baltimore:

University Park Press.

Suttle, N.F. (1978) Effects of sulphur and molybdenum on the absorption of copper from forage

crops by ruminants. P:179-211. In: J.C. Borgan; editor. Proceedings, symposium on sulphur

in forages, Waxford, Ireland. Dublin : An Foras Taluntais.

Zong-Ping, L;Zhuo, M. and You-Jia, Z. (1994). Studies on the relationship between sway disease of

Bactrian camels and copper status in Gansu province. Vet. Res. Comm., 18: 251-260.

69


23. Challenges of Veterinary Care in a Large-Scale Camel Dairy Farm and the Effect of

Health Status on International Trade of Camel Milk (Camelus dromedarius)

J. Juhasz and P. Nagy

Emirates Industries for Camel Milk & Products, P.O. Box 294236, Dubai, U.A.E.


Introduction

Camels are well adapted to harsh conditions and can produce more milk than any other

animal in the same environment. However, camel milk is produced exclusively in traditional farming

systems with low productivity that can not guarantee constant milk for urban markets or for

international trade. In addition, camels are mainly considered as packing or racing animals and their

production potential is underestimated (Faye, 2005). There are only few examples where large

numbers of camels are ―confined‖ to an intensive production system (Juhasz et al. 2009). Hence,

knowledge on the effect of concentration and intensive management on the veterinary care, health

status and fertility of large dromedary herds is limited. An integrated camel milk production,

processing and distribution company was established in Dubai a few years ago that created the

world‘s first ISO certified, large-scale camel milking farm. From a scientific point of view, the farm

can be considered as an unique ―research‖ project on management, husbandry, veterinary care to

evaluate the long term effect of intensification on a traditional species, the dromedary camel.In this

presentation, we summarize the challenges facing our team to produce constant, good quality camel

milk from healthy animals that is suitable not only for domestic consumption but also for international

trade.


The farm had to overcome several challenges. The concentration of animals, establishment of

production, development of farm facilities, increase in production and in number of camels have been

going on simultaneously. While the health status of the production group was stable and secure, there

has been continuous importation of new animals of unknown production and health history from

various sources. This fact required the establishment of strict quarantine measure and the operation of

2 units (quarantine and production) under the same ―roof‖. Pre-purchase examination criteria were

also established to maximize production potential and minimize the risk of introduction of new

camels. The veterinary care has several aims/tasks in a large-scale farm such as (1) to control

infectious and zoonotic diseases; (2) to prevent multi-factorial diseases; (3) to decrease losses caused

by intensive management; (4) to recognize and treat sub-clinical and clinical conditions; (5) to

increase production by reaching maximum ―production‖ life-span of healthy animals and (6) to

maintain animal well-being (welfare) and harmonize it with the environment. In order to reach these

aims several programs have been developed and the husbandry/management system is under

continuous improvement. The Bio-security Program consists of (1) control of animal movement; (2)

control of movement of people; (3) cleaning and sanitation; (4) pest control and (5) staff training,

health care, hygiene. The Herd Health Management Program has 3 main elements such as (1) Disease

Control and Health Program; (2) Animal Welfare and Well-being Program and (3) the Breeding and

Reproductive Management Program. All these elements are documented in Standard Operation

Procedures (SOPs) that are part of the Food Safety Management System (FSMS) Manual and are

discussed in details in the presentation.


Since the opening of the farm in 2006, there was a gradual increase in the number of adult

camels, followed by a sudden jump to 1500 animals in 2008. By now, the number of camels has been

stabilized around 1300 animals. There were over 35000 different serological tests performed on

samples from the farm. Some of these results have been published by Wernery et al. (2007). A total of

5.3 % (860/16240), 0.8 % (31/4093) and 0.4 % (9/2033) of the samples were positive serologically for

Brucellosis, Tuberculosis and FMD, respectively. Camels positive for any OIE listed disease have

been removed from the premises of the farm. We have been successful to keep the farm free of major

infectious diseases. In 2010, the 466 clinical ceases in adult animals were distributed among the

following disorders: mastitis (37.4%), abscess formation (20.6 %), metabolic & nutritional problems

70


(10.5 %), bacterial & viral infections (10.1%), injuries (7.9 %), reproductive & obstetrical problems

(6.7 %), dermatitis (2.1 %) and others (1.5 %). Mortality has been 2.8 % per year (36 cases). Every

year there are new diseases that may not reoccur in subsequent years. In 2010, 50 % of the losses (20

cases) were related to bacterial & viral infections. Most of these cases were caused by a newly

emerged Rhodococcus equi infection (Kinne at al., 2011) coupled with chronic mastitis. The

continuous control of ecto-parasites (Sarcoptic Mange, Ticks) and fungal skin infections (Ringworm)

represent a constant challenge and takes a lot of effort.

Breeding management and high reproductive efficiency are vital on a large-scale farm in

order to control seasonal changes and maintain constant milk production. During 4 breeding seasons,

we achieved > 80 % end of season pregnancy rate. Live birth rate showed a decreasing tendency from

80 to 73 % from 2007 until 2011. In parallel, reproductive loss was increased during the 2009-2010

breeding season. Every year, increasing numbers of calves were born (165-498) that highlights the

importance of neonatal management. Calf mortality has been below 10 % for several years. However,

due to a new disease of unknown reason that caused CNS signs, calf mortality reached 25 % in the

last calving season. Corrective measures have been taken to prevent the occurrence of the disease

during the next season.

We conclude that it is possible to keep dromedaries in intensive management system without

causing excessive stress to the animals, however, the incidence of multi-factorial disease is increasing.

In general, the animal health status of the farm is good and supports the international trade of camel

milk.

References

Faye, B. (2005). Productivity potential of Camels. In: Desertification combat and food safety. The

added value of camel producers. Eds. Faye and Esenov, IOS Press, NATO Science Series,

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshops, 127-134.

Juhasz, J., Marko, O., Thomas, S., Nagy, P. (2009). Milk Production Potential, Quality of Raw Milk

and Reproductive Efficiency of Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius). FAO/IAEA

Symposium on Sustainable development on animal production and health. 8-11 June 2009,

IAEA Vienna, Austria

Kinne J., Madarame H., Takai S., Jose S., Wernery U. (2011). Disseminated Rhodococcus equi

infection in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Vet Microbiol. Apr 21;149 (1-2):269-

72.

Wernery, U., Thomas, R., Syriac, G., Raghavan, R., Kletzka, S. (2007). Seroepidemiological studies

for the detection of antibodies against 9 infectious diseases in dairy dromedaries (Part-I.). J.

Camel Pract. and Research 14(2).85-90.

71


24. Breed Variation in Serum and Tissue Copper, Zinc, Manganese and Magnesium of

Camels (Camelus dromedaries) in Saudi Arabia

M. Abdelrahman*, R. Aljumaah and M. Ayadi

King Saud University

College of Food and Agriculture Science, Department of Animal Production

P.O.Box 2460 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia


Introduction

Minerals are very crucial for animal health and productivity by playing an important role in

many physiological activities and their deficiency causes a variety of pathological problems and

metabolic defects (Deen et al., 2004). The level of nutrition and mineral intakes is known to affect the

production and reproducing ability of male and female camels (El-Bahrawy and El-Hassanein, 2011;

Ali et al., 2010). A few scientific studies have shown some evidence of sensitivity of camels to trace

minerals disorders as a result of deficiency or toxicity in the same way as other ruminants (Faye and

Bengoumi, 1994). Faye et al. (1992), Faye and Bengoumi, (1994), Liu et al, (1994) reported several

incidences of clinical mineral deficiencies in camels, which underestimated because signs of

subclinical deficiencies may remain unclear for a long time. On the other hand, Wiener (1979)

reviewed the genetic variation in the incidences of many mineral metabolic disorders regarding the

deficiencies and imbalances. He concluded that animal breeds and strains differ in their mineral

requirements with various concentrations in blood and tissues. Few studies conducted to evaluate the

effect camel breeds on the minerals metabolism with no studies in Saudi Arabia.

This study was conducted to evaluate the levels of Zn, Cu, Mn and Mg in blood serum, liver,

kidney and meat tissues. Samples were collected from two dominant breeds (Majaheem and

Maghateer) raised under traditional semi intensive system in Saudi Arabia.


Fifteen healthy male camels (Camelus dromedaries) from each breed, Majaheem and

Maghateer, with an average age of 1.5+0.5 years old were used in this study. Before slaughtering,

blood samples were collected from the jugular vein using vacutainer tubes without heparin. Serum

was collected by centrifugation for 3000 rpm/ 15 minutes and prepared for mineral analysis by wet

digestion. After slaughtering at Al-Riyadh abbatoir, liver, kidney and meat samples were collected

using stainless steel surgical blades and prepared by ashing (550 C/ 5hrs) using muffle furnace and

diluted by concentrated HCl and 0.1 M HCl in 25 ml volumetric flask. All prepared samples were

analyzed for Cu, Zn, Mn and Mg by using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emmission

Spectrometer (ICP-OES).

Data were analyzed using SPSS as a complete randomized design and significantl levels were

declared at P<0.05 or other wise noted.


There are no any reported studies comparing the differences between camels breeds in Saudi

Arabia in term of their mineral metabolism and their ability to accumulate minerals in their tissues.

Most of studies regarding camels focus on the levels of mineral in blood serum and the possibility of

different mineral metabolism in camels. The results showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher Cu and Zn

and lower Mn and Mg concentrations in blood serum of the Majaheem breed compared with the

Maghateer. Copper and Mg concentration in Majaheem liver were significantly (P<0.01) higher, but

had lower level of Zn when compared with the Maghateer breed. For kidney samples, a significantly

higher Cu concentration was found (P<0.0001) and lower Mn (P<0.05) and Zn (P<0.05) were found

for Majaheem compared with the Maghateer kidney samples. Furthermore, a significantly (P<0.05)

higher Mg concentration and lower Cu (P<0.05) in meat samples from Majaheem breed when

compared with the Maghateer breed meat samples. The inorganic matter percentages of liver, meat

and kidney were significantly higher (P<0.05) for the Majaheem breed compared with the Maghateer

(1.91, 1.2 and 1.37 vs 1.46, 0.76 and 1.07%, respectively). Most of the values regarding the

concentrations of these minerals in the serum and tissues were within the normal levels according to

the studies conducted by different researchers such as Mohamed (2004), Badiel et al. (2006), Bakhiet

72


et al. (2007), Busadah (2007), Kadim et al., (2008) and Eltahir et al. (2010). In conclusion, the results

indicate a breed difference may exist for Cu, Zn, Mn and Mg metabolism as a heritable characteristic.

Further studies are recommended in the area of genetic selection for tolerance of minerals disorders.

References

Al-Busadah, K. (2007). Some biochemical and haematological indices in different breeds of camels in

Saudi Arabi. Scientific J. King Saud University, 8 (1):1248H.

Ali, A., Tharwat, M.,Al-Sobayll. (2010). Hormonal, biochemical, and hematological profiles in

female camels (Camelus dromedarius) affected with reproductive disorders. Anim. Reprod.

Sci., 118(2):372-376.

Badiel, K. Mostaghni, K. Pourjafar, M. and Parchami, A. (2006). Serum and tissue elements in

Iranian camels (Camelus dromedarius). Comp. Clin. Pathol. 15:103-106.

Bakhiet, A. Mohammed, A. Siham, E., Samia, A. M. (2007). Some trace-elements profile in the liver

of camels, cattle,sheep and goats. International J. Tropical Medicine. 2(1):1-2.

Deen, A., Bhati,\aA. Nd Sahani, M. (2004). Trace mineral profiles of camels blood and sera.J. Camel

Pract Res., 11 :135-136.

El-Bahrawy and El Hassanein, E. E. (2011). Seasonal variation of some blood and seminal plasma

biochemical parameters of male Dromedary camel. Am-Euras. J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 10

(3):354-360.

Eltahir, Y. Ali, H., Mansour, M, Mahgoub, O. (2010). Serum mineral contents of the Omani racing

Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius). J. Anim. Ceterinary Adv., 9 (4): 764-770.

Faye, B., Saint-Martin G., Cherrier R., et al. (1992). The influence of high dietary protein, energy and

mineral intake on deficient young camels (Camelus dromedarius). Change in mineral status.

Comp. Biochem physiology, 102:417-424.

Faye, B. and Bengoumi, M. (1994). Trace elements in camels: a review. Biol. Trace Mineral Res.

42:1-11.

Kadim, I., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W. (2008). Meat quality and composition of Longissimus

thoracis from Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) and Omani beef: a comparative study. J.

Camel. Sci., 1:37-47.

Liu, Z. P, M Z. and Zhang, Y. J. (1994). Studies on the relationship between sway disease of Bactrian

camels and copper status in Gansu Province. Vet. Res. Comm., 18:251–260.

MEP. (2010). Ministry of Economic and Planning. Statistical yearbook, Central department of

statistic and information. SA.

Mohamed, H. (2004). The zinc and copper content of the plasma of Sudanese camels (Camelus

dromedarius). Veterinary Res. Comm., 28:359-363.

Wiener, G. (1979). Review of genetic aspects of minerals metabolism with particular reference to

copper in sheep. Livestock production Science, 6:223-232.

73


25. Selenium Toxicity in the Dromedary Camels

Clinical Symptoms and Lesions

R. Seboussi1*

, B. Faye2 and G. Alhadrami

3

1Universié Laval, pavillon Paul-Comtois,2425 rue de l'agriculture,G1V0A6, Quebec, Canada

2Department Environnement et Société, CIRAD, Campus International de Baillarguet TA C/ Dir B,

34398 Montpellier cedex, France 3United Arab Emirates University, POBox n°16641, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates


Introduction

Selenium (Se) is a group VI element with chemical properties very similar to those of sulfur,

it has been demonstrated as an essential element for ruminants. Selenium is required to prevent

deficiency diseases such as white muscle disease, maintain growth rates of young animals and

promote reproductive performance. Camel sensitivity to trace element imbalances has been reported

(Faye and Bengoumi, 1994). Selenium is generally considered a highly toxic element and selenium

toxicity may occur in camels through incorrect diet formulation or prolonged oral exposure to

elevated dietary selenium (Se) in forage. The objectives of the current study were to determine effects

of graded levels of soldium selenite intake on camel performance and to provide preliminary data on

camel selenosis (clinical symptoms and lesions).

Materals and Methods

Twelve healthy young camels were obtained from local UAE breed, aged 2 years and were

acclimated to experimental design for 15 days. During the acclimation period, camels were treated

with a broad-spectrum antiparasitic compound. Animals were housed in groups of 4 and were fed

with a similar basal diet composed of Rhodes grass (Chloris Gayana) with an average quantity of 3 kg

DM and 2 kg of pelleted concentrate 10 % protein (Soya Bean Meal – Maize – Barley – Wheat bran –

Molasses – Salt – Premix). Camels were provided water ad libitum. Oral individual doses of selenium

: 8.16, and 16 mg per day were given as sodium selenite, corresponding respectively : 8 mg (i.e.

17.44 mg sodium selenite), 12mg (i.e. 26.16 mg sodium selenite) and 16 mg (i.e. 34.88mg sodium

selenite). Selenium was given enrobed in dates every day at the same time for 90 days. Selenium

supplementation was stopped at the time of apparition of chronic selenosisand camels returned to

normal good health gradually. At day 45 one camel of each group was slaughtered and a second one

at the end of the experiment (at day 90).

Urine and faecal samples were taken every month from each camel. A sample of 600 g was

taken from each camel, dried for 48h at 65oC, grinded and stored in dark and cool place until selenium

analysis. Total 24 hours urine of each camel was also taken, using a special plastic bag placed on the

vulva, weighed and a sample of 20 ml was taken and stored at –20OC up to selenium analysis.

Selenium content of the camel basal diet and water was also assessed at the beginning, the middle and

at the end of the trial. Nutriments were dried, ground and stored in a dark cool place until analysis.

Hair was taken before slaughtering from the neck and other part of the camel were taken at day 45 and

90 using a stainless steel knife. Before organs sampling, the weight of each whole carcass and each

organ were recorded. Samples from lung, heart, liver, spleen, kidney, pancreas, suprarenal gland,

shoulder and femoral muscle, anterior limb bones, posterior limb bones, brain, intercostals muscles,

diaphragm muscle and urinary bladder were collected. Samples from the tissues were fixed in 10%

neutral buffered formalin for microscopic evaluation; others samples were stored at -80°C until

selenium analysis.

Selenium was determined in organs, hair, face, urine, diet and water by Inductively Coupled

argon Plasma – Atomic Emission Spectrometer (ICP-AES), Varian vista MPX-CCD simultaneous,

using 11 points of standard curve of Accu TraceTM

Reference Standard solutions from Accustandard®

– USA. Quality Control Standard.

Results Selenium analysis in water showed no selenium. Selenium content in diet was 0.49 mg/kg in

concentrate, 0.15 in Rhodes grass. The daily feed intake was 2 kg of concentrate and 3 kg of grass on

74


average. Thus, the selenium intake provided by the diet was 1.43 mg per day for camels during all the

experiment, the mineral mixture providing 8, 12 and 16 mg of selenium per day. According to the

treatment, the total quantity of selenium provided in the diet was 9.4 mg/day for camels in group 1,

13.4 mg in group 2 and 17.4 mg in group 3. So, the dietary Se concentration varied between 1.7

(group 1) and 3.5 ppm (group 3) DM.

Selenium concentration in urine and feces varied between 33.2 and 2230.5 ng/ml with a mean

value 646.6 ± 610.9 ng/ml and between 193.5 and 13487.4 ng/g DM with an average mean 2346.02±

2653.9 ng/g DM respectively. The urinary Se concentration was higher at month 3 in group 2 receiving

12 mg. Se concentration increased significantly starting from month 2 for 3 groups up to the end of the

experiment for groups 1 (8 mg Se) and 2 (12 mg), but decreased at month 3 in group 3 (16 mg Se) when

Se supplementation was stopped.

Clinical symptoms of selenosis appeared at week 2 (see annex1). Camels had visible reduced

feed intake and weight loss, reluctance to move and tachypnea following minimal exercise. Alopecia was

seen in 3 groups, but more extended in group 3 with rough skin. In groups 2 and 3, theurinary excretion

increased and dark watery diarrhea was also observed. Tears with pale mucous were showed as well as an

evidence of impairment vision. Fissured pads appeared in all groups but more pronounced in group 2 and

3. Consequently, camels in group 1 and 2 developed a vesicular stomatitis. Camels stood with their head

down and neck extended, taking short, rapid, shallow breaths. The recovery period ranged from 1 to 2

weeks. Severity of clinical signs of disease and time to recovery varied and were dose dependent.

At necropsy all animals from the 3 groups showed gross lesions, characterized with severe

pulmonary lesions with accumulations of serosanguinous fluid and foam in the trachea, bronchi, and

bronchioles. The heart of these animals was soft and pale, all abdominal muscles, diaphragm and

intercostals muscles were pale. The liver was red and mildly swollen. Heart, liver and kidney were

congested and necroses. while pancreas was atrophied. Brain edema was observed in all treatment.

The major histopathologic changes camels that manifested clinical signs of selenosis included

kidney lesions showed congestion in blood capillaries of cortex and medulla, degenerative changes in

lining epithelial cells of convoluted tubules . Lesions were extended to other tissues with severe vacuolar

degeneration in epithelial lining in urinary bladder and sub capsular focal hemorrhagic areas in spleen.

Edematous fluid was seen in between the muscular fibers and slight congestion of blood capillaries in

heart, hepatic cells, congestion in central hepatic vein and hepatic sinusoids. In addition, focal areas of

muscular hyalinization (non –inflammatory) and edema were observed in intercostals and diaphragm

muscles. Activation in lymphoid follicle was seen in cervical anterior lymph node. Focal hemorrhagic

areas and blackish green fine granules accumulation were observed in focal areas of spleen. Brain showed

perivascular oedema in brain.

Discussion

Se deficiencies have been reported in United Arab Emirates, camels are often supplemented

with commercial Se and vit E compound; however, no data on camel selenosis have been reported. In

this current study the amount of Se intake from basal diet is 1.43 mg Se per day i.e. 0.28 mg/kg DM

that was considered approximatively the requirements for dairy cattle (NRC 2001). However,

according to the mean weight of the camel in our study (183 kg), the selenium supply with the basal

diet was 0.78 mg/100 kg LW. That was lower than recommendations for beef cattle (1 mg/100 kg

LW). Selenium is needed in small amounts. The minimum level of selenium in diet that causes

chronic selenosis in most animal species is 4-5 mg/kg DM (US NAS/ NRC, 1976) and the minimum

level needed to prevent deficiency is 0.02 – 0.05 mg/kg DM (US NAS/ NRC, 1971). Excess Se intake

can lead to Se poisoning, but species susceptibilityselenium toxicosis is variable. (Tiwary et al. (2006)

did not observe lamb mortality with an oral sodium selenite up to 4 mg/kg LW. For other authors, the

oral median lethal dose (LD50) of sodium selenite has been reported to be 1.9 ±1.2 mg of Se/kg LW

(Blodgett & Bevill, 1987). A daily intake of 0.25 mg/kg LW was considered as toxic for sheep and

cattle (Muth & Binns, 1964). These levels listed previously are higher than our dietary levels in the

present study (0.051 to 0.095 mg/kg LW), which seems to show a high sensitivity of camel species to

Se toxicosis. A limit marrow is to be considered between selenium requirement and toxicity. In this

study, lesions appeared with a selenium intake of approximatively 2.5 mg/kg DM, while typical

lesions of chronic selenium toxicosis were observed on young cattle receiving more than 5 mg/kg DM

for 120 days (O‘Toole & Raisbeck, 1995). The clinical symptoms showed in this study were in

accordance with previous signs observed in chronic poisoning in other species (Casteel et al., 1985;

75


Tiwary et al., 2006). The necrosis of camel pad was comparable to those occured in chronic selenosis

in cattle (O‘Toole & Raisbeck, 1995) and horse (Raisbeck et al., 1993).

Conclusion The results of this study indicate that the camel is sensitive to excess Se intake and

selenosis, occurs with high-level selenium intake. Young camels are very sensitive. Clinical toxicity

symptoms were observed at a dose of 8 mg Se daily within 3 weeks under sodium selenite form.

According to dietary Se supply and to mean weight of the animal from the group 1, selenosis

appeared with 0.05 mg/kg LW Se supply only. Severe intoxication occurred with 16 mg Se

supplementation, i.e, 0.10 mg/kg LW. Those values were 5 times less than for sheep and cattle.

According to such results, it could be important to limit Se supplementation in camel at 0.01-0.02

mg/kg LW, i.e. approximatively 4-8 mg per day for adult animals or 0.5-1 ppm in the diet.

Although meeting dietary selenium requirements is an important nutritional requirement for

camels, mineral supplementation may also enhance the nutritional quality of the camel product (milk

and meat).

References

Blodgett, D.J. & Bevill, R.F. (1987) Acute selenium toxicosis in sheep. Veterinary and Human

Toxicology, 29, 233–236

Casteel, S.W., Osweiler, G.D., Cook, W.O., Daniels, G., & Kadlec, R. (1985) Selenium toxicosis in

swine. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association, 186, 1084–1085

Faye, B. & Bengoumi, M. (1994) Trace elements status in camels. A review. Biological Trace

Element Research, 41, 1-11

Muth, O.H & Binns, W. (1964) Selenium toxicity in domestic animals. Annals of New York

Academy Sciences, 111, 583-590

NRC (National research Council) (2001) Selenium requirements. In Nutrient requirements of beef

cattle, 7th Ed., pp. 67-68, National Academic Press, New-York, USA

O‘Toole, T. & Raisbeck, M.F. (1995). Pathology of experimentally induced chronic selenosis (alkali

disease) in yearling cattle, Journal of Veterinary diagnostic investigation, 7, 364-373

Raisbeck, M. F., Dahl, E. R., Sanchez, D. A., Belden, E. L. & O‘Toole D. (1993) Naturally occurring

selenosis in Wyoming. Journal of Veterinary diagnostic investigation, 5, 84-87

Tiwary, A.K., Stegelmeier, B.M., Panter K.E., James, L.F. & Hall J.O. (2006). Comparative toxicosis

of selenium selenite and sélénométhionine in lambs, Journal of Veterinary diagnostic

investigation, 18, 61-70

US NAS/NRC (1976) Selenium, Washington DC, National Academy of Science, National Research

Council, Assembly of Life Sciences, Medical and Biological Effects of Environmental

Pollutants, 203 pp.

US NAS/NRC (197l) Selenium in nutrition, Washington DC, National Academy of Science, National

Research Council, Agricultural Board, Committee on Animal Nutrition, Subcommittee on

Selenium, 79 pp.

76


Annexes 1 - Clinical symptoms

Alopecia Pad leions Sternal Diarrhea Hypertrophy of

Position Cervial lymphnoid

Necropsy findings

Heart Liver Pulmunary Brain Edema Spleen Kidney Muscle

Congestion, Congestion Congestion Congestion Necrosis discoloration

Necrosis,

Soft Discoloration

Histopathology findings

Kidney: degenerative changes in Liver: sinusoids congestion, degenerative changes

epithelial lining cells in periportal zone hepatic cells

Pancreas: necrotic areas and fibrosis Heart: degenerative changes in myofibers

77


26. Sero-Epidemiology and Mapping of Johne’s Disease (Paratuberculosis) in Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) of the Sultanate of Oman

M.H. Hussain1*

, A. Al-Rawahi1, M. Al-Maawali

1, M. Saqib

1, K. Al-Lamki

1,

S. Al-Mkhaldi1 and M. Somar

1

Veterinary Research center, Directorate General of Agriculture & Livestock Research, Ministry of

Agriculture & Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

Johne‘s disease (JD) is a chronic wasting enteritis of domestic and wild ruminant species

(Chacon et al., 2004) characterized by unresponsive diarrhea, loss of condition and emaciation. The

disease is caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) and is endemic

worldwide in domestic livestock with scanty reports in camels (Mustafa, 1987; Alluwaimi, 2008 and

Ameen and Ahmed, 2010). Transmission of the disease is through contact and usually infection is

acquired during calfhood but prolonged incubation time prevents the appearance of clinical disease

before 1-2 years of age (Collins, 2003).

Paratuberculosis is a disease of global economic importance for meat and dairy economists

and its control presents a global challenge to livestock industry (Ott et al., 1999). Moreover, some

studies indicate a possible link between MAP and human Crohn‘s disease that highlight a potential

public health hazard (Bull et al., 2003). Control of JD is based upon successful implementation of test

and slaughter policy, improvements in calf rearing and hygiene of herds and vaccination (Daniels et

al., 2002). Serological diagnosis is the mainstay of JD control programs and recent studies indicate

the potential of using commercial enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in camels (Allawami

2008; Ameen and Ahmed, 2010). The present study was designed to map the prevalence of Johne‘s

disease in the camel population of Oman.


A cross-sectional serological study was planned to investigate the prevalence of JD in the

camels of Oman. Sample size calculation was performed at expected disease prevalence to be 50%,

95% confidence interval and 5% error margin (Thrusfield, 2005). Serum samples from 2255 (254

males & 2001 females) randomly selected camels from 525 geographically marked holdings were

collected. Georeferenced information was recorded on ArcPad™ (ESRI, USA) mounted Juno™ SB

handheld computers (Trimble Navigation Limited, USA) and a geodatabase was built. The samples

were further categorized in 4 age groups (1-4) viz. less than equal to 2 years (n=402), 2.1-5 years

(n=509), 5.1-10 years (n=914) and more than 10 years (n=430) of age to investigate the age related

dynamics of the disease. Samples were subjected to a commercial ELISA kit (LSIVET Ruminant

Serum Paratuberculosis Advanced, France) as described by Ameen and Ahmed (2010). Data was

analyzed by using IBM SPSS Statistics 17.0 for Windows® (IBM Corporation, New York, USA).


Differences were observed in the prevalence of Johne‘s disease among camel herds of

0.01 (Map-1), with highest value observed in Al Buraimi (18.6%)

followed by Dhofar (13.5%), Al Wusta (10.3%), A'Dhahira (5.0%), Dakhiliyah (2.4%) and Ash

Sharqiyah (1.1%). The prevalence rate varied from 50.0 to 0.7% in positive holdings and 36.8 to 3.2%

in various wilayats of Oman. Overall prevalence of Johne‘s disease in camels in individual location

was found to be 2.6% (n=59) which was highest in the camels of Al Buraimi (5.7%) followed by Al

(5df)=14.27, p=0.01. The prevalence was higher in areas where owners adopted more conducive

practices for the intra-animal transmission (overcrowding, lack of hygiene, placement of feeding and

watering utensils at ground level) of MAP (Daniels et al., 2002). Higher prevalence was observed in

female (2.8%) camels as compared to males (0.8%). However, this prevalence was not affected by the

sex of animals (p<0.05) and similar results were reported by Pence et al. (2003). Prevalence of MAP

with highest prevalence was

found in group-4 (4.4%) followed by group-3 (2.5%). 2 (2.4%) and 1 (1.2%). Although the newborn

78


animals and those in their first 6 months of their life are most susceptible to acquire JD, usually sero-

conversion and clinical disease appears in later years of life (Collins, 2003).

The study mapped the country wide seroprevalence of Johne‘s disease in camels of Oman

which is comparable to a study in camels of neighboring Saudi Arabia (Ameen and Ahmed, 2010) and

indicated a need to study detailed epidemiology of the disease that will help in devising a national

control program.

References

Alluwaimi, A.M. (2008). The efficiency of bovine ELISA in detection of the Mycobacterium avium

subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in camel (Camelus dromedarius) at different

ages. J. Camel Pract Res, 15: 163-5.

Ameen, M. A. and Ahmed, M.A. (2010). Paratuberculosis in camel (Camelus dromedarius): The

diagnostic efficiency of ELISA and PCR. The Open Vet. Sci. J., 4: 41-44

Bull, T.J., McMinn, J.E., Sidi-Boumedine, K., Skull, A., Durkin, D., Neild, P., Rhodes, G., Pickup, R.

and Taylor, J.H. (2003). Detection and verification of Mycobacterium avim subsp.

Paratuberculosis in fresh ileocolonic mucosal biopsy specimens from individuals with and

without Crohn‘s Disease. J. Cl. Microbiol., 41(7): 2915-2923.

Chacon, O., Bermudez, L.E. and Barletta, R.G. (2004). Johne‘s disease, inflammatory bowel disease

and mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Ann. Rev. Microbiol., 58: 329-363

Collins, M. T. (2003). Update on paratuberculosis: 1. Epidemiology of Johne‘s disease and the

biology of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Irish Vet. J., 56(11): 565-574.

Daniels, M. J., Hutchings, M.R., Allcroft, D.J., McKendrick, I.J. and Greig, A. (2002). Risk factors

for Johne‘s disease in Scotland–the results of a survey of farmers. Vet. Rec., 150

Mustafa, I. E. (1987). Bacterial diseases of dromedaries and Bactrian camels. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int.

Epiz., 6(2): 391-405

Ott, S.L., Wells, S.J. and Wagner, B.A. (1999). Herd-level economic losses associated with Johne‘s

disease on U.S. dairy operations. Prev. Vet. Med. 40: 179-192.

Pence, M., Baldwin C. and Black III, C.C. (2003). The Seroprevalence of Johne‘s disease in Georgia

beef and dairy cull cattle. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest., 15: 475-477.

Thrusfield M. (2005). Veterinary Epidemiology. 3rd Ed. Blackwell Publishing, UK

Map-1 Herd based prevalence of

Johne‘s disease in camels of different

governorates and regions of Oman

79


27. Sero-Epidemiology and Mapping of Brucellosis in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of

the Sultanate of Oman

A. Al-Rawahi1, M. Saqib

1, I. Robertson

2, M. H. Hussain

1*, M. Al-Maawali

1,

Q. Al-Rawahi and M. Somar1

1Veterinary Research center, Directorate General of Agriculture & Livestock Research, Ministry of

Agriculture & Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman 2School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Australia


Introduction

Livestock brucellosis causes direct and indirect losses through abortions, still birth, metritis

and up to 25% of milk reduction. It is an important re-emerging communicable disease in the Middle

East and Mediterranean countries (Saleem et al., 2010). Rose Bengal plate agglutination test (RBT)

and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) are among some widely used serological assays

to detect antibodies against Brucellosis (Oktay et al., 2011). Currently, indirect and competitive

ELISA formats are preferred methods for screening and surveillance purpose (Perret et al., 2010). The

disease has been reported frequently in camels where they were in contact with infected small

ruminants (Erdenebaatar et al., 2004; Dawood, 2008). The incidence of clinical disease is very rare in

camels but the possible shedding of organism in milk may lead to the transmission to humans (Corbel

and WHO, 2006).

Brucellosis caused by Brucella melitensis is endemic in Oman and the records from the

Veterinary Research Center (VRC) and Ministry of Health (MOH) indicate endemic livestock and

human brucellosis in the Southern Dhofar governorate (Al Ismaily et al., 1989, Anonymous, 2010).

However, the prevalence of brucellosis in the camel population of the Sultanate was not established

and the current study was planned to map this prevalence.


For the current study, 525 randomly selected geographically marked animal holdings were

randomly selected and 2255 (254 male & 2001 female) camels from these locations were bled for the

collection of serum. Sample size was calculated at the expected disease prevalence of 50%

(unknown), 95% confidence level and 5% error margin (Thrusfield, 2005). Georeferenced animal

credentials were collected on ArcPad™ (ESRI, USA) mounted Juno™ SB handheld computers

(Trimble Navigation Limited, USA) to build a geodatabase. Samples were further divided in 4 age

groups (1-4) viz. <2 years (n=402), 2.1-5 years (n=509), 5.1-10 years (n=914) and >10 years (n=430)

of age. Initial screening was performed through a commercial Rose Bengal plate agglutination test

(RBT, Anigen, Animal Genetics, Inc) and positive samples were then subjected to a commercial

competitive ELISA (Compelisa, VLA, UK) for confirmation (Perret et al., 2010). Data was analyzed

by using IBM SPSS Statistics 17.0 for Windows® (IBM Corporation, New York, USA).


Overall herd-based seroprevalence was recorded as 1.4% (n=8) with highest prevalence found

in camel holdings of brucellosis endemic in Dhofar governorate (3.7%, n=6) followed by Al Batinah

(2.5%, n=1) and Ash Sharqiyah (1.3%, n=1) regions, -1). Endemic nature

of brucellosis (Al Ismaily et al., 1989), more inter-species contact and pasture sharing could be the

cause of higher prevalence in Dhofar (Corbel and WHO, 2006).

Individual prevalence of 0.4% (n=9) was recorded in the camels of Sultanate and difference

observed in this prevalence between camels of Dhofar (0.8%, n=7), Al Batinah (0.8%, n=1) and Ash

of female sex (0.5%) and belonged to local breed. The prevalence was not affected by the age of

inally higher prevalence (0.5%) was recorded in camels

belonging to age group-3 & 4 as compared to group-2 (0.4%). Within-herd prevalence varied from

20-1.7% in camel herds of positive areas. Majority (75%, n=6) of the positive camels were kept with

small ruminants that favored the inter-species transmission of disease (Erdenebaatar et al., 2004;

Dawood, 2008).

80


Seroprevalence of brucellosis in camels was mapped for the first time in Oman during the

study and suggested that camels should be included in the brucellosis surveillance and control

program in the Sultanate.

References

Al Ismaily, S. I., Harby, H. A. M. and Nicoletti, P. (1989). The prevalence of brucellosis among

livestock of the Sultanate of Oman. J. Egypt Vet. Med. Ass., 49(4) 1063-1073.

Anonymous. (2010). Communicable Diseases Control in the Sultanate of Oman. Ministry of Health,

Sultanate of Oman, http://www.moh.gov.om/nv_menu.php?fNm=reports/comm.htm (Date

Accessed: Dec 25th, 2010).

Corbel M. J. and WHO. (2006). Brucellosis in Humans and Animals. Produced by World Health

Organization, Food and Agriculture, Organization of United Nations and World Organization

of Animal Health. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland.

Dawood, H. A. (2008). Brucellosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in south province of Jordan.

Am. J. Agri. Biol. Sci., 3(3): 623-626

Erdenebaatar, J., Bayarsaikhan, B., Yondondorj, A., Watarai, M., Shirahata, T., Jargalsaikhan, E.,

Kawamoto, K. and Makino, S. (2004). Epidemiological and serological survey of brucellosis

in Mangolia by ELISA using sarcosine extracts. Microbiol. Immunol., 48(8): 571-577

Oktay, G., Özlem, B. and Nevzat Y. (2011). Development of individual rapid test based on enzymatic

immunofilteration assay for detection of anti-Brucella abortus antibody in bovine sera. J. Vet.

Diag. Invest., 23(1): 49-56.

Perret, L. L., McGiven, J. A., Brew, S. D. and Stack, J. A. (2010). Evaluation of competitive ELISA

for detection of antibodies to Brucella infection in domestic animals. Croat Med. J., 51: 314-

319

Saleem, M. N., Stephen, M. B. and Sriranganathan, M. (2010). Brucellosis: A re-emerging zoonosis.

Vet. Microbiol., 140: 392-398.

Thrusfield M. (2005). Veterinary Epidemiology. 3rd Ed. Blackwell Publishing, UK.

Map-1 Seroprevalence of

brucellosis in camel herds of

various governorates and regions of

the Sultanate of Oman.

81


28. Wasm - An Ethnoveterinary Practice for Treatment of Camels in Oman

S. Mathan Kumar*, E.H. Johnson and M.H. Tageldin.



Introduction

Camels are an important animal species that provide milk, meat and transportation for

humans, and in recent times are used as sport animals. Ethnoveterinary medicine deals with folk

beliefs, knowledge, skills, methods and practices pertaining to the health care and welfare of animals

(Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989:3,Quiroz, Consuelo 1996). Wasm with a red-hot iron, stone, or

potsherd is (McCorkle, C.M and Martin, M. 1998) an ancient practice and is utilized by experienced

healers to treat a variety of camel ailments (Abbas et al 2002). As a healing art, it appears to be a

routine and multi-purpose technique among all West African pastoralists (McCorkle, C.M. 1986).

Cautery as a treatment modality for several human ailments is popular among Arabs. In Oman, it has

been used for hundreds of years to treat a broad spectrum of human disorders. It is mentioned in the

hadith, in a saying by the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) stating that cure lies in three: a mouthful of

honey, scarification by a cupping expert and cautery by fire (Ghazanfar, 1995). In many ancient

civilizations, hot-iron branding was employed as a means of individual animal identification (Bowling

et al., 2008). The present study was undertaken to initiate the gathering of a body of information

relevant to ethnoveterinary practices in Oman.

Materials and Methods Information was collected from three traditional healers who have practiced hot iron wasm on

camels to treat a number of musculo-skeletal disorders. Their experience with wasm varied from more

than two decade to nearly five decades. The information was collected using a well-structured

questionnaire, complemented through open-ended interviews that lasted approximately one to two

hours. The three healers were from the Batinah region.

Results The practice of utilizing wasm on camels is based on the religious belief of the healers and the

traditional knowledge that they acquired from their fathers/ and forefathers. They treated on an

average 10-15 cases a month, most of which occurred during the winter months when camel races

were frequently held. A partial list of the types of conditions treated is shown in Table 1. They

evaluated the animal‘s condition by conducting visual assessment of the camel, while it was sitting,

standing, walking, and during a slow run. Wasm was applied to the camels while being restrained in

the standing, sternal or lateral recumbency positions. Camels of all ages, including, pregnant she

camels were treated. They utilized thin metal rods that were pointed to varying degrees or blunt

ended. The healers used a marker pen to draw actual sign on the skin prior to the wasm application.

The coal burner was heated sufficiently to assure that the metal rods were red hot. Different signs and

shapes were utilized for wasm based on the healer‘s personal judgment of the severity of the

inflammatory condition. Most often four signs were employed, such as a straight line of varying

lengths (-), period (.), a plus sign (+), and a cross sign (X) (Table 1).Thereafter topical dressing

ointments and sprays were applied to protect the wound and stall rest was advised for 3- 10 days. The

healers were in agreement that the success of the treatment depended upon the accuracy of the initial

diagnosis and the time point of intervention that wasm was employed during the inflammatory

process. One healer performed hot iron cauterization occasionally on humans. They possessed

knowledge on a wide range of wasm signs that are typical for the tribes of Oman that applied them on

camels as a mark of ownership and identification.

Discussion The traditional healers treated a variety of inflammatory musculo-skeletal disorders such as

muscle sprain, strains on joints, effusion/edema of joint spaces and tendoarthritis. The success or

recovery through this treatment is dependent upon localized immuno- and haemato-genic responses

(McCorkle, C.M and Martin, M. 1998). Similarly, western African pastoralists treat livestock sprains

82


with a series of tiny burns in the sprained area much like the "pinfiring" performed on Western

racehorses with leg problems, to increase blood flow to the injured part (McCorkle, C. M. (1986).

Cauterization has also been practiced in Germany and its applications have been described by Berge

and Westhues (1961) to treat disorders such as chronic tendinitis and tendovaginitis, various forms of

chronic arthritis and periostitis. According to these authors, the treatment results in a local

acceleration of the reabsorption of tissues that have undergone chronic inflammatory alterations.

Cauterization works as a counter irritant that might stimulate movement of joints in chronic

tendoarthritis (Abbas et al 2002). The traditional healers did not attempt to treat all medical conditions

of camels with wasm. Trypanosomiasis and mange for example were treated with orthodox veterinary

medicines. Table 1: Medical conditions treated with wasm and the ways (signs) in which wasm is applied

Medical conditions Signs of wasm

Hatham – Wry neck syndrome, with severe muscle spasm and

occurs high in winter season

wasm as | or as |.|. serially on each

cervical vertebrae on both sides of

the neck.

Khahal- Sprain on the thoracic group of muscles. wasm as | on chest of varied

lengths 5-7.5 cm on each side.

Fiijar- Post race/exercise colic signs, off feed and conditions

associated with lengthy fecal pellets.

wasm as | just next to the

umbilicus of varied lengths either

one as on ventral midline or two ||

each on the para median line on

both sides.

Lian- Fetlock knuckling of forelimbs-Toe pads not kept

straight- which occurs in camel calves, ages varied from 4

months to two years old. They believe this condition is related

with copper and sometimes calcium deficiency. Prior to wasm

they treat with copper boluses (Cupric oxide needle capsules) &

if not recovered, they proceed in applying wasm.

wasm as (..) period sign on the

anterior side and (..) two on

posterior border of the fetlock.(two

healers)

Or

wasm as | | only on the posterior

border of the fetlock. (one healer)

Argaht Thifnai- Lameness and non -weight bearing of the

affected hind limb either at the level of stifle or at hock.

wasm as X on the medial side of

stifle or at hock.

Shanoot – Lameness of hind limbs and strain on stifle/ with

observance of intermittent lameness associated with a change of

pace while walking.

wasm as ╪ on the mid lateral thigh

and may extend up to stifle

pad.(two healers)

or

wasm as ( on just above the stifle

pad of the affected limb. (one

healer)

Mesah- Lameness due to inflammation of shin which may be

equated to sore shin/inflammation around large metacarpal area.

wasm as | on the lateral border of

the shin of the affected forelimb.

Bursome - Swelling and intense pain on the first phalanx

(pastern)/ or just behind the 2nd and 3rd phalanges ( just

posterior to the toenails)

wasm as | applied just below the

ears to the contralateral side of the

affected limb.

References Abbas, B., Al-Qarawi, A.A., and Al-Hawas, A. (2002). The ethnoveterinary knowledge and practice

of traditional healers in Qassim Region, Saudi Arabia. J Arid Environ50: 367–379

Berge, E. and Westhues, M. (1961). Operationen an den Gliedmassen.Chapter G. In Tieraertzliche

Operationslehre. P. 317-378. Paul Parey, Berlin and Hamburg, Germany

83


Bowling, M. B., Pendell, D. L., Morris, D. L., Yoon, Y., Katoh, K.. et al., (2008). Identification and

traceability of cattle in selected countries outside of North America. The Professional Animal

Scientist 24:287–294.

Ghazanfar, S. A. (1995) Wasm: a traditional method of healing by cauterisation. J Ethnopharmacol,

47(3):125-128

Mathias-Mundy, E. and C. M. McCorkle 1989. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated

Bibliography, Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change. Technology and Social

change Program, Series No 6, Iowa State University.

McCorkle, C. M. (1986). An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development j. Ethnobiol.

6(1):129-149.

McCorkle, C.M and Martin, M. (1998). Parallels and potentials in animal and human ethno medical

technique. Agriculture and Human Values, 15:139–144.

Quiroz, Consuelo. (1996). ―Local knowledge systems contribute to sustainable development‖

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor 4(1): 3-5.

84


29. Occurrence of Cystic Hydatidosis in Camels (Camelus Dromedarius) in Dhofar,

South Region of Oman

Fadya Abdullah Al-Kitani¹*, Sabra Ali Al-Yahyai¹, M.H. Hussain¹, M.K. Mansoor², M. Saqib²,

F.F. Salem3, A. Al-Rawahi¹ and Q. Al-Rawahi¹,

¹Veterinary Research Center, Directorate General of Agriculture and Livestock Research,

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

²University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 3Salalah Municipal Center Slaughter House


Introduction

Hydatid disease or cystic echinococcosis caused by infection with the larval (metacestode)

stage of Echinococcus granulosus, (E. granulosus) is considered to be one of the most important

helminth zoonoses (Ibrahim et al. 2002). This disease has a worldwide importance and is widespread

in different countries of the world including Middle East (Sadjjadi, 2006). Hydatid disease is endemic

in most gulf countries: the incidence rate (3.6/100,000) was studied in Kuwait by Alkarmi in 1997. In

Oman, a few seropositive cases of hydatidosis have been reported from the Dhofar region in humans

and in camels (Idris et al. 1999; Sadjjadi 2006). In addition, many studies in Saudi Arabia were

conducte in slaughterhouses targeting different livestock species, such as camels, sheep, goats and

cattle (El-Metenawy, 1999; Ibrahim, 2010). E. granulosus has the ability to adapt to different host

species that contributes to the broad distribution of this parasite; and probably due to this wide

spectrum of hosts there is a great genetic variability among E. granulosus strains (Thompson and

McManus 2002). In addition, humans can be infected by ingesting parasite eggs from the faeces of

definitive hosts like dogs, foxes and other carnivores harboring the adult worms of echinococcus in

their small intestine (Siles-Lucas and Gottstein, 2001). This study was aimed to determine the

prevalence of cystic hydatidosis infection in slaughtered camels at Dhofar region, effect of age and

sex on it, most common sites of infection and the percentage of hydatid cyst fertility. The study also

utilized the samples to standardize the PCR as a molecular tool for the detection of E. granulosus at

the Veterinary Research Center (VRC).


Suspected organs (liver, lungs) for the hydatid cysts were obtained from camels slaughtered at

Salalah Municipal Center Slaughterhouse. The specimens were recorded in a special performa,

preserved in a cool box and sent to the VRC for isolation, morphological examination and molecular

detection of E. granulosus by using PCR. The infected organ samples were observed and the fluid

was aspirated by a sterile syringe in sterile tubes. The hydatid fluid which contains protoscoleces was

collected in sterile tubes and centrifuged for 15-20 minutes, washed three times with PBS, added with

95% ethanol (v/v) and preserved in -70C for molecular analysis. In addition, to understand the age

related dynamics of CE in infected camels, animals were categorized in 3 groups viz., group-I (less

than 3 years of age), group-II (3 to 5 years of age) and group-III (more than 5 years of age).

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was standardized for the detection of E. granulosus using specific

primers and standard kit following manufacturers‘ protocol. The protoscoleces obtained from cystic

fluid were used for DNA extraction using GenScript tissue direct multiplex PCR kit following

manufacturer‘s instructions. The supernatant obtained from the protoscoleces was used for PCR-based

detection of E. granulosus using mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene, with the primers sequence as follow:

For E. granulosis

Eg1f (5/_-CATTAATGTATTTTGTAAAGTTG-3/_)

Eg1r (5/_-CACATCATCTTACAATAACACC-3/_)

For the negative control E. multilocularis primers were used

EM-H15 (5/_-CCATATTACAACAATATTCCTATC-3/_)

EM-H17 (5/_-GTGAGTGATTCTTGTTAGGGGAAG-3/_)

PCR products were electrophoreses at 80 V in 1.2 % agarose gel for approximately 60 minutes using

1X Tris Boric acid (TBE) buffer containing ethidium bromide (0.5μg/ml) along with a DNA

molecular size marker.

85


Fig 1. Postive PCR product (255 bp) for E. granulosus in lanes 1, 2, 3,4,5,6 and 7. Lane M is marker


Although, the percentages of positivity in male (52.3% n=34) was higher than female 47.7%

(n=31) but no significant differences (P<0.05) was observed. This result has indicated that there is no

effect of the sex on hydatidosis in camels. This finding was in agreement with the study of Fathi et al.

(2011). However, the distribution of the hydatid cyst between organs was found to be significantly

different (P<0.05). The lungs were found to be more infected (70.8% n=46) as compared to the liver

(7.7% n=5) and this is in agreement with the previous findings of Ibrahem and Craig (1998). In

addition, lungs and liver possess the first great capillaries sites encountered by the migrating

echinococcus oncosphere (hexacanth embryo) which adopt the portal vein route and primarily

negotiate hepatic and pulmonary filtering system sequentially before any other peripheral organ is

involved (Ibrahem 2010; Kebede et al., 2009). The majority of isolated cysts were found to be fertile

(81.5% n=53) especially from lungs, whereas 13.8% (n=9) were recorded as sterile (without

protoscoleces) and 4.6% (n=3) were calcified. Age related dynamics of CE in infected camels has

indicated that, samples from older camels (age group-III) were more infected (63.1%, n=41) with

hydatid cysts followed by the age group-II (21.5%, n=14) and age group-I (15.4%, n=10). This could

be due to the reason that adult animals are exposed longer to the eggs of E. granulosus than young

ones (Himonas 1987).

The present study provides a clear evidence for the presence of cystic hydatidosis in camels in

southern region of the Sultanate. However, the investigation was conducted during five months period

only (August 2010 to December 2010). Further studies are required to view the complete picture of

the situation and the distribution of cystic hydatidosis in other regions of the Sultanate. In addition,

the occurrence of cystic hydatidosis in other intermediate (human, cattle, sheep and goats) and final

hosts (dogs and cats) should be taken into consideration before devising any control measures.

References

Dar F.K. Alkarmi T. (1997). Public health aspects of cystic echinococcosis in the Arab countries.

Acta. Trop. ;67:125– 32.

Idris M.A., Ruppel A., Gehrig-Feistel H., Alansari A.S., Al-Rejaibi A.K., and Tageldin

M.H.(1999).The seroprevalence of cystic hydatidosis in Oman. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.

93:259– 63.

El-Metenawy T.M. (1999). An abattoir survey of metacestodes among the slaughtered ruminants at

Al-Qassim Area, Saudi Arabia. Vet. Med. J. Giza;47:199– 204.

Fathi S., Dehaghi M. M. and Radfar M.H. (2011). Occurrence of hydatidosis in camels (Camelus

dromedarius) and their potential role in the epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus in

Kerman area, southeast of Iran.Comp Clin Pathol.DOI 10.1007/s00580-011-1200-0.

Himonas C (1987). The fertility of hydatid cyst in food animals in Greece. Helminth zoonoses.

Martinus Nijjhof Publishers, Netherlands.

Ibrahem M.M. (2010). Study of cystic echinococcosis in slaughtered animals in Al Baha region, Saudi

Arabia: Interaction between some biotic and abiotic factors. Acta Tropica; 113:26-33.

Ibrahem M.M., Rafiei A., Dar F.K., Azwai S.M., Carter, S. D. and Craig P. S. (2002). Serodiagnosis

of cystic echinococcosis in naturally infected camels. Parasitol. 125:245-251.

Ibrahem M.M. and Craig P.S. (1998). Prevalence of cystic echinococcosis in camels (Camelus

dromedarius) in Libya. J. Helminthol. 72:27–31.

M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

86


Kebede, N., Mekonnen, H., Wossene, A., Tilahun, G.(2009). Hydatidosis of slaughtered cattle in

Wolaita Sodo Abattoir, southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 41 (4), 629– 633.

Sadjjadi S.M. (2006). Present situation of echinococcosis in the Middle East and Arabic North Africa.

Parasitol. Int. S1 97-202.

Siles-Lucas, M., & Gottstein, B., (2001). Review: Molecular tools for the diagnosis of cystic and

alveolar echinococcosis. Trop. Med. and Intern. Health 6:463- 4750.

Thompson R.C. and McManus D.P. (2002). Towards a taxonomic revision of the genus

Echinococcus. Trends Parasitol 18:452–457.

87


30. Sero-Prevalence of Cystic Echinococcosis in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the

Sultanate of Oman: A Preliminary Investigation

Fadya Al-Kitani¹*, M. K. Mansoor², M.H. Hussain¹, F.F. Salem³ and A. Al-Rawahi¹

¹Veterinary Research Center, Directorate General of Agriculture and Livestock Research,

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman

²University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

³Salalah Municipal Center Slaughterhouse, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

CE is a zoonotic infection caused by adult or larval (metacestode) stages of cestodes

belonging to the genus Echinococcus and the family Taeniidae. Four species of Echinococcus are

recognized, namely E. granulosus, E. multilocularis, E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli (WHO/OIE, 2001)

and a new species, namely E. shiquicus was discovered from China by Xiao et al. (2006). This disease

appears to be endemic and widely distributed in most of the Mediterranean countries such as

Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Israel, Syria, Jordan and Turkey, but the complete and accurate picture of its

prevalence in human and animals is rather difficult for many reasons (Craig and Pawlowski, 2002).

Although global epidemiological information on CE is not available, at least 100 countries have

reported cases (Eckert and Deplazes, 2004). In rural areas, transmission of CE in humans and animals

usually occurs where offals from slaughterhouses, farms or households are incorrectly disposed

(Ibrahem, et al. 2002). Serological tests for CE in farm animals are of limited use and not available

commercially due to cross-reaction between echinococcus and Taenia species. However, EgAgB has

been assessed in ELISA and appears to have potential for improved immunodiagnostic of CE in

humans (Wen et al. 1994; Ito et al. 1999). Crude hydatid fluid from camels is an important source of

E. granulosus antigens, and has been used in affected countries such as North Africa and in Middle

East where there is a high camel population and CE is highly prevalent (Ibrahem, et al. 2002).

Furthermore, Antigen B (EgAgB) is a major protein produced by the metacestode cyst of E.

granulosus and plays an important role in modulating host immune responses (Zhang, et al. 2010).

This protein is highly immunogenic and can be detected by more than 80% of sera from patients

infected with CE (Zhang, et al. 2003). Serological studies on CE in camels using EgAgB were

undertaken in Libya by Ibrahem, et al. (2002) and in Saudi Arabia by Haroun, et al. (2006). In Oman,

no studies have been carried out to determine the sero-prevalence of CE in domestic intermediate

hosts. Hence, it becomes increasingly important to assess this situation and determine the true

prevalence of CE. This study was aimed to develop an EgAgB-ELISA from crude hydatid cysts to

determine the sero-prevalence of CE in camels from all regions of the Sultanate.


A total of 706 serum samples from camels were randomly collected from camels in each

region (Al-Batinah, n=35; Dakhiliyah, n=40; Ash Sharqiyah, n=74; Al-Wusta, n=136; A‘Dhahira,

n=51; Al-Buraimi, n=40; Dhofar, n=328 and Muscat, n=2). The studied regions are differing in their

climate, geography, livestock population, husbandry and human activities. The positive and negative

control sera were obtained from camels infected with CE from Salalah (Dhofar) slaughterhouse.

E. granulosus AgB enriched fraction was prepared from hydatid cystic fluid (HCF) obtained

from naturally infected camels from slaughterhouse and the sera were tested according to a method

described by Ibrahim et al. (2002).


Out of 706 camel sera, 158(22.4%) were sero positive for the antibodies of E. granulosis. The

highest percentage of seropositivity (130/328, 39.6%) was recorded from Dhofar followed by Al-

Wusta (16/136, 11.8%), Al-Buraimi (4/40, 10%), A‘Dhahira (4/51, 7.8%), Ash Sharqiyah (3/74,

4.1%) and Al-Batinah (1/35, 2.9%). No cases sera were recorded from Muscat and Dakhiliyah

regions. These results suggest that, CE is endemic in most regions of the Sultanate especially in

Dhofar. This can be explained by environmental conditions that are conducive to the perpetuation of

the parasite in this region which are absent in the other regions of the Sultanate. In addition, Dhofar is

the only region in Oman that has a substantial amount of rainfall from the southern monsoon

88


‗Khareef‘ and has lower environmental temperatures compared to the other regions of the Sultanate.

The average annual rainfall is about 110 mm but can range from about 70 to 360 mm. from July-

August. In a study conducted by Wachira et al. (1991) to determine the transmission dynamics of CE,

they found that eggs of E. granulosus could survive only a few hours under the high ambient

temperatures of Turkana. However, when these eggs are exposed to sunlight and high temperatures,

they became desiccated and did not hatch even when consumed by intermediate hosts. On the other

hand, another explanation for the possible higher exposure of CE in this region might be attributed to

the fact that most of animals are slaughtered at farms, houses or rural abattoirs in traditional

conditions for family and religious occasions. At these places hygienic conditions are not met that

leads to improper disposal of organs as explained by Azlaf and Dakkak (2006). Furthermore, the stray

dog population and the close contacts with animals may also assist the transmission of CE in the

affected region especially in rural areas. In the case of Al-Buraimi and Al-Wusta, the percentage of

seropositive animals was closely similar and could be attributed to stray dog population in these areas

and poor slaughtering management. These findings are fundamental for determining the prevalence of

CE in camels of Oman and further study based upon molecular characterization of E. granulosus in

other intermediate hosts (domestic animals and human) is warranted for planning control measures

based upon stray dog population control, improvements in abattoir hygiene and awareness campaigns.

References

Azlaf R. and Dakkak A. (2006). Epidemiological study of the cystic echinococcosis in Morocco.

Veterinary Parasitology 137:83–93.

Budke,C.M., Deplazes,P. and Torgerson,P.R. (2006). Emerging Infectious Diseases. Vol. 12. No.2.

Craig, P.S. & Zbigniew, P. (2002). Cestode Zoonoses: Echinococcosis and Cysticercisis. An

Emergent and Global Problem. Vol. 341. Pg. 41-55.

Eckert, J. and P. Deplazes, (2004). Biological, epidemiological, and clinical aspects of

echinococcosis, a zoonosis of increasing concern. Clin Microbiol Rev, 17:107-35.

Haroun E.M., Omer O.H., Mahmoud O.M. and Draz A. (2006). Serlogical Studies on hydatidosis in

camels in Saudi Arabia. The inter. Scient. Conference on camels. Pp. 46-48.

Ibrahim M.M., Rafiei A., Dar F.K., Azwaim., Carter S.D. and Craig P.S. (2002). Serodiagnosis of

cystic echinococcosis in naturally infected camels. Parasitology 125:245-251.

Ito, A., M.A., l., Schantz, M.P., Gottstein, B.M., Liu, Y.H., Chai, J.J., Abdel-Hafez, S.K., Altintas, N.,

Joshi, D.D., Lightowlers, M.W. and Pawlowski, Z.S. (1999). Differential serodiagnosis for

cystic and alveolar echinococcosis using fractions of Echinococcus granulosus cyst fuid

(AntigenB) and E. multilocularis protoscolex (Em18). American Journal of Tropical

Medicine and Hygiene 60:188-192.

Njoroge E.M., Mbithi P.M.F, Gathumaa J.M., Wachira T.M., Gathura P.B., Magamboc J.K., Zeyhle

E. (2002) . A study of cystic echinococcosis in slaughter animals in three selected areas of

northern Turkana, Kenya. Veterinary Parasitology 104:85–91.

Office International des Epizooties and World Health Organization, (2001). Manual on

Echinococcosis in Humans and Animals: a Public Health Problem of Global Concern. P. 1-

286.

Wen, H., Craig, P. S., Ito, A., Vuitton, A., Bressonhandi, S., Allan, J. C., Rogan, M. T., Paollio, E.

and Shambesh, M. K. (1995). Immunoblot evaluation of IgG and IgG subclass antibody

responses for immunodiagnosis of human alveolar echinococcosis. Annals of Tropical

Medicine and Parasitology 89: 485-495.

Xiao, N., Qiu, J.M., Nakao, M., Li T.Y., Yang, W., Chen, X., Schantz, P.M., Craig, P.S. and Ito, A.

(2006). Echinococcus shiquicus, a new species from the Qinghai-Tibet plateau region of

China: Discovery and epidemiological implications. Parasitology International. 55:S233-

S236.

Zhang ,W., Li1 J.,. Jones M. K, , Zhang, Z., Li Zhao, Blair, D., Peter, D. McManus (2010). The

Echinococcus granulosus Antigen B Gene Family Comprises at Least 10 Unique Genes in

Five Subclasses Which Are Differentially Expressed. Neglected Tropical Diseases Vol.4,

Issue 8, e784.

Zhang W, Li J, McManus DP (2003) Concepts in immunology and diagnosis of hydatid disease. Clin

Microbiol Rev 16: 18–36.

89


31. The First Cases of Lancet Fluke (Dicrocoelium Dendriticum) Infections in Alpacas in

Sweden

K. de Verdier, B. Sandros and S. Bornstein

*

The National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden


Introduction

Dicrocoelios also known as the `small liver fluke disease`, is caused by the lancet liver fluke

(Dicrocoelium dendriticum), which has a complex lifecycle that comprises two intermediate hosts,

terrestrial snails of the genera Cochlia and Zebria and ants belonging to the genera Formica and

Lasius (Gunsser et al., 1999, Bornstein, 2002). Both intermediate hosts thrive on dry lowland regions

as well as on certain dry mountainous areas with dry, chalky and alkaline soils.

The main end hosts are domestic and wild ruminants worldwide. It can infect other hosts e.g.

hares and even humans (Bengtsson et al., 1968, Otranto and Traversa, 2002). Commonly, the

infection runs a subclinical course in ruminants although liver lesions may be so significant that

affected livers in sheep and cattle are condemned at slaughter. Occasionally, dicrocoeliosis can be

fatal due to the impairment of the infected liver.

Dicrocoelios has been reported in alpacas and llamas in Switzerland and Germany (Gunsser et

al., 1999, Otranto and Traversa, 2002, Wenker et al., 2001). However, dicrocoeliosis has not been

reported in alpacas in the South American Andes as the intermediate hosts are not found in the Andes

(pers comm. A Chávez de Garcia).


On an early November morning in 2010 a 2.5 year old pregnant alpaca was found dead on the

pasture which was grazed by altogether 10 alpacas (herd A) since one year. Previously, the pasture

had been grazed by cattle. At post mortem extensive liver lesions were seen and the lancet fluke (D

dendriticum) were found.

Individual feacal samples of the 9 remaining animals in the herd (A) were analysed at the

National Veterinary Institute (SVA) as well as feacal samples from two other alpaca herds (B & C)

whose animals originated from herd A (by sedimenation according to Telemann). Herd B consists of

three male alpacas and herd C of six alpacas born between 2001 and 2010.

Results

At postmortem it was seen that the alpaca had been of fair body condition and in early

pregnancy at the time of death. The amount of digesta in the intestines was smaller than normal.

About 75% of the liver parenchyma was affected by a chronic ongoing infection; chronic

cholangiohepatitis, extensive biliary fibrosis, with interspersion of pyogranulomas and parasites. The

dilated bile ducts contained large amount of D dendriticum.

In six of the 9 animals of herd A, eggs of D dendriticum were seen; in herd B all the three

alpacas showed eggs of D dendriticum and in herd C five of the six alpacas exhibited eggs of the

parasite in their feaces.

Discussion

The liver lesions seen in this case most likely were due to D dendriticum infection.

Unfortunately, no analysis (bacteriological or other) was done to confirm that there were no other

pathogens involved. Thus the actual cause of death could not be confirmed to be entirely due to the

extensive chronic liver lesions, but considering the chronic nature of stress etc may have contributed

to liver failure leading to death. Alpacas often hide clinical signs of disease. The relatively good

condition of the alpaca agree with the postmortem findings of similar cases in Germany and

Switzerland (Wenker et al., 2001).

This is the first report of dicrocoeliosis in alpacas in Sweden confirming reports from the

European mainland of the presence of this ``new`` parasitosis in alpacas.

90


References

Bengtsson E,, Hässler L,, Holtenius P,, Nordbring F,, Thorén G., 1968. Infestation with Dicrocoelium

dendriticum--the small liver fluke--in animals and human individuals inSweden. Acta Pathol

Microbiol Scand. 74: 85-92


Bornstein S., 2002. Parasitic diseases. In: U. Wernery and O-R. Kaaden. (Eds), Infectious diseases in

camelids. 383-385

Gunsser I., Hänichen T., Maierl J., 1999. Leberegelbefall bei Neuweltkameliden-Parasitologie,

Pathologie, Klinik und Therapie. Tierärztl. Prax.. 27, 187-195

Otranto D., Traversa D., 2002. A review of dicrocoeliosis of ruminants including recent advances in

the diagnosis and treatment. Vet. Parasitol. 107, 317-335

Wenker C., Ossent P., Hänichen T., Hertzberg H., 2001. Pathologic findings in South American

camelids with Dicrocoelios. In: Gerken M., Renieri C., (Eds), Progress in South American

Camelids Research. EAAP publication No 105, Wageningen Pers, 94-97

91


32. Emerging Infectious Diseases in Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

J. Kinne and U. Wernery

Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CRVL), Dubai, UAE


Introduction

Over the last 15 years, more than 1000 necropsies were performed at CVRL on adult camels

as well as the same number on camel calves. Out of this huge number of cases several diseases were

discovered for the first time in dromedaries like Rhodococcus-pneumonia, equine rhinitis-A-virus-

abortion and Glanders. Other diseases were described in detail for the first time in camels in the

Middle East. On the other hand, experimental trials with dromedary and Bactrian camels provided lot

of new knowledge on economic important diseases like FMD. Selected diseases are presented in this

paper.

Methods and Results

Natural B. mallei infections are known to occur in various animal species (e.g. equines wild

felines, bears, wolves and dogs). Both species of Old World Camels (OWC), the dromedary (Camelus

dromedarius) and the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) are susceptible to Burkholderia (B.)

mallei (glanders) and B. pseudomallei (melioidosis) infection (Wernery et al., 1997; Wernery and

Kaaden, 2002) and dromedaries have only been artificially infected with B. mallei (Samartsevet al.,

1940;Curasson, 1947). However, natural infection of camels has not yet been reported. During

necropsy of a serological positive dromedary typical glanderous lesions in the lung, choanae and nasal

septae were observed. Burkholderia mallei was isolated from the nasal pusand confirmed by PCR

(Wernery et al., 2011).

Rhodococcus (R). equi, a recognized pathogen in horses (Ainsworth, 1999; Giguère and

Prescott, 1997), affects also New World camelids (Hong and Donahue, 1995; Cuteri et al., 2001), but

there were no reports of R. equi infection in Old World camelids yet. Four cases of disseminated R.

equi infection in adult breeding dromedaries occurred at one camel farm near Dubai within 16 months

of each other (Kinne et al., 2011). At necropsy the lungs were diffusely consolidated with large

caseous areas. Histology revealed severe suppurative to necrotising pneumonia with multiple

encapsulated abscesses. Immunohistochemistry enabled the detection of 15- to 17-kDa antigens

(VapA) of R. equi in the lung sections. High numbers of R. equi were isolated from the lung lesions as

well as from liver, spleen and mediastinal lymph nodes, indicative of septicaemia. The isolated strains

were PCR-positive for the specific virulence plasmid (VapA-Gen) of R. equi, indicating virulent

strains and containing an 85-kb type I plasmid.

Camels are mentioned in OIE list of animals susceptible to FMDV infection, although

dromedaries are of low susceptibility to FMDV infection (Wernery et al., 2006). However, FMD-like

lesions were described in Bactrian camels in Russia (Orlov, 1963; Terentieva, 1975). During several

FMD-outbreaks in Mongolia also Bactrian camels got sick, although the diagnosis was made solely

on clinical signs (Sakamoto and Yoshida, 2002). Hence, an experiment was designed to compare

susceptibility of dromedary and Bactrian camels to FMDV infection. For this purpose 8 dromedaries

and 2 Bactrian camels (all serologically negative against FMDV) were inoculated subepidermo-

lingually with FMDV types A and O.

Interestingly, while none of the dromedaries showed a reaction to the FMDV infection, the

two inoculated Bactrians developed moderate to severe clinical signs. Elevated rectal temperature of

39.0 to 39.2°C was observed in the 2 Bactrian camels after 1 week (Larska et al., 2008). On the same

day animals developed depression, lameness of the hind feet and on the next day local inflammation,

swelling and exudation of wounds on the band of footpads were observed. Severe lameness of hind

legs, reluctance to walk and stand, pain and lesions developed, and one camel lost the entire epidermis

of the footpad sole. After 3 weeks the lesions were healed and the skin of the footpad sole was

replaced by new tissue.

Discussion and Conclusion

Glanders and Rhodococcus equi-infection were discovered at CVRL for the first time in

dromedaries. Here we describe the first reported case of a natural infection with Burkholderia mallei

92


in a dromedary in the course of a glanders outbreak in horses. It is a new emerging disease for camels.

Since it is a notifiable disease in equine and a zoonosis, it should be listed as notifiable disease also

for camels. Also R. equi infection is a new emerging disease for dromedaries. Since adult camels in

general do not suffer from bacterial caused pneumonia (except tuberculosis), R. equi infection has to

be considered in pneumonic cases. Both diseases have a strong link to equids.

Our experimental investigations on FMD confirmed that the dromedary (opposite to the

Bactrian camel) is not susceptible to FMD. This fact should be considered in legislation to remove the

dromedary from the list of animals susceptible to FMDV infection.In the meantime classical FMD

was described by Bold (2012, in press), and the FMDVO also isolated from Bactrian.

References

Ainsworth, D.M., (1999). Rhodococcus equi infections in foals. Equine Vet. Educ. 11, 191-198.

Bold D. (2012 in press). FMD in Bactrians in Mongolia

Curasson, G. (1947). Le chameau et ses maladies. Vigot Frères, Ed., p. 86 – 88.

Cuteri, V., Takai, S., Marenzoni, M.L., Morgante M. and Valente, C. (2001). Detection of Antibodies

against Rhodococcus equi in Alpaca (Lama pacos) in Italy. Europ. J. Epid. 17, 1043-1045.

Giguère, S. and Prescott, J.F. (1997). Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of

Rhodococcus equi infections in foals. Vet. Microbiol. 56, 313–334.

Hong, C.B. and Donahue, J.M. (1995). Rhodococcus equi - associated necrotizing lymphadenitis in a

llama. J. Comp. Pathol. 113, 85-88.

Kinne, J., Madarame, H., Takai, S., Jose, S. and Wernery, U. (2011). Disseminated Rhodococcus equi

infection in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Veterinary Microbiology 149, 269–

272.

Larska, M., Wernery, U., Kinne, J., Schuster, R.K., Alexandersen, G. and Alexandersen, S. (2008):

Differences in the susceptibility of dromedary and Bactrian camels to foot-and-mouth disease

virus. Epidemiology and Infection. 8: 1-6.

Orlow, M. (1963) - Animal Virus Disease. Agricultural Literatures and Journalists, Moscow, 97-98.

Sakamoto, K. and Yoshida, K. (2002) - Recent outbreaks of foot and mouth disease in countries of

East Asia. Rev. Sci. Tech. OIE 21 (3); 459-463.

Samartsev, A.A., Arbuzov, P.N. (1940). The susceptibility of camels to glanders, rinderpest and

bovine pleuropneumonia. Veterinarija, Moscow. 4: 59- 63.

Terentieva S.M. (1975). - The Breeding of Animals. Kolos Izdatel'stvo, Moskva. 208–209.

Wernery, R., Kinne, J., Hayden-Evans, J. and Ul haq, A. (1997). Melioidosis in a seven year old

camel. A new disease in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). J Camel Pract and Res. 4: 141-

143.

Wernery, U. and Kaaden, O.-R. (2002). Infectious Diseases in Camelids. 2nd ed., Blackwell Science,

Berlin, Vienna, p. 91 – 97.

Wernery, U., Nagy, P., Amaral-Doe, C.M., Zhang, Z. and Alexandersen, S. (2006). Lack of

susceptibility of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) to foot-and-mouth disease

virus serotype O. Vet. Rec., 158, 201-203.

Wernery, U., Wernery, R., Joseph, M., Al-Salloom, F., Johnson, B., Kinne, J., Jose, S., Jose, S.,

Tappendorf, B., Hornstra, H. and Scholz, H.C. (2011): First case of natural B. mallei infection

(Glanders) in a dromedary camel in Bahrain. Emerging Infectious Diseases (in press).

93


33. Molecular Diagnosis of Camel Diseases

F. Hakimuddin*, F. Abidi, F. Abdushakur, O. Jaffer, U. Wernery and K. Khazanehdari

Molecular Biology and Genetics, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Dubai, UAE


Introduction

The camel is an important animal, an icon of adaptation to the desert eco-system with unique

physiological characteristics. Apart from its use as a source of milk and meat, there is an increased

interest in other aspects of camels such as camel racing, which is an important part of the Middle

Eastern culture. Thus, continuous monitoring of their health status is imperative.

Infected camels can affect camel herds and induce significant economic losses to the industry.

Some of these diseases, such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and West Nile Virus infections are zoonotic

and could also pose a serious public health problem. In this region, knowledge of camelid diseases has

been limited, as the available diagnostic tests have not been validated for these diseases. Current

methods of detection rely on culture, ELISA and histology. These are time consuming and could

prolong the time between diagnosis and treatment. Accurate and sensitive diagnostic procedures need

to be put into place in order to speed up the diagnosis of the disease.

High levels of abortion in camel herds threaten camel breeding in this region. The main

etiological agents responsible for this condition in camels are Brucella and Trypanosoma. Camels are

not known to be primary hosts for any of Brucella organisms, but they are susceptible to both B.

abortus and B. melitensis (Nicolletti 1989). Trypanosomosis is mainly caused by mechanical

transmission of T. evansi by biting flies. The overall productivity of a camel herd regarding calves,

milk and weight gain is greatly impaired.

In the past eight years, we have put a considerable amount of effort into developing and

compiling PCR-based diagnostic tests for camel diseases. This has also been instrumental in screening

populations of camel livestock and to identify new strains that can help in tracing infections to their

sources. This paper highlights the use of different PCR assays that we have established for screening

and detecting existing or emerging camel diseases in the UAE.


Primer sequences were taken from published papers or designed using Primer 3 express and

ordered from Metabion, Germany. PCR reagents were ordered from Roche. DNA was extracted

from the samples using phenol-chloroform method or MagNA Pure automated DNA extraction

(Roche). In case of RNA viruses, RNA was extracted from samples using Trizol (Sigma) or Qia Amp

viral RNA extraction kit (Qiagen). PCR amplification of DNA was done using specific primers for

each pathogen. Real-time PCR assays were performed using Roche light cycler (Manheim, Germany).

The assay is carried out using a positive and negative control with each run. PCR cycling conditions

for each test were determined empirically or taken from published papers.

Results

The results of the development and application of PCR to diagnose bacterial, viral and

protozoan diseases in camels are summarized in Table (1). The routine diagnostic application of the

PCR for camel diseases started as early as 2003 and today a total of 16 PCR assays are in routine use

for the detection of 2 protozoan, 9 bacterial and 5 viral diseases. This is in addition to development of

20 other PCR assays for detecting pathogens of other animal species.

Table 1: PCR assays developed for pathogen detection in camels

S.No Test PCR Pathogen

1 Chlamydophila qPCR Bacteria

2 West Nile Virus PCR RNA virus

3 Trypanosoma evansi qPCR Parasite

4 Mycobacterium spps. qPCR Bacteria

5 Mycoplasma spps. PCR Bacteria

6 Burkholderia mallei qPCR Bacteria

7 Taylorella equigenitalis qPCR Bacteria

8 Foot and mouth disease RT-PCR RNA virus

94


9 Equine Herpes Virus qPCR DNA virus

10 Coxiella burnettii qPCR Bacteria

11 Brucella spps. qPCR Bacteria

12 Camelpox qPCR DNA virus

13 Piroplasmosis qPCR Parasite

14 Adenovirus PCR DNA virus

15 Clostridium perfringens PCR Bacteria

16 African horse sickness qPCR RNA virus

We have succeeded in converting most of the classical gel based PCR detection assays in our

lab to real time PCR which combines speed with sensitivity. The key feature of real time PCR is that

the amplified DNA is detected as the reaction progresses in real time. The presence of these specific

DNA sequences in the reaction is detected by an increase in the fluorescence observed from the

relevant probe and is reported as a cycle threshold value (Ct) by the real time thermo cycler.

To date, over 700 camel samples have been tested by PCR-based methods of which 250

samples are tested for brucella and 300 samples for trypanosoma. Clostridial diseases are also known

to occur sporadically in camels and cause enterotoxaemia (Wernery and Kaaden, 2002). Multiplex

real-time PCR detection of clostridium toxin genes is also being developed.

Conclusion

Knowledge of camelid diseases is limited due to unavailability of diagnostic tests in the

region. this puts specific constraints on disease control. PCR-based assays are the preferred methods

as compared to the traditional methods like culture and ELISA. These assays are quick, reliable,

sensitive and specific. They can be used either in conjunction with the traditional methods or as a

secondary confirmation.

More research is currently underway to elucidate the role of some of the pathogens mentioned

in the epidemiology and pathogenesis of several diseases. Surveillance programs for camel herds

especially dairy should be carried out to prevent sudden outbreaks of diseases and PCR-based method

could be a reliable and quick method to contribute significantly to this task.

References

Lachnik J., Ackermann B., Bohrssen A., Maass S., Diephaus C., Puncken A., Stermann M. and Bange

F.Z. (2002). Rapid PCR and fluorimetry for detection of mycobacteria. Journal of Clinical

Microbiology, 40 (9), 3364-3373.

Nicolleti P. (1989). Relationship between animal and human disease. In: Young E.J., Corbel M.J. Eds,

Brucellosis clinical and laboratory aspects. Boca Raton, FL, USA, CRC Press, pp. 41-45.

Probert W.S., Schrader K.N., Khuong N.Y., Bystrom S.L. and Graves M.H. (2004). Real time

multiplex PCR assay for detection of Brucella spps., B. abortus, and B. melitensis. Journal of

Clinical Microbiology, 42, 1290-1293.

Reid S.M., Ferris N.P., Hutchings G.H., Zhang Z., Belsham G.J. and Alexandersen S. (2002).

Detection of all seven serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease virus by real-time, fluorogenic

reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay. Journal of Virological Methods, 105,

67-80.

Taylor T.K., Boyle D.B. and Bingham J. (2008). Development of a Taqman PCR assay for the

detection of Trypanosoma evansi, the agent of surra. Veterinary Parasitology, 153, 255-264.

Tasara T. and Stephan R. (2005). Development of an F57 sequence-based real-time PCR assay for

detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in milk. Applied and

Environmental Microbiology, 71 (10), 5957-5968.

Ulrich M.P., Norwood D.A., Cristensen D.R. and Ulrich R.L. (2006). Using real-time PCR to

specifically detect Burkholderia mallei.Journal of Medical Microbiology, 55, 551-559.

Wernery U. and Kaaden O.R. (2002). Infectious diseases of camelids, Blackwell Science, Berlin, pp.

23 – 30.

95


34. Muscular Sarcosporidiosis of Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in

Mauritania and Chad

Y. Kane1*

, P. Vounba1, M.Y. Diop

2, O.B Gbati

1, M-C Kadja

1, Y. Barry

3, M.L. Dia

3

and Y. Kaboret1

1Ecole Inter-états des Sciences et Médecine Vétérinaires de Dakar (Sénégal)

2Centre Hospitalier National de Nouakchott (Mauritanie)

3Centre National d’Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires, Nouakchott (Mauritanie)


Introduction

The breeding of the dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) occupies an important place in

Mauritania and Chad because of multiple services offered by this animal (meat, milk, money,

transport, social prestige). More and more dromedary‘s meat belongs to the daily meals in Mauritania

and Chad. Consequently, it is important to consider the sanitary security of this food for consumers of

which some have a fragile medical condition in particular the pregnant women, the elderly and the

children. Among the dromedary affections infecting muscles is sarcosporidiose. The latter can reach

variable prevalences from one country to another (Fathy and al., 2009; Kane and al., 2009; Hussein

and Warrag, 1985; Hagi and al., 1989; Woldemeskel and Gumi, 2001; Fatani and al., 1996;

Valinezhad and al., 2008). Moreover, the sarcosporidiosis of the dromedary is a potentially zoonotic

protozoosis (Valinezhad and al., 2008).

In Mauritania, this infection was the subject of a preliminary study (Kane and al., 2009),

contrary to Chad. This work aims to determine the prevalence of the sarcocystic infestation in the

muscles of the slaughtered dromedaries in the slaughter-houses of Nouakchott (Mauritania) and

NDiaména (Chad) and to identify the parasitic species in question.


The present study was carried out in August 2008 and September 2009 in the slaughter-

houses of Nouakchott (Mauritania) and Djaména (Chad). The carcasses of the dromedaries in the two

sites were examined in order to detect macroscopic lesions compatible with the sacrosporidiosis.

Sampling of muscles was carried out on 58 carcasses at the slaughter-house of Nouakchott and 30

carcasses at the slaughter-house of NDiaména, with a total of 88 animals 3 to 9 years old. On each

carcass various types of muscles (heart, diaphragm, neck and tongue) were collected. The samples

intended for the histological were fixed in 10% formalin and those intended for parasitologic analysis

were kep cold and then conveyed to the laboratories of Histopathology (Beddiya clinic at Nouakchott

and EISMV of Dakar) and Parasitology (EISMV of Dakar). The histological exam was carried out

according to routine methods of staining with the haematoxylin-eosin stain. The parasitologic analysis

was based on the method described by Seneviratna and al. (1975) based on a muscular digestion by

pepsin. Only 21 positive samples in microscopic exam were subjected to the parasitologic analysis.

Measurement and photography of the parasitic cysts were carried out in the Imagery

Laboratory of EISMV by using the software LAS EZ version 1.8.0 et Motic Images Plus 2.0 M.L.The

statistical analysis was made by Excel version 2007 of Microsoft and R Recommander. The threshold

of significance of the prevalence difference xis fixed at 5% (P<0,05).


The macroscopic examination of the carcasses did not reveal any macroscopic lesions

compatible with the sarcocystic infestation. This result corroborates those of other authors (Hussein

and Warrag, 1985; Woldemeskel and Gumi, 2001 and Valinezhad and al., 2008). On the other hand,

the histological examination showed average prevalences of 48% and 63% respectively for the

slaughter-houses of Nouakchott and Djaména. The prevalence of the sarcocystic infestation appears

higher in the slaughter-houses of Djaména than in the slaughter-houses of Nouakchott although the

difference is not significant. The prevalence obtained with Nouakchott is higher than those obtained

by Kane and al. (2009) in Mauritania (13%) and lower than those obtained by Woldemeskel and

Gumi (2001) in Ethiopia (45%). Those of the slaughter-houses of Djaména are similar to the

prevalence observed in Egypt (64%) by Fathy and al. (2009). In addition, our results are largely lower

than those obtained in other countries by other authors, in particular in Sudan (81%) by Hussein and

96


Warrag (1986), Saudi Arabia (88%) by Fatani and al. (2001), and in Iran (84%) reported by

Valinezhad et al. (2008). Thus, the prevalence of the sarcocystic infestation of dromedary differs

according to the authors and the study sites. In the various taken muscles, the average prevalence of

infestation is, for the slaughter-houses of Nouakchott, 40%, 27%, 23% and 20% respectively in the

tongue, the diaphragm, the neck and the heart. At the slaughter-houses of Djamena, for the same

muscles, they are in the same order respectively of 35%,16%,14% and 10%. The difference of the

infection rate, in these two slaughter-houses, is not statistically significant. From these results, in the

different sites, the tongue is more infected followed by diaphragm, whereas the cardiac muscle is less

infected. In Ethiopia, Woldemeskel and Gumi (2001) obtained lower rates of infestation than ours in

the diaphragm (11,57%) and the heart (9,17%). On the other hand, Valinezhad et al. (2008) showed

that the heart is the muscle more infested (48%) followed by masseter (46,8%), diaphragm (41,6%)

and tongue (28%).

The parasitic cysts measures are: 57,27 ± 21 µm (length), 16,43 ± 8,45 µm (diameter), and

0,69 ± 0,20 µm (wall thickness) at the slaughter-houses of Nouakchott. At the slaughter-houses of

Djaména, these dimensions were respectively of 84,62 ± 20,65 µm, 19,41 ± 9,43 µm and 1,07 ± 0,92

µm. Dimensions obtained at Nouakchott are comparable with those obtained (55,20 ± 15 X 21 ± 7

µm) by Kane and al. (2009). These dimensions are different from those of Sarcocystis camelicanis

(72,5 - 264 X 9,9 - 29,5 X 0,5 - 1 µm) and Sarcocystis. cameli (73 - 155 X 23 X 29,5 X 2 - 3 µm)

found by Manal and al. (2006) to Sudan, and of those by Fatani and al. (1996), in Saudi Arabia. To

the slaughter-houses of Djamena, cyst dimensions are comparable with those (72,5-264 X 9,9 - 29,5 X

0,5 - 1 µm) reported by Manal and al. (2006) to Sudan. Thus, Sarcocystis species found in Chad are

similar of those in Sudan. However, complementary studies are necessary with more specific methods

such the PCR and the immunofluorescence test in order to identify more specifically the parasitic

species. Moreover, it was noted inflammatory lesions like eosinophilic myositis. These types of

lesions were reported by Kane et al. (2009) in Mauritania and Valinezhad et al. (2008) in Iran.

By enzymatic digestion, the following prevalence is obtained in different muscles: heart (67%),

diaphragm (33%), tongue (27%) and neck (0%). This confirms microscopic results by highlighting the

Sarcocystic bradyzoïtes. These bradyzoites measured 18,55 ± 3,65 X 4,5 ± 0,61 µm. These

dimensions are higher than those reported (15,35 ± 0,29 X 4,1 ± 0,26 µm) by Fatani et al. (1996) in

Saudi Arabia by using trypsin.

Conclusion

The muscular sarcosporidiosis has a considerable rate infection among slaughtered

dromedaries examined in Mauritania (48%) and in Chad (63%). This relatively high rate must

challenge all the actors of camel channel in the two countries in order to undertake actions for better

considering this parasitic infestation to control it. These actions must include, among other things,

research, capacities reinforcement of the animal health professionals, and the sensitizing of the

breeders and the consumers.

References

Fatani A, Hilali M, Al-Atiya S, Al-Shami S (1996). Prevalence of Sarcocystis in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) from Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Vet Parasitol, 62 (3-4): 241-5.

Fathy A-G., Mehlhorn H., Bashtar A. R., Al-Rasheid K., Sakran T. et El-Fayoumi H. (2009). Life

cycle of Sarcocystiscamelicanis infecting the camel (Camelusdromedarius) and the dog

(Canisfamiliaris), light and electron microscopic study. Parasitology Research, 106 (1) :189-

95.

Hagi A. B., Mohamed H. A., et Di Sacco B. (1989). Sarcocystis in Somali camel. Parasitologia, 31

(2-3) : 133-136.

Hussein H. S. et Warrag M. (1985). Prevalence of Sarcocystis in food animals in the Sudan.Trop.

Anim. Health Prod., 17 (2) : 100-1.

Kane Y., Vounba P., Diop M. Y., Kadja M. C., Barry Y., Dia M. L. et Kaboret Y. (2009). Prevalence

of Sarcocystis spp in camels (Camelus dromedarius) meats consumed in Nouakchott

(Mauritania). Actes de la 2ème

conférence de l’ISOCARD sur les dromadaires, 12-14 mars

2009, Djerba (Tunisie).

Manal Y. I., Majid A. M. et Magzoub A. M. (2006). Isolation of a new Sarcocystis species from

Sudanese camels (Camelus dromedarius). International Journal of Tropical Medecine, 1 (4) :

167-169.

97


Seneviratna P., Edward A.G., and DeGiusti D.L. (1975). Frequency of Sarcocystis spp in Detroit,

metropolitan area, Michigan. Am J Vet Res 1975 Mar; 36 (3):337-9.

Valinezhad A., Ahmad O., et Nasrollah A., 2008. Sarcocystis and its Complications in Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) of Eastern Provinces of Iran. The Korean Journal of Parasitology,

46(4): 229–234.

Woldemeskel M, Gumi B (2001). Prevalence of Sarcocysts in One-humped Camel (Camelus

dromedaries) from Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series B, 48 (3): 223-6.

98


35. Subclinical Goiter in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Dhofar Region of Oman

M.H. Tageldin1, H. Abu Damer

2, M.A. Adam

3 and O.N. Ishmael

4

1Sultan Qaboos University, Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural &

Marine Sciences, Sultanate of Oman 2Tawam Hospital, Laboratory Department, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.

3Brucellosis diagnostic unit, Salalah Veterinary Hospital, Ministry of Agriculture, Sultanate of Oman

4Sultan Qaboos University, Pathology Department, College of Medicine and health Sciences,

Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

The thyroid gland is important in maintaining health, and iodine is a crucial constituent of

thyroid hormone (Arthur and Beckett, 1999). Nowadays about 800 million people are affected by

iodine deficiency disorders that include goiter, (Triggiani et al, 2009). Goiter is well documented in

many animal species (McDowell et al, 1983). Low iodine uptake of dromedary camels predispose

them to iodine deficiency than other domestic animals (Abdel-Wahab and Osman, 1971). Data on

goiter in dromedary camels are scarce. Apart from the reports of colloid goiter (Hruska and

McDermid, 1979 and Tageldin et al, 1985) and clinical and subclinical colloid goiter (Abu-Damer et

al, 1990) no reports could be traced in the literature.

The aim of this study was to assess subclinical goiter in dromedary camels raised in

mountainous areas of the Sultanate of Oman.


Blood was collected in EDTA, heparin and plain tubes from 52 camels of different ages.

Bilobed thyroid glands were collected from apparently healthy slaughtered dromedary camels at the

central slaughterhouse, Salalah, Oman. The age of the animals were ranging from 1-20 years. Both

glands were weighted. Representative portions from each pair of thyroids were fixed in 10% buffered

formalin, processed, sectioned and stains with H&E. Selected slides were subjected to

immunohistochemistry using HBME1, GAL9, Calcitonin and CD56 as tumor markers. The marker

pattern and intensity were recorded.

Hematological parameters were determined. Assessment of thyroid function was carried out

by estimation of thyroxine (T4), tri-iodothyronine (T3) and thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) were

determined. Selenium and Vitamin E will be determined. Serum cholesterol, triglycerides, total

proteins, HDL cholesterol, GOT, GPT, CK and GGT will be measured.

Results

Based on macroscopic and microscopic pictures, the samples can be divided into four groups:

Group1, 42.3% (22/52) showed early stages of colloid goiter characterized by enlargement of thyroid

follicles at the periphery which were distended by colloid.

Group11, 28.8% (15/52) represent advanced stages of colloid goiter where both follicles at

the periphery and central were enlarged and markedly distended with colloid. 80% (12/15) of this

group showed enlargement of the glands and a mixture of macro-follicles and micro-follicles in a

form of nodules all over the surface and cut surface which exuded a sticky jelly like fluid (nodular

goiter).

Group 111, 15.4% (8/52) showed advanced stages of colloid goiter associated with

hyperplastic goiter, the proliferation of the epithelium resulted in reduction or complete occlusion of

follicular lumin. 62 (5/8) of this group exhibited enlargement of the glands and macroscopic follicles

(nodular goiter).

Group1V, 13.5% (7/52) represent advanced stages of colloid goiter associated with

hyperplastic goiter and adenoma, a benign encapsulated tumor with follicles surrounded by thick

fibrous capsule, sharply separated from the surrounded tissues.

In advanced stages of colloid goiter papillary projections and thickening of inter follicular

connective tissue was observed in few cases. The thyroid weights were ranging between 21.i and 67.2

grams (mean 34. grams).

99


The immunohistochemistry parameters were negative for carcinoma. Hematological and

chemical parameters are in progress.

Discussion

Goiter is defined as non-inflammatory and non-neoplastic enlargement of thyroid gland

(Doige and McLaughlin, 1981). Goiter is generally and endemically present in mountainous areas

(Tageldin et al, 1985). Subclinical goiter is more prevalent in camels at Dhofar area than has been

suspected. Colloid goiter is believed to represent an involutionary phase of hyperplastic goiter (Doige

and McLaughlin, 1981). Hyperplastic goiter and adenomas had not been reported in the previous

investigations (Tageldin et al, 1985 and Abu-Damer et al, 1990). However, distinction between

hyperplastic nodule and follicular adenoma is not so strict (Baloch and LiVolsi, 2002). The carcasses

of affected subjects were in good condition and passed for human consumption.

It can be concluded that subclinical colloid goiter is the most common type of goiter. It is

either alone or associated with hyperplastic goiter and/or adenomas. Recommendations can be made

upon completion of the work and analysis of the parameters.

References

Abdel-Wahab,M. F. and Osman, A. M. (1971). Iodine metabolism in domestic animals in the Sudan,

Endokrinologie, 58 : 198-208.

Abu-Damer, H., Barri, M. E. S., Tageldin, M. H. and Idris, O. F. (1990). Clinical and subclinical

colloid goiter in adult camel (Camelus dromedarius) at Kordofan Region of the Sudan, British

Veterinary Journal, 146: 219-227.

Arthur, R. A. and Beckett, G. J. (1999). Thyroid function, British Medical Bulletin, 55: 658-668.

Baloch, Z. W. and LiVolsi, A. (2002). Follicular- Patterned Lesions of the Thyroid

The Bane of the Pathologist, American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 117: 143-150.

Doige, C. E. and McLaughlin, B. G. (1981). Hyperplastic goiter in newborn foals in Western Canada,

Canadian Veterinary Journal, 22: 42-45.

Hruska, J. C. and McDermed, A. M. (1979). Colloid goiter in a new born dromedary camel and an

aborted fetus, American Journal of Veterinary Medical Association, 175: 968-969.

McDowell, L. R., Conard, J. H., Ellis, G. L and Loosli, J. K. (1983). Minerals from grazing ruminants

in tropical regions (bulletin). Gainesville: University of Florida.

Tageldin,M. H., Sid Ahmed El-sawi, A. and Ibrahim, S. G. (19850. Observations on colloid goiter of

dromedary camels in the Sudan, Revue Elevage Medicine Veteriaire Pays Tropicau, 38: 394-

397.

Triggiani, V., Tafaro,E., Giagulli, V. A., Sabba, C., Resta, F., Licchelli, B. and Guastamacchia, E.

(2009). Role of iodine, selenium and other micronutrients in thyroid function and disorders,

Endocrine Metabolic Immune Disorders Drug Target, 9: 277-294.

100


36. Mycoplasmosis – A New Disease in Camelids

U. Wernery and J. Kinne.

Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Dubai, UAE


Introduction

Classification of certain bacteria families has dramatically changed over the last decade

mainly based on the development of molecular techniques, comparing nucleotide sequences of the

genome, in particular the 16S rRNA gene sequences; these changes refer also to the mycoplasma

family. Bacteria, formerly known as Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon species of the order

Rickettsiales have been re-classified as belonging to the Mycoplasmataceae (Table 1). They are

named haemotrophic mycoplasmas.

Table 1: Mycoplasmataceae of veterinary importance

Family Host Genus (No. of

species)

Important species (many more have been

identified)

Myc

opla

smata

ceae

Cattle,

sheep,

goats

Mycoplasma (12)

Acheloplasma (1)

Ureaplasma (1)

M.mycoides subsp. Mycoides (2x), M. agalactiae

M. mycoides subsp. capri, M. bovis

M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae, M.

conjunctivae

M. capricolum subsp. capricolum, M. ovis

M. sp.bovine group 7

Horses Mycoplasma (11)

Acheloplasma (8)

M. felis

M. equirhinis

Dogs and

cats

Mycoplasma (15)

Acheloplasma (1)

Ureaplasma

M. canis, M. haemofelis (Haemobartonella felis)

M. cynos, M. gatae

M. felis

Swine

Mycoplasma (13)

Acheloplasma (5)

Ureaplasma (1)

M. hyopneumoniae, M. suis (Eperythrozoon suis)

M. hyorhinis

M. hyosynoviae

Camelids

Mycoplasma (2)

Acheloplasma (2)

Ureaplasma (?)

M. haemolamae (Haemobartonella spp.)

M. arginini

A. laidlawii, A. oculi

Domestic

birds

Mycoplasma(17)

Acheloplasma(2)

Ureaplasma(2)

M. gallisepticum

M. meleagridis

M. synoviae

Results

The presentation is divided into 3 parts. The first part deals with haemotrophic mycoplasmas,

the second part with ―classical‖ mycoplasmas and the third with a mycoplasma – outbreak in

dromedaries in Iran.

Haemotrophic mycoplasmas are now a well known bacteria group in the USA in NWCs but

also in Europe where more and more SACs are kept. Scientists have also described a double infection

in an alpaca with haemotropic mycoplasma and anaplasma.

Mycoplasmosis has frequently been identified in young llamas (McLaughlin et al., 1990;

Semrad, 1994). Such llamas have a history of weight loss and stunted growth and development of

acute or recurrent infectious conditions. During necropsy, severe fibrinous polyserositis involving the

thoracic and abdominal organs, moderate diffuse non-suppurative interstitial pneumonia, splenic

hyperplasia, necrotizing enteritis, widespread vascular thrombosis and anaemic infarcts in the liver are

101


observed. These organisms are attached to the surface of red blood cells of the affected llamas and are

often found in clusters, usually towards the edge of the cell (Wernery et al., 1999). Also double

infections with A. phagocytophilum and M. haemolamae have been described in SACs (Lascola et al.,

2009). They are extremely difficult to differentiate from anaplasma of which several species also

parasitize in red blood cells, when blood smears are checked.

Much progress has been made in the study of the haemotrophic mycoplasmas in camelids,

and diagnostic testing has been greatly improved over the last few years. A PCR-based assay has been

developed made available for diagnostic testing by the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory at Oregon

State University‘s College of Veterinary Medicine (Tornquist, 2006, 2008). Specifity for M.

haemolamae was shown by failure to identify other than mycoplasma species like M. haemosuis,

M.haemofelis, and M. genitalium. All studies have elucidated, that many infections are subclinical,

and that clinical signs of infections with these organisms can vary widely. Clinical infections are

associated with fever, mild to marked anaemia, depression, icterus, infertility, oedema, poor growth

rate and mild to severe hypoglycaemia. It is not yet investigated, if these bacteriae may cause or serve

as co-factors in some forms of immune suppression.

Beside the haemotropic mycoplasmas, ―classical‖ mycoplasmas have been investigated in

camelids.

In spring 2011, a severe respiratory disease occurred in Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan

affecting several thousand dromedaries with high mortality. Several promed reports were released.

From Iran, CVRL received blood and nasal swabs from diseased animals. Mycoplasma spp. were

isolated from several swabs. The results of this investigation are reported during the presentation.

References

Lascola, K., Vandis, M., Bain, P. and Bedenice, D. (2009). Concurrent infection with Anaplasma

phagocytophilium and Mycoplasma haemolamae in a young alpaca. J. Vet. Intern. Med.,23,

379-382.

McLaughlin, B.G., Evans, C.N., McLaughlin, P.S., Johnson, L., Smith, A.R. and Zachary, J.F. (1990).

An Eperythrozoon-like parasite in llamas. JAVMA, 197 (9),1170-1175.

Semrad, S.D. (1994). Septicemic listeriosis, thrombocytopenia, blood parasitism and hepatopathy in a

Llama. JAVMA, 204 (2), 213–216.

Tornquist, S. (2006). Update on Mycoplasma haemolamae in camelids. Int. Camelid Health Conf. For

Veterinarians, 21-25.3.2006, 52-54.

Tornquist, S. (2008). Camelid haematology (including M.haemolamae) update. Proc. Int. Camelid

Hlth. Conf. For Vets. Ohio State University College of Vet. Med. 18.03.08, 214-217.

Wernery, U., Fowler, M.E. and Wernery, R. (1999). Color Atlas of Camelid Hematology. Blackwell

Wissenschafts-Verlag, Berlin, 37-43.

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37. Ticks of Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Oman

S.A. Al-Riyami¹, P.A. Bobade¹, R.M. Al-Busaidi¹, H. Heyne², and A. Latif2

¹Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences,

Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khod, Oman.

²Programme: Parasites, Vectors & Vector-borne Diseases, ARC Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute,

Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa


Introduction

The Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) is one of the principal sources of meat and milk in

Oman. In spite of this, very little is known about the health problems of this animal in the country.

Ticks, and the diseases that they transmit, are among the most important causes of morbidity among

domestic animals and if not controlled appropriately, they limit production in livestock farming

(Howell et al. 1978). In Oman, few studies have been conducted to determine the species of ticks that

infest camels in the country. According to the studies conducted by Hoogstraal, 1980; Papadopoulos

et al. 1991; and Wassef et al. 1997, six species of ixodid ticks and one species of argasid tick were

found in association with camels. The species of ticks and the regions of the country in which they

were found were as follows: Amblyomma variegatum (Dhofar Region), Hyalomma anatolicum

(Northern and Central regions), Hyalomma dromedarii (Northern, Central and Dhofar regions and

Masira Island), Hyalomma impeltatum (Northern and Central regions), Hyalomma marginatum

(Central region), Rhipicephalus turanicus (Dhofar Region), and Ornithodoros savignyi (Central

region).

Since 1997, there has been no further investigation of the ticks that could be infesting camels

in the country. To address this paucity of information, a survey was carried out to determine the

species of ticks that infest camels in the Dhofar Region which is home to more than 45% of the

camels in the country (Ministry of Agriculture, Oman 2011).

Materials and Methods In June 2009, ticks were collected from camels at six locations in Dhofar Region, namely,

Muqrah, Ruwiya, Shihat, Kizet, Wadi Heno and Sadah. The geographic coordinates of each location

where ticks were collected were recorded at the time of tick collection and later mapped. At each

location, at least 10 animals with visible tick infestation were selected for tick collection. Where there

were less than 10 infested animals all the infested animals were selected. Ticks were collected from

all parts of each animal‘s body, including the ears, chest, ventral abdomen, limbs, tail and peri-anal

region.

Collected ticks were identified and counted using a stereoscopic microscope. Ticks were

identified morphologically using keys from various publications, namely Hoogstraal et al. (1981),

Walker et al. (2003), Apanaskevich & Horak, (2005, 2008 and 2009) and Apanaskevich et al. (2008).

Results

The ages of the camels from which ticks were collected ranged from two weeks to 18 years.

There were 5 males and 42 she camels. A total of 644 ticks collected from the 47 camels consisted of

the following seven ixodid species, Amblyomma (A) variegatum, Hyalomma (H) anatolicum, H.

dromedarii, H. impeltatum, H. marginatum, H. rufipes and Rhipicephalus (R) camicasi (Table 1).

H. dromedarii was the most numerous tick species followed by H. impeltatum; while H.

anatolicum was represented by only one specimen (Table. 1). H. dromedarii and H. impeltatum were

also the most widely distributed species, being found at all the six locations (Table.1). H. anatolicum

and R. camicasi were collected from one location each. Adult and nymphs of H. dromedarii were

found on infested animals while only adults of the other tick species were found.

Thirty-three of the camels (70.2%) were infested by more than one species of tick. Infestation

of individual camels with two, three and four species of ticks were found on 42.6%, 21.3% and 6.4%

of the camels respectively

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Table 1: Tick species and their numbers collected from camels at different locations in Dhofar

Region.

*Meters above sea level, N= Nymph, F= Female, M=Male

Discussion

The finding of Hyalomma (H) rufipes and Rhipicephalus (R) camicasi on camels are new host

records for Oman. Though both tick species are being reported for the first time in Dhofar region, they

have been found on camels in Yemen (Wassef et al. 1997). Also H. rufipes has been found on camels

in Saudi Arabia (Hoogstraal et al. 1981), Kuwait and Qatar (Wassef et al. 1997).

Of the five other ticks species found on camels in this study, namely A. variegatum, H.

anatolicum, H. dromedarii, H. impeltatum, and H. marginatum, two species, H. dromedarii and A.

variegatum,have earlier been reported from Dhofar region (Hoogstraal 1980; Wassef et al. 1997).

The finding of the other three tick species on camels represents new host records for Dhofar region.

H. anatolicum and H. impeltatum have been collected from camels in northern and central

regions of Oman (Papadopoulos et al. 1991; Wassef et al. 1997) but only from the ground in Dhofar

Region (Wassef et al. 1997). These tick species have been collected off camels in Saudi Arabia

(Hoogstraal et al. 1981), Yemen (Ueckermann et al. 2006) and Qatar (Wassef et al. 1997.

There has been only one report of the occurrence of H. marginatum on camels in the Arabian

Peninsula and that was from the central region of Oman (Papadopoulos et al. 1991). The tick species

seems to be rare in the Arabian Peninsula. In fact, in this study, only three ticks were found and at

only one location.

This study has resulted in an increase in the number of species of ixodid ticks associated with

camels in Oman; from six to eight.

References

Apanaskevich, D. A., & Horak, I. G. (2005). The Genus Hyalomma Koch, 1844. II. Taxonomic status

of H. (Euhyalomma) anatolicum Koch, 1844 and H. (E) excavatum Koch, 1844 (Acari,

Ixodidae) with redescriptions of all stages. Acarina, 13, 181-197.

Apanaskevich, D. A. & Horak, I. G. (2008). The Genus Hyalomma Koch, 1844: V. Re-evaluation of

the taxonomic rank of taxa comprising the H. (Euhyalomma) marginatum Koch Complex of

species (Acari: Ixodidae) with redescription of all parasitic stages and notes on biology.

International Journal of Acarology, 34, 13-42.

Apanaskevich, D. A., &Horak, I. G. (2009). The genus Hyalomma Koch, 1844. IX. Redescription of

all parasitic stages of H. (Euhyalomma) impeltatum Schulze & Schlottke, 1930 and H. (E.)

somalicum Tonelli Rondelli, 1935 (Acari: Ixodidae). Systemic Parasitology, 73, 199-218.

Apanaskevich, D. A., Schuster, A. L., & Horak, I.G. (2008). The Genus Hyalomma: VII.

Redescription of all Parasitic Stages of H. (Euhyalomma) dromedarii and H. (E.) schulzei

(Acari: Ixodidae). Journal of Medical Entomology, 45, 817-831.

Hoogstraal, H. (1980). Ticks (Ixodoidea) from Oman. Journal of Oman Studies Special report, 2,

265-272.

Hoogstraal, H., Wassef, H. Y., & Büttiker, W. (1981). Ticks (Acarina) of Saudi Arabia. Fam.

Argasidae, Ixodidae. Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 3, 25-110.

Howell, C. J., Walker, J. B., & Nevill, E. M. (1978). Tick, mites and insects infesting domestic

animals in South Africa. Part 1. Description and biology. Department of agricultural

technical service, Republic of South Africa, Science Bulletin no. 393

104


Ministry of Agriculture, Oman (2011). Database of the Agricultural Sector: Number of Cattle,

Camels, Sheep and Goats by Region. eOman- Agriculture Reports.

http://www.oman.om/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04. Accessed 23/02/2011.

Papadopoulos, B., Büttiker, W., Moral, P. C., & Aeschlimann, A. (1991). Ticks (Acarina, Fam.

Argasidae & Ixodidae) of Oman. Fauna of Saudi Arabia, 12, 200-208.

Walker, A. R., Bouattour, A., Camicas, J. L., Estrada-Peña, A., Horak, I. G., Latif, A. A., Pegram, R.

G., & Preston, P. M. (2003). Ticks of domestic animals in Africa: A guide to identification of

species. Bioscience reports: Edinburgh

Wassef, H. Y., Büttiker, W., Gallagher, M. D. (1997). Further records of ticks (Acari: Argasidae and

Ixodidae) from the Arabian Peninsula. Fauna of Saudi Arabia,16, 63-88.

105


38. Bacterial Camel Mastitis in the Kingdom of Bahrain

M.I. Abubakr, A.O. Abdelrahman and E.F. Mirghani

Royal Court Diagnostic Laboratory


Introduction

The one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) inhabits the arid and semi-arid areas of

Africa. It is a better provider of food in these regions than other ruminants which are severely affected

by feed and water scarcity. In the past camels were used mainly for transport while milk, meat, wool

and hides were by-products. The search for food, particularly animal protein for the largely increasing

human population in developing countries (where the lands are barren, degraded and marginal) has

focused on the milk and meat potentials of desert adapted animals (Elamin, F.M. and Wilox,

C.J.(1992), Knoss K.H. (1982), Wardeh, M.F.(1994). Reports of inflammation of the camel udder

have appeared from various countries, such as Egypt (Hassanein, A. et al (1984) and Mostafa, A.S, et

al. (1987), India (Kapur,M.P., et al. (1982), Saudi Arabia (Barbour,E.K., et al. (1985),and Hafez,

A.M., et al. ( 1987), Somalia (Abdelrahman,OASH,et al. ( 1991), and Arush, M.A. (1984), Sudan

(Obeid, A.I. et al.(1983) and UAE (Quandil, S.S., and Qudar, J.)

Mastitis is the inflammation of the udder characterized by pathological alterations in the

mammary tissues, compositional changes in milk, elevated somatic cells, and pain to the affected

animal (Tibary, A. and Anouassi, A. (2000). Mammary gland function is also important for the health

and growth of the newborn animal since other diseases are known to have a negative effect on both

factors and can cause public health hazards for populations consuming camel milk (Knoess,K.H.

(1986). Mastitis takes two forms: clinical mastitis, which is recognized by abnormal milk, signs of

udder infection and detection of mastitis pathogens by microbiological culture, and subclinical

mastitis were clinical signs are invisible and require indirect means of diagnosis. Evidence indicates

that subclinical mastitis causes suffering of the animal, reduces milk yield alter milk properties,

impairs preservation and processing and is public health concern for consumers of camel milk

(Tibary,A. and Anouassi, A., 2000). In 1987, Ramadan, R.O., et al reported chronic unilateral mastitis

in 2 female camels. There are divergent opinions as to which bacteria are potentially the primary

causal organisms of infectious mastitis in the camel. Barbour et al (1985) views Micrococcus spp. as

an important causative agent of mastitis whereby (Obeid, A.I. et al. (1983)) did not consider this

bacterium pathologically relevant. In 1996, Obeid et al found Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus

spp., Micrococcus spp., Aerobacter spp. and E. coli to be the main bacterial species causing mastitis.

Al Ani , F.K.,and Al-Shareefi, M.R.(1998) found that Streptococcus aureus and Corynebacterium

pyogenes were the main cause s of chronic mastitis in Iraq, whereas Streptococcus epidermidis spp.,

Pasteurella hemolytica, E. coli and Micrococcus spp. were responsible for subclinical mastitis.

From the multitude of bacteria isolated from mastitic milk samples of camel,

Staphylococcus aureus, Pasteurella hemolytica, and Staphylococcus Spp. were found most frequently.

Numerous authors believe them to be the primary causative organisms in the pathogenesis of mastitis

in the camel (Barbour,E.K.,et al. (1985), Hafez, A.M., et al. ( 1987), and Ramadan,R.O., et al.(1987).

Younan et al (2001) also isolated Streptococcus agalactiae from three cases with mastitis.


In Bahrain camel mastitis is rare. During a period of 5 years only 25 cases were

recorded.The teats of camels were cleaned thoroughly and dried; the teat tips were disinfected using

disposable paper towel immersed in 70% ethyl alcohol.

The first three streams of milk were allowed to flow out.Approximately 10 ml of milk

samples were aseptically collected from lactating camels suffering from clinical and subclinical

mastitis in sterile containers for bacteriological examination. Milk samples were examined for any

change in their color or consistency.

Bacteriological Examination

A loopful of milk was streaked onto sheep blood agar and MacConkey agar (Difco

Laboratories). The plates were aerobically and anaerobically incubated at 37ºC for 24h and a further

24 hours for those plates that showed scanty or no growth. Plates were examined for growth,

106


morphological features, and hemolytic characteristics. Plates were considered culture negative if there

was no bacterial growth on the medium within 72 hours.

Identification of bacteria was made on the basis of colony morphological features, Gram stain,

reaction, hemolytic characteristics and catalase test. Isolated bacteria were identifiedusing the API

system (API bio Merieux).


In terms of decreasing prevalence, the isolated bacteria can be ranked in the following order:

Staphylococcus spp. (32%), Corynebacterium pyogenes (20%), Streptococcus spp. (16%),

Escherichia coli (12%), Peptostreptococcus spp., Pasteurella hemolytica, Enterobacter spp., and

Aeromonas spp. 4% each (Table1). The efficacy of various antibiotics on bacterial isolates from

camel milk samples is shown in Table 2.

Treatment

Different antibiotics were used to treat the infection. Table 2 shows the sensitivity of the

isolated bacteria to different antibiotics. Most of the isolated bacteria were sensitive to Amikacin and

Norfloxacin. Less sensitivity was shown to Azithromycin and Rifampicin. Sensitivity to Streptomycin

Neomycin was low.

Table 1: bacteria isolated from mastitis cases in female camels

Table 2: Degree of sensitivity of isolated bacteria to antibiotics

ISOLATED BSCTERIA AK NOR AZM RD N S

Staphylococcus aureus ++ ++ ++ + + +

Corynebacterium pyogenes ++ ++ ++ ++ + +

E. coli ++ ++ ++ + + +

Streptococcus agalactiae ++ ++ + ++ +

Streptococcus dysgalactiae ++ ++ + ++ + +

Staphylococcus hemolyticus ++ ++ ++ + + +

Staphylococcus hominis + + ++ ++ + +

Proteus mirabilis ++ ++ ++ + ++ ++

Micrococcus species ++ ++ + ++ ++ +

Paseurella aeroginosa ++ ++ + + + +

Aeromonas species ++ ++ ++ + + +

TOTAL NO. OF CASES & %

N.B 9 AK= AMIKACIN , NOR = NORFLOXACIN , AZM = AZITHROMYCIN

RD = RIFAMPICIN , N = NEOMYCIN, S = STREPTOMYCIN

References

Abdurahman, Oash., Bornstein S, Osman Kh Sh, Abdi AM and Zakrisson, G,1991. Prevalence of

mastitis among camels in southern Somalia:a pilot study.Camel forum,Working paper 37:1-9.

Al-Ani, F.K. and M.R. Al-Shareefi, 1998. Studies on mastitis in lactating one humped camels

(Camelus dromedarius ) in Iraq. J. Camel Pract. Res., 41: 47-49.

ISOLATED BACTERIA NO OF CASES PERCENTAGE

Stphylococcus aureus 24 24%

Corynebacterium pyogenes 20 20%

Echerichia coli 12 12%

Streptococcus agalactiae 8 8%

Streptococus dysgalatiae 8 8%

Staphylococcus hemolyticus 4 4%

Staphylococcus hominis 4 4%

Proteus mirabilis 4 4%

Micrococcus species 4 4%

Pasteurella aeroginosa 4 4%

Enterobacter species 4 4%

Aeromonas species 4 4%

TOTAL NO. OF CASES & % 100 100%

107


Arush, M. A., C. Valente, M. Compagnucci and H. Hussein. 1984. Studies on the prevalence of

mastitis in the dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) in Somalia. Bullettino Scientifica della

Facolta di Zootecniue Veterinaria, Universita Nazionale Somalia. 4:99.

Barbour, E.K., N.H. Nabbut, W.M. Frerichs, H.M. Al Nakhli and A.A. Mukayel, 1985. Mastitis in

Camelus dromedarius in Saudi Arabia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 17:173-179.

El Amin, F. M. and Wilox, C.J. (1992). Milk composition of Majaheim camels. J. Dairy Sci.

75:3155–3157.

Hafez, A. M., S. A. Razing, S. El-Amrousi and R. O. Ramadan. 1987. Studies on mastitis in farm

animals in Al-Husa. I. Analytical studies. Assiut. Vet. Med. J. 19 (37):139.

Hassanein, A., Soliman, A. S. and Ismail M. (1984). A clinical case of mastitis of she-camel caused

by Corynebacterium pyogenes. Assiut Vet. Med. J., 12:23–28.

Kapur, M. P., B. M. Khanna and R. P. Singh. 1982. A per-acute case of mastitis in a she camel

associated with Klebsiella pneumoniae and E. coli. Indian Vet. J. 59 (8):650.

Knoess, K.H., 1977. The camel as a meat and milk animal. World Anim. Rev., 22:39-44.

Knoess, K. H. Makhudum, A.J., Rofi, Q.M. and Hafez, M. (1986). Milk production potential of the

dromedary with reference to the province of Punjab, Pakistan. Wld. Anim. Rev. 57:11.

Mostafa, A.S., Ragab, A.M., Safwat, E.E., El-Sayed, Z., Abdel-Rahman, M., El–Danaf, N.A. and

Shouman, M.T. (1987). Examination of raw she–camel milk for detection of subclinical

mastitis. J. Egy. Vet. Med. Assoc. 47:117–128.

Obeid AI (1983). Field investigation, clinical and laboratory findings of camel mastitis. M. Sc. Thesis.

University of Khartoum, Sudan.

Obeid A I, Bagadi H O and Mukhtar M M 1996 Mastitis in Camelus dromedarius and the somatic cell

content of camels' milk, Research Veterinary Science 61(1) 55 – 58.

Quandil, S. S. and J. Qudar. 1984. Bacteriological study of some cases of mastitis in the dromedary

(Camelus dromedarius) in the United Arab Emirates (Preliminary report). Revue-de Medicine

Veterinaire. 135(11):705.

Ramadan, R. O., A. M. Hassa, R. El-Abdin Bey, Y. A. Algasnawi, E. S. M. Abdulla A.A. and Fayed.

1987. Chronic obstructive mastitis in the camel: A clinico-pathological study. Cor. Vet.

77(2):132.

Tibary A, and Anouassi A. (2000). Lactation and udder disease. In: Skidmore, L. and Adams, G.P.

(eds). Recent advances in Camel Reproduction. International Veterinary Information Service

(www.ivis.org). Accessed March 13th. 2005.

Wardeh, M.F. (1994). Dairy camel breeds in arab countries. In: Bonnet, P. (ed). Dromedaries et

Chameaux, Animaux Laitiers: actes du colloque, 24–26 October, Nowakchott, Mauritanie.

Montpellier: CIRAD, c 1998. 125-128.

Younan, M., Z. Ali, S. Bornstein, and W. Mueller, 2001. Application of the California mastitis test in

intramammary Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus infections of camels

(Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Prev. Vet. Med., 51:307-316.

http://www.ivis.org/

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Reproduction

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39. Incidence of Early Pregnancy Loss in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

N. Pratap, B.M. Manjunatha*, and S. Al Bulushi

Laboratories and Animal Research Center, Directorate General of Veterinary Services,

Royal Court Affairs, PO Box 64, PC 111, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.


Introduction

An early pregnancy loss is probably one of the most important factors resulting in the

reduction of reproductive efficiency in camels. At present, there is no practical way to reduce

embryonic loss in camels, however, recognizing the occurrence and incidence of embryonic loss may

be instrumental in application of new reproductive technologies to increase service rate in a herd.

Transrectal ultrasonography has been used to diagnose and monitor early pregnancy in dromedary

camels (Skidmore, 2000; Vyas et al., 2002). The present study was aimed to record the incidence of

early pregnancy loss in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) by ultrasonography.


This study was conducted during the breeding season on dromedary camels aged between 5 to

25 years belonging to the herd of Royal Camel Corps, Royal Court Affairs, Muscat, Sultanate of

Oman. These animals were fed fresh green fodder, dates with free access to mineralized salt lick

blocks and water. The follicular development was monitored by periodic scanning (2-3 times in a

week) using ultrasonographic equipment (LOGIQ P5, GE Health Care, Wauwatosa, WI, U.S.A)

equipped with 5 to 10 MHZ linear transducer (I739; GE Health Care). The animals with mature

follicle (13 to 18 mm in diameter) were bred by natural mating and pregnancy diagnosis was

conducted by ultrasonography on 20 to 25 days following breeding. The animals were restrained in a

suitably designed crate, in standing position, for scanning the uterine horns and ovaries. The

transducer probe was positioned dorsal to genital tract and advanced cranially. The dorsal and lateral

surface of each uterine horn was scanned for signs of pregnancy. Pregnancy was confirmed in 35

heifers (Group I) and 65 multiparous camels (Group II) by the presence of fluid of varying amounts

(embryonic vesicle) and visualization of an echogenic mass (embryo) in the lumen of the uterine horn,

plus the presence of a corpus luteum (CL).The presence of twins was recorded through the

observation of embryonic vesicle and embryo in each uterine horn, along with either two CLs on the

same ovary or one each on both ovaries. Furthermore, pregnancy in these animals was monitored at

weekly intervals up to 90 days of gestation. The pregnancy loss prior to day 50 was considered as an

embryonic loss and after day 50 as an early fetal loss. Embryo/fetal death was declared based on two

subsequent examinations where the conceptus remained unchanged, or there was a decrease in size of

or an absence of the conceptus as compared to the previous evaluation. Data were analyzed

statistically with Chi-Square and Fisher Exact test using SPSS 15.0 software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL,

USA)


The present study demonstrated the use of ultrasonography to monitor the timing and extent

of early pregnancy loss in dromedary camels. Embryonic death in camelidae may be attributed to

genetic factors, corpus luteum insufficiency or hostile uterine environment, however, no single factor

can be manipulated to improve embryo viability. Early pregnancy loss between day 20 to 90, post

breeding in group I (5.7%) was non-significantly lower than group II (16.9%). The pregnancy loss

during embryonic stage and early fetal stage was 10.8 % (7/65) and 6.9% (4/58) in group II whereas

in group I no early fetal loss had occurred. In a clinical survey study, high rate of embryonic death up

to 35% was reported in dromedary camels (Tibary and Anouassi, 1997). The incidence of twin

pregnancies was higher (P<0.01) in group II (13/65; 20 %) than in group I (1/35; 2.8 %). In the

present study in multiparous dromedary camels the incidence of twin pregnancies was much higher

than that reported in cows (8.9%; John et al., 1995). These findings suggest that the incidence of

double ovulation leading to twin pregnancies was affected by parity in camels. Similarly, Lopez-

Gatius et al., (2005) reported the incidence of double ovulation in cattle to be 5-10 % (1st parity), 10-

15%(2nd parity) and 20-25%(3rd

parity). The right horn pregnancy was lost within 45 to 60 days post

breeding in all the twin pregnancies, while the left horn pregnancy continued in 10 of 13 animals. In

110


conclusion, the present study demonstrated the use of ultrasonography as a diagnostic tool in detecting

early pregnancy loss in camels and aid in early rebreeding of non-pregnant camels to improve

reproductive efficiency.

References

Lopez-Gatius, F., Lopez-Bejar, M., Fenech, M and Hunter,R.H.F. (2005). Ovulation failure and

double ovulation in dairy cattle: risk factors and effects. Theriogenology, 63: 1298-307

Skidmore, J.A. (2000). Pregnancy diagnosis in camel. In Recent advances in camelid reproduction.

Skidmore J.A and Adams.G.P (Eds) IVIS publisher.

Tibary, A and Anouassi A. (1997). Artificial breeding and manipulation of reproduction in camelidae.

In: Tibary A, Anouassi (Ed.). Theriogenology in camelidae: anatomy, physiology, pathology

and artificial breeding. Rabat, Morocco: Actes Editions. pp.355.

Vyas, S., Purohit, G.N., Pakeer, P.K and Sahani, M.S. (2002). Ultrasonographic imaging to monitor

early pregnancy in the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Revue Elev.Med.vet.Pays trop. 55 (3):

241-245.

John, D., Day., Leon, D., Weaver., Charles. E and Franti. (1995). Twin pregnancy diagnosis in

Holstein cows: Discriminatory powers and accuracy of diagnosis by transrectal palpation and

outcome of twin pregnancies. Can. Vet. J. 36: 93-97

111


40. Characteristics of Ovarian Follicular Dynamics in Dromedary Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) During Breeding and Non-Breeding Season

B.M. Manjunatha*, N. Pratap and B.E. Hago



Corresponding author email : [email protected]

Introduction

Camels are said to be seasonal breeders and their reproductive efficiency under natural

conditions is generally considered to be low. A sound knowledge on ovarian follicular dynamics and

its regulation is the key element to adopt modern reproductive technologies for improving fertility in

camels. The pattern of ovarian follicular development has been documented in several domesticated

and wild ruminant species (Adams, 1999). Ovarian follicular wave pattern in dromedary camels has

been reported during the breeding season (Skidmore et al., 1995). The extent to which the season

affects follicular development in camels is not reported in dromedary camels. Hence this study was

carried out to evaluate the characteristics of ovarian follicular dynamics in dromedary camels

(Camelus dromedarius) during breeding and non-breeding seasons.


This study was carried out in adult dromedary camels (n=7) aged between 12 to 20 years

during breeding (January to March) and non-breeding (June to August) seasons. These animals were

kept in pens isolated from males and fed fresh green fodder with free access to mineralized salt lick

blocks and water. Ovarian follicular dynamics was monitored daily by ultrasonographic equipment

(LOGIQ P5, GE Health Care, Wauwatosa, WI, U.S.A) equipped with 5 to 10 MHZ linear transducer

(I739; GE Health Care) for a period of 50-60 days during both the seasons. At each examination the

size and position of all follicles ≥4 mm in diameter were recorded and sketched on the ovarian charts

to analyze the pattern of growth and regression. A follicle wave was characterized by the emergence

and synchronous growth of a cohort of follicles (3 to 4 mm in diameter), one of which continues

growing while the others regress at variable intervals. The day of follicle wave emergence was

defined as day 0. A dominant follicle (DF) is one that continues to develop when the growth and

development of other follicles is inhibited. Growth phase of DF was defined as a period from the

growth of the DF from 4 mm to an ovulatory size of 11mm and mature phase (dominance) was from

the last day of growth phase of DF to the day when DF appears to lose its dominance and allows the

emergence of the next wave. An interwave interval (IWI) was defined as the interval from the

emergence of one wave to the emergence of the subsequent wave. The characteristics of follicular

waves were analyzed by descriptive statistics and regression analysis was used to calculate the growth

rate of DF. Student‘s t test was used to the find significance between the seasons. All statistical

analysis was carried out using SPSS 15.0 software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA).


Fourteen interwave intervals (2 interwave intervals per animal per season) during each season

were analyzed. It was found that each wave in an individual animal is characterized by the appearance

of a group of follicles (≥3 to 4 mm) that emerge together and continued a common growth phase up to

6 -7 mm in diameter. Usually one of these follicles (future DF) continued to grow, while other

follicles cease growth and regress. In majority of waves, the DF continues its growth without a static

phase during its dominance and even after losing its dominance resulting in the development of

oversized follicles (Large follicles), that remain static for some time and then regress without

interfering with the normal ovarian follicular development. The characteristics of the follicular wave

during breeding and non-breeding seasons are presented in Table 1.The number of follicles recruited

into a wave did not differ between the seasons. The DF in dromedary camels acquired ovulatory

capacity when it reached a diameter of 10 mm, and the response to induced ovulation increased

significantly as the DF reached a diameter of 11 mm (Unpublished data; mature DF). There was no

effect of season on growth rate of the DF from 4 mm to an ovulatory size of 11 mm. The effect of

season or heat stress on size of dominant follicles is inconsistent in bovines. Badinga et al., (1994)

found that the season affects the ovarian follicular development and dominance in cows. Other studies

112


determined that neither heat stress (Trout et al., 1998) nor season (Wolfenson et al., 1997) influenced

size of dominant follicles. Inconsistent effects of heat stress on follicle growth could be due to

differences in duration of exposure, maximal ambient temperatures, or nutrient intake. However, in

the present study, the seasons affect the growth rate and maximum diameter of mature dominant

follicle, but not the dominance period and the interwave interval. In conclusion, the season affects the

growth of DF during its dominance period. However, the other characteristics of a follicular wave

were not affected by season.

References

Adams, G.P. (1999). Comparative patterns of follicle development and selection in ruminants. J.

Reprod. Fertil. 54 (Suppl):17–32.

Badinga, L., Thatcher, W.W., Wilcox, C. J., Morris, G., Entwistle, K and Wolfenson, D. (1994).

Effect of season on follicular dynamics and plasma concentrations of estradiol-17β,

progesterone and luteinizing hormone in lactating Holstein cows. Theriogenology. 42:1263–

1274.

Skidmore, J. A., Billah, M and Allen, W.R. (1995). The ovarian follicular wave pattern in the mated

and non-mated dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). J. Reprod. Fertil. 49 (Suppl): 545–

548.

Trout, J. P., McDowell, L.R and Hansen, P.J. (1998). Characteristics of the estrous cycle and

antioxidant status of lactating Holstein cows exposed to heat stress. J. Dairy Sci. 81:1244–

1250.

Wolfenson, D., Lew, B. J., Thatcher, W. W., Graber, Y and Meidan, R. (1997). Seasonal and acute

heat stress effects on steroid production by dominant follicles in cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci.

47:9–19.

Table 1: Effect of season on the characteristics (mean ± SEM) of follicular wave in dromedary camels.

Characteristics Breeding Season Non-breeding Season P value

Follicles recruited per wave 14.2±1.7 (9 to 30) 14.0±1.7 (8 to 31) 1.000

Growth rate (mm/day) of dominant follicle

in growth phase

1.16±0.03 1.06±0.02 0.874

Duration of growth phase (days) 6.29±0.19 6.50±0.17 0.418

Growth rate (mm/day) of dominant follicle

in mature phase

1.56±0.105a 1.1±0.04

b 0.006

Duration of mature phase (days) 10.36±0.65 9.21±0.99 0.346

Maximum size of dominant follicle (mm) 27.42±0.99

a 22.5±1.69

b 0.018

Interwave interval (days) 16.6±0.68 15.9±1.0 0.560

Values in the same row with different superscripts differ.

113


41. Evaluation of an Extraction Method for Progesterone Determination in Dromedary

Feces by Radioimmunoassay

S. BenBelgacem, M. Hammadi*, M. Atigui and T. Khorchani

Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands Institute, 4119 Medenine, Tunisia


Introduction

Non-invasive methods for the measurement of steroids and their metabolites were established

in the late 1970s of birds and in the early 1980s for some mammalian species (Palme, 2005). These

methods are widely used to investigate the evolution of hormone concentrations and/or its metabolites

in relation with reproduction, behavior, animal welfare, and ecology. As a non-invasive process, it

presents several advantages: permits the monitoring of reproductive physiology under diverse

conditions, and samples are easily collected, transported, and stored.

Based on the fact that metabolism and excretion of steroids differs significantly among

species (Hay et al., 2000; Chelini et al., 2005; Mostl et al., 2005), non invasive techniques must

rigorously be validated for each species, before application. Validation could interest nature of sample

(urine, saliva, milk and feces), extraction procedure and determination method of hormones such as

(RIA, ELISA).

The objective of the study was to develop a simple fecal progesterone metabolites extraction

method for RIA measurement in dromedary (Camelus dromedarius). Extraction method was

analytical and physiological validated and correlation with blood values was established during the

reproduction season in camel.


This study was conducted during December-January period. In first step, 6 pregnant camels

(10.2 ± 2.2 years old, 473 ± 48 kg body weight, 57 ± 10 days in gestation) were used. Blood and fecal

samples were collected from each camel. Serum and fecal samples, were stored at -20ºC until analysis

were used in analytical validation (intra- and inter-assay variation, recovery of added quantities, and

parallelism). In second step, 4 no pregnant milking camels (11.2 ± 1.3 years old, 477 ± 15 kg body

weight, 275 ± 18 days in milk) were used. They were i.v. injected with 5 ml of Receptal® (25 μg de

Busereline; GnRH analogue). Blood and feces samples were daily obtained during 15 days post

injection and were stored at -20ºC until physiological validation.

Before extraction, the stored samples were well mixed to avoid steroid variations among

individual fecal pellets. Feces (0.25 g) were weighed in glass tubes, distilled water (0.5 ml) and

methanol (2.0 ml) were added and mixed for 30 min. Petroleum ether (1.5 ml) was added and futher

mixed. The tubes were centrifuged and 1 ml of methanol phase was then transferred to glass tubes and

stored at -20ºC for RIA assay. Serial dilution serial of fecal extracts were prepared in phosphate buffer

(0.01M; pH 7.4; 0.01% BSA) and assayed. Serum and fecal levels of progesterone were performed by

solid phase RIA (Immunotech, France). Data were presented as mean ± S.E.M.


RIA test for progesterone had an average maximum binding (B0/T) of 42.2%. The average of

nonspecific binding (NSB) of the reagents was 1.9%. The concentration of progesterone

corresponding to 20, 50 and 80% B/B0 were 0.2, 1.3 and 7.3 ng/ml, respectively. In pregnant as well

as in non pregnant camels, B/B0 of non diluted samples varied between 7.0 and 10.0% giving

progesterone metabolites concentration between 19.0 and 28.0 ng/ml. So, 1:120 final dilution of fecal

extracts was necessary with B/B0 values ranging between 41 and 60%.

The progesterone concentration in 3 samples (high, medium and low) of plasma and feces are

shown in table 1. Intra and inter-assay variations are two indicators of precision in RIA tests. In the

conditions of this study, they were in the range of 13-80 and 2-71% in plasma and 10-17 and 7-45%

in feces, respectively.

114


Table 1. Mean, intra and inter-assay variations in high, medium and low concentrations of progesterone in

plasma and feces.

Plasma (ng/ml) Feces (ng/g dry matter)

Concentration Mean Intra CV Inter CV Mean Intra CV Inter CV

High 7.8 13.2 2.3 1068 13.7 45.7

Medium 1.7 17.7 25.3 144 17.2 7.3

Low 0.2 80.8 71.3 84 10.7 18.3

Recovery of added quantities of progesterone in feces ranged between 65.2 and 138.2%. A

significant correlation between expected and detected values was observed (r = 0.71; P<0.035).

Garrott et al. (1998) published a comparable recovery value in red deer species.

Progesterone determination in serial dilution (3:4, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8) of rich (6.88 ng/ml) fecal

extract was performed in triplicate and yielded a displacement curve parallel to the standard curve.

Three of four camels were ovulated. Progesterone concentration remains low for 6 days post

treated injection. Ovulation is proved by progesterone concentration higher than 0.8 ng/ml in blood

and 150.0 ng/g dry matter of feces in the 7th and 9

th days post injection, respectively. Progesterone

concentration reaches peak on the 10th (5.3 ng/ml) and 12

th (537.3 ng/g dry matter) days after

injection. Decline of progesterone concentration started 12 and 14th days post injection in blood and

feces, respectively. Concentrations of progesterone in serum and its metabolites in feces are correlated

(r = 0.64; P<0.009). These results indicated that measurement of progesterone level in feces can be

used for the study of corpus luteum activity in camels. Nevertheless, 1 day lag time between the

secretion of progesterone in blood and its appearance in feces after its metabolism in bile was proven

(r = 0.90; P<0.0001).

Modification of the profile of plasma progesterone was reflected by alterations of fecal

progesterone concentration occurring during the discrimination of progesterone profiles in feces

excreted by ovulated and non-ovulated camels.

In conclusion, determination of progesterone concentration in camel feces by RIA method

using methanol and petroleum ether extraction is a useful tool to assess corpus luteum activity in

mated dams.

References

Chelini, M.O.M., Rocha, A.M., Souza, N.L., Felippe, E.C.G., Olivera, C.A. (2005). Quantification of

oestradiol and progesterone metabolites in Syrian hamsters (Moesocritus auratus). Brazilian

Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 38: 1711-1717.

Garrott, R.A., Monfort, S.L., White, P.J. Mashburn, K.L., Cook J.G. (1998).One sample pregnancy

diagnosis in elk using fecal steroid metabolites. Journal of Wildlife Disease, 34: 126- 131.

Hay, M. A., King, W.A., Gartly, G.J., Goodrowe, K.L. (2000). Correlation of periovulatory serum and

fecal progestin in the domestic dog. The Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 64: 59-63.

Möstl E, Rettenbacher S, Palme R. 2005. Measurement of corticosterone metabolites in birds‘

droppings: An analytical approach. Annals New York Acad. Sci. 1046: 17-34.

Palme R. 2005. Measuring fecal steroids: Guidelines for practical application. Annals New York

Acad. Sci. 1046: 75-80.

115


42. Fetal Age Estimation in Dromedarian Camel Using Developmental Horizons

M.L. Sonfada1, H.D. Kwari

2, A.A. Umar

1, S.A. Shehu

1, I.M Wiam

2, S.A. Hena

1, A. Danmaigoro

1

and B.I. Onyeanusi3

1Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria 2Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.

3Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.


Introduction

Until the advent of motorized transport and the development of certain nomadic economies,

the camel remained almost the only beast of burden and personal transport animal in the areas, where

it was adapted (Wilson, 1984 and Wilson, 1998). The role of the camel in the modern world is

changing. The teaming increase in population, coupled with poor economic potentials of some

countries completely transformed the traditional uses of camel to serve as the source of meat and milk

(Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981; Khanna, 1990). In East Africa, (Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia), the

camel is bred for slaughter (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981). In the Northern part of Nigeria, where camels

are found, they are used as traction animals; with cattle being the most predominant (Tukur and

Maigandi, 1999).

In Sokoto and Maiduguri camel meat was found to rank second to cattle beef (Mustapha and

Oluyisi, 1993; Abubakar and Maigandi, 1994 and Agaie et al, 1997). Despite the economic value of

this animal species, many of pregnant animals are wasted. This paper was therefore aimed at

examining the level of development of the wasted fetuses at Sokoto Central Abattoir.


The camel fetuses were collected daily from the Sokoto Central Abattoir. The fetuses

collected were then transported to the department of veterinary anatomy laboratory of Usmanu

Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, for the analysis.

The weight and CVRL of each fetus was taken using metler balance and a tape rule. The

formula GA= (CVRL+23.99)/0.366 (Elwishy et al, 1981) was used to obtain the fetal age in days.

Thereafter the developmental horizons were observed.

Results

Sixty seven (67) camel fetuses were obtained, forty six (46) were females while the males

were twenty one (21). More than half (38) constituting 56.7% were within the second trimester. First

trimester had 29.9% (20) and the third trimester had 13.4% (9) respectively. The mean CVRL varied

from 37.44±7.10cm of first trimester fetuses to 109.13±10.21cm of the third trimester fetuses while

the mean weights were 1105.36±73.21g and 23,335.15±6912.20g at first and third trimesters

respectively (Table 1)

Fetuses classified within the first trimester were with camelid features. The abdomen

appeared transparent with some organs appearing dark, the eye buds, ear buds and jugular veins were

prominent. In the female, the mammary buds and vulva were present. While the male had scrotal sac

developed but no palpable structures. The calvaria were very soft and transparent (Plate 1).

As shown on plate 2, the second trimester fetuses have eyes and ears well developed. Hairs

appear on the lower eyelid and ear margins. The lips (upper and lower) also have hair. The calvarium

was soft but very soft at the fontanales (cranial and caudal). Mammary buds and vulva were more

prominent at this stage. The jugular vein was only prominent at the early stages of the second

trimester. The scrotal sacs became more prominent with structures being palpable.

The fetuses of third trimester have their whole body covered with short hair initially except at

the inner thigh. The hair continues to grow as the fetus advanced in age. The skull at this level was

thick and tough (Plate 3).

Table 1: Mean CVRL and Weight distribution per trimester ± SEM.

Trimester CVRL(cm) Weight(g)

First 37.44±7.10 1105.36 ±73.21

Second 71.81±3.81 10,623.50±1502.31

116


Third 109.13±10.21 23,335.15±6912.20

Discussion

It was observed in general that there was an increase in body weight across the trimesters in

the fetuses with advancement in pregnancy. This is in agreement with observations of Anderson et al

(1987) that there were obvious body weight changes in MDX mice which seem to increase with age.

The observation presented in this study on fetal age, has not been found anywhere for this

species (camel). However, there are evidences of ageing camel fetuses using ultrasound and Enzyme

Linked Immunosorbent Assay – ELISA (Skidmore, 2000; Mahamat et al, 1997). Contrary to the

findings of Dennler de la Tour,(1971) that during prenatal development the fetus actually has two

humps, the fetuses observed in this study were single humped even at the earliest stage. In agreement

with the observations of Sivachelvan et al (1995), the calvarium was soft during the first and second

trimester stages with clear evidence of fontanels which disappeared before birth.

In conclusion, the information obtained in this study will go a long way to assist researchers

to bridge the existing gaps of the identified structures on the fetuses.

References

Anderson, J.E.; Ovalle, W.K. and Bressler, B.H.(1987): Electron microscope and autoradiograph

characterization of hind limb muscle regeneration of the MDX Mouse. Anat. Rec. 23(11):

243-257.

Dennler, de la Tour, G. (1971): Inheritance of the hump in the camel, dromedary x dromedary cross.

Anim. Breed. Abstr. 40: 364.

Elwishy A.B.; Hemeida N.A.; Umar M.A.; Mobarak A.M and El-Sayed M.A.I.(1981): Changes in

the pregnant camel with special reference to Foetal growth. British Veterinary

Journal:137:527-537.

Khanna, N.D. (1990): An Over View of Work Performance of Camel as Drought and Riding

Animal.Camel NewsLetter no. 7 pp87.

Mahamat, H.; Olaho-Mukani, W.; Mboloi, M.M.; Guya, S.O. and Krombaritis, G.E. (1997):

Pregnancy diagnosis in the Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) Based on competitive

Progesteron Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay(ELISA). J. Camel Pract. Res.4(2): 203-

205.

Mukas-Mugerwa E. (1981): The Camel (camelus dromedaring); A bibliographical Review. Pub:

ILCA pp 95.

Sivachelvan, M.N.; Usman, B.H. and Chibuzo, G.A (1995): Fetal Development of the Calvarium in

the Sahel goat: Its Post-natal Significance. Trop. Vet. 13(3&4): 109-118.

Skidmore, L. (2000): Pregnancy Diagnosis in Camels. www.ivis.org/advances/camel_skidmore

12/12/2007.

Tukur H.M and Maigandi S.A (1999): Studies on Animal Traction in North-Western Nigeria; II

Evaluation of the effiecncy of different Breeds/Species for Drought power Trop. J. Anim.

Sci.1 (1) 29-35.

Wilson R.T (1984) The Camel, First Ed. Longman Group ltd. Burnt Mill, Halow, Essex, UK, pp18.

Wilson R.T(1998) Camels. Macmillan Education ltd, Longman and Basingstoke pp7.

Fig. 1: Camel Fetus at First Trimester with transparent abdominal muscle and dark abdominal content

(blue arrow) x 125

117


Fig.2: Camel Fetus at 2nd

Trimester with hair on the upper eyelid(black arrow) and external jugular

vein(white arrow) x 125

Fig.3: photograph of camel fetus showing short hair all over the body at early 3rd

Trimester except the

medial thigh (arrow) x125.

118


43. Polymelia in a Third Trimester Camel Fetus: A Case Report

M.L.Sonfada

1*, S.A.Shehu

1, A.A. Umar

1, A. Bello

1, F.O. Oyelowo

1, J.E. Onu

1 and A. Danmaigoro

1

1Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria


Introduction

Congenital anomalies involving different animal species and structures have been reported in

Sokoto (Sonfada et al, 2007; 2009; Umar et al, 2005). Conditions of the limbs were found to be

20.83% (which comprises 12.5% arthrogryposis and 8.33% rickets). Causes of these defects range

from genetic to environment, however the majority of the malformations are said to be multi-factorial

in aetiology (Sadler, 1990). Frequency of individual congenital defect varies with such factors as

species, breed, geographical area, parental age, nutritional level and environmental factors (Sonfada et

al 2010). This paper is aimed at reporting a case of congenital anomaly encountered at Sokoto Central

Abattoir.

Case Report

Following a daily visit to Sokoto Central Abattoir for a survey of fetal waste, a six legged

camel female fetus was encountered on the 25th June 2011. The fetus was taken to Veterinary

Anatomy Laboratory, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. Where the CVRL was taken using tape

rule (butterfly R) and the weight of the fetus was equally taken using a beam balance. The fetal age

was determined by GA = CVRL + 23.99/0.366 (Elwishy et al 1981). Thereafter dissection of the

fetus was carried out according to method described by Chibuzo(2006).

Results

The fetus had a CVRL of 85cm with a weight of 12kg indicative of third trimester fetus.

Grossly the fetus was observed to have a full camelid features with extra two limbs that possess

complete segments of a hind limb at the lateral abdominal wall. The fetus also had a prominent anus,

vulva and four mammary teat. There was a ventral abdominal hernia (Plate 1-2). The pes and manus

of the hind and fore limbs were respectively in permanent dorsal flexion position. Radiographic

examination revealed true bony segments of the extra limbs (Plate 3). Though the bones of the pelvic

girdle (os coxae) of the extra limbs were developed but not fused, they were separated by skin fold

(Plate 4-5) While the normal limbs had muscles surrounding the bones of the thigh and leg, the extra

limbs were covered by connective tissues and skin, in permanent flexion position and devoid of

patella (Plate 5-6). The normal limbs were bigger and longer than the extra limbs (Table 1 & 2)

however the difference was not statistically significant (P>0.05).

The abdominal viscera was found to adhere to the abdominal walls (Plate 7), there was also

an incomplete development of the diaphragm at the right side. The thoracic and abdominal cavities

were only separated by the pleural membrane on the right side while the left side had the diaphragm

partitioning the cavities (Plate 8-9). The right kidney, ovary and urinary bladder were all absent (Plate

10). There was scoliosis of the thoracic vertebrae (Plate 11).

Table 1: Length of normal and extra hind limb segments(cm).

Right Normal Right Extra Left Normal Left Extra

Femur 16.5 14.5 16 13.5

Tibia 17.5 15.5 17.5 15

Pes 24.5 19 21.5 17.5

P>0.05

Table 2: Circumference of normal and extra hind limb long bones(cm)

Right Normal Right Extra Left Normal Left Extra

Femur 5.67 3.77 6.13 3.67

Tibia 6.73 5.00 7.27 5.00

Metatarsal 6.73 4.80 6.50 5.00

P>0.05

119


Plate 1:Abnormal fetus with Plate 2: Abnormal fetus on dorsal Plate 3: Radiograph of abnormal

abdominal hernia(green arrow), recumbency with herniated fetus with all the limbs

extra limbs(blue arrows), contents returning illustrating the

normal limbs with permanent to the abdomen (arrow) osseous structure

dorsal digit flexion (red arrows)

Plate 4: Pelvic bones of the Plate 5: Skin fold holding Plate 6: Skin fold Plate 7: Abdominal

extra limbs (arrows) the thigh and leg of extra holding the thigh and viscera adhered to

limbs in permanent leg of extra limbs lateral abdominal wall

flexion(arrows). in permanent flexion (arrows)

(arrows)

Plate 8: Pleural membrane Plate 9: Developed Right Plate 10:Single Left Kidney Plate 11: Scoliosis of the

separating thoracic and side diaphragm. thoracicvertebrae(arrow)

abdominal cavities on

the left side(arrow)

Discussion

Polymelia is for the first time encountered in the camel species despite many of congenital

anomalies reported from the study area in this species(Garba, 1993; Sonfada et al, 2009; 2010). In

general, anomalous of any kind stimulate curiosity, the presence of extra legs in this case differs from

the observations of Ibrahim et al, (2006), Bahador et al, (2007) and Buhari et al, (2008) in location

and in addition to the extra legs, ventral abdominal hernia was classically observed. Other

malformations like the absence of right kidney, right ovary and cranial portion of the right uterine

horn were similar to the findings of Ibrahim et al, (2006).

Despite the interest and curiosity associated with the congenital malformations, information

on the exact causes is always minimal and restricted to genetic, environment or combination of the

two. As common to most malformations, the aetiology of polymelia could be multi-factorial, however

dispersing of germinal cells or prior splitting of the embryo has to be considered as possible causes

(Ibrahim et al, 2006). Poisonous plants have been incriminated in some reported cases of

malformations from the study area (Sonfada et al, 2007), such plants like Veratrum californicum,

locoweed, wild and cultivated tobacco etc, have been attributed to musculoskeletal defects including

twisted and deformed limbs, abnormal development of the bones and joint(Knight and Walter, 2004).

Musculoskeletal defects as seen in this case could also be linked to the teratogenic factors, it has been

established that ingestion of teratogenic plants like Veratrum californicum by pregnant cows between

days 30 and 36 of gestation resulted in selective inhibition of growth in the length of the metacarpal

and metatarsal bones (Keeler, 1972; Jubb et al 1985). Environmental factors are said to be responsible

for many congenital defects, level of nutrition, excess or shortage of nutrients and extremes in

temperature during pregnancy (Schalles et al, 2006) among others are such factors. Low rainfall, large

120


livestock population and high density of farming population could lead to overgrazing and nutrient

deficiency which may eventually result to some common anomalies encountered in various livestock

species in the study area (Sonfada et al, 2007).

Polymelia, if not complicated with any other defect could be managed clinically (Bahador et

al, 2007) but can decrease maternal productivity and may also result into problems like dystocia.

Camels are prone to hazards of teratogenic plants because the keepers are only operating traditional

system of management without any other source of feed than whatever the animal is able to browse

during grazing. It is therefore recommended that extensive enlightenment be given to the camel

owners and supplementary feed be introduced to the species as done to other species. Above all,

adequate clinical attention and documentation of the existing camel problems be given priority.

References

Bahador S.; Majid M. and Ali A.(2007): Notomelia and Ulnar Dimelia in a Calf: Radiographical

Anatomic Aspects. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Surgery. 2(4) 83-88.

Buhari, S.; Yakubu, A.S.; Jibril, A.; Adeyanju, J.B. Sonfada, M.L.; Garba, H.S.; Chafe, U.M.; Usman,

S. and Opara, Q.(2008): Management of supernumerary limb in an Ouda lamb: A case report.

Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences 7(1) 5-8.

Chibuzo, G.A.(2006): Ruminant Dissection Guide: A Regional Approach in the Goat. 2nd

Ed. Beth-

Bekka Academic PuB. LTD. Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Elwishy A.B.; Hemeida N.A.; Umar M.A.; Mobarak A.M and El-Sayed M.A.I.(1981): Changes in the

pregnant camel with special reference to Foetal growth. British Veterinary Journal:137:527-

537.

Garba, H.S.(1993): Teratology. A monstrous foetus in a one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries).

Camel Newsletter 10. 17-19.

Ibrahim, N.D.G., Adamu, S., Useh, N.M., Salami,S.O., Fatihu,M.Y.,Sambo,S.J., Mohammed, B.,

Ojo,S.A. and Esievo, K.A.N (2006): Multiple Congenital Defects in Bunaji Bull. Nigerian

Veterinary Medical Journal. Vol.27(3) 80-86.

Jubb, K.V.F.; Kennedy, P.C. and Palmer, N.(1985): Pathology of Domestic Animals. 3rd

Ed. Vol. 1.

Pub. Academic Press Inc., Orlando, Florida and London.Pp16-32.

Keeler, R.F.(1972): Effects of natural teratogenic and poisonous plants on fetal development in

animals. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.,27: 107-125.

Knight A.P. and Walter, R.G.(2004): Plants Associated with Congenital defects and Reproductive

Failure. In: A guide to plants poisoning of animals in North America.

www.veterinarywire.com

Sadler, T.W.(1990): Longman‘s medical embryology.9th ed.Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore USA pp

149-168.

Schalles R.R.; Leipold H.W. and Mccraw R.L.(2006): Congenital Defects in Cattle.In:Beef cattle

handbook(BCH1900). www.iowabeefcenter.org/pds/bch/01900.pdf.

Sonfada M.L.; Yisa H.Y.; Shehu S.A.; Umar A.A. and Buhari S.(2007): A Survey of Congenital

Malformations in Domestic Animals in Sokoto.Proceedings of the 44th Annual Congress of

the Nigerian Veterinary Medical Association. 22nd

– 25th October, 2007. Effurun, Delta State,

Nigeria.

Sonfada M.L., Shehu S.A. Umar A.A. and Onyeanusi B.I.(2009): Anencephaly in a second trimester

camel foetus in Sokoto, Nigeria: A Case Report. Journal of Camelid Science. 2. 50-52

Sonfada M.L. Umar A.A. and Shehu S.A.(2009): Arthrogryposis in Camel Fetus: A Case Report.

Nigerian Veterinary Medical Journal. Vol.30(4) 77-79

Sonfada, M. L. Sivachelvan, M.N. and Haruna, Y.; Wiam, I.M. and Yahaya, A. (2010): Incidence of

Congenital Malformations in Ruminants in the North Eastern Region of Nigeria. International

Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 2(1):1-4

Umar, A.A. Shehu, S.A.Sonfada, M. L. Uko O. J.and Akpavie S. O. (2006): Congenital jejunal

malformation in a Sudanese/Balami Cross-lamb. A Case Report. Proceedings of the 31st

Annual Conference of Nigeria Society for Animal Production. 12th – 18

th March 2006. Bayero

University, Kano, Nigeria.

121


44. Some Observations on Breeding and Reproductive Behaviour of Camelus

dromedarius

A. Iqbal, M.Younas and B.B. Khan

Department of Livestock Management, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040 (Pakistan)


Introduction

The camel is probably one of the most useful farm animals of the desert serving mankind for

a long time in the most harsh environment. The camel has been inadequately addressed in the field of

research and development in Pakistan. However, a few postgraduate studies including two doctoral

level theses have recently been completed. One of the Ph.D thesis pertained to breeding and

reproductive behaviour of camels (Iqbal, 1999).


Fifteen males and eight she-camels kept at the Barani Livestock Production Research Institute

(BLPRI), Kherimurat, District Attock were used for this study. The visual observations were recorded

on various aspects of breeding and reproductive behaviour of camel.


The duration of Flehmen‘s response in 16 males duration averaged about 5.18 ± 1.62 seconds.

The average frequency of the appearance of palatal flap was 2 ± 0.29, while the frequency of teeth

grinding accompanied by frothing by all males was 2.5 ± 0.27. These may be regarded as overtures

preparatory to courtship.

The male approached the respective female and took 13.18 ± 1.25 seconds to acquire the

proper breeding posture over the body of the female to commence mating. During copulation, the

female grunts while the male gurgles in a muted voice and dribbles saliva from the mouth. The

average frequency of gurgling was 10.62 ± 2.17 per coupling. Frequency of biting by the female was

higher. The number of thrusts made by the male per coupling was found to be 44 ± 5.87. During

mating, overall frequency of the appearance of palatal flap towards the right and left side was 12.69 ±

1.93 per coupling with a bit more on the left. Net time to accomplish the mating process averaged

about 12.18 ± 1.06 min per coupling. Pertinent results of some previous studies are: 15 min (Yagil,

1982); 15 to 25 min (Rathore, 1986); 8 to 15 min (Arthur et al., 1989). The average gurgling

frequency was found to be 10.62 ± 2.17 per coupling. Flehmen‘s response by the male was also

reported towards heifer, middle-aged and aged she-camels by Rahim and El-Nazier (1992) was 20 to

40 seconds. Frequency of biting by the male to female and vice versa during mating was 0.31±0.17,

being higher by the female. The frequency of appearance of palatal flap and gurgling by the males

was found to be 1.93 ± 0.23 and 1.62 ± 0.27, respectively. Males in full rut grind their teeth, suck air,

belch, draw the head back, lash the tail, crouch with jerky movements of the pelvis and generally

make themselves look ridiculous. Diarrhoea is also a frequent accompaniment of rut (Wilson, 1984).

Aggression in the male camels ultimately leads them to the abattoir (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1956) and it is

most probable that aggression is due to dramatic increase of androgen levels in the blood (17.0 ± 3.5

to 35.0 ± 1.5 ng/ml) above the basal levels (Yagil and Etzion, 1980). Increased number of biting

attempts by the female to male could probably be due to unleveled ground, great variation in the body

size of the couple, presence of any hard object on the ground beneath recumbent female, extra

ordinary vigorous male and physiological status of the female (heifer, middle-aged or old one). Young

males have been reported to take less time than the old ones (Qureshi, 1986). Net breeding time for a

successful copulation varies owing to several factors including e.g. body condition, age of the male,

nutritional status, season, frequency of mating, experience, etc. Immediately before the

commencement of the calving process, females were found in a state of restlessness, seeking isolation

from rest of the animals, frequent rising/lying down and showing no interest in feeding. They

sometimes tried to flee away, most probably due to labour pain.

122


Labour pain started about six hours (1.5-9 hours) before the commencement of parturition followed

by the attempts made by parturient female to expel the calf. She-camels in this study took 3 to 7 min

in complete removal of the calf from the dam‘s body. Of the 8 animals, 5 she-camels (62.5 %) calved

during the day time while 3 (37.5 %) at the night. Generally, bactrian camels take longer in delivering

a calf than the dromedary, most probably due to larger size of the calf (Moldagaliev, 1976).

Presentation of the calves during parturition was observed as 100% normal in all the cases in the

present study.

Of the total 8 animals calved, 5 (62.5%) were lying on left side, while 3 (37.5%) on their

right. After successful calving, the camel-calf generally started to breathe as soon as its head appeared

outside the vulva, due to the impeded placental circulation as a result of the powerful contractions of

the uterus. After parturition no respiratory problem was found in any of the newborns.

Expulsion of the foetal membranes from the female‘s genital tract was completed within an

average period of 12.25 min. This finding is similar to that of Rath et al. (1990), but contrary to those

of Musa (1983), Arthur et al. (1985), who reported 30 to 40 min period. Generally speaking, healthier

the animal, quicker the expulsion of the foetal membranes. Immediately after calving, all the she-

camels paid full attention to their calves. This was accompanied by the production of a specific voice

by the female. Newly born calves were found attempting to stand within about 31.88 ± 3.64 min

following birth and nearly all were found strong enough to make attempt to walk within next 12.13 ±

1.14 min. The calves first attempts to suckle milk were usually unsuccessful and often sought out the

teat by nosing between the forelegs of the dam. Immediately after birth calves accompanied dams in

their peregrinations. The calves located their mother‘s udders in about 249.88 ± 26.03 min after their

birth with a range from 180 to 381 min. On average, they made first suckling attempt in 99.12 ± 11.28

min with a range from 50 to 150 min.

References

Arthur, G.H., A.T. Al-Rahim and A.S. Al-Hindi. 1985. The camel in health and disease. 7.

Reproduction and genital diseases of the camel. Br. Vet. J. 141: 650-659.

Arthur, G.H., D.E. Noakes and H. Pearson. 1989. Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics (6th Ed.)

Bailliere and Tindall (Publ.), Eastbourne, UK.

Iqbal,A.1999.Studies on some of the productive, reproductive and behavioural aspects of camel in

Pakistan.Ph.D dissertation, Department of Livestock Management,Universty of

Agriculture,Faisalabad,Pakistan.

Moldagaliev, T.M. 1976. The effect of foetal size and pelvic measurements on parturition in different

species of camel (Anim. Breed. Abst. 44(12): 653, 1976).

Musa, B.E. 1983. Normal parturition in camel (Camelus dromedarius). Vlaams Tijdschr.

Diergeneesk, 52: 255-268.

Qureshi, M.H. 1986. The Camel. A paper presented at FAO Seminar on Camel Production and

Health. 20-23, October, Kuwait. pp: 1-35.

Rahim, A.S.E.A. and A.T. El-Nazier. 1992. Studies on the sexual behaviour of the dromedary camel.

In: Proc. First Int. Camel Conf. 2-6 February, Dubai. pp: 115-118.

Rath, H.M.D., B. Musa and M.A. El-Naggar. 1990. Reproduction in camels (A Reivew). Anim. Prod.

and Health Paper No. 82. FAO, Rome.

Rathore, G.S. 1986. Camels and their Management. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),

New Delhi, India.

Schmidt-Nielson,K.1956.Animals and Arid Conditions: Physical aspects of productivity and

management.In:The Future of Arid Lands.Amer.Assoc.Advance Sci. Washington, D.C. USA.

pp:368-382.

Yagil, R. and Z. Etzion. 1980 . Milk yield of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in drought areas. Comp.

Biochem. Physiol. 67 A: 207-209.

Yagil, R. 1982. Camels and camel milk. Anim. Prod. and Health Paper No. 26:1-69, FAO, Rome.

Wilson, R.T.1984.The Camel.Longman, London.

123


45. Effect of a Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and GnRH

Administration on Ovarian Follicular Dynamics of Female Dromedary Camel During

Seasonal Anestrus Period.

D. Monaco1, G.M. Lacalandra

1, E.E. El-Hassanein

2, S. Rateb

2, O. Salama

3 and K.A. El-Bahrawy

2

1Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Bari, Italy

2Maryout Research Station, Desert Research Center (Alexandria Egypt)

3Animal Production Institute, Agriculture Research Center (Cairo, Egypt.


Introduction

Efficient methods to induce and synchronize ovulation in the camel are required as interest

grows in the potential application of artificial insemination and embryo transfer programs (Cooper et

al., 1992; Al-Sobayil 2006). Indeed, the establishment of protocols that can control follicular growth

and produce a dominant follicle capable of ovulating at a known time after treatment would allow

fixed timed mating or artificial insemination programs, as well as synchronization of camels for

embryo transfer programs (Skidmore et al., 2009). This experiment was conducted to assess the use of

Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and a GnRH injection which could be suitable for

control and induce ovarian activity in female camels, during seasonal anestrus.


The study was carried out in Maryout Research Station, Desert Research Center (Alexandria,

Egypt). Nine female dromedary camels (bred in a semi-intensive system) 6 to 15 years of age were

used for the trial that lasted from 15th

July to 5th

of August. Clinical and gynecological examination

(Tinson and Mc kinnon, 1992) were performed to exclude any disease or genital abnormalities (cysts,

vaginal stenosis). Camels were examined in standing position. Follicles were counted and measured

by electronic caliper and Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR, Pfizer®,Italy) were inserted

(T0). The stage of the follicle development at the time of CIDR insertion was recorded. Polyester

tails of the devices were cut. Animal was monitored every 3 days for CIDR loss. Nine days after 500

µgof PgF2α (Estrumate®, Ontario, Canada) were injected was 100 µg of a GnRH analogue

(Gonabreed®, Australia) were administered on day 10, the day of CIDR removal. Rectal palpation

and ultrasound monitoring were performed again on the day of CIDR removal (T1) and eleven (T2)

days after. Number and follicle dimensions were subjected to a repeated measures. Analysis of

variance (ANOVA) utilizing the procedure of the general linear model (SAS, 1999). Independent

variable time was T0, T1 and T2. Data were normally distributed. Turkeys post hoc test was used to

perform statistical multiple comparison. P level was set at 0.5. All data were expressed as quadratic

mean and standard error of the mean (SEM).

Results

Gynecological examination performed during July revealed that camels had mean follicular

number 2.5 ± 0,42 and mean follicular diameter of 1.05 ± 0.12 cm. rather than being to seasonal

anoestrus. All animals retained the devices showed various grades of vaginitis at the time of the

device removal. Ultrasound at the time of CIDR removal revealed that two camels spontaneously

ovulated and that follicles number was not affected by the treatment. On the contrary, the mean

follicular diameter showed a statistically significant decrease between T0 and T1 (P<0.01). The

decrease of follicular diameter was less significant between T0 and T2 (P<0.05) and any significant

difference was found between T1 and T2.

Discussion

Shalash (1987) stated that breeding season in Egypt lasts from December to May. This is in

contrast to our findings Wilson (1989) that nutrition and management can override the effect of

photoperiod and allow camels to breed during the whole year.

The retaining rate of CIDR was 100%, two camels spontaneously ovulated and all of them

developed vaginitis. These data are in agree with the findings of Skidmore et al. (1992), however, the

explanation of spontaneous ovulation in camels following CIDR or a previous ovulation still need

further support (Marie et Anouassi, 1987). Vaginitis is probably due to the infection during CIDR

124


insertion (Padula and Macmillan 2006). Cleaning of perineum and vaginal cavity and more careful

insertion would be effective in reducing such side effect.

Treatment with CIDR statistically affected mean follicular diameter in camels. GnRH was

unable to stimulate follicular growth. Even if a slight increase was recorded it was not possible to

distinguish between the GnRH treatment and a spontaneous follicular growth. Probably, multiple low

doses of GnRH, rather than single injection, could be much more effective in stimulating ovarian

function in female camels during seasonal anoestrus. However such hypothesis needs to be supported

with further studies.

Conclusions

Female camels could show ovarian activity during July and the CIDR treatment is able to

affect the mean follicular diameter leading to its decrease. It can also cause spontaneous ovulation and

vaginitis. GnRH treatment was unable to improve follicular growth after CIDR treatment.

Optimization of protocol is required in order to achieve better results.

References

Al-Sobayil, K.A. (2006). Fertility improvement through estrus synchronization and applying artificial

insemination in Saudi dromedary camels. Inter. Sci. Conf. on Camels. Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia.

Marie M., Anouassi A. (1987). Inducition of luteal activity and progesterone secretion in the non-

pregnant one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) J.Reprod. Fert., 80: 183-192.

Padula A.M., Macmillan K.L., (2006) Effect of treatment with two intravaginal inserts on the uterine

and vaginal microflora of early postpartum beef cows. Aust Vet J;84:204–208.

SAS (1999). SAS user‘s guide. Release 8.1 SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA

Shalash M.R. (1987). Reproduction in Camels Egypt J. Vet. Sci., 24: 1-25

Skidmore J.A., Allen W.R., Cooper M.J., Chaudhry M.A., Billah M., Billah A.M. (1992). The

recovery and transfer of embryos in the dromedary camel: results of preliminary experiments.

Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. R&W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd., UK pp. 137 - 142.

Skidmore, J.A., Adams, G.P., Billah, M. (2009). Synchronisation of ovarian follicular waves in the

dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) Animal Reproduction Science (114) 249–255.

Tinson, A.H., Mc kinnon, A.O. (1992). Ultrasonography of the reproductive tract of the female camel.

Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. R&W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd., UK, pp. 129-135

Wilson (1989) Reproductive performance of the one-humped camel. The empirical base. Rev. Elev.

Med. Vet. Pays Trop., 42: 117-125

Table 1 Effect of Controlled Intravaginal Drug Relaser (CIDR) and FSH on mean follicular diameters in

primiparous and pluriparous female dromedary camel

T0 T1 T2 S.E.

Follicle number 2.50 2.30 3 0.42

Follicle diameter 1.05Aa

0.51B

0.64b

0.12

Different letters in the same line show statistical differences (a, b: P < 0.05; AB : P<0.01)

T0: CIDR in; T1: CIDR out and GnRH administration; T2: 11 days after GnRH

125


46. Effect of Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and PMSG on Ovarian

Activity of Primiparous and Pluriparous Dromedary Camel during Seasonal Anestrus

Period

D. Monaco

1, G.M. Lacalandra

1, E.E. El-Hassanein

2, S. Rateb

2, O. Salama

3 and K.A. El-Bahrawy

2

1Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Bari, Italy

2Maryout Research Station, Desert Research Center (Alexandria Egypt);

3Animal Production Institute, Agriculture Research Center (Cairo, Egypt).


Introduction

Methods to induce and synchronize ovulation in the camel are required for potential

application of artificial insemination (Cooper et al., 1992). This study was carried out to assess if

Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and an PMSG injection are effective for

synchronization and induce ovarian activity in primiparous and pluriparous camels, during seasonal

anestrus.


The study was carried out in Maryout Research Station Desert Research Center (Alexandria,

Egypt). Ten female dromedary camels (multiparous n=5 and primiparous n =5), aged 6 and 10 to 15

years respectively, were used for the trial that lasted from 15th of September to 6

th of October. Clinical

and gynecological examination were performed for excluding any disease or genital abnormalities

(cysts, vaginal stenosis). Camels were ultrasonographically examined in standing position (Tinson and

Mc kinnon, 1992). Follicles were counted and measured and Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser

(CIDR, Pfizer®, Italy) was inserted (T0), after perineum wash and vaginal cavity flushing. Polyester

tails of the devices were cut and animal monitored every 3 days for CIDR loss. The stage of the

follicle development at the time of CIDR insertion was random. 9 days after 500 µgof PgF2α

(Estrumate®, Ontario, Canada)were injected. 3000 i.u. PMSG (Folligon, Intervet, Australia) were

administered 10 days later, the day of CIDR removal. Rectal palpation and ultrasound monitoring

were performed again the day of CIDR removal (T1) eleven (T2) and thirteen (T3) days after. The

follicle and dimensions were subjected to ANOVA analysis of variance and to general linear model

procedure (SAS, 1999). Independent variables were animal groups (pluriparous and primiparous) the

time (T0, T1, T2 and T3) and their interaction. Data were normally distributed. Turkeys post hoc test

was used to perform statistical multiple comparison. Probability level was set at P≤0.5 and all data

were expressed as quadratic mean and standard error of the mean (SEM).

Results

All camels retained the devices had vaginitis were at the time of the removal. Ultrasound at

the time of CIDR removal showed that camel were spontaneously ovulated. CIDR and PMSG

treatments didn‘t affect mean number of ovarian follicles in both animal groups. In pluriparous camels

mean diameter were significantly increased only between T1 and T3 with P<0.05 while, in primiparous

camels mean follicular diameters were significantly decreased at T1, than at T2 and T3 (P<0.01) (Table

1).

Discussion

The high retaining rate and absence of vaginitis, were due to the cleaning of perineum and

vagina and to careful insertion of the CIDR. Spontaneous ovulation did not occur, in contrast to the

observation of Skidmore et al. (1992). This is probably because the mean diameter of the follicles was

below 0.9 cm at the time of CIDR insertion. Treatment with CIDR in September didn‘t affect mean

follicular diameter in both camel groups, probably due to low ovarian activity during this season

CIDR treatment wouldn‘t be necessary for reducing follicular diameter and its effectiveness for

synchronizing follicular wave need to be further investigated.

PMSG treatment in primiparous camels, statistically influenced the mean diameters at 11 and

13 days after treatment. On the other hand, such influence was only significant 13 days and in less

measure (P<0.05) in pluriparous females. This is in agreement with (Malhi et al., 2006) that reported

a reduced superstimulatory response in aged cows and suggested to modify the PMSG dose according

126


with the age of the camel in order to promote right stimulation of ovarian activity for inducing growth

of a preovulatory follicle.

Conclusions

The CIDR plus PMSG treatment carried out in September showed an effect on day 13 thus

demonstrating a synchronization activity on pluriparous and primiparous female dromedary camels.

Primiparous camels showed higher responsiveness to the treatment, nevertheless further studies are

requiredto optimize the protocol.

References

Cooper, M.J., Skidmore, J.A., Allen,W.R., Wensvoort, S., Billah, M., Ali-Chaudhry, M., Billah, A.M.

(1992). Attempts to stimulate and synchronize ovulation and superovulation in dromedary

camels for embryo transfer. Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. R&W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd.,

UK, pp. 187-191.

Malhi P.S., Adams G.P., Pierson R.A., Singh J., (2006). Bovine model of reproductive aging:

Response to ovarian synchronization and superstimulation. Theriogenology 66, 1257–1266.

SAS (1999). SAS user‘s guide. Release 8.1 SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA

Skidmore J.A., Allen W.R., Cooper M.J., Chaudhry M.A., Billah M., Billah A.M. (1992). The

recovery and transfer of embryos in the dromedary camel: results of preliminary experiments.

Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. R&W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd., UK pp. 137 - 142.

Skidmore, J.A., Adams, G.P., Billah, M. (2009). Synchronisation of ovarian follicular waves in the

dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) Animal Reproduction Science (114) 249–255.

Tinson, A.H., Mc kinnon, A.O. (1992). Ultrasonography of the reproductive tract of the female camel.

Proc. 1st Int. Camel Conf. R&W Publications (Newmarket) Ltd., UK, pp. 129-135

Table 1 - Effect of Controlled Intravaginal Drug Releaser (CIDR) and PMSG on mean follicular

diameters in primiparous and pluriparous female dromedary camel

Animals T0 T1 T2 T3 S.E.M.

Pluriparous 0.56 0.52a

0.89 0.93b

0.08 Primiparous 0.65 0.30

A 0.77

B 0.96

B

Different letters in the same row means statistical differences (a≠b: P<0.05; A≠B : P<0.01)

T0: CIDR in; T1: CIDR out and PMSG administration; T2: 11 days after PMSG; T3: 13 days after PMSG.

127


47. Studies on Common Reproductive Disorders in Dromedary Camels (Camelus

dromedarius) in United Arab Emirates (UAE) Under Field Conditions

A. Al-Juboori*1 and M.M. Baker

2

1Development Sector, Research and Development Division

2Animal Wealth Sector

Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, UAE, Abu Dhabi

[email protected]

Introduction

The camel (Camelus dromedarius) is an important multipurpose livestock species uniquely

adapted to harsh arid and semi-arid areas that can be used for meat, milk, wool, and hide production

and transportation and as a source of entertainment, celebration and competition. There are

24,246,291 million one-humped camels in the world with 80% of them in Africa and the highest

population in Somalia (7 million) and Sudan (4.25 million). In Asia about 70% of dromedaries are

found in India and Pakistan. There are approximately 494242 camels in Abu Dhabi (United Arab

Emirates), with the highest population in the Eastern and Western part of the UAE. Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) is an important domestic animal species uniquely adapted to the hot and arid

environment. The versatility of the camel and its ability to survive and perform in the harsh arid and

semi-arid areas of the world has earned it names such as "ship of the desert". It is by nature able to

withstand the perils of a desert even for a long period of time without food and water. The

reproductive efficiency of camels under natural conditions is generally regarded to be low. The

reasons for this low reproductive efficiency of the camel (Camelus dromedarius) is probably due to

the relatively short breeding season, a longer prepubertal period, a long gestation period of 13 months,

a delayed puberty, a prolonged (8–10 months) period of lactation-related anestrus leading to a long

inter-calving interval, limited oestrus period, poor pastoral management systems, inadequate nutrition

and the lack of use of assisted reproductive techniques such as embryo transfer and artificial

insemination. Despite, the low reproductive performance of camels, reproductive disorders can lead to

economic losses in terms of reduced fertility, low life time production, culling of the animal from the

farm longer calving interval and increased expenses on medication in farm animals. Camels are prone

to many diseases which are major constraints from improvement of camel health. Reproductive

disorders are one of the most common important pathological conditions and/or diseases in camels in

UAE. Accordingly, the present study was taken up with a view to determine the incidence/prevalence

rates of different reproductive disorders in camels in UAE and to identify the common causes of

reproductive disorders.


For assessing the incidence/prevalence of reproductive disorders in camels, a systematic

survey was conducted. This was done by visiting 364 organized private camel farms (a total of 4374

camels aged 5-15 yr) around Abu Dhabi Emirate during August 2007 to April 2010. The farm size

ranged between 9 and 12 camels. The camels were allowed to graze freely for limited time in the

desert, but were also supplemented with fescue and/or alfalfa fodder, with or without a supplement of

grain. The information pertaining to the camel examined during this study was collected. This

included identity of the camel, housing and management, concurrent disease, body weight, age,

occurrence and duration of disorder, previous disorder history, feed intake, lactation number, and

medication of the camel. The sick animal was examined clinically and samples (blood, tissues and

swabs) were collected for bacteriological and hematological examinations to decide the type and

cause of the reproductive disorder.


The results of the present study are presented in Table 1.Taking together all camels (4374)

examined, the overall incidence of common various reproductive disorders was 7.75%. The details of

various reproductive disorders in camel were discussed in the present study.

128


Table 1. Prevalence of common various reproductive disorders in camels

Reproductive disorder No. of camels

examined

No. of camels

found infected

Prevalence rate (%)

Abortion 543 49 9.02

Uterine prolapse 490 61 12.45

Uterine torsion 342 13 3.8

Vaginal prolapse 378 22 5.8

Udder edema 654 34 5.2

Dystocia 603 56 9.29

Early embryonic death 243 22 9.05

Repeat breeding 321 56 17.45

Retained placenta 458 17 3.71

Recto-vaginal fistula 342 9 2.63

Total

4374

339

7.75

References

Abdulwahhab, Yas. 2003. Camels: Diseases & Treatment. First Edition. Amrit Advertising, UAE,

ISBN – 9948 – 03 – 059 – 1

Agab, H. 2006. Diseases and causes of mortality in a camel (Camelus dromedarius) dairy farm in

Saudi Arabia. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. Vol. 13 (2). 165 – 169.

Agarwal, S. and Khanna, N. 1990. Endocrine profiles of Indian camels under different phases of

reproduction. Is it possible to improve the reproductive performance of the camel? Proc.

UCDEC Workshop, Paris. 77-101.

Agarwal, S.; Khanna, N.; Agarwal, V.; Dwaraknath, P. 1987. Circulating levels of estrogen of

estrogen and progesterone in the female camel during pregnancy. Theriogenology, 28: 849-

859.

Ahmad, R. and Nemat, Z. 2007. Brucellosis of camels in Iran. Available from:

http://priory.com/vet/Brucellosis_in_camels.htm Accessed: July 29, 2010.

Al-Ani, F. 2004. Camels: Management and Diseases. First Edition. Dar Ammar Book Publisher.

Al-Ani, F. and Vestweber, J. 1986. Udder edema; an updated review. Vet. Bull., 56: 763-769.

http://priory.com/vet/Brucellosis_in_camels.htm

129


48. Reproductive Performance Improvment of Maghreby Negga by Zootechnic

Practices

K. Mounir1*

and J. Borni1

1 : Département des productions animales Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture 7030 Mateur Tunisia


Introduction

The dromedary camel is an important animal in the arid and semi-arid areas, it is raised for

meat, milk, leather and fiber production as well as a racing animal. The scientific community plays an

essential role for considering camel under three aspects underlying the importance of camelids, now

and in the future. The camelids are interesting as a biological model, a productive animal for food

supply in remote areas, and an element of the arid ecosystem where they contribute to combat

desertification and food security. Camel scientists have to convince funding agencies to promote

desert productivity and preservation. However, some lack in camel research can be considered (Faye,

2008). Opportunities to improve reproductive efficiency in camel are limited, not only by the long

gestation period and short breeding season, but also by the continuing use of traditional systems of

reproductive management in most breeding herds. These methods make it difficult to ensure that an

optimum number of females are pregnant at the end of season consequently decreasing fertility

(Niasari-Naslaji, 2008). The production and reproduction in camels are affected by many factors such

as late puberty (3 to 4 years for females and 5 to 6 years for males), restricted breeding season (from

November to April), induced ovulation, long gestation period (13 months), long calving interval (2

years) and high incidence of early embryonic death. The aim of this study was to improve

reproduction performance of camel using methods based on zootechnic practices.


This study was conducted at the experimental farm of the High School of Agriculture at

Mateur. A total of 26 females Maghreby Negga were survived, within 17 born and raised in station.

Exactly, 40 gestations were recorded (total period for all survived female). During the experimental

period 49 births were recorded including 28 males and 21 females. All services by males on females

were recorded. Animals were weighed every 14 days. Weights of each female were recorded one day

before and after deliverance. Gestation length, intervals between calving and successful mating was

recorded.

Results and Discussion Survived herd allowed female became pregnant for the first time (age of first successful

mating). Difference, between female born and raised in experimental station and their bringing with

herd (traditional system), was significant. Age of the first group (born and raised in station) at first

successful mating was about 28 + 7 month. Age for the second group varied between 33 + 48 months

with an average of 39 month. Age at first successful mating depends to age of animal but this

parameter was significantly affected by the percentage of the mature weight of the young camel. This

result was similar to these observed by kamoun (1990) and kamoun and Wilson (1994). Kamoun

(1990) demonstrated that essentially the percentage of the mature weight affect the age at first

reproduction event in she camels.

To estimate young birth weight (kg), weights of each female were recorded one day before

and after delivery. This weight was varied according to age of animal. Birth weights varied from 24 to

48 kg (n=49, µ=33,6 +/- 6,2 kg). Female born and raised during experimental period had better

conformation and weighed more than that of traditional system. Kamoun (1990) demonstrated that

full access to milk before weaning, is the determining factor in physical and sexual development of

the young calves.

In total 40 gestations were recorded for all survived females. Gestation length was 375 +/- 14

day (n= 40). Female can be pregnant only 8 days after calving. Generally the intervals between

calving-calving and calving-successful mating were 526 +/- 145 days and 147 +/- 131 days

respectively. This interval varied according to alimentation rate, body weight and conformation and

feed availability. Age at first parturition and interval between parturition varies from 32 to 68 months

130


and from 17.5 and 51 months, respectively. Reproductive performance, in terms of age at puberty, at

first conception and at first birth can be improved by ensuring adequate nutrition in early life.

Young females were breed before they reached 3 years of age. Lactating females were able to

produce up to 253 days of pregnancy. Recovery rate varied according females between 8 days and

404 days. This result indicates the high potential of camel to produce milk. Camel milk production

was an important pathway to improve camel performance.

Conclusion

Reproductive performance, in terms of age at puberty, at first conception and at first birth can

be improved by ensuring adequate nutrition in early life. Improved early reproductive performance

should lead to better total productivity. Occurrences of the first reproductive event depend essentially

on the percentage of the mature body weight.

References

Faye B. 2008. The production potential and importance of camels and Camelids in the world. WBC /

ICAR 2008 Satellite Meeting On Camelid Reproduction. 12-13 July, 2008, Budapest,

Hungary.

Kamoun M. 1990. Reproduction et production des dromadaires Magrabis entretenus sur des parcours

de physionomie méditerranéenne. Pp 117-130. Peut-on améliorer les performances de

reproduction des camelins. Paris, 10-12 septembre 1990.

Kamoun M. and Wilson T. 1994. Improving early reproductive characteristics of Tunisian Camels by

nutritional and management interventions. Journal of arid environment. 26:89-94.

Niasari-Naslaji A.. 2008. An update on Bactrian camel reproduction. WBC / ICAR 2008 Satellite

Meeting On Camelid Reproduction. 12-13 July, 2008, Budapest, Hungary.

Skidmore J.A. 2005. Reproduction in dromedary camels: an update.Anim. Reprod., v.2, n.3, p.161-

171, Jul./Sept.

131


49. Effect of Female Camel Urine on Different Teseosterone Levels in Adult Male

Rats

M.E.S Khogali

1, M.A.D. Abdalla

2 and M.N. Elbagir

2

1Central Veterinary Research Laboratories, Soba, Khartoum, Sudan

2University Of Khartoum, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biochemistry


Objective

To investigate the effect of female camel urine on hormonal levels in male rats and to

evaluate total protein, globulin, albumin and body weight gain according to administration of female

camel urine.


Twenty four Wister Albino, adult male rats weighing 140 to 200 grams were in the Central

Veterinary Research Laboroteries premises at Soba, Khartoum, Sudan utilized for the study. They

were kept under standard condition of temperature (23OC) and relative humidity (65%) 12h light and

12h dark cycle and adequate ventilation .They were provided with balanced diet and water at libitum.

Urine was collected either by free catch or by tashweel technique at administered at

(2ml/100gm BW). High and low (TL) were brought by parental injection of testosterone enanthate

(1.5mg) and Lead Acetate (8mg) according to Brunner et al (1992) and Biswas and Ghosh (2004)

respectively.

Blood samples were taken once before female camel urine (FCU) treatment and weekly after

FCU treatment. The samples were collected in a plain vials ,allowed to stand and thereafter

centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes, serum was then separated and frozen at 20C for further

analysis .

Serum testosterone was measured by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

microwell method described by Rajkowski et al, (1977) .

Total protein and Albumin were determined according to Friedman and Young, (1997), using

Biuret reagent kit and Bromocresol green respectively.

Globulin values were calculated by subtracting the values of albumin from the corresponding

values of total protein, Abdel Fattah et al (2008).

Statistical analysis was performed using computer statistics software package (Version 8).

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed according to Day and Quinn (1989).

Results

Seven days after FCU administration , a highly significant (p< 0.01 ) decrease in testosterone

level in group three was observed. Also an insignificant increase in group four, no changes were

observed in group one and two. At day 21 there was an increase in serum TL in all groups treated with

FCU compared to the previous weeks as showed in Table 1 and Figure 1.

Table1: Effect of female camel urine on testosterone level

(ng/ml)

Means within the same column followed by different small

letters are significantly different.

132


Conclusion

Oral administration of female camel urine for three weeks resulted in transient lowering on

the high testosterone level, gradual increase in the low testosterone level while the group of normal

level was not affected by FCU administration.All groups treated by FCU showed significant increase

in total protein, globulin and rats body weight. This study concluded that camel urine can rectify and

regulate serum testosterone level, increase protein synthesis and support the body immunity.

References Abdel Fattah ,S.A., El Sanhoury,M,H., El Medany, N.M ., and Abdel Azeem ,F.(2008). Thyroid

Activity, some blood constituents, Organs morphology and performanceof broiler chicks

supplemental Organic acids. International journal of Poultry Science 7(3)215-222, ISSN 1682

8356 .

Baron, D . N. (1973). Short textbook of chemical pathology (3rd edition) English Language and

book society (ELBS) Hodder and Stoughton London. pp87.

Biswas,N.M. and Ghosh,P(2004), Effect of Lead on male gonadal activity in Albino Rats, Kathmandu

University ,Medical Journal, Vol, 2, No.1 pp 43-46 .

Brunner. M., Schraner , E .M . and Wild, P. (1992) Cellular Changes in rat parathyroid provoked by

progesterone and testosterone . Cell Tissue Res. 268 pp 283-286 .

Day, R. W. and Quinn, G . P.(1989).Comparison of treatments after analysis of variance in ecology.

Ecological Monographs 59 (4) 433-463.

Friedman. And Young,(1997).Effect of disease on clinical Laboratory tests.3th edition, AACC press.

Rajkowski, k. M., Cittanova, N., Desfosses, B. and Layle, M .F. (1977). The conjugation of

Testosterone with horseradish peroxidase and a sensitive enzyme assay for the conjugate

steroids. 29 (5) 701-13 .

133


Anatomy

and

Surgery

134


50. The Cerebral Ventricular System of the Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius):

Anatomical Aspect and CSF Sampling Techniques

M.R. Achaaban1*

, I. Kerbal1, M. Baiss

1, H. Bouaouda

1, M. Ouassat

1, N. Tligui

2, M. Oukessou

and K. El Allali1

1Département des Sciences Biologiques et Pharmaceutiques Vétérinaires, Unité d’Anatomie

Comparée, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco. 2Département de Pathologie et de Santé Public Vétérinaires, Unité d’Histologie et d’Anatomie

Pathologique, Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco.


Introduction

The camel is known by its ability to cope with the hot arid and desert environment apparently

without affecting productivity. During the last century, specific investigations have highlighted the

mechanisms governing such adaptation (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964; Macfarlane, 1968; Gauthier-Pilters

and Dagg, 1981) including anatomical and physiological peculiarities. The general anatomy of the

camel has been largely explored by Smuts and Bezuidenhout (1987) and others, but reports on the

central nervous system, and particularly the cerebro-ventricular system, in this species are still scarce.

The present work aims to investigate the conformation and topography of cerebro-ventricular system

in the dromedary camel. A good knowledge of the anatomy of the cerebral ventricles in this species

would be useful for conducting CSF sampling and for subsequent research experiments concerning

the mechanisms of central hormonal secretion such as vasopressin and melatonin.


The anatomical study was carried out on 12 heads of camels slaughtered at the Temara and

Dakhla abattoirs. The heads were first cleaned and fixed by infusion of a 10% aqueous formalin

solution. Some of these heads were kept in the freezer and served to obtain transversal and sagittal

head slices following the basi-horizontal plan of Horsley-Clarke (H0, which goes through ventral edge

of the orbit and the centre of the external acoustic meatus) to study the topographical anatomy of the

ventricular system. In the other heads, the brain ventricular cavities were filled up with either coloured

Rhodopas solution to obtain moulding or barium sulphate solution for X-ray radiography.

The CSF sampling was conducted both at the lateral ventricle and at the atlanto-occipital

space. At the lateral ventricle, the sampling was made on three camels by drilling a hole in the skull

beside the bregma point and implanting a needle into the lateral ventricle cavity. At the atlanto-

occipital location, the sampling was conducted at the abattoirs on 25 camels before slaughtering using

a needle carefully introduced in the subarachnoid space between the occipit and the first cervical

vertebra (atlas) while maintaining the heads in extreme flexion.


The use of the moulding and radiography as well as the brain slicing have shown that the

camel cerebral ventricular system presents great similarities with that of other large ungulates

concerning its extent, conformation and topography. The comparison of the morphometric indexes as

reported by Conzalez-Soriano et Garcia (2001) exhibits great concordance of data obtained from

moulding and radiographic measurements. As in bovine (Lignereux, 1987) and ovine (Lignereux,

1991), the lateral ventricle presents a horseshoe like shape but differs by the long extension ventrally

and laterally of its frontal horn and the presence of the collateral eminence of Meckel at the ventral

aspect of both lateral ventricles. The third ventricle is characterized by its well developed supra-

pineal, pineal and infundibular recesses. A long and slender duct, aqueduct of Sylvius, connects the

IIIrd

ventricle to the IVth ventricle. This later, lying below the cerebellum, presents two lateral recesses

showing similar direction as those of bovine (Lignereux, 1987). These recesses are interconnected via

the fastigial recesses and also communicate with the subarachnoid space by a lateral opening located

at the anterior side of the IVth ventricle. The CSF sampling from the lateral ventricle required surgical

intervention under deep anaesthesia, the implantation of a cannula holding bolt assembly and the

introduction of a stainless steel hypodermic needle. The patency of the cannula was maintained with a

stylet located in the needle. The whole assembly remained rigidly fixed in position throughout the

sampling period. The site and the angle of implantation of the cannula can be reasonably accurately

135


determined without the use of any stereotaxis equipment. The fact that CSF flowed freely out of the

cannula indicates that the cannula tip was indeed in a ventricular space while the cannula assembly

caused no apparent discomfort to the animal and was not too damaging. The CSF sampling at the

atlanto-occipital region was carried out on animals without anesthesia but with a good contention. The

sampling technique was similar to that described in bovine (Guatteo, 2002) and equine (Orsini and

Divers, 2001). The animal is maintained in recumbent position and forelimbs tied. Once the site is

prepared, the head is hold in extreme flexion and the needle is introduced in the atlanto-occipital

space perpendicularly to the median line of the neck. The CSF is then withdrawn using a syringe. This

technique is actually easy to carry on unless the problem of animal contention and the use of adequate

material which was also revealed in others species (Marie-Aude, 2002; DÁblon, 2004)

References

Conzalez-Soriano, J. ; Martin Garcia, P. (2001).Age-related changes in the ventricular system of the

dog brain. Ann Anat. 183: 283-291.

DÁblon, X. (2004). Réalisation d'une ponction de liquide céphalorachidien par voie lombo-sacrée

chez le cheval. Pratique Vétérinaire Équine 2004 ' Vol. 36, N° 144

Gauthier-Pilters, H. and A.I. Dagg (1981). The camel, its evolution, ecology and relationship to man.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Guatteo, R. (2002). Prélèvement de liquide céphalo-rachidien chez le veau (La ponction atlanto-

occipitale chez le jeune bovin). Le Point Vétérinaire, N° 230 / Novembre 2002.

Horsley, V. et Clarke, RH. (1908). The structure and function of the cerebellum examined by a new

method. Brain. 31: 45-124.

Lignereux, Y., ; Fargeas, J. ; Marty, M.-H. and Bénard, P. (1987). Cerebral ventricles of friesian cow

(Bos Taurus). Conformation, relations and stereotaxic topography. Acta anat. 128 : 89-92.

Lignereux, Y. ; Regodon, S. ; Marty, M.-H. ; Franco, A. et Bubien,A. (1991). Une nouvelle voie

d‘abord du ventricule latéral du cerveau chez la brebis (Ovis aries). Can J. Vet. Res. 55 :382-

383.

Macfarlane, W.V. (1968). Comparative functions of ruminants in hot environments: In Hafez,

Adaptation of domestic animals, pp: 264-276. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.

Marie-Aude, M. (2002). Lánalyse de liquide céphalo-rachidien, un outil diagnostique précieux. Etude

rétrospective de 58 ponctions de LCR réalisés chez les carnivores domestiques. Thèse de

Doctorat Vétérinaire, ENV, Lyon, France.

Orsini, J.A. and Divers, T.J. (2001). Urgences en médecine équine. Editions Vigot-Maloine.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1964). Desert animals: Physiological problems of heat and water. 277pp.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Smuts M.S and Bezuidenhout A.J. (1987). Anatomy of the Dromedary. Oxford Science Publications

136


51. A Study on the Radiological Anatomy of the Foot of Camels by Digital

Radiography and Computed Tomography

M. Gahlot and T.K.Gahlot

Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology

College of Veterinary and Animal Science,

Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Science, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India


Introduction

Camel do suffer from occupational hazards e.g., burn injuries over foot in those working on

Kilns (Gahlot et al,1980), bruises in those paraded on roads, fractures of digits in those working in

mines and punctured feet in those being used for draft purposes in urban areas. The various traumatic

or mechanical injuries thus received results into variety of foot affections with associated lameness

(Singh, 1995).

Available literature shows scanty reports on foot disorders of camels and their diagnosis and

treatment (Singh et al, 1980: Gahlot, 1984: Gahlot and Chouhan, 1992). A careful radiological

examination provides valuable aid in the early diagnosis and treatment of the malady and prognosis

can be improved. In view of this the radiological anatomy of foot of camel by digital radiography and

computed tomography scan was done.


The radiological examination of a normal camel foot of fore and hind limbs obtained from

two adult freshly dead camels was done by dorsopalmar / planter and lateral views. The foot was

anatomically studied by computer tomography scan machine (Seimens somatom plus 4) with 100kVp,

120 mAs on 14x17 inches screened film and by digital radiography machine (Fugic® Allengers) with

60 kVp, 10 mAs.


The radiological anatomy of foot of fore and hind limb was studied by digital radiography and

C.T. scans. An interpretation of digital radiograph revealed that camel does not possess distal

sesamoid bones. The metacarpus and metatarsus remained bifurcated at its distal extremity. There

were four proximal sesamoid bones present on caudal aspect of fetlock joint. The first phalanx was

largest of all and third phalanx was smallest. The thick keratinized sole was visible on ventral aspect

of foot. It had a more developed digital cushion. The superficial and deep digital flexor tendon were

not visible.

However, C.T. images of foot and hind limbs did not show any variation. C.T. images

through various section of foot shared details of all anatomical parts of foot. These have been depicted

in fig 3-8. C.T. images also confirmed absence of distal sesamoid bone. Various portion across the

foot showed metacarpal and metatarsal, divided cannon bone, fetlock joint, proximal or first phalanx,

second or middle phalanx and distal or third phalanx, fetlock, pastern and coffin joints, proximal

sesamoid bones, Nails or pes, interdigital notch, interdigital septum, deep digital flexure tendon,

superficial digital flexure tendon, fibrocartilagenous enlargement of deep digital flexure tendon,

middle scutum, digital cushion, common capsule of digital cushion and yellow fibroelastic bed.

The digital radiograph and computer tomography imaging of camel foot showed no difference

in anatomy of fore and hind foot. Camel had 4 proximal sesamoid bones but distal sesamoid bones are

absent. However, Hifny et al (1995) mentioned that in cattle, the proximal sesamoid bones are four in

number, two for each trochlea. In dorsopalmar/dorsoplantar projection the two sesamoid are

superimposed over each trochlea, the middle bone is larger than the lateral one. They appear as a

vertical pear than the lateral one. They appear as a vertical pear shaped structure with a 2.5 cm

vertical length projection the four sesamoid are superimposed over each other and located palmar or

plantar to the head of the large metacarpal or metatarsal bone. In camel, the proximal sesamoid bones

have nearly the shape, size and measurement as in cattle.

The distal sesamoid bones are present in cattle and they are two in number and rectangular in

shape and vertical length 1.5 cm and 2.7 cm in dorsopalmar/dorsoplantar projections. The distal

sesamoid bones were not observed in camel.

137


In camels, the medullary cavity of metacarpal or metatarsal were completely divided into two

separate parts by complete radio opaque septum which is in consonance to the finding of Hifny et al

(1995).

In camels, the length of large metatarsal and metacarpal were equal which is in according to

the finding of Hifny et al (1995). The small size of 3rd

phalanx in camels may give advantage of fewer

traumas to this bone thus resultant pathologies are also minimized. This is in consonance to the

finding of Hifny et al (1995).

References

Gahlot TK (1984). Surgical management of deep punctured wounds of foot in camel. Indian Journal

of Veterinary Surgery 5:140-142.

Gahlot TK and Chouhan DS (1992). Camel Surgery. Gyan Prakashan Mandir, Bikaner. pp67-114.

Gahlot TK, Chouhan DS and Dudi PR (1980). Thermal burns in camel (Camelus dromedarius).

Rajasthan Veterinarian 7:57.2.

Hifny A, Misk NA and Semieka MA (1995). Radiographic studies on the manus and pes of camel and

cattle. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 2(2):87-91.

Singh G (1995). Foot disorders in camels. MVSc thesis submitted to Rajasthan Agricultural

University, Bikaner. pp 53-54.

Singh AP, Nigam JM and Chandana IS (1980). A radiographic study of foot affection of camel.

Haryana Veterinarian. 19 (1):37-49.

138


52. Surgeries of Head and Neck Region of Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

T.K. Gahlot

Head, Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,

Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner 334001 India


Introduction

Surgical affections of head and neck of camels are very important as they occur frequently

and have been reported. The fracture of mandibles are commonest of all and need utmost attention to

repair it as both the lips go apart and prehension is jeopardized. The soft palate injuries is next

common affection that makes camel completely off feed and needs an exclusive surgical resection to

restore the food intake by mouth. Eyes are watch tower of camels and are often injured. A careful

surgicotherapeutic treatment is necessary to prevent loss of vision.


Present report is based primarily upon a review of previously published work of author,

however, those reported by others have also been included in this report. Various surgical affections

of head and neck of camels were diagnosed and treated by the techniques developed by authors and

other researchers. Entire work was carried out in clinical cases of camels brought in the clinic of

department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology, College of Veterinary and Animal Science,

Bikaner.


Diverse surgical affections of head and neck region of camels were categorized and are

discussed below;

Lacerated Nostrils: It occurs in young camels who are not trained and they get easily excited during

training or vehicular traffic and skin proximal to the embedded nose pegs is lacerated to a variable

length. It is sutured after debridement under infraorbital nerve block and xylazine sedation (Gahlot,

1994).

Buccal or salivary fistula: This usually occurs just below the eye and is unilateral in majority of cases.

It occurs due to absence of one maxillary cheek tooth; feed straws strike to oral mucosa at this gap

during mastication and gradually wound is converted into fistula. If fistula involves salivary duct, it is

called salivary fistula otherwise buccal fistula. Its surgical management includes ligation of stenson‘s

duct and debridement of the fistulation tract (Gahlot and Gupta 1996, Gahlot and Chouhan, 1992 and

Gahlot, 2000).

Mandibular fractures: These are treated by a variety of techniques, namely interdental wiring

technique (Gahlot et al, 1984, 1989; Gahlot 1990), reinforced brass rod interdental wiring technique

(Hanuman and Gahlot, 2001) and bone plating (Ramadan, 1994). The interdental wiring technique

offers advantage of being economical, easy to perform and effective technique for repair of

mandibular fractures.

Soft palate injuries: These are very frequent during breeding season and dulla or soft palate is injured

and trapped inside or hangs outside, thus not allowing animal either to eat or drink. Its surgical

resection is recommended to save the camel (Gahlot et al, 1988; Gahlot 1992, 2000 and Ramadan,

1994).

Ophthalmic affections: Camels suffer from a wide range of ophthalmic affections which include

laceration of cornea, eyelids, panophthalmia, corneal opacity, descematocele etc. These have been

reported elaborately (Bishnoi and Gahlot, 2001; Gahlot 1992, 2000; Ramadan, 2004).

139


Oesophageal obstructions: Camels do suffer with oesophageal obstructions and usually cervical

oesophagus is involved. Its successful management has been reported (Ramadan, 1986 and Ramadan

and Abdin-Bay, 1990).

Surgical affections of ear (Gahlot, 2000), facial paralysis (Gahlot et al, 2004) and torticollis

(Rollefson et al, 2001) occur less frequently in camels.

References Bishnoi P and Gahlot TK (2001). A note on incidence and occurence of diverse ophthalmic affections

in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice and Research 8 (1): 73-75.

Bishnoi P and Gahlot TK (2001). Descemetocele and subconjunctival haemorrhage in camels

(Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice and Research 8 (1): 87.

Gahlot TK (2000). Selected Topics on Camelids- Editor-Dr.T.K.Gahlot, year 2000, ISBN 81-901141-

0-7, The Camelid Publishers, 67 Gandhi Nagar West, Near Lalgarh Palace, Bikaner 334001,

INDIA.

Gahlot TK and Chouhan DS (1992). Camel Surgery", Gyan Prakashan Mandir, Bikaner (India) 81-

85740-00-3, Ist Edn.

Gahlot TK, Khatri SK, Chouhan DS, Choudhary RJ and Purohit RK (1984). Repair of transverse

mandibular fractures by silver wiring in camel. Indian Journal of Veterinary Surgery.5(1):74-

76.

Gahlot TK,, Chouhan DS and Choudhary RJ (1988). Soft palate gangrene in camels. Indian

Veterinary Journal. 65:527-528.

Gahlot TK, Choudhary RJ, Chouhan DS, Chawla SK and Krishnamurthy D (1989). Clinical

evaluation of interdental wiring technique for mandibular fracture repair in camel. Indian

Veterinary Journal 66:251 - 254.

Gahlot TK (1990). Repair of mandibular fractures in camels. International Conference on Camel

Production and Improvement. Tobruk, Libya, Dec 10-13.

Gahlot TK and Gupta H (1996). Buccal fistula in a camel. Journal of Camel Practice and Research

3:137.

Gahlot TK, Garg R, Bishnoi P, Mathur A and Singh G (1994). Removal of maxillary canines in cases

of fractured mandible of camels. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 1(2)69-70.

Gahlot TK, Jhirwal SK, Bishnoi P and Parashar MS (2004). Facial paralysis, glossoplegia and injured

soft palate in a camel. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 11(2):157 - 158.

Hanuman Ram and Gahlot TK (2001). Gross and radiological evaluation of RBR IDW technique for

repair of mandibular fracture in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice

and Research 8(2):199-202.

Ramadan R.O. (1994). Surgery and Radiology of the Dromedary Camel. Ist Edition, King Faisal

University, Saudi Arabia, p 114.

Ramadan RO, Raziz SE and Elfar OM (1986). Esophageal obstruction in a young camel. Veterinary

Medicine Review. 1:85-80.

Ramadan RO and Abdin-Bey MR (1990). Obstruction of the esophagus in camels. Indian Veterinary

Journal 67:363.

Rollefson Ilse Köhler, Paul Mundy and Evelyn Mathias (2001). A Field Manual of Camel Diseases

Traditional and Modern Health Care for the Dromedary. Year : 2001.

140


53. General Anaesthesia in Camelids: An Overview

T.K. Gahlot and A. Meena*

Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology,

College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Science,

Bikaner 334001, India.


Introduction

General anaesthesia is routinely used as a means of a chemical restraint for diagnostic

procedures and major and minor surgery in camelids. General anaesthesia is helpful for many

procedures in camelids practice, including exploratory laparotomy of the colicky calf (cria), castration

of adult llamas, or exploring a fistulous tract. Camelids can be difficult to manage under general

anaesthesia and large animal anaesthetic machines are required for volatile anaesthesia in camels that

are > 150 kg BW.

General anesthesia in new and old world camelids may be induced and maintained with

injectable agents, inhaled agents or a combination of these agents. Previous reports describe the use of

many drugs (e.g. xylazine, guaifenesin, ketamine, thiopental, halothane and isoflurane) for sedation

and general anaesthesia. Hence the focus of this review will be to add this base of information by

reviewing new material pertinent to the anesthetic management of camelids (llamas, alpacas and

camels).

Review

Camelids should be fasted 12-18 hrs and deprived of water for 8-12 hrs prior to anaesthesia

because they are susceptible to complications associated with recumbency and anaesthesia: tympany,

regurgitation and aspiration pneumonia. In an anaesthetized camelid continuing contraction of C1 of

the stomach moves ingesta towards the cardia. This cycle is a hindrance during anesthesia. These

mechanisms are under parasympathetic control therefore atropine may be used to diminish stomach

contractility. It is essential that laryngeal reflex be abolished before attempting endotracheal

intubation. Fasting neonates is not advisable because hypoglycemia may result. Venipuncture and

catheterization of the jugular vein are often performed prior to anesthesia. Adult camelids require 16

gauge catheters while 18 gauge catheters are appropriate for juvenile camelids. Adequate physical

restraint during venipuncture or catheterization is required. Atropine administration (0.02 mg/kg IV or

0.04 mg/kg IM) is recommended to prevent bradyarrythmia and will also decrease salivary secretions.

Use appropriately sized equine endotracheal tubes in camels. The recorded history of general

anesthesia in camel has its origin as inhalation anesthesia when Leese (1927) used chloroform. The

progress in inhalation anesthesia continued and ether or halothane inhalation were used to maintain

anesthesia induced with other anesthetic agent.

Singh et al (1962) reported their preliminary observation in the initial use of I/V general

anaesthesia in camel and used chloral magnesium anaesthesia in camels and found it superior to

chloral alone. Said (1963) induced anaesthesia in camels with chlorpromazine hydrochloride

premedication followed by chloral hydrate. Said (1963, 1964) was first to use thiopentone sodium I/V

to produce anaesthesia of half an hour duration in camel. Similar observation on this anaesthesia was

also reported by Sharma (1980) & Sharma et al (1984). Administration of nesdonal followed by its

repetition produced anesthesia of 20 minutes duration in camels (Hassanein, 1975). Dennig (1972)

used Rompun (xylazine), Peshin (1980) subjected xylazine for its evaluation in camel and similarly

EI-Amrousi et al (1985) used Saffan to produce anaesthesia of short duration. White et al (1986)

produced anaesthesia in camels with ketamine for minor surgical interferences. Singh et al (1994)

evaluated thiopentone induced halothane anaesthesia as safe anesthetics in camels. Kashyap (1994) in

an experimental study evaluated Detomidine Hydrochloride as sedative and as pemedicant to

ketamine hydrochloride in dromedary camels. Ramadan (1994) used high doses of xylazine followed

by ketamine to produce anaesthesia in camels lasting for 30 minutes. Fahmy et al (1995) studied the

efficacy of propofol anaesthesia with xylazine and diazepam premedication in camels. Duke et al

(1997) studied cardiopulmonary effects of propofol infusion in llamas.

141


Sharma (2000) studied behavioral response and various physiological, hematological and

biochemical parameters in camels anaesthetized with propofol (1mg/kg) I/V concluded that propofol

was found to be suitable for immediate induction of surgical anesthesia of ultra short duration in

camels where quick and smooth recovery was desirable. Palecha (2002) concluded that premedication

with midazolam (0.2mg/kg) reduced the dose propofol by 25% in camels. Xylazine (.25-.35 mg/kg

IM) and ketamine (6-10 mg/kg IM, 15 min later) usually provide 30-60 minutes of recumbency in

camelids. The simultaneous administration of xylazine (.44 mg/kg IM) and ketamine (4 mg/kg IM)

usually provides restraint for 15 – 20 minutes.

References

Bhargava A.K. and Vyas U.K. (1967). ―Chloral mag‖ anaesthesia in the camel (Camelus

dromedarius) .Vet. Rec.80:322.

Hassanein A.S. (1975).Studies of general anaesthesia in camel.Ph.D.Thesis.Faculty of Veterinary

Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. (Cite par Ramadan, R.O., 1994, Surgery and

Radiology of Dromedary Camel, Ist Edn., AI-Jawad Printing Press, Cairo).

Dennig H.K. (1972). The use of Rompun (Xylazine) in the dromedary in diagnostic spleeenectomy

(infection with Trypanosoma evansi/Surra). Vet. Med. Rev.3-4:239-242.

DuBois WR, Prado TM, Ko JCH, Mandsager RE and Morgan GL(2004).A comparison of two

intramuscular doses of xylazine-ketamine combination and tolazoline reversal in llamas. J Vet

anaesth Analg 31:90-96.

Duke T., Eggar C.M., Fergusan J. G. and Frketic M.M.(1997).Cardiopulmonary effects of propofol

infusion in llamas.Am. J.Vet. Res.58:153-156.

EI-Amrousi and Colleagues(1985).Assiut Vet. Med. J.15:191-198(Cite par Ramadan, R.O.,

1994,Surgery and Radiology of Dromedary Camel, Ist Edn., AI-Jawad Printing Press, Cairo).

Fahmy L.S., Farag K.A., Mostafa M.B. and Hegazy A.(1995).Propofol anaesthesia with xylazine and

diazepam premedication in camels. J Camel Pract Res.2:111-174.

Fowler ME (1989).Medicine and Surgery of the South American Camelid. Ames: Iowa State

University Press.

Heath RB (1989).Llama anesthetic programs. Vet. Clin North Am Food Anim Prac 5:71-80, 1989.

Kashyap S. (1994). Evaluation of detomidine hydrochloride as sedative and as premedicant to

ketamine hydrochloride in dromedary camels-An experimental study. M.V.Sc.Thesis. College

of Veterinary Sciences, Hisar.

Leese A.S. (1927). A treatise on the one humped camel. Ist Edn. Haynes and Son. Maden Lane,

Standard, Lincolnshire.

Palecha S (2002). Studies on Midazolam and Its combination with Propofol anesthesia in camel

(Camelus dromedarius).Rajasthan Agricultural University.

Peshin P.K., Nigam J.M., Singh S.C. and Robinson B.A. (1980). Evaluation of xylazine in camels. J.

Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.177:875-878.

Ramadan R.O. (1994).Surgery and Radiology of Dromedary Camel. Ist Edn., AI-Jawad Printing

Press, Cairo.

Riebold TW, Kaneps AJ and Schmotzer WB (1989).Anaesthesia in the llama. Vet Surg 18:400-404,

1989.

Said A.H. (1963).Fourth Arab Annual Veterinary Congress: 11-19(Cite par Ramadan, R.O., 1994,

Surgery and Radiology of Dromedary Camel, Ist Edn., AI-Jawad Printing Press, Cairo).

Said A.H. (1964).Some aspects of anaesthesia in the camel. Vet. Rec.76:550-554.

Sharma C.K. (1980). Haematological and Biochemical Studies of Anesthesia in camel. M.V.Sc.

Thesis. College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Bikaner.

Sharma C.K. (2000).Evaluation of Propofol as an anaesthetic in Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius).

Rajasthan Agricultural University.

Sharma C.K., Chouhan, D.S., Bhatia J.S. and Purohit, R.K. (1984 a). Effect of chloral hydrate, chloral

–mag and thiopentone sodium anaesthesia in camel: II. Biochemical study .Indian J. Vet.

Surg.5:130-134.

Sharma C.K., Chouhan, D.S., Tanwar, R.K. and Purohit, R.K. (1984 b). Effect of chloral hydrate,

chloral –mag and thiopentone sodium anaesthesia in camel: I. Haematological study .Indian J.

Vet. Surg.5:126-129.

142


Sharma S.K., Singh S, Peshin P.K. and Singh A.P. (1984).Hemodynamic, blood gas and metabolic

changes after anaesthesia with chloral hydrate and magnesium sulphate in camels (Camelus

dromedarius).Res.Vet.Sci.36:12-15.

Singh R, Rathore S.S. and Kohli R.N. (1962).A note on preliminary observations on the use of some

general anesthetics in the camel. Indian Vet. J. 39:614-616.

Thurmon JC, Tranquilli WJ and Benson GJ (Eds) (1996).Lumb and Jones‘ Veterinary Anaesthesia .3rd

edn. Williams and Wilkins, USA.

Singh R, Peshin P.K., Patil D.B., Sharda R ,Singh J, Singh A.P. and Sharifi D(1994) .Evaluation of

halothane as an anesthetic in camels. J. Vet. Med. Assoc. 41:359-368.

White R.J., Bark H. and Bali S. (1986). Halothane anaesthesia in a dromedary camel. Vet. Rec.

119:615-617.

143


54. Radiographic and Ultrasonographic Appearance of Mature Dromedary Camel

Tarsus (One Humped Camel)

U. Hagag*, R. Omar, A. Al Mubarak, A. El Nahas, W. Brehm and K. Gerlach


Introduction

The camel tarsus is a composite joint consisting of multiple articulations, involving numerous

soft and bony structures (Smuts, 1987) and it is susceptible to a considerable incidence of pathology

(Raes et al., 2010). In the horse, radiography and ultrasonography are the most common techniques

for diagnosing tarsal injuries (Vanderperren et al., 2009a). Radiography remains the main stay of

equine musculoskeletal imaging due to its cost, ready accessibility and global evaluation of bony

structures (Kinns and Nelson, 2010). Ultrasonography is the most cost effective imaging modality for

evaluation of soft tissue injuries (Vanderperren et al., 2009a), bone surface (Raes et al., 2010) as well

as the articular cartilage of the equine tarsus (Tomlinson et al., 2000). Lameness of the camel hind

limb is popular and most frequently encountered in the tarsal region due to nature of laying behavior

in camels. The aim of this study is to depict the radiographic anatomy of the camel tarsus as well as

describing the uncharacterized soft tissue structures of the camel tarsus to develop an optimal

technique for examination of these structures to serve as reference for evaluation of tarsal pathology.


Six pelvic limbs were obtained from three adult dromedary camels euthanized for reasons

unrelated to musculoskeletal disorders. The donor camels one male and two females. Their age was 4,

8 and 14 years respectively. The tarsal joints were radiographed in four projections, dorsoplantar,

lateromedial, dorsolateral-plantaromedial and plantarolateral-dorsomedial views using digital x-ray

machine (Philips digital x-ray unit). For the echographic examination, a real time ultrasound machine

(Aloka, Pie medical equipment) equipped with 7.5 MHz convex transducer. Two limbs were freshly

dissected and examined macroscopically and another two limbs were frozen at -20OC and sectioned to

be compared with the resulting images.


Conventional radiography is the classic diagnostic technique of imaging bone involvement

and ultrasonography represents an excellent complementary diagnostic tool to radiography for

determination of soft tissue structures in equine practice (Tenbrunner-Martinek et al., 2007). In the

present study, the radiographic examination was performed in four projections (Verschooten and

Schramme, 1994). The dorsoplantar view (Fig.2) was optimal for evaluation of the articular surfaces

and joint spaces of the tarsocrural as well as the intertarsal joints. The lateromedial (Fig.1) was the

best for evaluation of the talocalcaneal joint, the dorsolateral-plantaromedial view for the medial

aspect of the tarsocrural joint and the plantarolateral-dorsomedial view for the plantar aspect of the

sustentaculum tali and the lateral trochlea of the talus (Butler et al., 2000). The normal appearance of

the soft tissue structures of the tarsus in equine(Vilar et al., 2008), cattle (Flury, 1996) and dog (Caine

et al., 2009) has been reported. In this study, the normal ultrasonographic anatomy of the tarsal region

in adult dromedary camel is described. The ultrasonographic examination of the camel tarsus was

performed in a systematic manner similar to that reported for the equine tarsus in both longitudinal

and transverse planes (Whitcomb, 2006). The ultrasonograms in both planes correlated well with the

freshly dissected and the frozen sectioned specimens.The tarsal tendons were more or less oval in

shape. Their homogenous echogenicity appeared as uniform distribution of pin point white echoes in

the transverse plane (Fig.3) and parallel linear fiber pattern that appeared as long white echoes in the

longitudinal plane (Fig.4). Similar findings were reported for the same region in equine (Dik,1993)

and cattle (Flury, 1996). Sonographic evaluation of the tibiotarsal joint capsule was easier from the

dorsomedial aspect of the tarsus just below the medial malleolus and the longitudinal plane was most

informative (Fig.3). The intertarsal joint capsules could not be evaluated due to minimal synovial

fluid. The articular cartilage of the medial and lateral trochlear ridges of the talus appeared as a

hypoechoic band overlying the hyperechoic subchondral bone. The bone surfaces elsewhere in the

tarsocrural joint and other intertarsal joints were seen as hyperechoic reflection deep to the soft tissue

structures with the occasional presence of anechoic synovial fluid. Similar findings were described in

144


tarsus of equine (Dik, 1993; Whitcomb, 2006). The collateral ligaments were recognized in the

longitudinal view with its echogenic densely packed linear fibers and examined from its origin to

insertion to be differentiated from other structures. The plantar ligament had medial and lateral limbs

extending through the plantar aspect of the tarsus. Similar finding were detected in the tarsus of the

dog (Caine et al., 2009). The plantar ligament was more echogenic than the deep digital flexor tendon

(DDFT) and both were more echogenic than the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) (Fig.4). In

conclusion, digital radiography and ultrasonography are complementary to each other and suitable for

assessment of camel tarsus.

Fig.(1) dorsoplantar view Fig.(2) Lateromedial view Fig.(3) transverse view Fig.(4) longitudinal view

at the tibiotarsal joint. on the plantar aspect of

the tarsometatarsal joint.

Ti; tibia, CT; calcaneal tuber, Cal; calcaneus, Ta; talus, C; central tarsal bone, 4; fourth tarsal bone, 1;

first tarsal bone, 2+3; fused second and third tarsal bones, Met; metatarsus, Lm; lateral tibial

malleolus, Mm; medial tibial malleolus, Mb; malleolar bone

P; plantar Pr; proximal, d; distal, L; lateral, M; medial, EDL; extensor digitorum longus, Pr. Tr.;

peroneus tertius, Med Con; medial condyle of talus, Lat Con; lateral condyle of talus, Sy Cap;

synovial capsule, long pl. lig.; long plantar ligament

References

Butler, J.A., Colles, C.M., Dyson, S.J., Kold, S.E., Poulos, P.W., 2000. The Tarsus. Clinical

Radiology of the Horse. Blackwell Science, pp. 247-284.

Caine, A., Agthe, P., Posch, B., Herrtage, M., 2009. Sonography of the Soft Tissue Structures of the

Canine Tarsus. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound 50, 304-308.

Dik, K.J., 1993. Ultrasonography of the Equine Tarsus. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound 34, 36-

43.

Flury, S. Ultrasonographische Darstellung des Tarsus beim Rind. 1996. Bern, Oesterreich,

Veterinarmedizin. Ref Type: Thesis/Dissertation

Kinns, J., Nelson, N., 2010. Imaging tarsal trauma. Equine Veterinary Education 22, 296-298.

Raes, E.V., Vanderperren, K., Pille, F., Saunders, J.H., 2010. Ultrasonographic findings in 100 horses

with tarsal region disorders. Veterinary Journal 186, 201-209.

Smuts, M.M.S.a.A.J.B., 1987. Anatomy of the Dromedary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Tenbrunner-Martinek, B., Grubelnik, M., Kofler, J., 2007. Ultrasonographic examination of important

aspects of the bovine shoulder-physiological findings. Veterinary Journal 173,317-324.

Tomlinson, J.E., Redding, W.R., Sage, A., 2000. Ultrasonographic evaluation of tarsocrural joint

cartilage in normal adult horses. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound 41, 457-460.

Verschooten, F., Schramme, M., 1994. Radiological examination of the tarsus. Equine Veterinary

Education 6, 323-332.

Vilar, J.M., Rivero, M.A., Arencibia, A., Morales, I., Pinedo, M., 2008. Systematic exploration of the

equine tarsus by ultrasonography. Anatomia Histologia Embryologia 37, 338-343.

Whitcomb, M.B. Ultrasonography of the equine tarsus. AAEP PROCEEDINGS 52, 13-30.

145


55. The Microanatomy of the Cerebellum Cortex of the One Humped Camel (Camelus

dromedarius)

Djazouli Alim F.Z1., Benaissa M.H

2. , Lebaili N

3.& Mahy N.

4

1Université Saad Dahleb, Faculté des Sciences Agro-Vétérinaire, Département de Biologie, B.P. 270,

route de Soumaa Blida, Algerie 2Scientific and technical research centre for arid area (CRSTRA), Biskra, Algeria.

3Ecole Normale Supérieure Bachir El Ibrahimi, Laboratoire de Physiologie Animale, B.P. 92 Kouba

16050, Algiers, Algeria. 4Universitat de Barcelona; Unit de Biochemica, Sch. Medicine-IDIBAPS, UB; C. Casanova, 143

Barcelona, Spain.


Introduction

The cerebellum is comprised of two anatomical components, the cerebellar cortex and nuclei.

This complex brain structure mediates essential functions for movement, balance, cognition, language

(Ito, 2005) and some emotional behavior as fear (Wolf et al., 2009). There are different components

cells in the cerebellum cortex, the most distinguished morphologically are Purkinje (PC), granule and

Golgi cells. The PC is the only neuron in the cerebellum along whose axons information leaves the

cerebellum (Avrushchenko, 1981). Characteristics of cerebellar cortical cells are central to ideas about

its role in motor learning (Mauk, 1997). In this work we present a morphometrical data of dromedary

cellular components of cerebellum cortex.


The cerebellums of three (3) Algerian adult (Terghi) dromedaries were obtained directly after

slaughter. Small specimens were fixed in 10% phosphate-buffered formalin for one week at least and

processed for paraffin embedding. Sections (10 µm) were prepared and stained with Crossman

trichrome (Boeck,1989) combined with Hensen nuclear stain. Other sections were treated with Nissl

stain according to Paxinos (1997). Morphometric measurement (mean± Std. Dev.) of cerebellum cells

was obtained with software programmes; Image Tool- IT300 and MacBiophotonics ImageJ.


Figure 1. Cerebellar histology in adult dromedary. a. The Outer cellular layer of grey matter is colored in green; the inner

fibrous layer of white matter (arrow). b. the cortex layers. The granular layer contains small neurons. The Middle Purkinje

layer of large neurons. The outer molecular layer contains few neurons and many processes. c. magnified view of (b)

demonstrating layers cells profiles. Scale bar: a = 1mm; b = 50µm; C= 10µm.

Figure2. a. The Purkinje cell (PC) with its well developed ramifications. b. The initial segment of Purkinje cell axon (axon

hillock) (ax), nucleus (N), nucleolus (n). c. Granule cells (arrowheads) with their typical star shaped nucleus. d. Golgi cells

(G) (arrow). e. Cells in structural relationship with Purkinje cell, granule cells (arrowheads); basket cell (arrow). f. Blood

vessel (bv) near a Purkinje cell surrounded by numerous glial cells (arrowheads). Note that the PC in figs. b, c and d present

146


a granulations in their cytoplasm (asterisk) and the PC of figs b, c, e are dark comparing to those of d and f figs. Scale bar:

a = 50µm, (in f) b-f = 5 µm.

The body cell diameter (µm) of Purkinje (PC), Golgi and granule cells were respectively (11.72 ±

1.51), and (2.59 ± 0. 43) and (1.65 ± 0.24). The diameter of nucleus and nucleolus of PC were

respectively (5.10 ± 0.61) and (1.88 ± 0.33). The distribution of granule cells in the granule cells layer

is (5.26±0.78) cells / 100µm2 and in the Purkinje cell layer (1.90±0.28) cells

/ 100µm

2.We noticed that

just the nucleus of PC diameter is bigger than the diameters of cell bodies of the others. The PC is a

central element in the cerebellum cortex and most distinguished cell in the nervous system, this is

reflected by its considerable shape compared to the others cells. Hence, when during embryogenesis,

its afferents use the PC cell cluster as a scaffold to organize their topography (Apps and Hawkes,

2009). We have observed in our study that there is different morphological features of this cell namely

presence or absence of cytoplasm granulations, darkness of some cells comparing to others. In fact,

this heterogeneity has been reported by morphological studies in dog (Avrushchenko,1981) and in

recent studies by molecular approach suggesting that this heterogeneity might have functional

implications for motor learning (Mateos, 2001). It will be interesting to explore the plasticity of these

cells in animal experiencing hard condition and running through long distance in hot desert as the

dromedary.

References

Apps R. and Hawkes R. (2009). Cerebellar cortical organization: a one-map hypothesis. Nature, 10:

670-682.

Avrushchenko M Sh. (1981). Morphometric study of Purkinje cells in dog cerebellar cortex. Biull

Eksp Biol Med, 92: 3, 1277-1280.

Mateos, J. M. (2001). Parasagittal compartmentalization of the metabotropic glutamate receptor

mGluR1b in the cerebellar cortex. Eur. J. Anat, 5, 15–21.

Boeck, P. (1989). Romeis Mikroskopische Technik, 17th ed. Urban & Schwarzenberg,

Munich/Vienna/Baltimore, p. 502–503.

Ito, M. (2005). Bases and implications of learning in the cerebellum—adaptive control and internal

model mechanism. Prog. Brain Res., 148:95–109.

Paxinos G. and Watson C. (1997). The rat brain in stereotaxic coordinates. 3rd

edition. p8.

Mauk M.D. (1997). Roles of Cerebellar Cortex and Nuclei in Motor Learning: Contradictions or

Clues?. Neuron, 18: 343–346.

147


56. Congenital Anomaly of the Coronary Arteries in the Camel Heart (Camelus

dromedarius)

Marwa A.M. Babiker and A.A.M. Taha


It has been established that the normal origin of the left and the right coronary arteries,

in all mammals is from the aortic sinuses above the left and right aortic cusps respectively

(Ghoshal, a 1975; Shively, 1987; Smith and Fisher, 1987; Dyce, Sack and Wensing, (1996);

Taha and Abdel-Magied, 1996). However, various anomalies have previously been reported

regarding the origin of the coronary arteries. Of these; absence of the ostium of the left main

coronary artery (Vidne, Nili, Aygen and Levy, 1979; Smith and Fisher, 1987; Taha, 2001);

origin of the coronaries from the pulmonary trunk, (Sandusky and Smith, 1978); common

origin of the two coronaries (Sandusky and Smith, 1981); on the other hand, other anomalies

related to the coronaries or their branches were also mentioned in the literature. These

include: aneurysm of one or both coronary arteries; (van Nie, 1968); hypo- or hyperplasia of

one or both coronaries, (van Nie, 1968); thin wall resembling that of a vein,(Sandusky and

Smith, 1978); absence of the circumflex branch of the left coronary artery (Gentzler, Gault,

Liedtke, Mccann, Mann and Hunter, 1975; Bestetti, Costa, oliveira, Rossi and Araujo, 1985);

rudimentary coronary artery in Syrian Hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), (Durán, Arqué,

Fernández, Fernández, Gallego, Rodriguez and Sans-coma, 2009). In addition, there were more

than 100 documented cases in the literature where the right coronary artery solely supplied the

entire heart; all of these cases were reported in humans. However, Taha (2001) has reported

congenital absence of the left coronary artery in a bovine calf and that the larger part of the right

coronary artery curved caudally around the origin of the pulmonary trunk reaching the left

longitudinal groove and at about its middle it divided into two main branches and several

smaller branches that supplied the left and right ventricles.


A total of 20 hearts were obtained from adult camels (Camelus dromedarius). Injection

techniques were employed to study the blood supply of the left and right coronary arteries.

They were injected with red vinyl acetate. Then the injected hearts were immersed in 10%

formalin for 15 days. Finally, dissection was performed carefully to study the course of the

coronary arteries.


The congenital anomaly associated with both left and right coronary arteries was observed

in one heart out of the twenty dissected. In this heart, the right coronary artery shortly after its

origina from the cranial aortic sinus ran cranially in the coronary groove for a distance of 3cm

and then divided into two major branches (Fig.1). A cranial circumflex branch (Fig.1&2) continued

its course in the coronary groove until reaching the subsinuosal interventricular (right

longitudinal) groove in which it descended (Fig.2).

Fig.1: Cranial aspect of the heart. Note that the right coronary artery

divided into two major branches a cranial circumflex branch (arrow head)

and the large caudal branch (arrow). (A) Aorta; (LV) left ventricle; (PIG)

paraconal interventricular groove; (PT) pulmonary trunk; (RV) right ventricle.

Fig.2: Right aspect of the heart. Note that the cranial circumflex

branch reaching the subsinuosal interventricular groove dividing

into two branches the cranial branch (arrow head) dipped in the

myocardium, and caudal branch (arrow). The later was bridged

twice by myocardium and it ran towards the apex of the heart.

148


It then divided into two branches in the proximal third of the groove. Both branches

descended in the groove. Thecranial of the two branches dipped in the myocardium and the

caudal one was bridged twice by myocardium as it ran towards the apex of the heart (Fig.2). The

large caudal branch of the right coronary artery which does not normally exist, assumed a

peculiar course (Fig.1). It ran ventrally and 2caudally around the origin of the pulmonary trunk

until it reached the middle part of the paraconal (left longitudinal) groove where it descended

distally. Just above the apex of the heart it ran cranially almost reaching the subsinuosal

interventricular groove. In the same heart, the left coronary artery which originated from the

caudal aortic sinus divided as usual into paraconal interventricular and caudal circumflex branches.

This division has not occurred as usual at the level of the paraconal interventricular (left longitudinal)

groove but a little bit caudal to it (Fig.3). The paraconal interventricular branch assumed a peculiar

course too by descending parallel and caudal to the paraconal groove and thus has left the

proximal two thirds of the paraconal groove devoid of any artery. However, the distal third of the

groove was occupied by the anomalous branch of the right coronary artery which was mentioned

above. These two abnormal courses of the coronary arteries have not previously been reported

in the camel. However, abnormalities of the coronary arteries in other domestic animals have

previously been reported except the camel included: absence of one of the two ostia, origin

from the pulmonary trunk, aneurysm of one or both arteries, hypo- or hyperplasia of one or both

arteries, complete absence of one of the two arteries (van Nie,1968; Genitzler, et al., 1975;

Sandusky and Smith, 1978; Vidne, et al., 1979; Sandusky and Smith, 1981; Bestetti, et al.,

1985; Smith and Fisher, 1987; Shively, 1987; Dyce, et al., 1996; Taha, 2001; Durán, et al.,

2009).

Fig.3: left aspect of the heart. Note that the left coronary artery

(arrow) runs laterally and caudally between the pulmonary trunk

(PT) and the left auricle (LA). The division of the artery into

paraconal interventricular (PI) and the left circumflex (LC)

arteries occurred a little bit caudal to the usual position (*) at the

level of the paraconal interventricular groove (PG). Note also that

the paraconal interventricular artery runs parallel and caudal to

the paraconal groove and furnishes branches (arrows head) to the left ventricle (LV).

References

Bestetti, R.B., Costa, R.B., Oliveira, J.A., Rossi, M.A. and Araujo, R.C. (1985). Congenital

absence of the circumflex coronary artery associated with dilated cardiomyopathy.

International Journal of Cardiology. Vol. 8: Pp.331-335.

Durán, A.C., Arqué, J.M., Frenández, B., Fernández, M.C., Gallego, T., Rodriguez, C. and Sans-

Coma, V. (2009).

Rudimentary coronary artery in Syrian Hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus. Anatomia. Histologia.

Embryologia. Vol.38: Pp.270-274.

Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O. and Wensing, J.G. (1996). Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. W.B.

Saunders Company, 2nd

ed.. Phladelphia. Pp 226.

Gentzler, R.D., Gault, J.H., Liedtke, J., Mccann, W.D., Mann, R.H. and Hunter, A.S. (1975).

Congenital absence of the left circumflex coronary artery in the systolic click syndrome.

Circulation. Vol.52: 490-496.

Ghoshal, N.G. (1975,a). Ruminant heart and arteries. In Sisson and Grossman‘s the Anatomy

of the domestic animals (ed.Getty,R.). 5th ed. Vol.1.Pp.962-1023.

W.B. Saunders company: Philadelphia, London, Toronto.

Sandusky, G.E. and Smith, C.W. (1978). Anomalous left coronary artery in a calf. Journal of

the American veterinary medical association. Vol.173, No.5 (1) 475-477.

Sandusky, G.E. and Smith, C.W. (1981). Congenital cardiac anomalies in calves. The veterinary

record. Vol.21: 163-165.

Shively, M.J. (1987). Veterinary anatomy, Basic, Comparative and clinical. Second printing

manufactured in the USA pp. 267-308.

Smith, F.R. and Fisher, P. (1987). Congenital absence of the left coronary artery. Clinical

anatomy corner, the American surgeon. Vol. 53: Pp. 664-666.

149


Taha, A.A.M. (2001). Absence of the left coronary artery in calf. Indian Veterinary Journal,

Vol.78: 826-828.

Taha, A.A.M. and Abdel-Magied, E.M. (1996).

The coronary arteries of the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Anatomia. Histologia.

Embryologia. Vol.25: 295-299.

van NiE, C.J. (1968). Anomalous origin of the coronary arteries in animals. Path

Veterinary.Vol.5: 313-326.

Vidne, B.A., Nili, M., Aygen, M. and Levy, M.J. (1979). Congenital atresia of the left main

coronary artery ostium. Scandinavian Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

Vol. 13: 37-40.

150


57. Computed Tomography and Cross Sectional Anatomy of the Metacarpus and Digits

of the One-Humped Camel and Egyptian Water Buffalo

A. El-Shafey1 and A. Sayed-Ahmed

2*

1Department of Anatomy and Embryology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University Egypt.

2Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Damanhour University Egypt


Introduction

The camel and buffalo are very important meat producing animals, as well as the buffalo is

the main milk producing animal in Egypt. Classical anatomic atlases do not provide wide views for

modern diagnostic and surgical techniques. CT was not initially used in veterinary medicine because

of its limited accessibility and high costs. However recently the accessibility has improved, which has

increased the need of expertise in the use of this technique in animals (Bahgat, 2007; Vanderperren et

al., 2008; Raji et al., 2008). The purpose of this study was to provide an atlas of synchronized normal

computed tomography and cross sectional anatomy of the metacarpus and digits in the one-humped

camel and Egyptian water buffalo to provide a basis for diagnosis of their diseases by the aid of CT.

Materials and Methods The present work was carried out on the metacarpus and digits of twelve symptomatically

healthy adult camel and buffalo. The specimens underwent consecutive CT scan, with slice thickening

of 1 cm, using TOSHIBA 600 HQ (Ahmed Farid radiology Center-Benha). After CT images were

obtained, the buffalo and camel metacarpus and digits were frozen at -20° then sectioned transversely

using an electric band saw, to correspond with the CT images. Important anatomic structures were

detected and labeled in gross cross-sections photographs and its corresponding CT scans.


The skeleton of the metacarpus was formed in both animals by the fused third and fourth

metacarpal bones. The small metacarpal bone (Mc.V) (Fig 1) was present in the buffalo and absent in

camel. In both animals, the medullary cavity of the fused third and fourth metacarpal bones was

divided internally by a vertical bony septum which was a complete septum in the camel, complete at

the proximal and distal extremities in the buffalo and small, incomplete fused shaft in buffalo (Figs 1-

4). The CT of the present study in both camel and buffalo showed the adjacent extensor tendons as

transverse narrow strap with undifferentiated outlines on the dorsal aspect of fused metacarpal bones,

proximal phalanges and middle phalanges. The flexor tendons are seen as roughly rounded mass with

undifferentiated outlines on the palmar aspect of fused metacarpal bones, proximal phalanges and

middle phalanges. The undifferentiated outlines of the adjacent extensor and flexor tendons in CT

images is equivalent to cross sectional anatomy without dissection of the intervening fascia, where the

outlines didn't appear in the latter also. Therefore, the cross sectional anatomy is superior to CT only

when the intervening fascia is dissected (Figs 1-4). CT is an excellent imaging modality, and has

some potential advantages over routine radiography; it provides images which can be used for better

diagnosis of abnormalities and for evaluating the extent and severity of the lesion (Mackey et al

2008). Also, has considerable advantages over CT ultrasonography because ultrasound images

represent only a portion of the complete cross-sectional anatomy and is unable to penetrate structures

that contain minerals (Samii et al., 1998).

Legends of Figures

Panels A&B in each figure were a distal view of CT scans of camel and buffalo, respectively, and

panels C& D were cross sections anatomy of camel and buffalo, respectively.

Fig. 1: CT scans and cross sections at the base of large metacarpal bone (1) 3rd and 4th metacarpal

bones, (2) bony septum, (3&4)-medullary cavities, (5) interosseous muscle, (6&7) medial and lateral

tendons of common digital extensor muscle, respectively, (8) Tendon of lateral digital extensor

muscle, (9&10) Tendons of deep and superficial digital flexor muscles, respectively, (11) 5th

metacarpal bone in buffalo.

151


Fig. 2: CT scans and cross sections at the level of the middle of the shaft of the large metacarpal bone.

(1) Fused third and fourth metacarpal bones, (2) bony Septum between fused third and fourth

metacarpal bones, (3&4)-Medullary cavities, (5) interosseous muscle, (6) Tendon of common digital

extensor muscle, (7) Tendon of lateral digital extensor muscle, (8&9) Tendons of deep and superficial

digital flexor muscles, respectively,

Fig. 3: CT scans and cross sections at the level of the metacarpophalangeal (Fetlock) joint. (1) Distal

end of third metacarpal bone, (2) Distal end of fourth metacarpal bone, (3) Intertrochlear notch, (4)

Proximal sesamoid bone, (5) Metacarpophalangeal articulation, (6) collateral sesamodean ligamens,

(7) palmar ligaments, (8) inter-digital intersesamoidean ligament 9- divided Tendon of deep digital

flexor muscle, (10) Tendon of superficial digital flexor muscle, (11) Manica flexoria, (12) Fifth digit

of buffalo.

Fig. 4: CT scans and cross sections at the level of the distal interphalangeal (Coffin) joint. (1) Distal

end of middle phalanx of third digit, (2) Distal end of middle phalanx of forth digit, (3) Distal phalanx

of third digit, (4) Distal phalanx of fourth digit, (5) Distal sesamoid bone, (6) Tendon of deep digital

flexor muscle, (7) Tela subcutanea tori (digital cushion), (8) Distal interphalangeal articulation, (9)

distal Interdigital ligaments.

References

Bahgat, H., 2007. Computed Tomography and Cross Sectional Anatomy of the Metacarpus and Digits

of the Small Ruminants. Benha Vet. Med. J. 18, 63-84.

Mackey, E.B., Hernandez-Divers, S.J., Holland, M., et al., 2008. Clinical Technique: Application of

Computed Tomography in Zoological Medicine. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine. 17, 198–209

Raji A.R., Sardari, K., Mohammadi, H.R., 2008. Normal Cross Sectional Anatomy of the Bovine

Digit: Comparison of Computed Tomography and Limb Anatomy. Anat. Histol. Embryol. 37,

188–191.

Samii, V.F., Briller, D.S., Koblic, P.D., 1998. Normal cross-sectional anatomy of the feline thorax and

abdomen: comparison of computer tomography and cadaver anatomy. Vet. Radiol.

Ultrasound. 6, 504–511.

Vanderperren, K., Ghaye, B., Hoegaerts, M., et al., 2008. Computed Tomographic Anatomy of the

Equine Metacarpophalangeal Joint. Vet. Radiol. & Ultrasound. 49, 196–219.

152


58. Histological and Hormonal Studies of the Goiter in the Dromedary (Camelus

dromedarius)

A. Rejeb*, A. Amara, M. Rekik and H. Rezeigui

School of Veterinary Medicine, 2002, Sidi Thabet


Goiter is a pathology well investigated in humans but in veterinary medicine, studies related

to this condition are very scarce particularly in dromedary. This study examined and compared the

histological features and hormonal traits of 25 goiter-identified individuals and 75 normal camels.

Macroscopically, the goiter is characterized by enlarged thyroid glands and the presence of cysts from

2.9 mm to 3 mm in diameter containing a yellowish thick liquid. Weight characteristics of the thyroid

and its lobes were different being goiter-identified and normal animalsrespectively: 38.28 ± 4.51 g

and 12.09 ± 2.50 g for the right lobe, 39.33 ± 5.48 g and 12.18 ± 2.30 g for the left lobe, 3.76 ± 0.63 g

and 1.59 ± 0.70 g for the isthmus and 81.37 g ± 9.21 and 25.87 ± 4.16 g for the thyroid gland.

The histological study showed that in goiter-identified individuals, colloidal structure present an

important structural change of the vesicles with the presence of thyroid follicles rounded, oval, tubular

or irregular, of variable sizes. Some follicles are filled with an overly distended colloid rich,

homogeneous colored pink and sometimes calcified and an epithelium flattened. Others remain small

and hyperplasic epitheliums with cubic or cylindrical that present on some locations a proliferation of

cords or papillae. The estimated percentage of interstitium with "LEICA Qwin" shows a densification

of the fibrous thyroid stroma of goiter-identified camels. For goiter-identified camels, the

immunohistochemical study shows that the cells are marked by antibodies anti thyroglobulin and

there is a presence of a colloid substance between the thyroid follicles.

Determination of thyroid hormones and the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) serum

concentrations showed a significant decrease (P<0.05) of all concentrations in goiter-identified

individuals when compared to normal animals. Serum concentrations for respectively goiter-

identified and normal animals were 7.80 ± 0.25 (pmol / l) compared to 14 30 ± 0.50 (pmol / l) for free

thyroxin (FT4), 1.64 ± 0.08 (pmol / l) compared to 4.12 ± 0.16 (pmol / l) for free tri-iodothyronin

(FT3) and 0.016 ± 0.016 (pmol / l) compared to 0.137 ± 0.008 for TSH.

153


59. Surface Morphology Investigation of Tunisian Dromedary Hair

T. Harizi1*

, S. Dhouib1, S. Msahli

1, M. Moslah

2, M. Hammadi

2, F. Sakli

1 and T. Khorchani

2

1Textile Researche Unit of ISET-KH B. P. 68 Ksar Hellal 5070, Tunisia

2 Livestock &Wildlife Laboratory Arid Lands Institute 4119 Medenine, Tunisia

Tel: (+216) 73 475 900; Fax: (+216) 73 475 163;


Introduction

In Tunisia, there are some 100,000 camels (Camelus dromedarius) that produce more than

100,000 kg of hair annually (Sghair, 2003); however, only a small quantity is harvested and used by

Bedouin people to make traditional clothes. Great effort is needed to make the farmer conscious of the

importance of camel hair as an income product. Investigations are needed to demonstrate to the

industrial supervisors that this product could contribute to the national needs of hair and reduce their

outcomes. Thus, we describe the morphological properties of dromedary hair with the aim of

providing means for identifying and to distinguish these fibres from other animal fibres used in textile

industry.


The samples of the dromedary fleece of various ages were obtained from the Arid Lands

Institute, Medenine, Tunisia. Using the hand microtome, we obtained ‘fiber snippets 0.4 mm long,

regardless of fiber diameter. The fibers were mounted on aluminum stubs with double sided adhesive

tape and sputter-coated with 20 nm thick gold layer in rarefied argon. Scanning electron microscopic

(SEM) analyses were performed using an S360 model (LEO, Oberkochen, Germany).


The results show that the diameter of dromedary hair raw materials varies from 10 to 135 µm

or greater. There are two distinct fibre populations: the fine one is of textile relevance and the coarse

one is rather worthless and must be separated prior to spinning and subsequent processing. The

dehared (separated) dromedary fibre presents a relatively low mean fibre diameter (≈17 µm) with a

high coefficient of variation (CV ≈25%). The individual finesses varies from 10 µm to 50 µm with a

rarely fibres greater.

Figure 1 shows that the scales of the dromedary fibre are on average extremely long and quite visible; they tend

not to protrude from the fibre, appear almost convex, and provide a wavy appearance in profile of the relatively

coarse fibre.

Figure 1 Appearance of the dromedary hair (undercoat on the left and guard hair on the right).

On counting the scale frequency, that is, the number of scale margins within a determined fibre length

of 100 μm on the surface of a fine (diameter < 30µm) and coarse (diameter > 30µm) dromedary fibre,

comes out roughly 5 at 8 and 8 at 12 scale margins, respectively. This displays well a significant

difference for the superficial structure, which is the overlapping of the cuticle cells (Bauters, 1982).

Phan et al. (2000) found that fine and coarse cashmere fibres provide the same scale frequency, with 6

154


at 7 scale margins. Hence, based only on the scale frequency, it is impossible to identify the cashmere

fibre from fine dromedary hair.

The mean height of the cuticle scale is 0,12 µm and 0,24 µm respectively for fine and coarse

dromedary fibre. These explain why dromedary fibres present a soft touch due to the prominence of

the scale edges. This aspect of the surface structure has a high correlation with the felting capacity of

the matter, and contributes to the concepts of handle and gloss. The height of the cuticle scale is

approximately 0,8 µm for wool. Dromedary hair can therefore be easily distinguished from wool.

References

Sghair, D. M., 2003. Etude économique des dromadaires et de leurs produits en Tunisie. Filière des

développements des dromadaires. Centre Arabe d‘études des régions sèches et arides Réseau

de recherches et de développement des dromadaires.

Bauters, M., 1982. Caractérisation et dosage de mélanges de poils animaux, L‘Industrie Textile, 1122,

427–429.

Phan, K. H., Wortmann, G. and Wortmann, F. J., 2000. Microscopic characteristics of shahtoosh and

its differentiation from cashmere/pashmina. In: Int. Wool Text. Org., Conference No. 10,

Aachen, November 26, December 1, 2000.

155


Pastoral Systems

156


60. Camel Production Systems in Egypt and their Role in Rural Livelihoods

A. Aboul-Naga1*

, E. Abdel-Aal1, M. Madboly

1, M. Osman

1, F. Abo-Amo

1

and B. Rischkowsky2

1Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Egypt,

2 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo


Introduction

Camel meat presents about 10% of the red meat consumption in Egypt. Majority of the

camels are imported from Sudan, and lesser share from Somalia and Djibouti; around 130,000 heads

are raised in the arid and semiarid governorates of Egypt (FAO, 2010). Over the last ten years the

preference for camel meat increased significantly from 12 to 30 thousand tons of meat consumption

(MALR, 2010). Camel husbandry activity has been raised at the South border and East Delta

governorates. With the increase in the demand of camel meat, and its low production costs, camel

production has become a promising mean of reducing the gap between production and consumption

of red meat in Egypt.


Afield survey was conducted in four different locations in Egypt, with high camel

populations, during the year 2010/2011. A total of 116 camel herders were interviewed with a

structured questionnaire (Table 1); 29 among which were from the coastal zone of Western Desert

(Matrouh governorate), 29 from the South border with Sudan (Aswan governorate), 28 from the East

Delta region (Sharkia governorate) and 30 from Oasis region (New valley governorate). Information,

regarding production system, production and reproduction performance, marketing, contribution to

family income and main constraints facing camel herding were collected.


Three main camel production systems prevailed in the four locations; (1) a house hold

landless system is the main production system in Sharkia (71%) and in 38 % of the camel herders in

Aswan. The system is based on fattening of camel- calves, either locally produced or imported, on

concentrates and crop residues; (2) Crop-livestock system, that represent 60 % of the herders in New

valley and 52 % in Aswan; (3) Ranching system prevailed in Matrouh (97 %) and in some herds in

New valley and Aswan (17 and 10 % respectively). Herds in Matrouh and New valley are breeding

herds, while those in Sharkia and Aswan are mostly ―flying‖ herds that are only kept for three to four

months. Live camels are a major regional trade business between Egypt and east African countries

(especially Sudan and to a lesser extend Somalia and Djibouti) through the Egyptian - Sudanese

border or along the Red Sea cost to Shalatin and west to Abo- Simbel. The destination of both trade

routes is the famous Daraw camel market in Aswan. Around 40-50 % of the camels are then shipped

by trucks to Birqash market West of Cairo. Traders from Sharkia and other Delta governorate buy

imported camels for slaughtering after a short fattening period.

Table 1: Camel production systems in the studied locations

* Moaled is of cross between Sudani and native Egyptian camel.

Majority of the camel owners take care of their herd by themselves. Only 7% in Aswan and 3% in

Matrouh used rented herders. Around three-quarter of the herders in the four locations are able to read

157


and write, whereas around 10 % were illiterate. Fourteen percent of the camel owners in Sharkia have

completed their university education.

The herd size differs significantly according to the production systems that prevailed in each

location. Herd sizes in Matrouh are distributed equally between small, medium and large herds

dependent on the capital resources of the herders, whereas small herds were predominant in Aswan,

Sharkia and New valley governorates for fattening or as a rivalry business with other crop-livestock

activities.

Camels contribute more than 60 % of the total income of half the Sharkia herders (table 2).

Most of these herders fattened camel-calves for a short cycle of 3-4 months. A similar production

pattern is followed by 31% of the herders in Aswan. In Aswan and Matrouh governorates camels

contributes in average 40-60 % of the family income of the herders. Contribution to family income

was relatively low in New valley, wherein 94% of the herds camels supplied up to 40 %. Camels are a

source of investment for farmer with low risk and minimum management requirements (Jasra and

Isani, 2003).

Table 2: Contribution to family income

Governorate Matrouh Aswan Sharkia NewValley

Up to 40 % (low) 52 38 36 94

40 – 60 % (medium) 31 31 14 3

More than 60 % (high) 17 31 50 3

The major constraint facing camel production reported by 90% of the herders in Matrouh and

72% in Aswan was the price of concentrated feed (table 3), which is related to the lack of forages and

crop residues in both governorates. It was also seen as an important constraint by 46% in Sharkia and

30% in the New valley.

Table 3: Major constraints facing camel herding as expressed by the herders

Governorate Matrouh Aswan Sharkia NewValley

No. of herders 18 18 17 24

Price of concentrate feed % 84 61 46 30

Price of water% 48 3 0 13

Diseases % 6 7 0 3

Drought % 31 7 0 20

Cost of labors % 0 0 37 60

Trans-border animal migration problems % 3 13 0 0

Another important constraint in Matrouh was herd watering as reported by 50 % of herders, they bear

extra costs for transferring water to their herds. In New valley, labor cost was named often, as

constraint (60% of the herders) and to a lesser extent by the herders in Sharkia (37%). Frequent

droughts affecting the conditions of natural rangeland, were listed as a problem by the herders in

Matrouh and New valley 31 and 20% respectively. Trans-borders animal migration problems were

highlighted by Aswan herders.

In conclusion, camel production is a rising business in Egypt due to an increased demand of

their meat as cheap source of animal protein, and presents an important source of income (up to 60%)

for vulnerable communities in arid governorates of Egypt. Camels represent a high potential regional

trade business between East African Arab countries.

References

FAO (2010). http://faostst.fao.org. Agriculture data base.htm.

Jasra, A.W. and G.B. Isani (2003). Development constraints and drifting of camel production systems

in Pakistan. Int. J. Agri. biol. Vol. 5 (1): 14-16.

Economic Affairs Section (2010). Statistics of livestock, poultry, municipality, and fish production.

Ministry of Agriculture, Egypt.

158


61. Farmers’ Attitude Towards Interventions Regarding Camel Calf Health Care and

Management Practices Under Pastoralists Conditions

S. Ahmad1,2*

, M. Yaqoob1 and A. Iqbal

1

1Department of Livestock Management, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture,

Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan. 2 Key Laboratory of Agricultural Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Science, Ministry of

Education, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070,

PR China.


Introduction The camel is an important species uniquely adapted to hot and arid environments (Schwartz,

1992) and, therefore, contributes significantly to the food security of the nomadic pastoral households.

This unique adaptability makes this species ideal for exploitation under the arid and semi-arid land

conditions. The contribution of camels to the human welfare of developing countries is generally

obscured by several factors, which tends to underestimate their true value. Firstly, the estimates of

camel populations are usually inaccurate due to lack of periodical census. Secondly, their products

seldom enter a formal marketing system; thus, their contribution to subsistence and the national

economy tends to be grossly underestimated. As a consequence, less attention has been given to camel

improvement for so long in the national development plans (Njiru, 1993).

Productivity of the animal depends on genetics, health status and management. Proper

management and health practices ultimately lead to improved production and reproduction. A survey

was conducted to observe the existing management practices to calf health in relation and to suggest

where interventions are required for the improvement of health and production of camel calves in the

study area.


Forty-eight camel herds were visited in the peri-urban areas of Jhang. The farms were

categorized as small-sized herd (having up to 2 milch female camels), medium-sized herd (having 3-5

milch female camels) and large-sized herds (having more than 5 milch female camels). The following

information was obtained on predestined proforma through interviewing the camel herders: i) Care

and management of calves, ii) Disease pattern, iii) Health management practices (deworming and post

natal treatment) vi) Feeding management and mortality percentage.

The data were analysed using SPSS-Ver.16. The techniques of Chi-square (χ2) and Somers‘d

were used to test the relationship between herd size (HS) and different indicators of health care and

management of camel calves for the variables measured on nominal and ordinal scales, respectively.


This study revealed that in the study area incidence of mange was maximum (85.4%) in all

categories of herd size (Table 1). Overall mortality rate was 65.8% among all herd sizes and was not

significantly (p˃0.05; χ2=0.606) different among different herder‘s level (Table 2). Table 4

demonstrates various husbandry practices adopted by camel herders.

Table 1: Disease incidence in camel calves at different herder‘s level

Disease Small (n=16) Medium (n=16) Large (n=16) Total (N=48)

Mange 13 (81.3) 15 (93.7) 13 (81.3) 41 (85.4)

Diarrhea 10 (29.4) 11 (32.4) 13 (38.2) 34 (70.8)

Pneumonia 12 (35.3) 11 (32.4) 11 (32.4) 34 (70.8)

Camel pox 5 (27.8) 7 (38.9) 6 (33.3) 18 (37.5)

Anthrax 2 (25.0) 3 (37.5) 3 (37.5) 8 (16.7)

Average 8.4 (39.8) 9.4 (46.9) 9.2 (44.5) 27 (56.3)

159


Table 2: Mortality in calves at different herder‘s level

Herd Size Born Died Mortality rate (%)

Small 30 18 60.0

Medium 76 50 65.8

Large 84 57 67.9

Total 190 125 65.8

Findings regarding calf mortality are in accordance with Mukasa-Mugerwa (1981), Hussein (1987),

Agab and Abbas (1998), Kamber et al. (2001) and Farah et al. (2007) who have reported mortality

rate more than 50%. Occurrence of mange at maximal intensity (83%) was also reported by Al-

Rawashdeh et al. (2000).

Table 3: General condition of camel calves at different herder‘s level

condition Small (n=8) Medium (n=10) Large (n=11) Total (N=29)

Good 6 (54.5) 1 (10.0) 1 (9.1) 8 (25.0)

Average 3 (27.3) 2 (20.0) 3 (27.3) 8 (25.0)

Emaciated 2 (18.2) 7 (70.0) 7 (63.6) 16 (50.0)

Total 11 (34.4) 11 (31.2) 11 (34.4) 32 (100)

Table 4: Various husbandry practices adopted by camel herders

Parameters Small

(n=16)

Medium

(n=16)

Large

(n=16)

Total (N=48)

Time of first colostrum feeding

Before placenta expulsion 2 (12.5) 3 (18.8) 3 (18.8) 8 (16.7)

After placenta expulsion 14 (87.5) 13 (81.2) 13 (81.2) 40 (83.3)

Type of treatment

Call a vet. immediately when calf fell sick 3 (18.8) 2 (12.5) 3 (18.8) 8 (16.7)

Use indigenous medicines then call a vet. 8 (50.0) 2 (12.5) 1 (6.2) 11 (22.9)

Never call a veterinarian 5 (31.2) 12 (75.0) 12 (75.0) 29 (60.4)

Deworming

Yes - 2 (12.5) 1 (6.2) 3 (6.2)

No 16 (100) 14 (87.5) 15 (93.8) 45 (93.8)

Separate space allocation

Yes - - 1 (6.2) 1 (2.1)

No 16 (100) 16 (100) 15 (93.8) 47 (97.9)

Manger provision

Yes - 2 (12.5) 2 (12.5) 4 (8.3)

No 16 (100) 14 (87.5) 14 (87.5) 44 (91.7)

References

Agab, H., Abbas, B., 1998. Epidemiological studies on camel diseases in eastern Sudan. Camel Newsletter

14.

Al-Rawashdeh, O.F., Al-Ani, F.K., Sharrif, L.A., Al-Qudah, K.M., Al-Hami, Y. and Frank, N. 2000. A

survey of camel (Camelus dromedarius) diseases in Jordan.J. Zoo Wildlife Med. 31(3):335-338.

Farah, Z., Mollet, M., Younan, M. and Dahir, R. 2007. Camel dairy in Somalia: Limiting factors and

development potential. Liv. Sci. 110, 187–191.

Hussein, M., 1987. Traditional practical of camel husbandry and management in Somalia. Camel Forum 9,

11–12.

Kamber, R., Farah, Z., Ruschh, P., Hassig, M., 2001. Studies on the supply of immunoglobulin G to

newborn camel calves (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Dairy Research 68, 1–7.

Mukasa-Mugerwa, E., 1981. The Camel: A Bibliographical Review. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Njiru GK, 1993. Economics of camel production. In: S.P. Simpkin (ed.): Camel Production. A series of

lectures given by FARM-Africa at Nairobi University, Nairobi, Kenya.

Schwartz HJ, 1992. Productive performance and productivity of dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius).

Anim Res Dev, 35: 86–89.

160


62. Description of Two Complex Traditional Fostering Husbandry Techniques Used by

Camel Pastoralists in the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula

M. Dioli


Introduction

A lactating camel, contrary to other domestic livestock species such as cattle, requires the

presence and interaction of a calf to achieve a long and abundant lactation. In the case of calf deaths

or rejection the lactation of the mother is usually very short: 3-5 months instead of the normal 14-16

months, and the amount of daily milk produced reduced (Schwartz and Dioli, 1992). It is therefore

essential that a lactating camel, in case her calf dies, readily adopts another calf or that a newly

lactating camel does not reject her own calf. This objective is achieved implementing a set of complex

husbandry techniques: ―qalla’h‖ used in the Horn of Africa (Dioli, 2007) and ―diar‖ used in the

Arabian Peninsula.


The observations and clinical descriptions of the fostering techniques described in this paper

have been obtained by directly witnessing camel herdsmen implementing ―qalla’h‖ and ―diar‖ set of

procedures on two female camels that had both lost their own calves and were forced to foster

different calves. Observations were integrated with clinical examinations of the mothers and in depth

interview with the livestock herdsmen performing the procedure.

Results

The first camel was an adult female of Somali breed, approximately 8 years, belonging to a

herd kept in northern Kenya, who had recently delivered but subsequently lost her 2-month old calf

for unknown causes. The herdsman (ethnic Somali) decided to use the ―qalla’h‖ technique so that a

new calf could be adopted by the orphan mother and her lactation retained. The technique ―qalla’h‖

is widely used among all camel pastoralist of the Horn of Africa, particularly by ethnic Somali. It

consists in the occlusion of the anus and concurrently in the partial occlusion of the nostrils. To

achieve this two flat pieces of wood are applied to the stretched skin folds of the anus and then

tightened together trapping the skin folds between them and therefore impeding defecation.

Immediately after that long flat stripes of bark are applied around the nostrils to partially obstruct the

nostrils and to obstacle nose breathing. (Figures 1 and 2). The devices were applied for two days

consecutively: from early morning, left on throughout the day and removed in the early evening: 18-

1900. During this period the female camel was not allowed to graze with the main herd but kept in

proximity of the camp together with the foster calf and constantly supervised by the herdsman. During

this period the herdsman physically encouraged several times the foster calf to suckle and in each of

these occasions the behaviour of the female camel was closely monitored to assess the degree of

rejection and the strength of her ―milk let down‖ reflex. At the end of the second day the strategy was

successful and upon removal of the devices the camel adopted the foster calf as her own calf and

therefore no devices were applied in the subsequent days. The second female camel was an adult

female approximately 10 years old of Omani bloodline, belonging to a herd kept in the outskirts of

Abu Dhabi (UAE), who had recently delivered but lost her calf 24 hours earlier. The herdsman (ethnic

Omani) decided to utilise the ―diar‖ technique so that she could foster another calf. The ―diar‖

technique is used in all Arabian Peninsula and is very similar to the ―qalla’h‖ aiming to occlude the

anus and the nostrils. However there are important differences: the anus is closed by the insertion of a

large cloth ―cork‖ into the rectum that is kept in situ by a thread stitched to the perianal skin, the loose

threads subsequently tied to a transversal piece of wood and then all tied together with thick cloth

thread (Figures 3 and 4). The nostrils are not partially occluded but totally blocked by the insertion

deep into the nasal sinuses of cloth balls and subsequently by wrapping several ―sock like‖ cloths over

all the nostril area (Figures 5 and 6). The herdsman reported that in some cases, to ensure that the

nostrils are totally occluded, ―instant glue‖ is applied around the rim of the nostrils and then the

nostrils pressed shut till the glue dries. The devices were applied for a few hours from around

midmorning till early evening. During this period the female camel was kept in a paddock with the

foster calf and constantly supervised by the herdsman. The devices were removed by the herdsman in

161


the evening of the same day upon detection the complete acceptance of the foster calf. The

consequence on both camels subjected to the ―qalla’h‖ and ―diar‖ techniques were mainly

behavioural with the exhibition of marked symptoms of distress through prolonged vocalization

particularly during the application of the device restricting nose breathing. The perianal mucosa and

nostril areas were slightly oedematous and hyperaemic more so in the case of the ―diar‖ since the

small traumatic lesions in the perianal skin caused by the inserted threads. However no permanent

wound developed and both female camels continue a normal lactation with their foster calves.

Discussion

These two traditional practices: ―qalla’h‖ and ―diar‖ and their small variations are used virtually

in all countries in Africa and Arabian Peninsula although they are complex and not easily

implemented. Obviously the reason of such a widespread use is their effectiveness in convincing a

female camel to adopt her rejected calf or a calf that is not her own. Such effectiveness is probably

due to combination of two main reasons:

The devices cause such a profound distress to the animal that rejection behaviour toward her

own calf or toward the foster calf is completely inhibited. It must be mentioned that camels

are obligatory nose breather and therefore the occlusion of the nostrils cause a marked feeling

of impending suffocation. The increasing abdominal pain caused by the progressive

accumulation of faeces in the intestine also undoubtedly strengthens this distress.

Establishment of the Ferguson effect: the accumulation of faeces in the terminal portion of the

intestine cause pressure on the vaginal walls causing the production of oxytocin and the

consequent setting up of milk let down reflex. The validity of this hypothesis is confirmed by

the custom, among Somali camel pastoralist, before milking an orphan lactating camel of

briefly occluding the anus with the same device use in ―qalla’h‖ to stimulate the milk let

down reflex.

It is undeniable that ―qalla’h‖ and ―diar‖ exert a great deal of stress on the animals on which they

are applied. These practices may without doubt be classified as outright animal cruelty. As such they

are ethically to be condemned. Obviously animal welfare goes to a second place in the harsh desert

environment where a milking camel represents the difference between a live human child and a dead

one. However, to adopt s‖qalla’h‖ and ―diar‖ fostering methods in a modern environment where such

survival priorities do not exist is highly questionable and warrant further studies to identify and to

develop more humane methods of fostering.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

162


References

Dioli, M., 2007. Pictorial Guide to Traditional Management, Husbandry and Diseases of the One-

Humped Camel, CD-ROM, ISBN 978-82-303-0840-0, http://www.lulu.com/product/2519274

Schwartz, H. J., Dioli, M., (1992). The one-humped camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial guide to

diseases, health care and management. Margraf Scientific Book, Berlin, Germany, 282 pp.

163


63. Husbandry Practices of Camel Herders in the Region of El-Oued (Southern-East of

Algeria)

M.H. Benaissa1*

, R. Mayouf1. B. Hamad

1, M. Saidi

1, A. Mehdaoui

1 and M. Belhamra

1

1Scientific and Technical Research Centre for Arid Area (CRSTRA), PB 1682 Postal code 07000

Biskra, Algeria.


Introduction

Traditionally, camels have been considered a pillar of the pastoral society of the Algerian

Sahara. They filled many functions, such as food, transportation, work and tourism. Kaufman (2005)

reported that camels (Camelus dromedarius) produce milk and offspring and provide transport in

pastoral husbandry systems in the Afro-Asian dry land belt. Since the current use of the engine, many

camel‘s services have become less important. In parallel, methods of management of animals have

significantly changed (Adamou, 2008).

Knowledge in regards to types of camel, breeding and husbandry method employed in

Algeria is very limited. Therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate camel management practices

under traditional transhumance systems and the husbandry constraints that limit the potential of

production. The outcome of this study could have huge importance for the elaboration of any strategy

of improvement of camel farming systems.


Using a questionnaire that specified the characteristics of camel husbandry systems in the El-

oued region. Field visits were arranged to 65 camels herds (4085 camels) in order to identify methods

and practices applied in the control and management of reproduction, feeding, production. Data were

analyzed by Excel-stat.


According to the results of our study 59 % of the interviewed camel farmers were owners,

while 41 % were shepherds, however, 74 % of the owners were illiterate. The owners average age was

56 years, 26 % of them are practicing a secondary activity with camel farming.

This investigation showed that 81 % of survived herds were kept under the extensive system,

where straying is a predominant feature for camels. This practice has become a common management

tool in camel herds to reduce the nutritional requirements and workforce during periods of nutritional

shortage. However, in extensive system, it is impossible to control reproduction, breeding and

feeding. Also, it is difficult to control the sanitary conditions of the animals and zoonotic

transmission.

In agreement with Adamou (2008), our results showed that the mean size of herds were about

72 heads with a minimum of 3 heads and a maximum of 656 heads. About 80% of the investigated

herds were managing their livestock without habitats or niches for the animals. Additionally, some

owners, in order to slaughter, practice fattening camels in fattening units in which the tethering is the

widespread system. This new system seems to develop in recent years, following the increase in

prices of red and white meat and the high consumption of camel meat.

The data of the present study indicated that the average weaning age of camel calves in the

area is more than 1 year. Camels are watered every 1 or 2 days during the dry months. Camels might

come in contact with other species of animals during breeding (24.5%), grazing (56.5%), and at

watering points (66 %).

Meat production is the main purpose of farmers because its meat is the only marketed

product. More than 98% of the produced milk is used for family subsistence or for free offering. This

might be due to the socio-cultural heritage against selling milk in those tribes. Taboos or prejudices

are considered as constraints for camel milk marketing in this region.

164


Table 1: General practices and management in the study area

Owners believe that the rutting male can breed from 50 to 120 dams in each season. The

selection of the breeding male depends on the appearance, physical strength, behavior, and breeds.

Table. 1 shows that most of the farmers practiced the free-mating in the pasture, whereas the

hand mating and the paddock mating are seldom practiced. However, the only practical method used

for pregnancy diagnosis in camel reproduction is the visual method (cocking of the tail, frequent

urination).

According to 85% of the farmers, calving is usually uncomplicated and the incidence of

dystocia is very low, however neonatal mortality appear to be a major problem. This can be explained

by the lack of the evaluation and the care of the peri-parturient females and the newborns in 89% of

cases; these practices are of great importance in reproductive management (Tibary and Anouassi,

1997). However, a significant lack of health coverage by the veterinary policy was observed in this

survey.

Castration of male camels that are not suitable for breeding is not practiced in this region;

while, in the regions of South West of Algeria, castration technique is a common management for

fattening purpose (Aichouni, 2007).

Conclusion

Traditional management systems of camels are characterized by low inputs, poor husbandry

systems, poor nutrition, poor veterinary care, and poor marketing system. It is possible to develop a

farming economy and to produce significantly more milk and meat which reflect in good advantages

to the family livelihood, camel and farm sanitation, feeding, general management and husbandry.

References

Adamou, A. (2008). Camel livestock in Algeria: What type for what future? Sécheresse ; 19 (4) :

253-60

Aichouni, A and Jeblawi i, R. (2007). A Study of Breeding and Reproduction of Camels in the

Algerian South West. Tishreen University Journal for Studies and Scientific Research-

Biological Sciences Series Vol.(29) N°1

Kaufmann, B.A. (2005). Reproductive performance of camels (Camelus dromedarius) under pastoral

management and its influence on herd development. Livestock Produ. Sci., 92: 17-29.

Tibary, A. And Anouassi, A. (1997). Theriogenology in camelidae: anatomy, physiology, pathology

and artificial breeding. Veterinary Research Centre. Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates).489.

165


64. First Results of Using Electronic Boluses for Dromedary Identification

O.H. Salama1, G. Caja

2,3*, H. El-Sayed

1, M.H. El-Shafei

1, A.A.K. Salama

1,2 and M. Ayadi

3

1Department of Camel and Sheep & Goat, Animal Production Research Institute (APRI), 4 Nadi El-

Said, 11 Dokki, Giza, Egypt. 2Ruminant Research Group (G2R), Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Universitat Autònoma

de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain. 3Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University

(KSU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P. O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451.


Introduction

Camels are animals showing few distinctive coat traits and needing auxiliary marks for

individual recognition within and between herds, which is a critical point for implementing

performance recording, traceability, genetic and health improvement programs. Camel identification

is traditionally done using hot iron branding (the ―washm‖) on high and most visible body parts (e.g.

under or behind the eye or ear, cheek, neck, upper part of the legs) on either body sidethat will not be

covered by long hair, as reviewed by Landais (2001) and Hilden (2011). Nevertheless, these marks

are not compatible with current animal welfare standards and have limited utility when used at

regional or national level.

The purpose of this work was to assess the performances of different camel identification

systems under Egyptian conditions.


A total of 83 camels (Camelus dromedarius) of 5.7 ± 0.5 yr of age (range, 1.1 to 13.8 yr) and

444 ± 16 kg BW (range, 59 to 691 kg BW) from the APRI Camel Experimental Farm at Marsa

Matrouh (Matrouh Governorate, Egypt) were used. They were in loose stalls and fed berseem clover

hay (1 to 2.5 kg/d), rice straw (1 to 2.0 kg/d), saltbush (1 to 2.0 kg/d) and concentrate (0.5 to 3.5 kg/d)

according to their requirements. Older camels (n = 45) had hot iron brands (1 to 3 digits, 20 cm high)

and the readability of each brand digit was visually evaluated. All camels were initially tagged in the

left ear with 1 rectangular plastic tag (2 flags, 15 × 50 mm, 3 g), laser recorded in both flags with a 3

digits number, and with 1 electronic bolus applied by trained operators according to Caja et al. (1999).

Boluses were cylindrical capsules of different dimensions (W, weight; V, volume) and made of

different materials to reach 2 ranges of specific gravity (SG) as shown in Table 1. Low SG boluses

were designed to be lost for calculating the bolus retention model in camels. All boluses contained a

32 × 3.8 mm radiofrequency transponder (Ri-Trp-RR2B-06, Tiris, Almelo, the Netherlands) working

at a low frequency (134.2 kHz).

Table 1. Features and number of different types of electronic boluses used in camels (n = 83)

1SG = W/V; 2Specially made prototypes from plastic tubes filled with concrete; 3Ceramic boluses made by Rumitag

(Esplugues de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain); 4Ceramic bolus made by Innoceramics (Teramo, Italy).

Electronic boluses were read before and after application (d 0, 1, 2, 7, 14, 21, 32, 61 and

approximately every 2 mo until 1.5 yr) using handheld transceivers (Gesreader Ges2S and Ges3S;

Datamars, Bedano, Switzerland). Reading data were downloaded by using Rumisoft software

(Datamars). Ear tag retention and readability were recorded at the end of the experiment. Readability

(0 or 1) of different devices was analyzed with the PROC CATMOD of SAS (v. 9.1; SAS Inst. Inc.,

Cary, NC) using a Logit model with an estimation method of maximum likelihood.

Bolus

Type

Low SG1 (<2.0) High SG (>3.0)

W (g) V (mL) n W (g) V (mL) n

Small 12.7 ± 0.1 8.5 ± 0.1 202 20.1 ± 0.2 5.2 ± 0.1 17

3

Medium - - - 51.4 ± 0.1 14.3 ± 0.1 164

Large 33.3 ± 0.3 22.1 ± 0.1 152 75.1 ± 0.2 22.4 ± 0.1 15

3

166



No injuries or casualties occurred during ear tag and bolus applications. Moreover, no

relevant changes in camel‘s health and behaviour were observed as a consequence of the different

identification devices used. On the contrary, 18% of the camels showed previous signs of healing

problems as a consequence of branding. Moreover, only 38% identification numbers branded were

able to be read fully, dissuading of using it. Regarding ear tags, 66% were retained at the end of the

experiment, the averaged annual losses being 22% during the first year. Lost ear tags were associated

with ear breakages or with healing problems resulting in a large ear hole unable to retain the

rectangular ear tag and, therefore, the use of button tags should be preferable. Moreover, reading

difficulties were reported because of the height of the ears with respect to the floor. Bolus retention

varied dramatically according to SG (Figure 1) in agreement with data from cattle (Ghirardi et al.,

2006a), sheep (Ghirardi et al., 2006b) and goat (Carné et al., 2011). High SG boluses (>3) were fully

retained (100%) in camels independently of their dimensions (small to large) and weight (20 to 75 g),

suggesting that they could also be applied in camel calves.

Figure 1. Bolus retention in camels according to dimensions and specific gravity (SG): Low SG (∆,

small; ○, large) and High SG (▲, small; ●, medium; ■, large).

References

Caja, G., Conill C., Nehring R., and Ribó O. (1999). Development of a ceramic bolus for the

permanent electronic identification of sheep, goat and cattle. Comput. Electron. Agric. 24:45–

63.

Carné, S., Caja G., Ghirardi J. J., and Salama A. A. K. (2011). Modeling the retention of rumen

boluses for the electronic identification of goats. Journal of Dairy Science 94:716–726.

Ghirardi, J. J., Caja G., Garín D., Casellas J., and Hernández-Jover M. (2006a). Evaluation of the

retention of electronic identification boluses in the forestomachs of cattle. Journal of Animal

Science 84:2260–2268.

Ghirardi, J. J., Caja G., Garín D., Hernández-Jover M., Ribó O., and Casellas J. (2006b). Retention of

different sizes of electronic identification boluses in the forestomachs of sheep. Journal of

Animal Science 84:2865–2872.

Hilden, J. M. (2011). The use of wasm (animal brands) in Beduin weavings. Accessed on July 3

http://www.beduinweaving.com/printarchive/wasm.pdf

Landais, E. (2001). The marking of livestock in traditional pastoral societies. Revue scientifique et

technique del Office international des Epizooties 20:463–479.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540

Ret

enti

on

rat

e, %

Time after bolusing (d)

SG > 3

SG < 2

167


65. The Semi Intensive Camel Farming a Newly Adopted System in Sudan: Description

and Role In Food Security for Herders’ Communities

E.S. Shuiep1, 2

and El Zubeir1,

* and E.M. Ibtisam

1Department of Dairy Production, Faculty of Animal production, University of Khartoum, Khartoum

North, Postal code 13314, Sudan 2Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Nyala, Nyala,


Introduction

Camels are kept in subsistent production systems as a multi function animal (Ramet, 2001).

Female camels can not only maintain milk production under dry conditions when milk from other

species is scare, but also for a longer time (Al Haj and Al Kanhal, 2010). Moreover, camels are

playing an important role in the economic and social life of nomadic tribes in addition to their

contribution as a major source of food security (Farah et al., 2007). In Sudan, camels are mainly kept

under traditional management systems. Ishag and Ahmed (2011) reported three camel management

systems in Sudan. They concluded that the majority of camel owners are adopting sedentary and

nomadic management systems. Moreover, El Zubier and Nour (2006) described camel husbandry and

practices in the pre-urban area of Khartoum State. In Sudan there are no well established camel dairy

farms (Shuiep et al., 2008). However, currently a new trend towards commercialization of camel milk

associated with the new semi intensive camel system has starting in Khartoum State as well as other

big towns. Although selling of milk is neither practiced nor accepted by camel herders in the

traditional systems. Hence, the objectives of this study are to characterize and describe the semi

intensive camel system and its role in camel herders‘ communities.


Information about the semi intensive management systems was obtained by personal

interview with camel owners (n=25) in west Omdurman. The questionnaire was designed to obtain

information on general information on household, herd management, uses of laborers for husbandry

practices, role of family members in herd management, breeding practices, and structure of herds,

economical practices and source of feeding. Moreover, some of information were collected during

interviews was supported by personal observations. The data was statistically analyzed using SPSS

software version 13.


Questionnaire analysis conducted in this study revealed that camel breeders could be

categorized in four educational levels as shown in Figure 1. The percentage of graduated camel

herders found in this study is higher than that reported by El Zubeir and Nour (2006) and Ishag and

Ahmed (2011), they all reported more than 90% illiterates in different camel herder communities. The

high percentage of educated herder indicates that more educated people are involved in camel semi

intensive system, which could explain the commercial orientation of camel production in contrast to

the traditional herders. Moreover the herd size was found as 8.6±4.42, among which the number of

productive females, total number of males and number of breeding males were found as 8.4 ±4.19,

0.24±0.52 and 0.20±0.40, respectively. Low numbers for males observed (Table 1) to minimize the

cost of rearing, in addition selling young males is an extra income.

Transhumance farmers from North Kordofan and North Darfur States have recently

established a new camel management system in Sudan. They own big herds at their home residents

(150 to 200). However, they keep a special group of producing females those known by high milk

yield in the pre-urban area of west Omdurman, Khartoum State. The animals are kept in an open

fences (locally know as Dakka). The rearing and management is practiced by the father, his sons or

sometime use laborers with experience in handling camel. Moreover producing female camels

supplemented with concentrates beside good quality diet in addition to continous water supply. In the

semi intensive system female camels are kept in Dakka for 12 to 18 months when there is no breeding

male in within the herd. The females are then taken to the original herd which is normally localized in

natural pasture. However, this period extended up to 24 months in cases that breeding male is

168


available among the herd for service, after which the pregnant female should also be sent to the main

herd in the natural pastures (M. Abdella, Pers. Comm).

Camel herder used labor for milking, which is done twice/day; and produced milk, which is

the major reason for this system, is bought at the Dakka with high price compared to cow's milk (3

times). Commercialization of camel milk is a new trend practiced in this system as it was not reported

in a previous study conducted in the same area by El Zubeir and Nour (2006). This trend might be due

to the awareness of the benefits of camel milk which increased the demand. Moreover, the climatic

changes during the last decade which caused the limitation of feed availability might also have a role

in such changes. The income of this activity contributed to security of the family as well as the

original herd.

In semi intensive system there are no other species were kept beside camel. Keeping camel is

not cheap (Ishag and Ahmed, 2011). The main costs associated with camel herding according to the

interviewees were feeding, taxes and purchase of medications (Table 2). This result is in agreement

with Abdalatif et al., (2010) and Musa et al., (2006) who reported on the influence of these factors in

addition to the costs of veterinary services. It could be concluded that the semi intensive camel system

recently established in Sudan could play a positive role in food security of herders‘ communities.

Commercialization of camel milk is the main reason behind this system.

References

Abdalaltif, Y. M., Mustafa, A. B. and Salih, A. M. (2010). Marketing and export of Gedarif camels

from eastern Sudan. Proceedings: Camel in Asia and north Africa, Interdisciplinary workshop

on their significance in past and future. 5th – 7

th Oct. 2010. Vienna, Austria.

El Zubeir, I. E. M. and Nour, E. M. (2006). Studies on some camel management practices in pre-

urban areas of Khartoum State, Sudan. Inter. J. Dairy Sci., 1: 104- 112.

Ishag, I. A. and Ahmed, M-K. A. (2011). Characterization of production system of Sudanese camel

breeds. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 23.

Musa, H. H.; Shuiep, E. S. and El Zubier, I. E. M. (2006). Camel husbandry among pastoralists in

Darfur in Western Sudan. Nomadic People, 10: 101- 105.

Farah, Z., Mollet, M., Younan, M. and Dahir, R. (2007). Camel dairy in Somalia: limiting factors and

development potential. Livestock Science, 110: 187- 191.

Ramet, J. P. (2001). The Technology of Making Cheese From Camel Milk (Camelus dromedarius).

FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 113. Rome, Italy.

Al Haj, O. A. and Al Kanhal, H. A. (2010). Compositional, technological and nutritional aspects of

dromedary camel milk. Inter. Dairy J., 20: 811- 821.

Shuiep, E. S., El Zubeir, I. E. M., El Owni, O. A. O. and Musa, H. H. (2008). Influence of season and

management on composition of raw camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk in Khartoum state,

Sudan. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 8: 101- 106.

0

10

20

30

40

Illiterate Primary school Secondary

school

Graduate

%

Education level

Figure 1: Level of education of camel herder

169


Table 1: Breeding males and their sources in semi intensive system

Male No. (%)

Breeding No breeding male 10 (40)

One breeding male 15 (60)

Total 25 (100)

Source From won herd 19 (76)

Buying from the market 6 (24)

Total 25 (100)

Table 2: Constrains of rearing camel in semi intensive camel system

Constrains No. (%)

Coast Feeding 11 (44)

Taxes 3 (12)

Feed and taxes 11 (44)

Total 25 (100)

Feed Buying crops 20 (18)

Grow and buy crops 5 (20)

Total 25 (100)

170


66. Impact of Farming System on Calving Interval of Sudanese Camels

S.A. Bakheit*1

, A.M. Faye2, C. Majid

3, A.M. Abu-Nikheila

4 and M. A. Eisa

5

1Deanship of Postgraduate Studies & Scientific Research, University of Kordofan, P.O.Box 160

Elobeid, SUDAN. 2Dept. of Environmental and Society, CIRAD, Campus de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier, FRANCE.

3National Centre for Research, P.O. Box 4102 Khartoum, Sudan

4Dept. of Dairy Production, Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum, SUDAN.

5Dept. of Animal Production, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental studies, University of

Kordofan, P.O.Box 160 Elobeid, SUDAN.


Introduction The camel is a very important animal in the dry regions because of its ability to provide milk,

meat and transport for people under these climatic conditions. In Sudan, camels are traditionally

reared in extensive areas with low feed quality and availability. The reproductive efficiency of

Sudanese camels under pastoral management (traditional) is low. The calving interval is varying

between 28 to 36 months. Low reproductive performance in camels is mainly due to a delayed

puberty, long calving interval, limited breeding season, herd dynamics and lack of sufficient feed. The

aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of improved management system on camel

calving interval.


Eighteen (18) female camels in late pregnancy and two mature males for mating were used to

determine the effect of management system on calving interval, in North Kordofan State (Western

Sudan). The camels were selected randomly from Nomadic herd and maintained under two

management systems after calving. Group one (N = 9) reared under semi-intensive management:

herded during night in closed pen, in addition of natural pasture they received supplementary diet (2

kg concentrates + 5 kg roughage /head/day), watering ad-lib, health care, internal and external

parasites control were applied. Group two (N = 9) reared under traditional system, depending on

natural rangeland and unsupplemented with exception of salt, water regime (6-7 days) was practiced.

In both systems the calves were fellow their dams and suckling was available for the half of

the udder during the day. Weaning was depending on pregnancy advance and normally was done by

traditional methods. The experimental females in each group kept together with the bull during 18

months the mating were applied naturally without any assistance. Blood samples (N = 252) were

collected from jugular vein since 4-months post-partum and continued 14 successive months at

monthly interval. The serum samples were separated and stored at -20°C until hormonal assay were

performed and progesterone concentration was determined by specific radio immuno assay kits.

(Diagnostic Products Corporation, INRA laboratory, France). The progesterone level was compared

with behaviour signs of female camel (erect and curving her tail when owner or male coming near

her, refusing the male, raising head). The calving interval was calculated by adding the gestation

period (12 month) to the period from calving till she camel became pregnant.


Under semi-intensive management during post-partum and early lactation period camel‘s

reproductive traits were improved. The ratios of pregnant vs non-pregnant during total experimental

period (18 months) in semi-intensive and traditional management were 8:1 and 4:5 respectively. The

calving interval was shortened under semi-intensive system. In group 1 seven females became

pregnant in the period between 5 and 8 month post-partum and the calving interval varying between

17 to 20 months. An additional one became pregnant on 13th month and calving interval was 25

month. In group 2 (traditional system) three she camels became pregnant during the 11 and 16 month

post-partum and the calving interval varying between 23 to 26 months, one female camel became

pregnant after 17 month post-partum and the calving interval was 29 month.

In pregnant females progesterone concentration increased significantly (P<0.05) during early

months of pregnancy to a value above 2 ng/ml blood. During pregnancy the value is increased to an

171


average value of 5.8 ±1.45 ng/ml blood over a period of 8 months followed by a strong decrease

during the last two months before calving (Figure 1 and 2).

In conclusion, the findings of the present study assume that the low rate of fertility in the

camel under traditional system in Sudan might be due to the general lack of fodder and the poor

nutritive value of the natural pastures and water scarcity. This might indicate that in equatorial regions

forage and water availability is the major factor governing seasonality of mating and births in

camels.Additional feeding of 2 kg concentrates and 5 kg of roughages per day during the lactating

period shortened dramatically the calving interval and increased rate of pregnancy. Therefore, it

would be possible to expect above 3 times more young calves per year.Blood progesterone can be a

valuable tool for assessing early pregnancy in camels coupled with the sensory observations.

Figure 1: Progesterone concentration (ng/ml blood) on camel under semi-intensive management during the

experimental period

Figure 2: Progesterone concentration (ng/ml blood) on camel under traditional management during the

experimental period

172


67. Camel Terminology of the Omani Bedouins

D. Eades and Janet Watson

University of Salford

Mohammed Ngēma al-Mahri Dhofar


This paper examines the rich terminology associated with the camel husbandry of the Omani

Bedouin. The role of the camel among the Omani Bedouin has diminished significantly in recent

years due to rapid modernisation, resulting in a diminishing awareness of the complexity of camel

terminology among the young Omani Bedouin. The present study examines camel terminology

among two Bedouin communities which are distinguished geographically and linguistically within

Oman: a Mehri-speaking community of the Dhofar region in the south of the country and an Arabic-

speaking community of the Šarqiyya region in the north, and then considers a taxonomy of camel

terminology. The study is based on ongoing documentation of traditional camel culture among the

southern Arabian Bedouin, and represents an attempt both to show the intricacy of camel husbandry

terminology and to produce an initial taxonomy of terms.

Two separate sets of data collected in the field in Oman are examined here. The first set of

data represents the almost identical dialects of the Āl Bu Hday and the Āl Wahība tribes of the

Šarqiyya region, collected by Eades. This is based on the ongoing recording of oral narratives and

interviews which began in 2005. The second set of data represents the Mehreyyet dialect of Mehri

spoken in Dhofar, collected by Watson. This is based on the ongoing audio and audio-visual recording

of oral narratives and interviews conducted since 2009. In both cases, data has been collected from

older generation speakers with extensive experience of camel husbandry

The two languages represented in the data – Mehri and Arabic – both belong to the Semitic

language family, and are mutually unintelligable. In some cases, lexemes in the two languages share a

consonantal root – for example, a young camel is described as ḥwōr in Mehri and ḥwār in Šarqiyya

Arabic (using the consonants /ḥ-w-r/), and a black camel as ḥazmayyat in Mehri, ḥazmiyya in

Šarqiyya Arabic (using the basic consonants /ḥ-z-m/). In many cases the different terms are unrelated.

Nevertheless, a key finding of the study was that in spite of the differences between the two

languages, a wide range of concepts associated with camel husbandry were shared between the two

languages. These concepts are distinct from terminology associated with camel husbandry in the

northern Arab world.

The data for this study is roughly organised on the basis of the following taxonomy: stages of

life; selected parts of the camel; camel trappings; actions associated with camels including gaits, other

actions and vices; types, colours and fur types; and miscellaneous terms. The most general term for

camels as a group is ibil or more commonly bōš in Šarqiyya Arabic, and bε:r in Mehri. Mehri bε:r

takes feminine plural agreement in all cases. Šarqiyya Arabic ibil and bōš generally require feminine

singular agreement in verbs and adjectives, but anaphoric pronouns referring back to ibil and bōš are

feminine plural; the plural term used when counting in Šarqiyya Arabic is rkāb; the terms nišra and

ḥalāl in Šarqiyya Arabic are used to refer to camels, goats and sheep, and ḥalāl is not associated

specifically with camels as in northern Arabian B dialects (Ingham 1990: 69); reference to a large

number of camels or different types of camels is made with the terms ḥešwān or bīšān, which do not

occur in the dialects of the coastal regions of the Šarqiyya. In Mehri, mōl refers to livestock in

general.

The very rich camel culture of the Bedouin of Oman is reflected most obviously in their

terminology for camel husbandry. The rapid modernisation of Oman in the past forty years has meant

that the role of the camel has become less important, and while some aspects of modernisation - such

as the introduction of camel beauty competitions and milking competitions - allow for the

maintenance of aspects of camel culture, most do not. The resulting loss of traditional knowledge

among younger Bedouin is manifest particularly in a diminishing awareness of the complexity of

camel terminology. As part of the documentation of traditional camel culture among the southern

Arabian Bedouin we believe it is essential to collect oral texts relating to camel husbandry in the

region and produce a detailed glossary for both Arabic and Mehri.

173


References Barth, Fredrick. 1987, ―Complications of geography, ethnicity, and tribalism‖ in Brian R. Pridham

(ed.) Oman: economic, social and strategic developments. Pp. 17-30. London: Croom Helm.

p. 24.

Bulliet, Richard. 1990. The Camel and the Wheel, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Columbia University

Press.

Chatty, D., M. Zaroug and A. Osman. 1991. Pastoralists in Oman. Rome: Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations. p. 13.

Chatty, Dawn. 2006. ―Introduction‖, in Dawn Chatty (ed.) Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and

North Africa. Pp. 1-32. Leiden: Brill.

Chatty, Dawn. 2006. ―Multinational Oil Exploitation and Social Investment: Mobile Pastoralists in the

Sultanate of Oman‖ in Dawn Chatty (ed.) Nomadic Societies in the Middle East and North

Africa. Pp. 496-522. Leiden: Brill.

Ingham, Bruce. 1990. ―Camel terminology among the Āl Murrah Bedouins‖, Zeitschrift für Arabische

Linguistik, 22. Pp. 67-78

Sima, Alexander. 2009. Mehri-Texte aus der jemenitischen Šarqīyah. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp.

236-250

Webster, Roger. 1991, ―Notes on the dialect and the way of life of the Āl Wahība Bedouin of Oman‖.

SOAS Bulletin, 54, p. 473-85.

Wilkinson, J. 1987. The Imamate Tradition of Oman. Cambridge: CUP.

174


68. Reproduction and Breeding of Dromedary Camels: Insights from Pastoralists in

Some Selected Villages of the Nigeria-Niger Corridor

A.M. Abdussamad1,2*

, M.S. Suleiman3, M.B. Bello

3, W. Holtz

2 and M. Gauly

2

1Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Bayero University, PMB 3011, Kano, Nigeria

2Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Georg-August University

Goettingen, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, Goettingen 37075, Germany 3Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture, Bayero University,

PMB 3011, Kano, Nigeria


Introduction

Camel reproduction studies in Nigeria target pastoralists when their herds are in the country

during the annual transhumance movement (Kalla et al., 2008) or depend solely on abattoir specimens

(Djang et al., 1988; Ribadu et al., 1991; Waziri et al., 1999). This study differs in approach from

similar studies in Nigeria in the sense that the pastoralists were followed into the Niger Republic with

the added advantage of acquiring information from older members. These members, with many years

of camel keeping experience, often do not make it to Nigeria during the annual transhumance

movement probably due to advanced age. Also, few of the pastoralists that reside in northern Nigeria

and those that enter the country weekly from the neighbouring Niger Republic were interviewed

during camel market days in northeastern Nigeria for information on their breeding aims and

indigenous characterization of camel ecotypes. This is the first documentation of breeding aims and

indigenous characterization of dromedary camels in northern Nigeria. The present study is, therefore,

a survey with the triple objective of documenting the views of pastoralists on camel reproduction,

describing their indigenous criteria for differentiating camel ecotypes and highlighting their breeding

aims.


This study was carried out in two phases. The first phase was a documentation of the views of

pastoralists on camel reproduction in southeastern Niger. Kursilla village in Maine-Soroa Department

of Diffa Region and Gujjo village in Goure Department of Zinder Region, all in southeastern Niger,

were purposively selected for the study. The second phase of this study was on the indigenous criteria

for differentiating camel ecotypes and pastoralists‘ breeding aims. Garin Alkali livestock market in

Bursari Local Government Area of Yobe State in northeastern Nigeria was purposively selected.

To understand the views of pastoralists regarding camel reproduction, the accidental or

convenience sampling technique was adopted because, according to Tezera (1998) (as cited in Mehari

et al., 2007), a strictly random sampling may not be possible with pastoral communities due to their

mobile, scattered and less accessible nature. A total of 60 respondents were interviewed using

structured questionnaire in a single visit formal survey conducted in July 2010. To explore the

indigenous criteria for differentiating camel ecotypes and their breeding aims, first, a focused group

discussion was conducted. Thereafter, each pastoralist was interviewed using a structured

questionnaire to capture their breeding aims according to Marion et al. (2002). A total of 25 camel

pastoralists were involved in the study.

The data collected were coded, entered, and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS Inc. version 16, 2007). Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages

and graphs were generated.


The respondent pastoralists mentioned that the male camel exhibits rutting during the early-

dry season between October and December which coincides with the period of the year that is usually

cold. Some signs typical of the male camel in rut mentioned by pastoralists include splayed stance,

extrusion of the soft palate, gurgling sound, hostility, urine splashing, tail flapping, marking territory,

metallic sound, inappetence, frothing of saliva, and poll gland secretion. Prominent signs of oestrus in

the female camel were frequent urination, vulval discharge, vulval swelling, male seeking, bleating,

foul vulval odour, tail raising, inappetence, grouping of she camel, and they were mounting one

175


another. These signs corroborate some of the findings of Mukasa-Mugerwa (1981), Yagil (1982),

Fowler (2000) and Bhakat et al. (2005).

Most of the pastoralists interviewed responded that they will be able detect pregnancy

traditionally within an average of 10.85 days. Frequent urination, tail ―cocking‖, upward head tilting

with pointed ears and curved neck towards the shoulder on approach of a bull were mentioned as

some of the prominent signs of pregnancy in the camel. According to Yagil (2006), a pregnant camel

will show signs of pregnancy by lifting and curving her tail (tail ―cocking‖) when a male camel

advances toward her. The male then moves away looking for another receptive female. This is the

method used by nomads to determine pregnancy in female camels (Yagil, 2006). The symptoms of

pregnancy reported in the present study were corroborated by the findings of Elmi (1989) among

Ceeldheer pastoralists in central Somalia. Kalla et al. (2008) reported that the cold dry season

(November to February) was the period of peak calving among pastoral camel herds at the

Komodugu-Yobe River basin in northeastern Nigeria. The calving period (October to December)

reported in the current study falls within this range.

The overall impression from the focused group discussion was that pastoralists in the current

study differentiate their camel ecotypes solely based on coat colour, though they also believe that

some ecotypes were better than others in the expression of certain traits. The dark-brown ecotype

constituted 56% of the dam ecotypes in the actual camel herds of the respondent pastoralists in the

study area. When asked which ecotype they will prefer in the case of a hypothetical herd, majority

(72%) of them mentioned the dark-brown. Reasons given for preference of the dark-brown ecotype

were good growth, high milk yield, high reproductive efficiency, aesthetic reasons, symbol of

opulence, attracts more price in the market, resist hunger and thirst (hardy), draught power, and

religious inclination. Despite the preference shown towards the dark-brown ecotype, they still prefer

to have an assortment of dams from other ecotypes. It can, therefore, be safely assumed that camel

pastoralists in the current study subscribe more to the idea of an ―ideal herd‖ rather than an ―ideal

animal‖ which probably brings to light a survival strategy that depends on the ability of ecotypes to

complement one another with regards to performance during different seasons of the year in order to

support pastoral life in a fragile ecosystem. This corroborates the findings of Marion et al. (2002)

among pastoralists in northern Kenya. It can also be implied that the dark-brown ecotype could be a

multipurpose considering the various claims made by pastoralists regarding its qualities. However,

this is subject to further empirical studies to prove or disprove these claims which at the moment

should be best treated as anecdotal data.

The current study has shown that pastoralists interviewed deos possess a repertoire of

knowledge about their camels. This knowledge when harnessed and repackaged according to the

peculiarities of their production environments could enhance the efficiency of the pastoral livestock

production systems and improve their livelihood.

References

Bhakat, C., Raghavendra, S. and Sahani, M.S. (2005). Effect of different management conditions on

rutting behavior of Indian dromedary camel. Emirates Journal of Agricultural Science, 17: 1-

13.

Djang, K.T.F., Harun, B.A., Kumi-Diaka, J., Yusuf, H.I. and Udomah, M.G. (1988). Clinical and

anatomical studies of the camel (Camelus dromedarius) genitalia. Theriogenology, 30: 1023-

1031.

Elmi, A.A. (1989). Camel husbandry and management by Ceeldheer pastoralists in central Somalia.

Pastoral Development Network Paper 27d, Central Rangeland Project, Funded by the Somali

Government and USAID.

Fowler, M.E. (2000). The influence of behavior on the health and wellbeing of camels and their

handlers. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, 7: 129-142.

Kalla, D.J.U., Zaharaddeen D. and Yerima J. (2008). Reproductive performance of one-humped

camel (Camelus dromedarius) at the Komodugu-Yobe River Basin, Nigeria. In: Proceedings

of the WBC/ICAR 2008 Satellite Meeting on Camelid Reproduction, 12-13 July, 2008,

Budapest, Hungary, P. 77-81.

Marion, A., Kaufmann, B. and Valle Zarate, A. (2002). Indigenous characterization of local camel

populations and breeding methods of pastoralists in northern Kenya. Tropentag, October 9-

11, 2002, University of Kassel, Witzenhausen, Germany.

176


Mehari, Y., Mekuriaw, Z. and Gebru, G. (2007). Camel and camel product marketing in Babile and

Kebribeyah woredas of the Jijiga Zone, Somali Region, Ethiopia. Livestock Research for

Rural Development, 19 (online version). http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd19/4/meha19049.htm

Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1981). The camel (Camelus dromedarius): a bibliographical review. ILCA

Monograph 5, Addis Ababa, ILCA, Ethiopia.

Ribadu, A.Y., Ogwu, D., Njoku, C.O. and Eduvie, L.O. (1991). An abattoir survey of female genital

disorders of imported camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kano, Nigeria. British Veterinary

Journal 147: 290-292.

Waziri, M.A., Shehu, A.A. and Kwari, H.D. (1999). Morphological changes of spermatozoa in sperm

reserve during epididymal transit in the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Tropical Veterinarian

17: 135-141.

Yagil, R. (1982). Camels and camel milk. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 26, FAO, Rome.

Yagil, R. (2006). Reproductive processes in camels (Camelus dromedarius). Israel Journal of

Veterinary Medicine, 61 (online version).

Access from http://www.isrmva.org

177


69. Pilot Introduction of Camel Draught Power Into Mixed Farming Systems of Eastern

Kenya

F.J. Musembi1*

, J.N. Kihumba1, M.Younan

1,3, Tura Isako

1, J.M. Miriti

1 and Janet Kithome

2

1Kenya Arid & Semi-Arid Lands (KASAL ) Research Programme, Kenya Agricultural Research

Institute (KARI) 2WACAL, Makindu, Kenya

3Vétérinaires sans Frontières Germany


Introduction

The complete absence of camels as a livestock from farming systems in the semi-arid project

region in Eastern Kenya can be explained by the tsetse challenge acting as a natural barrier and by

historical and socio-cultural factors. The retreat of tsetse flies due to conversion of more land for use

in crop production opens up new avenues for integration of camels. ‗Camel-technology‘ transfer

between pastoralists and farmers is hampered by socio-cultural barriers and unless facilitated is

unlikely to take place soon, hence need for the project intervention.


Ten sub-adult male Rendille camels (4.5 to 5.5 years of age) were acquired by Kenya

Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) through the Kenya Arid and Semi –Arid Lands (KASAL)

Research Programme and trained for traction and ploughing on a ranch in Northern Kenya. Six pilot

farmers from the project area , the lower mid-lands (LM4 and LM5), in the Semi-Arid lands (SAL) of

Eastern Kenya, and who were interested in using camels for draught power were identified and

trained on camel handling and management, pack saddle making, harnessing & use of camels for

traction by a camel expert. Consequently, the camels were de-wormed (Albendazole), received

chemoprophylaxis for Trypanosoma evansi (Quinapyramine pro-salt) and were transferred to the pilot

farms in Eastern Kenya. Through a hands-on participatory process, the pilot farmers developed, tested

and improved the ploughing harnesses. A Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) was conducted with the pilot

farmers to capture information on animal draught power applications within the study area. The

camel‘s ploughing speed was estimated during the testing of the improved harnesses. Continuous

monitoring of the camels‘ health status with regard to internal & external parasites, incl. Trypanosoma

spp. infections, and weight gain/loss estimate was carried out. Information on farmers‘ perception,

attitude and challenges on the camel draught power technology and the camel as a new livestock

enterprise in the mixed farming systems of Eastern Kenya was documented.

Body weights of camels were monitored by using body weight estimates based on physical

measurements (Evans et al 1995).


Prior to transfer of the trained camels to the project area in March 2010 six pilot farmers were

trained on camel handling and use of camels for draught power. The training period required was only

14 days. Six improved harnesses were developed and successfully tested on-farm in the project area

for performance on ploughing with camels. RRA results indicated that all the farmers in the target

area use animal draught power for land preparation and transport. The major animals used

traditionally in the project area for draught power are oxen and donkeys that are mainly used for

ploughing, fetching water, carrying firewood, farm produce and construction materials.

Table 1- Animal Uses in the project area in order of priority

Bullocks Donkeys

1. Ploughing 1. Transport (as pack animal and for pulling carts)

2. Transportation (cart pulling, fetching

water, transporting harvest)

2. Ploughing

3. Breeding 3. Sale for cash

4. Contract ploughing and contract

transport

5. Sale for cash

178


On camel ploughing performance, preliminary data indicated the forward speed for camels

was 4.07 km per hour (about double the speed for bullocks) and one single camel could plough one

acre per day as compared to half an acre (0.5) for two bullocks in the study area.

Animals were de-wormed once during each rainy season. Two animals showed clinical signs

of suspected Trypanosoma evansi infection (drowsiness), which disappeared after treatment with

Quinapyramine. Despite the camels having been introduced into a completely new environment, no

Tse-Tse transmitted Trypanosoma spp. infections or any other major disease challenge was

experienced over a study period of 1.5 years. The body weight of the camels increased on all the pilot

farms (weight gains shown in Figure 1), indicating compatibility in terms of feeding requirements

and disease challenge in the study area.

Integrating camels into the existing farming system had the following estimated cost and labour

requirements during the 1st year post-introduction:

Camel (single castrate) Pair of Bullocks

Herding (hours per

day)

Self herding Ksh* 205/ 12 hours

Training (days) 14 days 30 days

Cost of Ploughing (per

hectare)

Ksh 1500 Ksh 3000

Transport of Water

(farm water

requirement per day

/per week)

2 mandays/1500 litres

per week at Farm water

requirement is 200 litres

per day

3 mandays for 1500

litres per week at

Farm water

requirement is 200

litres per day

*Kenyan shilling

The farmers had positive perception and attitude toward the camel as a new livestock enterprise in

their mixed farming system. However, they expressed the costs of acquiring a camel as a major

challenge. Farmers also expressed great interest in future introduction of female camels for milk

production and for breeding. Conclusively the farmers felt there is great potential on application of

camel draught power technology and also as a new livestock enterprise within their mixed farming

systems.

Conclusion

This pilot study has indicated that there is a great potential for application of camel draught

power in dryland farming regions of EasternUkambani for timely land preparation, haulage and

transportation and entertainments. Experience has shown that these areas are endowed with adequate

camel browsing material. The pilot farmers‘ sentiments on camel are that they can withstand the

179


frequent drought in the area as compared to cattle which they have previously been using as their

source of animal draught power. However the mentioned challenges need to be addressed in future for

the wider adoption, adaptation and up-scaling of the technology.

Especialy Eastern Kenya, use of camel as a dairy animal in mixed dryland farming areas of

Kenya needs to be explored.

References

Evans J.O., Simpkin S.P., Atkins, D. J. 1995, Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management

Handbook of Kenya Vol. III/8‘ Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture Livestock

Development and Marketing, Nairobi, 230 pages

Jaetzold, R., 2007. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya Vol III sub part c1. Natural conditions &

Farm management information 2nd

Edition

KASAL camel Project reports (unpublished)

Stiles, D., 1995. The advantages of Camels over other livestock in Drylands. In: Evans J.O., Simpkin

S.P., Atkins, D. J. (edts.), Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya

Vol. III/8, Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture Livestock Development and

Marketing, Nairobi1995 , 230 pages

180


70. Constraints of the Saharan Rangeland on Camels

S. Abdelhakim and B. Youcef

Laboratoire de Bioressources Sahariennes : Préservation et Valorisation

Université KASDI MERBAH –Ouargla.

CMEP TASSILI (N° 09 MDU 754)

B.P. 511, Route de Ghardaïa. 30 000, Ouargla. Algérie.


Introduction

Thirty-four percent of the land surface is desert sand semi-deserts, which are distributed

world-wide (Roger, 2006). The Sahara is the leading desert but also the most extreme (Ozenda, 2004),

It occupies a surface of 8000000 km2 (Le Houerou, 1990). In addition, nearly 60% of agricultural land

in the world is considered non-arable and pasture reserved for, i.e. livestock operations. A great part

of these areas reserved for animals' breeding falls within the arid and semi arid regions (Faye1997),

and occupies 3,4 billion hectares where you drive animals (cattle, sheep, goats and camels) freely,

covered by natural vegetation, corresponding to 26% of the earth surface which is not coveredby

ice.(F.A.O. 2007). In Algeria, the space is dominated bythe aridand semi-arid (80%) with extensive

pastoral system under the sway of transhumance. Chellig (1992) estimates that nearly 40 million

hectares of pastures in arid and semi-arid steppe formed by covering 12 million ha and the Saharan

rangeland with 28 million ha. The region of the approach is represented by Ghardaia where breeding

remains the main seal, including the extensive system that makes the majority of farmer stake the

rangeland as a key resource for food. Hence, the present study attempts to highlight the patterns of

exploitation and use of rangeland, while situating constraints that play all around.


The area of investigation where field surveys have affected the region of Ghardaia known for

camel breeding and lifestyle of the community (nomadic). It is one of the best pastoral areas of the

Sahara, through their diversity (Oueds, Daya, Hamada, Regand Erg) but also their rich flora, which

exert a great attraction for breeders. For practical considerations, two areas were selected for this

study; it is in this case Metliliand Zelfana, which dominate the rangeland 37% and 5, 11% in their

respective territories. The choice is dictated by simple criteria: diversity of farming systems, presence

and importance of cattle ranchers on the rangeland.


The natural environment of the camel, represented by the rangeland, considered as the main

support for the animal that builds most of its daily diet, where the main constraint resides in its use

and exploitation for other purposes. Duality between animal species and duality of breeders' logics are

all factors identified as a result of field investigations. These constraints can be summarized by:

- Competition for rangeland.

If the camelis known as an animal that maintains its ecosystem, the situation is quite different

with the sheep. Indeed, once the wells are regained and the stay was more prolonged over grazing is

automatically punctuated and rangeland degradation is observed. These conditions cause an excessive

and uncontrolled harvesting of pastoral resources and an anarchic management of space, which limits

the movement of livestock and increases the load. In the absence of real action in the managementof

the space of rangeland, the shepherd is the only skipper; he tries to guide his flock to the best-

provided spaces in natural vegetation. We often hear breeders use two expressions, the first "we

follow the rains," the second "we follow the flowers", indicating the individual character of travel.

The thing that Le Houerou (1990) found is that virtually there is no rule of exploitation but that which

consists of eating grass whenever and wherever available;

- Subtractionof the space of rangeland.

The range land space is marked by the progress of land development in most of the oueds and

depressions. Thus, the new opportunities of pasture are less available to livestock.The surface of the

rangeland loss increased from1348997 ha in 2006 to 1,344,303 ha in 2007. (a difference of 4694 ha)

181


in favor of the agricultural area, which experienced a sharp increase in going from 21742 ha to 26436

ha. This is an extension of agricultural areas and are traction of the pastoral areas;

This was revealed by Bensemaoune and Slimani (2006) who revealed in the year 2004, an

increase of the agricultural area, increased from 12207 ha in 2000 to 15252 ha in 2004. This extension

occurred at the expense of rangeland which recorded a subtractionof their spaceby regressing to

820758 ha in 2000 to 812544 ha in 2004 (8214 ha lost). What can you deduce? Subtraction of pastoral

areas between 2006 and 2007 is half of the surface subtracted for four years (2000-2004).Thing that

has led to conflicts between farmers and breeders in relation to the occupation of space (each one

claims ownership of the space)

-Clearingsin pastoral areas.

The need for combustible, food for livestock household and heating leads locals to uproot

woody shrub species (rtem, Beguel, etc). According to several producers approached, the Drinis

scarce because of the excessive uprooting of it for multiple uses (domestic) and for sale in the market

(animal food), despite the legislative framework that prohibits sampling of some perennials, like the

Drin.

Conclusion

This study illuminates that the rangeland of the region of Gharadaïaare is subject to

mismanagement in the use. Their protection is indispensable when combined actions of all stake

holders is essential and can be summarized through a number of recommendations:

Regulate the use of rangeland space through the rotation and animals' stays;

Sensitize farmers, through the device of vulgarisation concerning the rational and reasoned use of

rangeland;

Planning of pastoral areas through a suitable and planned mesh of water points;

Extension of pastoral areas, thanks to the planting and the introduction of indigenous wild

species;

Practice of the method of natural parks to prevent rangel and degradation during periods of

drought.

References

Bensemaoune Y et SlimaniN2006la place des parcours à travers la conception d’un schéma

d’aménagement et de gestion de l’espace (S.A.G.E.) -cas de la région du M’Zab (Zelfana et

Metlili), Mémoire d‘Ingénieur d‘Etat en Ecologie, Dpt de Biologie Université Kasdi Merbah

– Ouargla. 68p.

Chellig R 1992 Les races ovines algériennes. Office des Publications Universitaires, Alger. 06 – 92

cod. : 1 04 35 80. 80 p.

F.A.O. 2007 Gestion des interactions environnement élevage. 20ème

session Rome (Italie), 25-28 avril

2007. p 15

Faye B 1997 Guide de l’élevage du dromadaire. Libourne : Editions SANOFI. Santé Nutrition

animale.126 p.

Le Houerou H N 1990 Définition et limites bioclimatiques du Sahara. In revue Sècheresse, vol 1. N°4.

Edit. Jhon Libey Paris (France), pp 246-259.

Ozenda P 2004 Flore du Sahara. C.N.R.S. éditions. Paris, 622 p.

Roger D 2006 Précis d‘écologie. Ed. Dunod, Paris, 434 p.

182


71. Sociocultural Importance of Camels Among ohe Pastoralists of Northern Kenya

D.D. Wako1, 2*

, M. Younan1,6

, M.P.O. Baumann2, 3

, I.V. Glücks4

and T.S. Tessema2, 5

1Kenya Arid & Semi-Arid Lands (KASAL) Research Programme,

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute 2Joint Master Programme in Transboundary Animal Disease Management,

F.U.Berlin/Addis Ababa Univ. 3Freie Universität Berlin, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

4Vétérinaires sans Frontières (VSF) Suisse, Kenya Programme, VSF-Suisse Regional Office Nairobi

5Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

6Vétérinaires sans Frontières Germany


Introduction

The pastoralists of northern Kenya live in a harsh environment characterised by low rainfall,

scarce water and limited pasture. The camel is well adapted to this kind of environment which makes

it the most important species of livestock in this area (Kaufmann, 1998). Schwartz and Dioli (1992)

describe camel production to be the most suitable one for the arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya.

According to Kaufmann (1998), the importance of camel is often higher than its actual or potential

contribution to the national economy. The objective of this paper is to describe the socio-cultural

importance of the camel as perceived by the pastoral communities of northern Kenya.


The study was carried out in northern Kenya covering three neighbouring districts namely

Marsabit North, Wajir East and Mandera West. These districts are mainly inhabited by the Gabra, the

Somali and the Garri pastoralists respectively. Northern Kenya is chosen for this study based on its

large population of camels constituting about 90% of the total camel population in the country

(Kiptarus, 2005).

The data were collected by participatory rural appraisal tools such as focused group

discussion, semi-structured interviews and matrix scoring. The exercise was conducted in nine groups

with an average of eight informants per group. The locations of the study were purposively selected

based on the concentration of camel herds in the area. Informants from those locations were selected

with the help of the local herders based on who has enough experience in camel herding (Catley,

2005). The informants were gathered in a central place of their choice. Using focused group

discussion the informants were asked to list various means by which they earn their livelihoods

(Kipronoh et al, 2011). They were then asked to list various values/benefits of the camel. Different

age groups of camels were also named in the local language. With the median benefit values of

camels on the x-axis and age groups names on the y-axis a matrix was constructed. The benefits of

camels were then scored against the different age groups.

Camels of up to 2 years of age are considered calves, over 2 years up to 5 years as young

adults (males and females), and over 5 years as adult males and females.


Each group named livestock as one of the main means of earning livelihoods. Camel was

ranked the top most important livestock in the area by proportional piling.

183


Figure 1: Benefits of and for camels by age group among the Gabra pastoralists

Figure 2: Benefits of and for camels by age group among the Garri pastoralists

Figure3: Benefits of and for camels by age group among the Somali pastoralists

As demonstrated the importance of camels in these communities goes far beyond meat, milk and

transport. There are numerous socio-cultural and even religious values attached to camels (Figure 1-

3). For instance, in some clans of the Gabra community when an elderly person dies, an adult male or

female slaughtered and the meat is thrown away;this is a very important event in respect of the dead.

In the same community, marriage can never take place without 2 young males and 1 young female

camel of about 2 to 5 years of age that are paid as dowry. The female should have never calved and

184


not being in-calf at that time. One male must be paid on the wedding day while the other two can be

given later. To make the matter worse, the wedding can only take place on two specific dates in a

year. In fact the bridegroom comes to the home of the bride not only at that specific date but also at a

specific time, i.e. before noon. If you fail to produce this young male (gurbo) camel on these two

days, no wedding will take place until the following year.

Even milk production of camel has some cultural aspects. For example, an activity referred to

as d’ibayu (libation) by the Gabra is done by pouring milk on the ground to appease the ancestors.

This is so important that one (head of the house) has to request clan members to help him with a

lactating adult female just for this purpose. In case all the camels are dry, camel urine is used for

libation. This d’ibayu is especially important during the mourning period when an elderly man dies.

Also transportation has more to it than just movement from point A to point B. If a sick

person is carried on a camel, the Gabra believe that this has a therapeutic effect so that the person gets

better. In times of conflicts, if all watering points are captured by the enemies, camel can evacuate an

entire household without going through these watering points because it can resist thirst and can walk

for long distances. This helps the families escape through dry and even desolate lands where enemies

cannot reach on foot.

The Somali and Garri communities also have other socio-cultural and religious values

attached to camels such as ganax (paying of fine for wrong doing), selling in order to go for haji

(Islamic pilgrimage) and sadaqa (giving to the needy) by the Somali. The Garri also mention cashing

camel for haji as important benefit from the camels. Other values accruing from the camel are for

duksi (paying for the teacher of the Holy Qur‘an), deni (paying debts) and Khenni/dabare

(giving/lending to the needy). In most of these cases specific age-group are used for specific purposes.

Therefore, it is against this background that the impact of diseases and droughts on the camel keepers

should be judged. For instance in terms of impact of a disease, losses resulting from disease in a

specific age group determine further and immediate socio-cultural impact on the community. This is

why defining the socio-cultural values by age-group is of high importance.

This paper just highlights some of the socio-cultural importance attached to camels by the

pastoralists of northern Kenya. The listed values/benefits are by no means exhaustive to report and

discuss all is beyond the scope of this paper.

References

Catley, A. (2005): Participatory Epidemiology: a Guide for Trainers. Inter African Bureau for Animal

Resources, Nairobi. Pp 18-19, annex 1 Pp 11.

Kaufmann, B. (1998): Analysis of Pastoral Camel Husbandry in Northern Kenya. Margraf Verlag,

Weikersheim, Germany. Pp 20.

Kipronoh K A*, Gathuma J M **, Kitala P M** and Kiara H K (2011): Pastoralists‘ perception of the

impact of East Coast fever on cattle production under extensive management in Northern Rift

Valley, Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development 23 (6) 2011

Kiptarus, J. K. (2005): Focus on Livestock Sector: Supply Policy Framework Strategies Status and

Links with Value Addition, presented at Workshop on Value Asses Food & Export

Investment, Nairobi, on 3rd March. Pp 3.

Schwartz, H. J. and Dioli, M. (1992): The One Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Eastern

Africa: a Pictorial Guide to Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf. Pp

1-3, 159-160.

185


72. The Economic Potential of Dromedary Camel Meat

M.D. Mbaga


Introduction

Animal meat production has significant impact on nearly all aspects of the environment,

including air and climate change, land and soil, water and biodiversity. The impact may be direct

through grazing, or indirect through the expansion of feed production.

Among all animal meats, it is beef that is the most popular and widely produced in the world.

Unfortunately it is also the most inefficient animal meat to produce in terms of the amount of inputs

needed to produce it. Grain-fed beef production for example, takes 100,000 litres of water for every

kilogram of food. In terms of energy, beef cattle require an energy input to protein output ratio of 54:1

(Pimentel and Pimentel, 2003). Furthermore, beef has the highest water footprint at 15400 m3/ton,

(Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2010), than sheep (10400 m3/ton), goat (5500 m

3/ton) or chicken 4300

m3/ton. FAO projects the global meat production to more than double from 229 million tonnes in

1999 to 465 million tonnes in 2050 (FAO, 2006). To meet the projected demand for meat by the year

2050 more land and water would be needed, consequently putting significant pressure on currently

available land and water resources. In this backdrop, camel meat production seems to be the

alternative, because among other things, camels require fewer resources in terms of land and water.

This paper is arranged as follows: Section two provides a discussion on camel meat as a potential

substitute for beef. Section three and four presents the strengths and weaknesses of camel meat

respectively. Section five is the conclusion of this paper.

Camel meat as a substitute for beef

Most of the dromedary camels are found in the hot arid areas of the Middle East and Africa.

Camels have great tolerance to harsh conditions of high temperatures, water scarcity and poor

vegetation (Shalah, 1983; Kadim et al., 2008). In these harsh environments, camels feed on low

quality feeds and fodder that are generally not utilized by other domestic species (Tandon et al.,

(1988) and Kadim et al., (2008). As a result, camels can be raised to produce meat at a comparatively

low cost than other domestic animals such as goats, sheep and cattle.

Young camel, less than three years of age, produces high quality low fat meat (Kadim et al.,

2006), which is also a good source of minerals. Age is therefore an important factor in determining

camel meat quality and composition (Kadim et al., 2006). Health wise, camel meat has less fat as well

as low levels of cholesterol compared to other animal meats (Kadim et al., 2006). Quality wise, meat

from young camels is comparable to beef (Knoess, 1977; Kadim et al., 2006). Therefore camel meat

could potentially be used as a substitute for beef meat.

The strengths of camel meat as a substitute for beef

Camel meat strengths are those positive attributes that give it an edge over other rival meats such

as beef in the marketplace.

Camel meat is lean and has been scientifically proven to be much healthier than many other

animal meats. It is a low fat meat, low in cholesterol and high in protein. This makes it an

ideal meat for those with dietary problems such as diabetics and high cholesterol.

Camel meat is already a popular meat product in the Muslim world, Australia and in

China.The global Muslim population trends indicate that there were 1.619 billion Muslims in

the world in 2010. The world's Muslim population is expected to reach 2.2 billion by 2030

(Pew Research Centre, 2011). This huge increase in Muslim population, coupled with the

recent increase in the popularity of camel meat in Australia and China creates an

unprecedented potential for camel meat.

Camel meat is less costly to produce and it is ecologically harmless. This is because camels

are usually reared by nomads in arid regions, feeding mainly on annual grass, acacias, and

dwarf bushes which are not costly. Even where camels are raised in commercial facilities, the

production costs are lower than those for other meats. The production cost for camel ranchers

in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia reported by Al-Khamis and Young (2006) range from 3279

Riyal/head/year (US$ 874.5 at 1 Saudi Riyal = 0.2667 US$) for medium herds to 2318

186


Riyal/head/year (US$ 618.5) for large herds. In Australia camels are mostly found in the wild.

Ecologists stresses that camel grazing has very little, if any, damaging effect on desert

vegetation and does not contribute to desertification. Its foraging habits are optimally suited

to areas with a low carrying capacity (Köhler-Rollefson, 1994).

There are many identified uses for camel meat as well as camel meat recipes. The availability

of tasty and easy to prepare camel meat recipes makes it easier for potential consumers to try

camel meat.

Camel meat benefits from using the well-established beef terminologies and specifications.

Establishing meat specifications and terminologies to represent the various specifications is

important for meat buyers.

The weaknesses of camel meat as a substitute for beef

Camel meat weaknesses are the inherent disadvantages (negative attributes) it has over other

meats in the marketplace. These weaknesses need to be addressed fully if camel meat is to realize its

potential as a substitute for beef and other meats. The weaknesses include:

Lack of consumer awareness regarding camel meat. Generally there is lack of consumer

awareness with regard to camel meat aside from the Muslim world where camel meat is

traditionally consumed. Elsewhere few people are aware of the nutritional and health benefits

from consuming camel meat. In a survey of restaurants in Australia conducted by CM

research (1999), 64% of restaurants surveyed indicated lack of customer awareness of camel

meat in general as the reason for low customer demand for camel meat.

Consumers tend to relate camel meat with the animal itself, which gives rise to concerns

about hygiene and cleanliness and to negative perceptions that the meat is smelly and tough

(Warfield and Tume, 2000).

Camel meat has been described by consumers as being chewy and tough even though it is not

different from beef in terms of flavour. This discourages potential consumers from buying

camel meat. Recent findings (Kadim et al., 2006), indicates that young camels below three

years of age produces high quality low fat meat that is comparable to beef.

Lack of Halal certification. Since the Muslim world is the largest and most important market

for camel meat. Halal certification is therefore, very important for meat slaughtered in any

slaughtering facility across the globe to be accepted by Muslims. The lack of Halal

certification for many of the camel slaughtering facilities outside the Muslim world

automatically excludes their products from entering the global Muslim market.

Conclusion

This brief paper looks at the potential of camel meat as a substitute for beef and other meats.

The strengths / advantages of camel meat over other meats are been presented. The most important

strengths being that camel meat is healthier than many other animal meats in that it is low in fat and

cholesterol. It also has a potential to benefit from the global Muslim market which is expected to

reach 2.2 billion consumers by 2030. With regard to weaknesses, it has been observed that generally

there is lack of consumer awareness with respect to the benefits of camel meat. Consumers also tend

to relate camel meat with the animal itself. Most of the observed weaknesses could be addressed

through public awareness and marketing campaigns.

References

Al-Khamis, K. A and Young, D.L. (2006). ―An Analytical Study of Production Cost for Camel Herds

in Riyadh Area, Saudi Arabia.‖ J. King Saud Univ., Vol. 18, Agric. Sci. (2), pp. 73-87, Riyadh

(1426H./2006)

CM Research, 1999, national survey of butchers and restaurants conducted by CM Research on behalf

of DPI Queensland.

FAO (2006). Livestock‘s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Available at:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi,W., Al-Zadjali, S., Annamalai, K., and Mansour, M.H.

(2006). ―Effects of age on composition and quality of muscle Longissimus thoracis of the

Omani Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius).‖ Meat Science (2008) 80555–569

187


Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchas, R.W. (2008). ―A review of the Growth, and of the Carcass

and Meat Quality Characteristics of the One-humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius).‖ Meat

Science 73, issue (2006) 4619-625

Knoess, K. H. (1977). ―The camel as a meat and milk camel.‖ World Animal Review, 22, 39–44.

Köhler-Rollefson, I. (1994). ―Camel pastoralism. an indigenous arid land exploitation strategy.‖

Journal of Camel Practice and Research 1(1):1–6

Mekonnen, M.M and A.Y. Hoekstra (2010). ―The green, blue and greywater footprint of farmanimals

and animal products.‖ Volume 1: Main Report. Value of water Research Report Series No.

48. UNESCO. IHE, Institute for Water Education.

Pew Research Canter‘s Forum on Religion & Public Life, The Future of the Global Muslim

Population (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2011). Available at:

http://www.prb.org/Articles/2011/muslim-population growth.aspx

Pimentel, D. and Pimentel, M. (2003). ―Sustainability of Meat-based and Plant-based Diets and the

Environment.‖ American Journal of Clinical Nutation September 2003;7 (Suppl):660S–3S.

Shalah, M. R. (1983). ―The role of camels in overcoming world meat shortage.‖ Egyptian Journal of

Veterinary Science, 20, 101–110.

Tandon, S. N., Bissa, U. K., and Khanna, N. D. (1988). ―Camel meat: Present status and future

prospects.‖ Annals of Arid Zone, 27, 23–28

Warfield B. and L. Tume (2000). ―Marketing analysis and plan for the camel industry.‖ A report for

the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. February 2000 RIRDC

Publication No 00/9 RIRDC Project No DAQ-218A

188


Meat

and

Products

189


73. Analysis of Camel Hides Production, Marketing and Utilisation by Local

Leather Goods Manufactures in Kenya

A. Kagunyu* and Lengarite Matiri

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 147-60500, Marsabit, Kenya


Introduction

In Kenya the hides, skins and leather industry contribute an estimated 4% to the National

GDP. Recently, the country produced an average of 2.4 million hides, 6 million skins and 20,000

camel hides (Mwinyijah 2009). However, it has been observed that the full potential of hides and

skins as a product has not been realized in Kenya and other African countries due to their poor

quality, which is attributed to poor curing and flaying methods. According to Gitao (2006) camel

hides are an important resource that could contribute a significant income to pastoralists if there is a

reliable market and if they are properly cured. Foxwell (1999) observed that pastoralist use poor

methods of curing camel hides leading to poor quality of hides as a result of this many tanneries have

rejected camel hides. Camel hides have more fats than cow hides or goats skins and unless it is well

removed, the hides rot (Foxwell 1999). For camel keepers to get maximum profit from camel hides

proper curing methods, flaying and proper animal husbandry practices are paramount. In order to

address the problems related to the quality of camel hides, KARI saw the need to come up with this

study which had three objectives; to establish the production status of camel hides in Northern Kenya,

to identify the marketing outlets of camel hides in Kenya and to identify and document on utilization

of camel hides in Kenya.


The study was conducted in five tanneries in Nairobi and in five camel producing districts of

Kenya namely Moyale, Marsabit, Isiolo, Garissa and Wajir. These regions were chosen as they are the

major producers of hides and skins in Kenya and Nairobi as the major market outlets of the products.

A total of 506 respondents were interviewed which included 428 livestock keepers and 78

traders in hides and skins business. The units of study were household heads and traders.Various data

collecting techniques were applied which included individual interviews with the help of semi-

structured questionnaires. The other method applied in data collection was direct observation.This

method was used to acquire data on different methods used for curing hides, flaying methods, and

branding marks on the livestock. The researchers also visited the slaughters houses and stores where

hides were stored. Another method used was gathering information from key informants.

Quantitative data was analysed through the application of SPSS software and descriptive

statistics were used to generate the study findings.


Most of the camels producing communities are strongly attached to camels and therefore are

rarely slaughtered. They are very important for subsistence, social and religious functions for camel

keepers. In areas where camels are reared camel keepers prefer to slaughter small ruminants than

either camel or cattle. This is reflected in the amount received from the sale of hides and skins as

given by respondents in the study area. According to the findings the amount received from the sale of

shoats skins, (Kenya shillings 21.954 millions) was leading cattle hides came second (Kenya shillings

9.35 million) and camels hides were last (Kenya shillings 1.322 millions).

Camel hides were sold in district town of areas where camels are reared and also in Nairobi.

Many camel hides were sold from Mlolongo slaughter house based in Nairobi. The other major

sources of camel hides included, Moyale, Garissa, Wajir, and Isiolo.

Camel hides are mainly cured using traditional methods i.e ground drying and suspension

drying. Only few producers are using modern method of curing which is wet salting as a result of this

the producers and small scale traders are offered low prices at the secondary and tertiary markets.

Low prices also discouraged some livestock owners from selling cattle hides. The study revealed that

traders prefer wet salted skins and their prices are better compared to sun dried ones.

Camel hides are important products but they are mainly used for domestic purposes and used

by camel keepers to fulfill many functions. The hides were used to make the roofs for traditional

190


pastoral houses. They were also used for making ropes, guards, drums, seats, sandals, praying mats

used by Muslims, and water and milk containers.

Vegetable tanned camel hides by pastoral communities were used to make hand crafts such as

key holders, maps, belts, folders which are sold to tourists. Camel hides tanned in Kenyan tanneries

into wet blues and large amount was exported to Middle East and to other African countries. A small

percentage was used by domestic leather manufacturers, where they were used to make leather boots

used by Kenyan army, shoes, saddles, bags and jackets among other products.

Kenya has 12 operating tanneries, processing hides and skins. This study found that some

tanneries such as Alpha Rama are skeptical in dealing in camel hides. They sited poor quality as one

reason which hinders them from buying camel hides. Most of the camel hides are sold to other

tanneries such as Aziz Din, Mnasi, Zogo, Sagana, Bata leather tanneries (Limuru), and Leather

Industries of Kenya in Thika. According to the study findings camel hides are tanned and sold as wet

blues to Pakistan, India, Dubai and China.

The first problem facing the marketing of camel hides is poor quality attributed to poor curing

methods, poor flaying and use of sharp knives which damage the skins. There is also damage of

camel hides by ecto –parasites. The other problem is the competition with goods made with leather

and as Kenya imports second hand products such as bags, shoes, jackets, belts, etc. The other

constraint is the high taxes imposed by the municipal councils on camel hides as they are charged

kshs 10 per hide.

In conclusion, there is a demand to train producers and traders on proper methods of flaying

and curing of camel hides. There is also demand for the policy makers to consider putting a ban on

importation of second hand leather goods and also lowering the taxes charged on hides.

References

Foxwell, S 1999: The camel marketing of System of Kenya: Process, constraints and improvements,

University of New Castle

Gitao G.C 2006: Camel Husbandry: A practical Guide to camel Husbandry, Immediate

communications ltd, Nairobi

Mwinyijah and Magero 2009:The Dilemma in Marketing of Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Hides In

Kenya: Paper Presented at the 14th Annual Kenya Camel Forum (KCF) 2009 at Moyale,

25th–29

th May, 2009

191


74. Quality Characteristics of Infraspinatus, Triceps Brachii, Longisimus Thoraces,

Biceps Femoris, Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus Muscles of Dromedary (Camelus

dromedarius) Camel

I.T. Kadim, A. Al-Karousi, O. Mahgoub, R. Al-Maqbali. and S.K. Khalaf

Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan

Qaboos University, PO Box 34 Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

Quality characteristics of camel meat have received little attention and the marketing system

for camel meat requires more information on meat quality characteristics of various muscles.

According to Tschirhart-Hoelscher et al. (2006) characteristics of individual muscles of meat animals

can be marketed more effectively. Therefore, identification of quality parameters of individual camel

muscles can also be marketed. This will increase the demand for camel meat by improving the

consistency of products and allowing processing technologies to be targeted toward maximum

effectiveness of camel carcass value. Marketing camel muscles allows producing more attractive cuts

with greater nutritional quality. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify characteristics

determining the quality of infraspinatus, triceps brachii, longissimus thoraces, biceps femoris,

semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles.


Six muscles; infraspinatus, triceps brachii, longissimus thoracis, Biceps femoris,

Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus were dissected from 10 camel carcasses with 20 min.

postmortem. Samples were kept in the chiller (1-3OC) for 48 hr before quality traits were measured.

Ultimate pH, expressed juice, cooking loss, Warner-Bratzler shear force, Sarcomere length,

Myofibrillar fragmentation index, and colour L*, a*, b* were determined following procedure of

Kadim et al. (2006). The general liner model, ANOVA procedure within SAS (1993) was used to

compare the six muscles on various quality properties.


Quality characteristics of muscles are presented in Table 1. Small variation in pH between the

muscles might be due to variation in muscle fiber types, which contributed in differences in patterns

of muscle metabolism (Swatland, 1982), and consequently differences in ultimate pH value.

Expressed juice was higher in the longissimus thoracis and lower in semimembranosus 43.3- 34.8%.

This value was slightly higher than values reported by Kadim et al. (2006, 2008a,b, 2009 and 2010;

Suliman et al., 2011). Significant differences in shear force values between selected muscles might be

due to functions and locations of each muscle and the connective tissue content (Asghar and Pearson,

1980). Shear force values for longissimus thoracis, semitendinosus and triceps brachii were higher

than those reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990) for the same muscles. Variation in myofibrillar

fragmentation index between muscles was ranged between 83.89 to 64.21%, semimembranosus and

biceps femoris, respectively. This may be due to protein degradation and variation in muscle ultimate

pH. Also, the differences in rates of fragmentation of myofibrillar proteins may therefore account for

differences in the rate of post-mortem tenderization of meat (Thomson et al., 1996). The lightness

(L*) and redness (a*) values were significantly (P<0.001) different between six muscles. The L*

value was high (33.48-27.95) and the muscles redness (a*) was low. These finding were in line with

results reported by Kadim et al. (2006, 2009, 2008a,b, 2010) for young dromedary camels. The

longissimus thoracis muscle was lighter than the biceps femoris muscle due to the higher (P<0.05)

value of redness in biceps femoris muscle. In the present study the lighter muscles was longissimus

thoracis, infraspinatus and biceps femoris. The variation in colour between muscles may be due to

differences in myoglobin concentration, pH and muscle fibre type (Faustman and Cassens, 1990).

192


Table 1. Meat quality characteristics of six muscles from dromedary camel

Muscle1

IS TB LT ST SM BF SEM2

U ultimate pH 5.7

5.7

5.6

5.8

5.8

5.7

0.06

Expressed juice 34.8a

42.1b

41.8b

36.8a

42.4b

40.2b

2.90

Cooking loss % 31.6ab

29.2a

33.5b

28.5a

30.6ab

29.5a

1.17

W-B Shear force 6.3a

6.7a

6.5a

9.0b

12.9b

10.3b

1.09

Sarcomere (μm) 1.5

1.5

1.5

1.3

1.6

1.5

0.07

MFI 72.8

70.0

75.2

79.3

65.3

72.5 2.75

L* (Lightness) 31.7

bc 29.2

ab 33.5

c 28.5

a 30.6

b 29.6

ab 1.17

a* (redness) 12.7

ab 12.6

ab 14.0

b 10.5

a 13.6

b 13.3

b 0.83

b*(yellowness) 2.6

a 3.7

ab 4.1

b 2.2

a 2.9

a 3.8

ab 1.17

1Muscle: IS; infraspinatus, LT; longissimus thoraces, ST; semitendinosus, SM; semimembranosus, BF; biceps

femoris. 2SEM: standard error for the mean.

In conclusion, muscle locations had a significant effect on quality characteristics. Therefore,

identification of individual muscle (quality and nutritive values) can be used for marketing camel

meat.

References

Asghar, A. and Pearson, A.M. (1980). Influence of ante- and post mortem treatments upon muscle

composition and meat quality. Advances in Food Research, 26, 53-213.

Babiker, S. A. and Yousif, K. H. (1990). Chemical composition and quality of camel meat. Meat

Science, 27, 283-287.

Faustman, C. and Cassens, R. G. (1990). The biochemical basis for discoloration in fresh meat: A

review. Journal of muscle Foods, 1, 217.

Kadim, I.T. Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W., Al-Zadgali, S., Annamali, K. and mansour, M.H. (2006).

Effects of age on composition and quality of muscles Longissimus thoracis of the Omani

Arabian camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science, 73, 619-625.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Al-Marzooqi, W. (2008a). Meat quality and composition of

Longissimus thoracis from Arabian camel (Camelus dromedaries) and Omani beef: A

Comparative Study. Journal of Camel Science, 1, 38-48.

Kadim, I.T. and Mahgoub, O. (2008b). Effect of age on quality and composition of one-humped

camel longissimus muscle. Journal of Postharvest Technology and Innovation, 1, 327-336.

Kadim, I.T., Al-Hosni, Y., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W., Khalaf, S.K., Al-Maqbaly, R.S., Al-

Sinawi, S.S.H. and Al-Amri, I.S. (2009). Effect of low voltage electrical stimulation on

biochemical and quality characteristics of Longissimus thoracic muscle from one-humped

Camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat science, 82, 77-85.

Kadim, I.T., Y., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W. and Khalaf, S.K. (2010). Effect of low voltage

electrical stimulation and splitting the carcass on histochemical and meat quality

characteristics of longissimus thoracis muscle from the one-humped camel (Camelus

dromedarius). Journal of camelid science, 2.

SAS. (1993). Statistical Analysis System. SAS/STAT user guide, volume 2, version 6, Cary, NC.

Suliman, G., Sami, A., Al-Owaimer, A. and Koohmaraie, M. (2011). Effect of breed on the quality

attributes of camel meat. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 81 (4): 407-11.

Swatland, H.J. (1982). The challenges of improving meat quality. Canadian Journal of Animal

Science. 62, 15-24.

Thomson, B.C., Dobbie, P.M., Singh, K. and Speck, P.A. (1996). Post-mortem kinetics of meat

tenderness and the components of the calpain system in bull skeletal muscle. Meat Science,

44, 151-157

Tschirhart-Hoelscher, T.E., Bair, B.E., King, D.A., McKenna, D.R. and Savell, J.W. (2006). Physical,

chemical and histological characteristics of 18 lamb muscles. Meat Science, 73; 48-54.

193


75. Comparative Chemical Composition and Quality Attributes of Camel Meat and

Beef

H.K. Mohamed1 and Y.I. Manal

2

1Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Omdurman Islamic University

2Central Veterinary Research Laboratories, Animal Resources Research Corporation, Sudan


Introduction

The Sudan has about 3.9 millions heads of camels (Ministry of Animal Resources, 2006).

Despite their numerical importance, camel meat is not widely consumed and has a low price

compared with beef and mutton.

Camel production doesn‘t play an important role in the agricultural sector in Sudan. However,

in arid, semi arid areas it provides food, fiber, transportation and social prestige to the herders. There

is a general belief that camel meat is inferior to beef and mutton. Many studies that have been carried

on camel meat and beef and suggested that camel meat is not inferior to beef (Babiker and Tibin,

1985; ELgasim and ELhag 1990). The aim of this study was to evaluate chemical composition and

quality attributes of camel meat compared with beef so as to encourage camel meat consumption.


From ten camel-calves and beef-calves, 3-4 years old with an average weight of 260 kg were

raised on a concentrate mixture composed of 15% sorghum grain, 10% wheat bran, 15% ground nut

cake, 30% molasses, 1% urea, 27% ground nut hulls, 1% limestone and 1% common salt plus green

alfalfa (Medicago sativa) at a daily rate of 1 kg per head. Ten carcasses were obtained from each

species, chilled for 24 h at 4°C and then split along the midline into two sides. Longissimus dorsi and

Semimembranosus muscles were dissected, from all camel and cow carcass sides at 24 h post-mortem.

Longissimus dorsi muscles from both sides were frozen-stored for panel evaluation while

Semimembranosus muscles from one side were trimmed from external connective tissue and fat for

determination of chemical analysis and water-holding capacity. Corresponding muscles were

oxygenated for two 2 hrs at 4°C for color determination. Subsequently they were frozen –stored for

shear force and connective tissue measurements.

Proximate muscle composition was determinated on fresh muscle samples according to

AOAC (1991). Protein fractionation was performed according methods of Babiker and Lawrie (1983).

Water-holding capacity was carried out according to methods of Grau and Hamm (1953). Color

measurements using a Hunter lab Tristinulus Colorometer Model D 25 M .2; Hunter lightness (L),

redness (a) and yellowness (b) were recorded. An Instron Model 1000 was used for determinate shear

force and connective tissue strength. Muscle samples were thawed at 4°C for 24 h, trimmed of

external fat, cut to 5 × 5 × 7 cm and cooked for one hour in a water bath at 80°C . Rectangular

samples (cross section 1×1cm ) 7cm long with fibers parallel to the long axis, and 10 mm cubes were

cut from the cooked meat. The former samples were used for shear force determination while the

cubes were used for connective tissue strength.

For sensory evaluation Longissimus dorsi muscle samples were thawed overnight at 4°C and

roasted, wrapped in aluminum foil, in an electric oven at 175-180°c for one hour according to Griffin

et al, (1985). Semi-trained panelist ( n=9) evaluated each sample for color (1=extremely dark-brown,

to 5=brown), juiciness (1=dry, to 4 very juicy), flavor intensity (1=extremely intense, to 4=bland);

tenderness (1=tough to 4 =tender) and overall acceptability (1=unacceptable to 5= acceptable).

General linear models (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS.1990) were

used for data analysis.


Results obtained from this study are given in Table 1 and 2. Camel meat had significantly less

fat than beef (P< 0.05) which is in agreement with the finding of Babiker and Tibin (1985). Moisture

level was high in camel meat but not significantly different from beef. Protein, ash content,

myofibrillar proteins and NPN were similar in the two species. Sarcoplasmic proteins were

significantly different (P< 0.05) lower in the muscles of camels than beef. Differences in sarcoplasmic

proteins might be due to the species differences in muscle composition (Lawrie, 1979).

194


Meat quality attributes of camel meat and beef are presented in Table 2 and 3; Hunter color

values indicated that beef was darker than camel meat. The higher concentration of sarcoplasmic

proteins and the expected decrease of muscle myoglobin as intramuscular fat increased might

contribute to muscle‘s color differences between the two species (Janicki et al., 1963). Shear force

and connective tissue strength were significantly (P< 0.05) lower for beef (Kumer et al., 1974). Also

fat content in beef was higher than in camel meat which causes a dilution of connective tissue and

reduce shear force of muscles (Lawrie, 1991).

Table 1: Chemical composition of camel meat and beef

Parameters Camel

meat Beef

Significance

level

Moisture 74.9 74.75 NS

Protein 21.5 21.3 NS

Fat 2.65 3.62 *

Ash 1.22 1.17 NS

Sarcoplasmic protein 5.07 6.6 *

Non-protein nitrogen 0.48 0.47 NS

Water-holding capacity was significantly (P<0.05) lower and cooking loss was significantly

(P< 0.05) greater in beef. This is in agreement with findings of Babiker and Tibin (1985). Panelists

indicated that the color of cooked beef was darker than that of camel meat. Flavor score was

significantly (P<0.05) lower for camel meat. Tenderness and juiciness were lower for camel meat than

beef which was possibly due to differences in fatness.

Overall, the acceptability among panelists was similar between the two meats. In this study,

results confirmed from the point of quality and chemical composition. That camel meat is benefit for

human health due to its lower fat content than beef. Generally due to its low price it can replace beef

particularly among low-income groups.

Table 2: Meat quality parameters of camel and beef

Significant

Parameters Camel Beef Level

Color

L 32.36 36.86 *

A 18.93 23.43 *

b 6.52 7.11 *

Water Holding 2.09 2.86 *

capacity

Cooking loss % 35.38 37.8 *

Shearforce (kg/cm2) 2.42 2.37 NS

Connective tissue strength 4.32 4.18 NS

(Kg/cm2)

NS: not significant; * significant (P<0.05)

Table 3: Sensory evaluation

Parameters

Camel

meat Beef

Significance

level

Color

3.79 3.5 *

Flavor

2.5 2.88 *

Tenderness 2.6 2.87 *

Juiciness

2.7 2.91 *

Acceptability 3.78 3.85 NS

195


References

AOAC (1991) Official Methods of Analysis ,15th ed . Association Official Agricultural Analysis,

Washington DC.

Babiker S.A & Lawrie. R.A.(1983) Meat Sci., 8,1.

Babiker S A and Tibin I,M.(1985) Comparative Study of Camel Meat and Beef. Camel research

project annual report,(1) 119-124.

ELgasim E.A.and ELhag G.A(1990). Quality attributes of Camel Meat.

Final Report. Scientific Council, King Faisal University, Alihasa, Sudia Arabia.

Grau F. & Hamm R.(1953). Naturwissenschaft, 40, 39.

Griffin C.L,,Savell J.W.,Smith G.C.,Rhee K.S.& Johnson H.K.(1985). J.Food Qual., 8, 69.

Janicki M.A., Kolaczyk S. & Kortz J. (1963), Proc.9th Mtg Meat Res. Workers Budapest.

Kumer ,D.,SharmT.R and Nath H.( 1974). Factors affecting meat texture. Indian Food Paper 28(6)

:17-25.

Lawrie R.A.(1979), Meat Science (3rd

ed).Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Lawrie R.A (1991), Meat science. (5th ed) Pergamon Press Ltd Headington Hill Hall Oxford.

Ministry of Animal Resources, Statistical information (2006). Khartoum Sudan.

SAS (1990) Statistical Analysis System, SAS Institute Inc SAS, STAT us ingide,version G,Vo1,2

Cary, NC, pp. 848.

196


76. Some Aspects of the Nutritive Value of the Dromedary Camel (Camelus

dromedarius) Meat

O.M.A. Abdelhadi1*

, S.A. Babiker2, J.F. Hocquette

3, B. Faye

4

1Dept. of Animal Production, Faculty of Natural Resources & Environmental Studies, University of

Kordofan, Sudan 2Dept. Meat Production, Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum, Sudan,

3INRA, UR1213, Herbivore Research Unit, 63122 Theix, France

4CIRAD, UR 18, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France


Introduction

Sudan has the second place largest population of camels in the world after Somalia with 4.5

millions heads of camels and with camel meat production of 49,880 tons (FAOStat, 2009). Recently,

the local consumption of camel meat had increased especially from young camels due to tender meat.

The demand for camel meat appears to increase due to reasons related to human health. They produce

meat with relatively less fat than other animals (Dawood and Alkanhal, 1995, Kurtu, 2004; Kadim et

al., 2008). Meat from young camels has been reported to be comparable in taste and texture to beef

(Elgasim & Alkanhal, 1992, Kadim et al., 2008). Fatty acid profile of camel meat was found to be

comparable to other camelids like llama (Polidori et al., 2007). Similarly, amino acids were similar to

those reported for bovine, lamb and goat meat (Dawood and Alkanhal, 1995; Elgasim and Alkanhal,

1992). The present study aimed to address some aspects of nutritive value in meat from Sudanese

male and female desert camels (Camelus dromedarius).


Longissimus dorsi (LD), muscle was removed between the 1st to the 5

th lumbar vertebrate

from the right carcass side of 14, two to three year old camels (7 males and 7 females). Connective

tissues and visible fat were removed muscles were placed in plastic bags and kept for 24 h at 2-3° C.

The samples were then vacuumed and stored in -18°C until analysis. Collagen determination of the

LT samples were carried out according to the procedures reported by Listrat et al., (2001).

Hydroxyproline content was determined according to the procedures of Woessner, (1961) and optical

densities were read at 557 nm. For amino acids determination, four different conditions of protein

hydrolysis have been applied. Three acidic hydrolysis (HCL 6N, 110°C) : 24 h, 24 h after performic

oxidation for the sulphur amino acids, and 48 h for branched chained amino acids. One basic

hydrolysis (Ba(OH)2, 4N, 110°C, 16 h) for tryptophan determination was carried out. Total lipids

were extracted according to the method of Folch et al., (1957). Fatty acid analysis was achieved by

gas–liquid chromatography (GLC) using the Perichrom 2000 chromatograph (Perichrom, Saulx-les-

Chartreux, France) fitted with the CP-Sil 88 glass capillary column (length: 100 m, i.d.: 0.25 mm)

with H2 as the carrier gas.

Data was analyzed using student-t test to determine significances of difference in the studied

parameters (carcass weight, collagen content, amino acids and fatty acids) between male and

females. Multiple means were separated by Least Significant Differences (LSD) where appropriate

and differences were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05.


Insoluble OH proline (2.5 and 2.4) µg/ DM and total OH proline (3.5 and 3.3) µg/ DM, which

estimate insoluble and total collagen contents, were found to be similar in male and female LD

muscles. Babiker and Yousif, (1990) reported 2.37% for OH proline solubility in camel LD muscle

which was lower than that for males (26 %) in the present study. This may be explained by different

analytical methods. In bovine, Stolowski et al., (2006) reported high values of insoluble and total

collagen compared to our results. However, strong correlations between insoluble collagen content

and raw Warner– Bratzler peak shear force values were reported in bovine by Riley et al., (2005) and

Stolowski et al., (2006).

Amino acid analysis in camel LD muscle showed that leucine, lysine and argnine were the

most abundant essential amino acids (1937, 1868, and 1440 mg/ 100g muscle for males and 2010,

1909, and 1604 mg/ 100g muscle for females, respectively). Glutamic acid, aspartic acid, alanine and

197


proline were the highest non essential amino acids (4268, 2298, 1330 and 1164 for males and 4251,

2246, 1347 and 1074 for the female camel muscles). This is in contrast with the results of Kadim et

al., (2011) who reported that lysine was the major essential amino acid in male camel LT muscle.

The concentration of amino acids in the present study was higher than that reported by Dawood and

Alkanhal, (1995), Kadim et al., (2008) for male muscles. These differences could be attributed to age

or breed differences. Females showed high values of amino acids, but they were not significantly

different from males. No differences were observed between sexes for total SFA (48.2 and 51.4% in

males and females, respectively), total MUFA (36.9 and 35.1%) and PUFA (13.6 and 12.3%)

proportions. The study revealed significant differences between male and female camels for some

specific MUFA: 18:1 delta 10-11 trans, x1.51, (P=0.05), CLA trans11, cis 9 18:2, x1.33% (P=0.11)

and trans10, cis 12 18:2, × 5.7, (P=0.03) in muscles from females compared to males. The

PUFA/SFA ratio was higher than that of beef (0.5 vs. 0.1-0.15) and close to the recommended value

for human nutrition (0.45). As in grass-fed bovines, the n-6/n-3 ratio in camel meat is lower (around

3) than that of concentrate-fed bovines (more than 7), and thus lower than the recommended values

of human health diets (4.0).

References

Dawood, A. A., & Alkanhal, M. A. (1995). Nutrient composition of Najdi-camel meat. Meat Science,

39: 71–78.

Elgasim, E. A., & Alkanhal, M. A. (1992). Proximate composition, amino acids and inorganic mineral

content of Arabian camel meat: Comparative study. Food Chemistry, 45: 1–4.

Kadim, I.T., Al-Ani, M.R., Al-Maqbaly,R.S., Mansour, M.H., Mahgoub, O. and Johnson, E.H.

(2011). Proximate, amino acid, fatty acid and mineral composition of raw and cooked camel

(Camelus dromedarius). British Food Journal, 113 (4): 482-494.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchas, R.W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and

meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science,

80: 555-569.

Kurtu, M. Y. (2004). An assessment of the productivity for meat and carcass yield of camel (Camelus

dromedarious) and the consumption o f camel meat in the Eastern region of Ethiopia.

Tropical Animal Health and Production, 36: 65–76.

Listrat, A., Picard, B., Jailler, R., Collignon, H., Pecatte, J.R., Micol, D., Geay, Y and Dozias, D.

(2001). Grass valorization and muscular characteristics of blonde d' Aquitaine steers. Animal

Research, 50: 105-118.

Polidori, P., Renieri, C., Antonini, M., Passamonti, P. and Pucciarelli, F. (2007). Meat fatty acid

composition of llama (Lama glama) reared in the Andean highlands. Meat Science, 75: 356–

358.

Riley, D.G., Johnson, D.D., Chase, C.C.J., West, R.L., Coleman, S.W. and Olson, T.A. (2005).

Factors influencing tenderness in steaks from Brahman cattle. Meat Science, 70: 347–356.

Stolowski, G.D., Baird, B.E., Miller, R.K., Savell, J.W., Sams, A.R., Taylor, J.F. (2006). Factors

influencing the variation in tenderness o f seven major beef muscles from three Angus and

Brahman breed crosses. Meat Science, 73: 475−483.

Woessner, J. F. (1961). The determination of collagen in tissue and protein samples containing small

proportions of amino acid. Archives o f Biochemistry and Biophysics, 93, 440–448.

Yousif, O. Kh. and Babiker, S.A. (1989). The desert camel as a meat animal. Meat Science, 26, (4):

245-254.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T9G-49NR2SY-N&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1989&_alid=1649180676&_rdoc=2&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi=5114&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=5cdf05a9d06109ebefd648375394e5d3&searchtype=a

198


77. Levels of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 in Meat of Moroccan One-Humped Dromedary

Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

M. El Khasmi1*

, R. Bergaâ 1, F. Riad

1, A. Safwate

1, E.H. Tahri

1, M. Farh

1, N. El Abbadi

2,

R. Abouhafs3 and B. Faye

4

1Laboratoire de Physiopathologie et Génétique Moléculaire. Equipe: Hormones et métabolisme,

Université Hassan II-Mohammedia, Faculté des Sciences Ben M’Sik, Casablanca, Morocco. 2Chef de l'Unité de Radio-Immuno-Analyse / division des sciences du vivant / CNESTEN, B.P. 1382

R.P., 10001, Rabat – Marocco. 3- Service vétérinaire préfectoral de Casablanca, Morocco. 4CIRAD-ES, Montpellier cedex, France.


Introduction

The dromedary camel is a good source of meat especially in areas where the climate

adversely affects the performance of other meat animals. In the one-humped camel, lean meat

contains about 78% water, 19% protein, 3% fat, and 1.2% ash with a small amount of intramuscular

fat, which renders it a healthy food for humans (Kadim et al., 2008). In man, diet is an important

determinant of plasma 25-OH-D concentrations which is lower in vegetarians than in meat and fish

eaters (Crowe et al., 2011). However, the information available on nutritional value of camel meat is

very limited, and to the best of our knowledge, there is no report evaluating the amount of vitamin D3

amount in the meat of camels. Therefore, this study was undertaken to determine the 25-OH-D3 levels

in serum and tissues of camel.

Materials and Methods Samples of blood, muscle longissimus thoracis (between the 10th and the 13th rib of the left

side), liver and kidney were collected from ten 4-5 years old male Moroccan dromedary camels

(Camelus dromedarius) weighing 300–350 kg. The 25-OH-D3 levels were analyzed by

radioimmunoassay method in the National Center of Science and Nuclear Technical Energy in

Maamoura, Morocco. Validation for 25-OH-D3 assays included limits of detection, and precision in

standard curve following sample dilution, inter- and intra-assays. Values were expressed as mean and

standard error (SE) and analyzed by the student test for comparison between samples, and P<0.05 was

seen as statistically significant.

Results and Discussion Levels of 25-OH-D3 in serum (ng/mL), liver, kidney and muscle (ng/g) in dromedary camels

were 390±45; 7.071±1.003; 6.154±1.067 and 4.241±1.045, respectively (Table 1). Levels in liver

were significantly higher than those in muscle (p< 0.05; Table 1). Despite the circulating levels of 25-

OH-D3very higher in camels than those of domestic ruminants, the amounts of 25-OH-D3 in the

various tissues of the camel (muscle, liver and kidney) are similar to the amounts reported for this

constituent in the corresponding tissues of several domestic ruminants (Table 1).

Table 1. Circulating (ng/mL) and meat levels (ng/g) in camel and bovine species.

Cow

Liver

Kidney

Muscle

Serum

4.5±2.6

4.2±2.0

1.83±0.24

88±7.1

Cho et al., 2006

Beef

Liver

Kidney

Muscle

Plasma

2.59±0.73

3.02±1.13

1.68±0.37

62.66±16.74

Foote et al., 2004

Camel

Liver

Kidney

Muscle

Serum

7.071±1.003

6.154±1.067

4.241±1.045

390±45

Present study

Only a limited number of foods naturally contain vitamin D such as fish, meat and offal, eggs,

milk and dairy products. Dietary vitamin D is absorbed in the small intestine and hydroxylated in the

199


liver to form 25-OH-D3, the major circulating form of the vitamin, which is further hydroxylated in

the kidney to form 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, the active form of the vitamin (Holick et Chen, 2008).

Other factors, such as vitamin D supplementation, degree of skin pigmentation, and amount and

intensity of sun exposure have greater influence on circulating 25-OH-D than diet. The low

concentrations of serum 25-OH-D are associated with rickets, osteoporosis, heart disease, cancers,

diabetes, autoimmune diseases, depression, and chronic pain (Holick and Chen, 2008). Camels are

good potential meat producers especially in arid regions where other meat-producing animals do not

thrive. Camel meat contains a 25-OH-D3 amounts similar to those of ruminant meats, thus it‘s

acceptable for human consumption and may replace meat from other animals.

References Cho, Y.M., Choi, H., Hwang, I.H., Kim, Y.K and Myung, K.H. (2006). The tenderness of beef from

cull native Korean cows and manipulated dietary cation-anion difference on effects of 25-

hydroxyvitamin D. J Anim Sci, 84:1481-1488.

Crowe, F.L., Steur M., Allen, N.E., Appleby, P.N., Travis, R.C and Key, T.J. (2011). Plasma

concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and

vegans: results from the EPIC-Oxford study. Public Health Nutr, 14: 340-346.

Foote, M.R., Horst, R.L., Huff-Lonergan, E.J., Trenkle, A.H., Parrish, F.C. Jr and Beitz, D.C (2004).

The use of vitamin D3 and its metabolites to improve beef tenderness. J Anim Sci, 82: 242-

249.

Holick, M.F and Chen, T.C. (2008). Vitamin D deficiency: a world wide problem with health

consequences. Am J Clin Nutr; 87: 1080S-1086S.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O and Purchas, R.W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and

meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius). Meat Science,

80: 555-569.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Appleby%20PN%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Travis%20RC%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Key%20TJ%22%5BAuthor%5D

200


78. Nutritional Value and Organoleptic Qualities of Camel Meat Marketed by Butchers

in Tunisia

K. Mounir1*

, T. Lasaad1, B.R. Mustapha

1, Zeineb Arfaoui

1, J. Borni

1 and B. Ridha

2

1 Département des productions animales Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture 7030 Mateur Tunisia ;

2INA Tunisie, 1083, Mahrajène, Tunis, Tunisia.


Introduction

Data on nutritional and organoleptic qualities of camel meat are rare hence the importance of

studies on camel meat in Tunisia (Kamoun, 1995, 2003 Kamoun et al., 2009). These studies have

shown that the organoleptic qualities of camel meat are similar to those of cattle slaughtered at

comparable ages, but nutritional and dietetic qualities are superiors to those of red meat consumed in

Tunisia. This work has focused on the comparison of nutritional and organoleptic qualities of camel

and beef meat marketed in the same shop.


Seven muscles: Psoas major (PM), Longissimus dorsi (LD), Semimembranosus (SM),

Semitendinosus (ST), Vastus lateralis (VL), Triceps brachii caput longum (TB) and Glutéobiceps

(GB), were removed from carcasses of seven non fattened young camel males. The young animals

were purchased from Gafsa cattle market by butchers in Kairouan and Tunis. These muscles were

compared with those of beef marketed in the same shop.

Muscles samples were trimmed of visible connective tissue and minced for chemical analysis.

Moisture and ash were determined according to AOAC (1975). Fat fraction was determined as

described in Randhall methods (1974). Tenderness was appreciated by determination of Total

collagen by extraction and measurement of hydroxyproline according to the method of Bergman and

Loxley (1963) adapted by Bonnet and Kopp (1984). The pH was at 4 ,12, 24, 48, 72 and 84 hour post-

mortem made using a pH meter (Précisa type). The color was studied according to two methods:

Myoglobine content by Horsney (1956) method and instrumental color as well as L*(lightness),

a*(redness), and b*(yellowness) values by Chroma Meter (Minolta, Type CR-410). The nutritional

quality of the meat was studied through chemical composition of the fatty acid. The method used is

the gas phase chromatography (GPC) (ISO 5508, 1990).

Results And Discussion

Table 1 shows the postmortem meat quality traits and sensory attributes of the fresh camel

and beef meat. The analysis of samples reveals that the meat of dromedary is richer in water than that

of the beef. The moisture differences between the two species of meat are significant (P < 0.001).

Camel and beef meat had similar protein and ash content (P > 0.05). However, the fat content in both

types of meats reveal that the dromedary meat is leaner, the difference was highly significant (P <

0.001). The organoleptic qualities of meat were assessed by determining the tenderness and color. The

color of the meat is mainly dependent on the concentration of myoglobin and tenderness is inversely

proportional to the amount of collagen in the muscle. In terms of instrumental color, expressed by the

physical parameters L*(lightness), a*(redness), b*(yellowness) and the content of myoglobin, both

meat are similar. However, the collagen content is significantly lower (P <0.001) in the camel muscle.

The Muscles pH was measured at 4, 12, 24,36, 48, and 72 h postmortem. At 4h post-mortem

the pH is 6.60. The monitoring of pH fall shows that the ultimate pH is reached between 24 and 48

hours post-mortem. However, the pH stabilizes after 48 hours. The evolution of pH is almost identical

for both types of meat (P<0.001).

The lipid analysis revealed that the fatty acid profile differs according to anatomical muscles

location. Overall camel meat is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids than beef, with the difference being

highly significant (P <0.001). However, the saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids

proportions were not significantly different (P>0.05). Camel meat was rich in polyunsaturated fatty

acids of ω3 and ω6 series and contains less cholesterol. These high nutritional and dietary qualities

make the camel meat an ideal healthy local.

201


Conclusions

Comparing the chemical composition and organoleptic and nutritional qualities of beef and

camel, showed that the camel meat is leaner but contains more water, protein and minerals compared

to beef. In terms of organoleptic characters, camel meat has a similar color to beef but was more

tender. On the other hand, the richness of camel meat in polyunsaturated fatty acids low levels of fat

and cholesterol provide additional benefits that classifies it as lean meat and recommended it included

in diets to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Table 1: postmortem meat quality traits and sensory attributes of the fresh camel and beef meat

Meat Characteristics Dromedary Beef

Moisture (%) 78.14±0.73 76.52 ± 0.7

Dry matter (%) 21.85±0.33 23.48±0.99

Ash (%) 1.44±0.21 1.07±0.12

Fat (%) 0.43±0.21 2.00±0.89

Protein (%) 20.03±0.27 20.41±2.09

Myoblobin (mg/g 100g) 3.87±0.94 3.47±1.34

Collagen (mg/ g 100g) 6.67±0.73 9.40±0.61

pH 24 (h PM) 5.73 ±0.13 5.61±0.16

pH 48 (h PM) 5.63±0.2 5.57±0.11

L*(lightness) 48 (h PM) 42.62±2.04 42.68± 1.58

a* (redness) 48 (h PM) 18.29± 0.75 18.53 ±0.65

b*(yellowness) 48 (h PM) 3.66±0.65 3.42 ±1.22

SFA (%TFA ) 36.16 ± 8.47 38.24 ± 5.84

MUFA (% TFA ) 45.57 ± 3.97 54.67±6.62

PUFA (% TFA ) 18.43±11.55 6.97± 3.22

Oleic acid (C18:1) (% TFA ) 33.17±1.89 41,95 ± 4,82

Palmitic acid(C16:0) (% TFA ) 19.65 ± 3.83 22,1±1,37

Linoléic acid C18:2 ω 6) (% TFA ) 13.99±11.75 4.44 ±2,54

Alpha-linolénic acid (C18:3 ω 3) (% TFA) 1.20 ± 0,22 0.90±0,32

Total ω 6 % (% TFA ) 15.16±10.68 5.20±2.86

Total ω 3 (% TFA ) 2.87±0.89 1.52±0.56

PUFA/SFA 0.61±0.53 0.19±0.09

ω 6/ ω 3 5.56 ±4.52 3.36 ±1.20

Cholesterol (mg/100 g FM) 6.10 ± 4.45 42.49 ± 19.13 FM: Fresh Muscle; h PM: hour Post Mortem; TFA: Total fatty acids;

SFA : Saturated fatty acids; MUFA : Monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA : Polyunsaturated fatty acids

References

AOAC., 1975. Official Method of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 12 Ed,

Washington DC.

Bergman I., Loxley R., 1963. Two improved and simplified methods for the spectrophotometric

determination of hydroxyproline. Analytical Chemistry, 35 : 1961-1965.

Bonnet M., et Kopp J., 1984. Dosage du collagène dans les tissus conjonctifs. La viande et les

produits carnés, Cahiers Techniques de l‘INRA, 5 : 19-30.

Horsney H.C., 1956. The color of cooked cured pork. J. sci. Food agri., 7: 534-540.

ISO 5508, 1990. Corps gras d‘origine animale et végétale ; analyse par chromatographie en phase

gazeuse des esters méthyliques d‘acides gras. Organisation internationale de normalisation,

Suisse : 11 p.

Kamoun, M. (1995). Dromedary meat: production, qualitative aspects and acceptability for

transformation. Option Mediterraneennes Serie B, Etudes et Recherches, 13, 105–130.

Kamoun, M. (2004). Meat recording systems in camelids. ICAR Thechnical Series, N°11, 105-130

Kamoun M., Rekik B., Bouzazi M., Tayechi L. (2009). Quality of camel meat marketed by butchers

in Tunisia. The Second Conference of the ISOCARD Djerba (Tunisia): 11th-14 th March,

2009

Randhall E.L. 1974. Improved method for fat and oil analysis by a new process of extraction. J.

AOAC, 57,5:165-168.

202


79. Distribution and Measurements of Bone in the Omani Camel Carcass

O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim, W. Al-Marzooqi, S.M. Al-Lawatia and A.S. Al-Abri

Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Sultan

Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123;


Introduction

The camel can survive and thrive under harsh environmental conditions and provide animal

protein for deprived segments of society. It may also be raised under intensive management to

produce good quality carcasses and meat for the modern supermarket industry. Skeletal growth is

essential for body growth and carcass quality. Growth in length affects bone and muscle

characteristics (Mahgoub, 1988). Proportions of bone in the carcass influence other edible

components (muscle and fat). Carcass tissue distribution especially bone, is not well studied in

camels. Camel carcasses are unique due to the animal‘s shape with a large variable size hump and

shallow sloping hind limb. This study aimed at studying the distribution of bone in the camel carcass.


Ten Omani camels were raised under intensive management and slaughtered over a range of

218-322 kg body weight. Carcasses were dissected to individual carcass tissues (muscle, bone, fat and

waste). Individual bones were dissected out, cleaned of adhering tissue then weighed to nearest g on a

digital scale. Individual bones were measured in length using a caliper to the nearest centimeter. They

were also measured in diameter using a caliper to the nearest mm and circumference using a string to

the nearest cm. basic statistical analyses was carried out using Excel, Microsoft package.


Approximately one quarter of the camel carcass weight (24.1%) is made of bone. The camel

carcasses also contained 56.4, 9.0 and 10.5% muscle, fat and waste. The proportion of bone in the

carcass is important as it affects other components particularly muscle and fat thus affecting carcass

conformation and quality. The axial skeleton contained 45% of the camel carcass bone (Table 1)

whereas the forelimb and hindlimb contained similar proportions (27 and 28 % of the side total bone).

The forequarter (cervical and thoracic vertebrae plus ribs, sternum and forelimb) constituted about

62% whereas the hindquarter (lumber and sacral vertebrae plus pelvis and hindlimb) constituted 38%

of the carcass bone. Most of the extra weight comes from the long heavy neck.

Table 1. Weigh of bone and percentage of bone in the total bone of Omani camels

Parameter Mean SD Max Min

Slaughter weight (kg) 257 32.28 322 218

Carcass weight (kg) 121 21.26 169 95

Total vertebral column 22 1.64 24.5 19.7

Ribs 9 0.82 10 7

Sternum 7 1.14 9 5

Axial skeleton 45 2.61 48 39

Scapula 5 0.47 6 5

Humerus 10 0.52 11 10

Radius and ulna 10 0.50 10 9

Carpus 2 0.58 2 1

Forelimb 27 1.02 29 26

Pelvis 6 0.38 6 5

Femur 10 0.74 12 10

Tibia 8 0.78 9 6

Patella 1 0.08 1 1

Tarsus 3 0.56 4 2

Hind limb 28 1.88 32 26

Forequarter 62.3 2.11 63.2 64.7

Hindquarter 37.7 2.11 36.8 41.1

203


The forequarter is larger in the camel carcass (Kadim et al., 2008). This affects the

distribution of other tissues in the carcass. Muscle, bone and fat content were 59.3, 4.5 and 36.2% in

the forequarter and 66.5, 14.9 and 17.3% in the hindquarter (Kamoun, 1995).The tibia was the longest

and thickest bone in the carcass followed by the femur (Table 2). Camel bones are longer than those

of Omani Dhofari cattle of 210 kg body weight (Mahgoub et al., 1995). However, bones of both

species appear to be of comparable width. This study indicated that bone is variably distributed in

camel carcass which would affect carcass conformation and quality.

Table 2 Measurement of individual bones in Omani camel carcasses

Parameter

Mean SD Mode Median Max Min

Femur length (cm) 44.4 2.37 43.2 44.2 49.6 40.2

Humerus length (cm) 34.0 0.96 34.3 34.2 35.4 32.4

Radius and ulna length (cm) 41.7 0.96 40.9 42.0 42.8 40.0

Tibia length (cm) 51.9 1.05 52.9 52.3 53.1 50.4

Femur width (mm) 33.6 1.99 N/A 34.0 36.9 30.7

Humerus width (mm) 39.0 3.14 N/A 38.9 43.2 34.5

Radius and ulna width (mm) 35.8 4.93 N/A 37.5 40.7 24.7

Tibia width (mm) 41.3 4.70 N/A 42.1 47.4 32.8

Femur circumference (cm) 11.0 0.61 11.0 11.0 12.0 10.2

Humerus circumference (cm) 13.6 0.82 13.0 13.4 14.8 12.7

Radius and ulna circumference (cm) 11.4 0.52 11.7 11.6 12.3 10.8

Tibia circumference (cm) 12.2 0.84 11.4 12.0 13.4 11.0

References

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchas, R.W. (2008). A review of the growth and carcass and meat

quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science,80:

555-569.

Kamoun, M. 1995. Dromedary meat: production, qualitiative aspects and acceptability for

transformation. Option Mediterraneennes Serie B, Etudes et Recherches, 13, 105-130.

Mahgoub, O. 1988. Studies in normal and manipulated growth of sheep with special reference to

skeletal growth. PhD thesis, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury, New Zealand.

Mahgoub, O., F.H. Olvey & D.C. Jeffrey. 1995. Growth and composition of the Omani Dhofari

cattle. 2. Distribution of carcass tissues. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences.

8(6): 617-625.

204


80. A Review of Camel Meat as a Precious Source of Nutrition

A.M. Ahhmed1,2,3

and H. Yetim1*

1Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri 38039, Turkey

2Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo,

Tokyo 113-8657, Japan

3School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara 252-5201, Japan


Introduction

Camel meat is very popular and readily available in certain places of the world. Camel meat is

not well known in the Western and Far-East communities such as Europe and South East Asia. The

dromedary camel is a good source of meat especially in areas where the climate adversely affects the

performance of other meat animals. This is because of its unique physiological characteristics,

including great tolerance to high temperatures, solar radiation, water scarcity, rough topography and

poor vegetation (Kadim, et al. 2008). Camel meat is more consumed in some Middle Asia, North

Africa and Middle-eastern countries, which are considered poor in both their agricultural land and

water resources as the desert is covering huge parts of the total area. Those countries are self-

sustained in camel meat production. However, they continue to make strides towards achieving self

sufficiency in relation meat products by using new agricultural technologies. Hence, food security will

remain at the top of their priority list of which securing sufficient animal protein is the most

challenging task, compared to all the other nutritional requirements. Camel production in both the

commercial and rural sectors can provide a quick and a most cost effective solutions for this

nutritional problem. However, camels are one of the underlying elements of the national economy and

food security for many regions in the world such as Middle-East, Africa, some Asian countries and

Australia. Camel husbandry has been slightly improved, and the domesticated camel in the world

tenuously increased from 1978 to 1999 at the rate of 17.0 to 19.0 million heads, respectively

(Hertrampf, 1997). In other words, the rate of camels‘ growth is around 0.5% per year.

Quality and nutritional background

From the quality point of view, camel carcasses are slender and have less amount of fat when

compared to other red meats. The edible meat tissue from camels also contains less cholesterol than

beef or lamb, which suggests that camel meat is healthier (Kadim, et al., 2008). The taste of camel

meat is generally appreciated, slightly tender something between beef and veal if they slaughtered as

young as yearling (Huwar). The camel meat color is dark to red (particularly the meat of old camels),

in raw condition it is somehow fibrously and requires a special, adequate manufacturing in process.

Most recently, the fact that meat quality has evolved further from just implying lean yield

percentage and back fat thickness. For example, quality now refers to all or some of the following: (i)

carcass characteristics and composition, such as carcass uniformity and consistency, lean yield, (ii)

meat characteristics such as colour, marbling, pH, DFD (dark, firm and dry) score, (iii) eating quality

characteristics including tenderness, juiciness and flavour, (iv) nutritional characteristics such as

protein, vitamin and mineral contents (Grunert, et.al 2004). Camel meat is a good supplier of protein,

vitamin A and D and also contains rich amount of efficient fatty acids. Regarding the relative camel

species, Alpaca meat appears to be not only suitable but also attractive for human consumption, from

both the chemical composition and technological meat quality points of view. More specifically, (1)

proximate composition of alpaca muscle was characterized by a relatively low intramuscular fat

content (2%) and a high ratio of protein to fat, (2) mineral and amino acid compositions, PUFA:SFA

ratio and CLA content were similar to those of beef and sheep meat (Salva, et.al 2009).

A little attention has been paid for the benefits of camel meat, especially the chemical

composition and its value, although camel meat have shown that it has some distinct qualities which

perceive it from other red meat types such as mutton and beef. The most highly considerable

characters of the camel meats are its low fat matter and high moisture content and also considered as

rich in protein content and a multivitamin commodity. Camel meat contains a high ratio of good

quality of protein. Generally, vitamin A plays many critical functions, both preventive and

therapeutic. Vitamin A helps keep human skin and mucus membrane cells healthy and stimulates

immune system response, which helps fight outer infections. Another important function of vitamin A

205


is that it acts as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells against cancer and other diseases. Vitamin B1

is needed to help convert the carbohydrates into glucose. The following B Vitamins are needed at a

cellular level to convert glucose into energy. The vitamin B complex is essential for the healthy

functioning of the nervous system. A deficiency in any of the vitamin B complex vitamins can lead to

feeling stress, anxious and depressed. Excluding camel, all red meat naturally contains more fat,

saturated fat and cholesterol than any other food. A chronic access intake to these lipids in the body is

directly responsible for numerous cardiovascular diseases, including coronary heart disease and high

blood pressure. As camel meat contains less fat, we therefore suggest that eating camel meat is a great

factor helps reducing risk of developing life-threatening diseases, such as obesity, cholesterol disease

and colon cancer.

Meat and fish provide valuable sources of protein for many populations around the world.

Furthermore, meat and fish proteins offer huge potential as novel sources of bioactive peptides (Ryan,

et al, 2011). The meat protein tended to have a higher percentage of the amino acidproline than the

literature values for other red meats, and lower values for tryptophan, aspartic acid, and tyrosine

(Dawood, and Alkanhal, 1995). Since camel meat contains high level of protein compared to beef, it

may have many biological active peptides after it is being degraded by the human digestive system.

Bioactive peptides from food proteins offer major potential for incorporation into functional foods and

nutraceuticals (Royan et al., 2011). Moreover, camel meat is believed by Somali and Indian people to

have remedial effects for as many as 13 different diseases, including hyperacidity, hypertension,

pneumonia and respiratory diseases and also to be an aphrodisiac (Kurtu, 2004).

Reasons contributed to consider camel meat as precious nutrition and healthy muscles food lie

in (1) high in protein content and its uniqueness, (2) low in fat and cholesterol, (3) multivitamin

muscle food (especially tocopherol group), (4) provides the essential amino acids (arg, his, ile, leu,

lys, phe, thr, trp, val, met), (5) distinguished meat from other red meat types (tender and easy to chew,

which is good for elderly people; juicy that enhances flavor for soups; tasty in which considered as

umami substance enhancer).

Conclusions

The consumption of meat has a cultural value. A respectful and careful treatment of all

animals for slaughter belongs to the quality of meat. As for the camels, it seems that this requirement

is less fulfilled than for other animals with some negative hypothesis remains, which must be

overcome gradually. The authors of this article are engaged to positively review and to further

propagandize nutritional value of the camel meat. We suggest that camel meat may have remedial

effects for many different life-style related diseases, including, hypertension and cardiovascular

diseases.

References

Ryan, T. J., Ross, P. R., Bolton, D., Fitzgerald, F. G., Stanton, C. (2011). Bioactive Peptides from

Muscle Sources: Meat and Fish. Nutrients, 3, 765-791.

Kurtu, Y. (2004). An assessment of the productivity for meat and carcass yield of camel (Camelus

dromedarious) andthe consumption of camel meat in the Eastern region of Ethiopia. Tropical

Animal Health and Production, 36, 65-76.

Kadim, T., Mahgoub, O., and Purchas, W. R. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and

meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science,

80, 555-569.

Dawood, A. A., Alkanhal, A. M. (1995). Nutrient composition of Najidi-camel meat. Meat Science,

39, 71-78.

Salva, K.B., Zumalacarregui, M.J., Figueira, C.A., Osorio, T.M., and Mateo,J.(2009). Nutrient

composition and technological quality of meat from alpacas reared in Peru. Meat Science, 82,

450-455.

Grunert, G., Bredahl, L., and Brunso, K. (2004). Consumers‘ perception of meat quality and

implication of product development in the meat sector, a review. Meat Science, 66, 259-272.

Hertrampf, W. J. (2007). Ships of the desert as meat supplier. Fleischwirtschaftinternational, 1, 20-23

206


81. Machine Separation of Guard Hair from Fine Fibre of Camel Fleece

M. Moslah1, M. Hammadi

1, T. Harizi

2 and T. Khorchani

1

1 Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands Institute, 4119 Medenine, Tunisia

2 Intitut Supérieur des métiers de la Mode. 5019 Monastir, Tunisia


Introduction

It‘s well established that, camels provide a considerable quantity of hair. Traditionally, this

natural fibre is used in clothes, bedding, and in some utilitarian objects of pastors. Camel hair is

widely known for its softness, lustre, natural tan color and warmth without weight.

The fleece of camel consists of two fibre types guard hair and down fibre (Millar, 1986).

Guard hairs are coarse and typically form a protective coat over the underlying fibre. Down fibre is

finer (19–24 µm) than the guard hair (20–120 µm) (Petrie, 1995). In fact, importance of each class of

fiber varies greatly from camel to camel and from age to age. Fine fibre is used in soft clothes and

guard hair is used in bedding and utilitarian objects.

In Tunisia, the shearing of camels and collection of fibre start to be limited and the main

produced hair is lost. Very little local craft activities using camel hairs exist. This negligence is, in

part, due to the difficulties of the hand preparing, picking and separation between guard hair and

down fibre operations of the fiber before carding, milling and spilling. Picking operation is done by

teasing small amounts of hair with fingers so dirt and vegetation falls out. After that, guard hairs are

manually picked out. These operations take time and is the most difficult task requiring a great visual

concentration. In fact, this work is no longer practiced by young artisans and is conducted only by the

old craftsmen. This study aimed to develop machine separation of camel hair.


The main objectives of the development of this machine are:

• Replace the manual separation which represents a handicap for the development of camel hair craft.

• Achieve a high efficiency separation between the 2 classes of fibre limiting to less than 1% the

amount of guard hair (diameter > 30 µm) in the hair.

• Minimize damage to the length and the mechanical properties of fibers.

• Provide maximum flexibility to allow the machine to have a large number of set points and even the

possibility of changing the layout of parts of the machine.

The machine operating is based on:

- A feeding device comprising cylinder and table (Photo 1). The role of the feeding device is the

progress of the hair by sliding on the smooth table by the rotation of the cylinder at a low speed

breaker.

- A device with double-breaker:

The breaker is a drum which is mounted on a rigid trim sawtooth, helically wound along its entire

periphery. The breaker, which having 230 mm and 600 mm of diameter and length respectively,

rotates at speed of 800 tr/min. The two breakers have the same size but rotate at a different speed. The

first breaker which works at lowest speed allows a gradual working of the material. It acts as an

opener sawtooth, allows the sheet of fibers and brings them to the second breaker. The penetration of

the breaker teeth in fibers is gradually: first in the outer layer above the sheet, then gradually as it

advances, the penetration continues and the sheet is falling apart.

Hairs are tangentially projected by the centrifugal force; coarse debris and guard hair fall into the first

container while the lighter fibres (down fibres) are driven by the air stream to the perforated drum.

The suction equipment is a perforated cylinder which collects the fibers separated from the breaker by

the action of the upper cutter and deposited on its surface as a light layer; the dust is sucked through

the perforations of the drum.

The collection containers of the fibre are in the form of drawers easy to open and away from the

machine to eventually empty and clean. The drawer located at the front of the machine is reserved for

the recovery of waste and guard fibre while the second tray is placed at the back to collect the fine

fibre.

207


Photo 1: Machine for separation between guard hair and down fibre of camel fleece

The hair designated for separation was obtained from camel calves aging no more than 18

months. The weight of the fleece was about 1 kg which could be improved if sharing is done in early

summer.

The yield of mechanically fine hair is about 42%. However, it is still lower than the manually

separation which could reach 60% and with higher quality in terms of fiber length and the proportion

of the guard fibre.

References

Ansari-Renani, H.R., Salehi, M., Ebadi, Z., Moradi, S. (2010). Identification of hair follicle

characteristics and activity of one and two humped camels. Small Ruminant Research, 90: 64-

70.

Millar, 1986

Patrie, 1995

Whole fibres

Dirt, vegetation, guard

hair

Fine fibre (down fibre)

208


82. Characteristics of the One Hump Camel Leather

M. Salehi1, H.R. Ansari Renani

1, J. Mirabdolbaghi

1, A. Babak

2 and S. Shahkarami

2

1Department of Animal Production Processing, Animal Science Research Institute of Iran, Karaj,

3146618361 2Department of Animal Science, Karaj Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran


Introduction

The hide of camel is considered to be as one of the heavy type of skins and its leather is used

mainly for making shoes and sandals. The size of Tunisian camel hides are about 10-16 sq ft and the

thickness is 1.0 -22 mm (leather com. Austria, 2006). At present, the camel leather is processed using

methods defined for cattle skin. Developing methods based on hide characteristics can improve the

quality of camel leather. Few studies have been carried out on skin characteristics, processing and its

usage in domestic species. This information is required in order to utilize the camel leather for

specific purposes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the hide and leather characteristics of

the Iranian one hump camel.


Fourteen male and female dromedaries camels were slaughtered and skimed at the age of 21

months. The hides were transported to tannery house and the chrome-tanning were conducted to make

leather. The thickness at shoulder, flank and rump of both left and right sides and the thickness of

neck were measured using a manual thickness gauge. Breaking force, tensile strength and elongation

at break of leather were measured (ISO 3375).

The data obtained were analyzed statistical using general linear model (GLM) using SAS

software package (SAS / STAT User‘s Guide, 1987).

Result and Discussion

The thickness of dried hide and leather in this study was 3.5 ± 0.1 and 1.8 ± 0.1 mm,

respectively. Adel (1994) reported that the thickness of the skin differed and was dependent on the

breed, types, age, sex and different parts of the body. The average thickness for hide and leather of

Egyptian camels recorded were 3.5 and 1.9 mm, respectively (Abdelsalam and Haider, 1993) which is

similar to the results of present study.

Results indicated that, there was no significant difference in right and left sides' thickness of

camel hides (P> 0.05). The thickness of various parts of camel hides (shoulder, flank and rump) did

not show any difference but there were significant differences in the thickness between hides around

neck (P< 0.05). Salehi et al., (2010) reported the thicknesses of skin of native Iranian goats was 0.8 -

3 mm. Moreover, they reported significant effects of sex, age, genotype and area of sampling on the

thickness.

According to the standards of BSI, 6853 the characteristic and specifications of leather

clothes for sheep and cattle, the tensile strength (kgf/ cm2)

and the elongation (%) at break should be

in the range of 150 to 180 and 50 to 90 and 40 to 90 respectively. Based on BIS norm that

Sivasubramaniana et al (2009), reported the range of the strength for leather of goat and cattle were

152.96 to 254.93 and 203.94 to 305.92 kgf/cm2. They also reported the elongation at break was 40 –

80 and 60 - 80 % for goat, and cattle color crust based on the Indian standard respectively. In this

study the sex did not have any effect on any of the physical characteristics of the leather (Table. 1).

The average and range of breaking load and tensile strength was 38.1 ± 3.39 (19.7 to 63.6 %) and

214.7 ± 25.4 3 (80.8 to 394.1 kgf/cm2) and the results for the elongation at break were 61.0 ± 3.7

(37.0 to 87.3 %). These data were in accordance to Iran and Indian standard.

209


Table 1: Effect of sex on least square means and standard errors for physical

leather characteristics of one hump camels

Characteristics Body part Male Female SE P value

Hide thickness (mm) Neck 3.5 3.9 0.2 0.2

Shoulder 3.3 3.6 0.2 0.4

Flank 3.4 3.6 0.2 0.7

Rump

3.4 3.4 0.1 1.0

Crust thickness (mm) Neck 3.3 3.7 0.1 0.02*

Shoulder 3.01 3.06 0.08 0.67

Flank 3.1 3.4 0.1 0.17

Rump

3.2 3.3. 0.1 0.39

Split leather thickness (mm)

1.75 1.8 0.05 0.59

Breaking load (kgf) 36.2 39.9 4.9 0.69

Tensile strength (kgf/cm2) 204.5 224.9 37.1 0.70

Elongation (%) 58.4 63.7 5.3 0.49

References

Abdelsalam, M.M., Haider, A.I., (1993). Physical and histological properties of sheep and goatskins.

Alexandria J. Agri. Res. Egypt. 38, 117-138.

Adel, R., Elboushi, Y., (1994). Poultry feed from waste, in: Adel, R., Elboushi, Y. (Eds.), Hide and

tanning by products. Chapman & Hall. 2 – 6 Bandray row London, UK, pp. 154-156.

BSI. (1984). Specification for performance of leather for garment. 6853.

Leather com. (2006). Austria. CIF In Trade GmbH. Schwarzwaldstr. 13-76287 Rheinstetten.

Germany. http://www. leather com/.

Salehi, M., Zakheri, G., Taherpour Dari, N., Ansari Renani, H.R., Lotfiilah Nia, B., and Eghbaleh, A.,

(2010). Evaluation of Iranian native goat's skin for grading and sorting. Animal Science

Research Institute. Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Organization. Ministry of

Agriculture, Iran.

SAS/STAT. (2002). Proprietary Software Version 9.00. Licensed to Suny at Stony Brook, Site

0013402001. by SAS Institute Inc. Cary. NC. USA.

Sivasubramaniana, S., B. Murali Manoharb and R. Puvanakrishnana. (2008). Mechanism of

enzymatic dehairing of skins using a bacterial alkaline protease. Chemosphere. 70(6): 1015-

1024.

210


83. Evaluation of Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Crossbred (Dromedarius

and Bactrianus) Camel Meat in Different Parts of the Carcass

Z. Ebadi1, H.R. Ansari Renani

1, M. Salehi

1 and A. Kamalzare

2


Box: 3146618361 2 University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran


Introduction

Camels are an important food resource for people living in dry and semi dry regions.

However, the potential of the camel as a meat producer has received little attention. Camel meat is a

good source of protein and in arid zones its meat is preferred. In recent studies the quality of camel

meat products for human consumption was evaluated (Kadim, 2008; Shariatmadari, 2003 and Kurtu,

2004). Kadim (2006) indicated that camel meat is healthy and nutritious as it contains low fat, as well

as being a good source of minerals. The main objective of the present work was to determine the meat

characteristics of crosses of the Iranian dromedary and Bactrian camels.


Eleven male and female crossbred camels (Dromedarius and Bactrianus) at approximately 20

months of age were slaughtered according to Islamic procedures. Camel carcasses were kept in cold

storage at 40C for 24 hours and were divided to six cuts of carcass: leg, shoulder, breast, loin, flank

and neck. The composition of meat such as dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, ash, mineral matter

(Ca, K, Mg, P, Na, Zn and Fe), NPN, pH and energy content of six parts of carcass were measured.

The proximate physical and chemical composition of the muscle tissue was determined according to

standards methods of AOAC (1995).The general linear model (GLM) within SAS (1995) was used to

compare the differences in physical and chemical characteristics of crossbred camel meat. Significant

differences between means were assessed using the least-significant difference procedure.


The mean and range of physical and chemical characteristics of crossbred camel samples are

given in Table 1. Protein, NPN, fat of meat were significantly different (P≤0.05) in six cus of carcass.

Total carcass meat protein was 63.6±3.12 % of dry matter. The percentage of protein in leg and neck

was 77.1±3.12 and 73.9±3.12 respectively, which was higher than the other parts (P≤0.05). The

percentage of protein (50.2±3.12) and fat (33.0±3.21) in loin were higher than leg, shoulder and neck.

The NPN percentage of meat in different parts was affected by sex with females having higher levels

than males (P≤0.05). There was no differences between groups in mineral content of meat.

Table 1: Means and standard errors of meat composition of crossbred camel meat (percentage of dry matter) Factors

Dry matter protein NPN Ash Fat pH Energy

Cal/g

Sex Male 34.5±1.72 a 62.9±1.71 a 0.277±0.01 b 6.7±0.26 a 26.4±1.77 a 5.8±0.04a 6279±89 a

Female 33.1±1.89 a 64.4±1.88 a 0.311±0.01 a 7.4±0.28 a 24.0±1.94 a 5.7±0.05a 6349±98 a

Parts Neck 29.6±3.13 a 73.9±3.12 a 0.276±0.01bc 7.2±0.47a 15.6±3.21c 5.9±0.08a 6171±162a

Shoulder 32.1±3.13 a 70.8±3.12 ab 0.337±0.01a 7.1±0.47a 15.6±3.21c 5.6±0.08a 6274±162a

Loin 39.2±3.13 a 50.2±3.12 cd 0.278±0.01bc 6.6±0.47a 33.0±3.21ab 5.7±0.08a 6435±162a

Flank 38.4±3.13 a 48.9±3.12 d 0.239±0.01c 6.6±0.47a 45.3±3.21a 5.8±0.08a 6594±162a

Breast 32.7±3.13 a 61.0±3.12 bc 0.295±0.01ab 6.4±0.47a 31.3±3.21b 5.7±0.08a 6450±162a

Leg

30.8±3.13 a 77.1±3.12 a 0.336±0.01a 8.3±0.47a 10.3±3.21c 5.6±0.08a 5957±162a

Carcass

average

33.8±3.13

63.6±3.12 0.293±0.01 7.0±0.47 25.2±3.21 5.7±0.08 6313±162

* a,b,c,d Within columns, mean without a common superscript differ at p<0.05

211


References

AOAC. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th, ed., Association of Official Analytical Chemists,

Washington, DC, USA.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchasb, R.W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and

meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science.

80. 555-569.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. Al-Marzooqi, W., Al-Zadjali, S., Annamalai, K. and Mansour, M.H.

(2006). Effects of age on composition and quality of muscle Longissimus thoracis of the

Omani Arabian camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science. 73. 619-625.

Kurtu, M.Y. (2004). An assessment of the productivity for meat and the carcass yield of camels

(Camelus dromedaries) and of the consumption of camel meat in the eastern region of

Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 36. 65-76.

SAS Institute, Inc. (1995). SAS Users Guide Ststistics. SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC. USA.

Shariatmadari, R. (2003). Evaluation of Texture, Ultrastructure and Functional Properties of Camel

Meat. A thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Isfahan, Iran.

212


84. Effect of Age on Fiber Characteristics of Semnan Dromedary Female Camels

H.R. Ansari-Renani, S. Moradi, H.R. Baghershah and M. Salehi

Animal Science Research Institute, Karaj, Iran. P. O. Box 31585-1483


Introduction

Presently one hump camel population in Iran is 150,000 heads. Production of fibre from

various world dromedaries (one humped) camels has been reported (Petri, 1995). The fleece of camels

consists of two major fibre types; guard hair and down fibre (Millar, 1986). Guard hairs, which grow

from primary follicles, are coarse, medullated fibres, which typically form a protective coat over the

underlying down fibre. Down fibre grows from secondary follicles in the skin (Mitchell et al. 1991,

Nixon, et al. 1991, Restall et al. 1994) and is finer (19-24 microns) than the guard hair (20-120

microns) and non-medullated fibre (Petrie, 1995). There are no detailed descriptions of Iranian camel

fibre characteristics. The aim of this study was to evaluate the fibre characteristics of one hump camel

in Semnan province in Iran.

Materials and Methods A total of 28 one hump female camels from Semnan Province representing 3 groups: young

(<2 year-old) adult (3-7 year-old) and old (8-25 year-old) were used in this study. Sampling date was

early spring (mid-April 2010), just prior to the seasonal moult and regular shearing period. About 10

grams of fiber from the left mid-side site was clipped from a 5 × 5 cm square using regular scissors.

The fibre diameter, fiber diameter standard deviation of the washed wool sample was measured using

a projection microscope (Chapman, 1960). Down fibre staple length was obtained to the nearest 0.1

cm as the mean of three staples. Analysis of variance was performed using a general linear model

(GLM) of SAS package (SAS, 1996). All values were expressed as least square means ± SEM with

P<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.


Staple length and down fibre percentage in young camels were significantly higher than adult

and old camels. Average fibre diameter of old camels was significantly higher than young and adult

camels (Table 1). Age did not have any effect on fibre diameter coefficient of variation of fibre

diameter, and medullated fibre type. In a study with Indian one hump camel it was found that breed

had significant effect on fibre characteristics (Champak et al. 2001). In agreement with the present

study,Salehi et.al. (2003) found that young Iranian camels from Yazd and Mashad provinces had

significantly lower fibre diameter and longer staple length.

Younger camels had significantly higher percentage of down fibre, a similar finding was

reported with Mashad and Yazd one hump camels (Salehi et al. 2003). In conclusion with increasing

age of camels the quality of fibre characteristics decreases.

Table 1. Mean and standard errors of different fibre characteristics of Semnan one hump camels.

P value Old (8 to 25

years)

Mature (3 to 7

years)

Young (<2 years) Characteristics / Age

- 8 13 7 No

* 2.8±0.3b

2.4±0.2b

4.2±0.2a

Staple length (cm)

* 20.7±0.7a

18.6±0.3b

18.7±0.6b

Mean fibre diameter

(µm)

N.S 26.1±1.26 26.3±0.8 26.4±1.07 Fiber diameter CV

* 82.4±1.9b

82.7±1.3b

84.2±2.2a

Cashmere %

* 17.6±1.9a

17.2±1.3a

15.8±2.2b

Hair %

N.S 81.7±2.5 82.3±1.6 81.5±6.6 None medullated

fibre %

N.S 18.8±2.4 17.7±1.6 18.5±6.6 Medullated fibre %

** 81.3±1.5a

73.6±2.5c

79.7±1.6b

Efficiency %

213


References

Champak, B., Y. Banamali, M. S. Sahani, C. Bhkat, and B. Yadav. 2001. Effect of certain factors on

hair quality attributes in Indian dromedary camel managed in an organised farm. Indian J.

Anim. Sci. 71(10):992-994.

Millar, P., 1986. The performance of cashmere-bearing goats. Anim. Bre. Abst. 54: 188-191.

Mitchell, R. J., Betteridge, K., Gurnsey, M. P., Welch, R. A. S., Nixon, A. J., 1991. Fibre growth

cycles of cashmere-bearing reproducing does in Southern Hawkes Bay, New Zealand, over 30

month period. New Zeal. J. ofAgri. Res. 34: 287-294.

Nixon, A. J., Gurnsey, M. P., Betteridge, K.,m Mitchell, R. J., Welch, R. A. S., 1991. Seasonal hair

follicle activity and fibre growth in some New Zealandcashmere-bearing goats (Caprus

hircus). J. of Zoo. London, 224, 589-598.

Restall, B. J., Restall, H., Restall, M. Parry, A., 1994. Seasonal production ofcashmere and

environmental modification in Australian cashmere goats. European Fine Fibre Network,

Occasional Publication. 2: 63-73.

Salehi, M., Taherpour, N,. Izadi, V. F. 2003. Preliminary study on determination of camel fibre

characteristics. Agriculture science journal. 34: 597-605.

214


Milk

and

Nutrition

215


85. Impact of Long-Term Feeding Atriplex (Saltbush) On Camel's Milk Production

Under Arid Conditions

Safinaz M. Shawket1 and A.H. Ibrahem

2

1Department of Animal and Poultry Nutrition, Desert Research Center, P.O. Box: 11753 El-Mataria

Cairo, Egypt – Tel: 202 6335449 – Fax: 202 6357858. Email: [email protected] 2Department of Animal and Poultry Breeding, Desert Research Center, El-Mataria, Cairo, Egypt


Introduction

Camels are reliable milk producers with a long lactation period and they maintain milk

production throughout long dry spells when milk from cattle and goats is scarce. The information on

the milk off take of camels varies according to the management of camels in their natural environment

or under improved condition (Yagil, 1982). Atriplex (saltbushes) are the main forage resource for

feeding ruminants in arid and semi-arid regions. There are claims that feeding saltbushes to small

ruminants has drastic effects on milk production and composition (Abu-Zanat and Tabbaa, 2005).

Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the long-term of feeding Atriplex on camel milk

yield, gross composition and milk production requirements.


A flock of dry female camels before meeting season was blocked by weight into two groups.

Each animal of the two groups was fed concentrate mixture of 60 % ground yellow corn plus 40%

ground barley grains to cover 100% of the maintenance energy requirements (Wardeh and Farid,

1990) with ad lib. Berseem hay for the first group (BHG) and ad lib. fresh Atriplex halimus for the

second group (AHG). This experimental dietary regimen lasted throughout the pregnancy period up to

weaning. At the beginning of lactating season two groups of lactating female camels (average weight

515.4± 3.60 kg and aged 7-9 years) were used (8 camels each). Fresh tape water was a viable for

drinking once daily. Daily milk yield was measured every two weeks along period of 10 months by

using the standard hand–milking procedure. Milk samples were analyzed according to the procedure

of AOAC (1990), phenol–sulfuric spectrophotometric method and atomic absorption spectroscopy.

The data analysis were carried out according to the SPSS package (SPSS v.12, 2001),


Inclusion fresh Atriplex (saltbush) instead of berseem hay in the diet of camels increased

(p<0.05) the milk production (4.00 vs. 3.31 kg/day/camel, respectively) which could be attributed to

the higher moisture content of fresh Atriplexin comparison with berseem hay (72.43 vs. 12.73 %,

respectively).

Camels fed Atriplex had a lactation curve with two peaks at fifth and seventh months of

calving whereas, the lactation curve of camel group fed berseem hay has one peak at fourth month of

calving. Al –Sheikh and Salah (1994) indicated that lactation curve of camels differ from that of

cows and it may be have one or two peaks and reached their milk peak during the first 6-10 weeks

(Chamberlain, 1989) after parturition. This difference of camel milk peak timing reveals the camel

persistence on high milk production and may be due to variation in nutritional state of camels (Lan

dete –Castillajos et al, 2002).

Chemical composition of camel milk is in the range of: 2.9-5.5 % fat, 2.5-4.5 % total protein,

2.9-5.8 % lactose, 0.35-0.95 % ash and 11.5-13.7 % total solid (Khan and Iqbal 2001). These

differences in chemical composition of camel milk may be due to factors such as stage of lactation,

age, number of calving, nutritional state and water intake (Chamberlain, 1989). It was noticeable that

the milk of AH camel group contains the highest (P<0.05) protein level. This was mainly attributed to

the higher crude protein (%) content of Atriplex than berseem hay (16.89 vs. 12.68 %) which

confirmed the early conclusion that the feed protein content will directly affect milk protein (%)

content and is also responsible for increasing milk lactose (%) content (Wilson, 1984).

The milk titrable acidity and conductivity values of camels group fed BH were higher

(P<0.05) than those of camels group fed AH. This is may be due to the secondary compounds

(oxalates and tannins) and higher salt content of Atriplex. These anti-nutritional factors have ability to

bind with minerals forming insoluble salts (Nagwa et al., 2002) which lead to decrease (P<0.05) milk

Tel:202

216


conductivity value of camel group fed AH, whereas, milk conductivity mainly depend on soluble salt

fractions (Noberg, 2005).

Milk macro-elements (Na, K and Ca %) content of the AHG were higher (P<0.05) than the

BHG. This may be due to the higher Atriplex content (%) of Na, K and Ca (Nabag et al., 2006) than

those in berseem hay (Khattab, 2007).

Calculated protein and energy requirements to produce one litre of camel‘s milk were 2.08, 1.35

Mcal ME and 79.51, 76.73 gm DCP for BHG and AHG camel groups, respectively (Shawket and

Ahmed, 2009 and Shawket et al., 2010). These results indicated that the experimental nutritional

regimen were enough to cover the nutrient requirements need for both maintenance and milk

production requirements.

Conclusion

Camels are able to produce milk under prolonged feeding of Atriplex (saltbush) with suitable

source of energy supplementation without changing either milk chemical composition or milk

physical properties. This system of nutrition successfully provided more than the protein and energy

needs for both maintenance requirements or milk production.

References Abu-Zanat, M.M.W., and Tabbaa, M.J. (2005). Effect of feeding Atriplex browse to lactating ewes on

milk yield and growth rate of their lambs. Small ruminant Research. 1-10.

Al-Sheikh, M.A. and Salah, M.S. (1994). Effect of milking interval on secretion rate and composition

of camel milk in late lactation. J. Dairy Res. 61: 451-456.

A.O.A.C. (1990). Official Methods of Analysis. 15th edition. Association of Official Analytical

Chemists. Washington DC.

Khan, B.B. and Iqbal, A. (2001). Production and composition of camel milk. Review. Pakistan J. of

Agriculture sci. 38: 64-67.

Khattab, I.M.A. (2007). Studies on halophytic forages as a sheep fodder under arid and semi-arid

conditions in Egypt. Ph.D. Alexandria University-Egypt.

Landete-Castillejos, T., Garcia, A.T., Gomez, J.A., Laborda, J. and Gallego, L. (2002). Effects of

nutritional stress during lactation on immunity costs and indices of future reproduction in

Iberian red deer (Cervus alophus hisponicus). Biology of Reproduction. 67, 613-1620.

Nabag, M.G. I., Alatti, Khadiga, A. and El-Zubeir, Ibtisam E.M. (2006). Milk Composition of camels

and Goats Grazing in the Extensive pasture of Butana Area in Sudan. The international

Scientific Conference on Camels 9-11 May 2006 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of

Higher Education, Qassim University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine. P.

2176-2186.

Ngwa, A.T., Nsahlai, I.V. and Iji, P.A. (2002). Effect of supplementing veld hay with a dry meal or

silage from pods of Acacia sieberiana with or without wheat bran on voluntary intake,

digestibility, excretion of purine derivatives, nitrogen utilization, and weight gain in South

African Merino sheep. Livestock Production science 77. 253-264.

Norberg, E. (2005). Electrical conductivity of milk as a phenotypic and genetic indicator of bovine

mastitis: A review, 129-139.

Shawket, S.M. and Ahmed, M.H. (2009). Effect of prolonged feeding Atriplex (saltbush) to camels on

digestibility, nutritive value and nitrogen utilization. Egyptian J. Nutrition and Feeds, 12 (3)

Special Issue: 205 – 214.

Shawket, M.S., Youssef, M.K. and Ahmed, M.H. (2010). Comparative evaluation of Egyptian clover

and Atriplex halimus diets for growing and milk production in camel. Animal Science

Reporter, Vo. 4,Issue 1, 9– 21.

SPSS. Version 12., 2001. Soft ware package for Social Science for Windows.

Wardeh, M.F. and Farid M.F.A. (1990). Nutrient requirements (Energy and Protein) of the dromedary

camels. Symp. Animal Science Division in the Arab University and Workshop on

development of camel production. March 4-7, 1990. Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates.

ACSAD/AS/P103/1990.

Yagil, R and Etzion, Z. (1980). Effect of drought condition on the quality of camel milk. J. of Dairy

Res., 47: 159 - 166.

217


Table 1: Effect of feeding Atriplex (saltbush) on chemical composition of camel milk

a, b Means followed by different latter in the same column are significantly different, P<0.05

Table 2: Effect of feeding Atriplex (saltbush) on physical properties of camel milk


Table 3: Effect of feeding Atriplex (saltbush) on macro – elements (%) content in camel milk


Table 4: Calculated values of energy (MJ ME/kg0.75

) and protein (g/kg0.75

)requirements for

maintenance and producing milk compared to the recommended stander requirements for suckling

camels

Item

Experimental diets Requirements according to

BHG AHG

Wardeh and Farid*

BHG AHG

ME MJ

DCP gm

0.79

5.78

0.76

5.78

0.58 0.62

4.31 4.67

1kg TDN = 3.62 Mcal /ME 1Mcal = 4.18 MJ

* Wardeh and Farid (1990)

Item

Milk chemical composition

Total solids Total protein Fat Lactose Ash

Berseem hay group 12.10b±0.16 3.10

b±0.14 3.30±0.14 4.80

b±0.18 0.83±0.03

Atriplex halimus group 12.32s±0.93 3.34

a±0.24 3.20±0.26 4.98

a±0.81 0.98±0.08

Item

Milk physical properties

PH Titrable acidity Specific gravity Conductivity

(%) mS/cm(18ºc)

Berseem hay group

Atriplex halimus

groupp

6.67±0.05 0.170a±0.01 1.03±0.02 5.98

a±0.25

6.78±0.09 0.164b±0.01 1.03±0.01 5.16

b±0.37

Item

Milk macro – element (%) content

Na K Ca mg

Berseem hay group 66.78b±0.8 109.37

b±1.9 115.99

b±3.8 12.46±0.40

12.39±0.21 Atriplex halimus

group

72.19a±1.6 119.76

a±2.5 118.07

a±2.6

218


86. Camel Gruyere Cheese Making

G. Konuspayeva1,2

, B. Faye2,3

, A. Baubekova1 and G. Loiseau

3

1Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan [email protected]

2Camel Range and Research Center, PO Box 322, Al Jouf, KSA

3CIRAD-ES, Montpellier, France, [email protected]


Introduction

The uniqueness of camel milk is illustrated by its low quantity of k-caseins of only around 3%

compared to cow milk 13% (Farah, 1993). Traditionally, processing of camel milk is only for

fermented liquid products. However, after several studies on technological aspects it is now possible

to produce camel cheese. Some authors described some technologies to make soft and hard type of

cheese (Ramet, 1985). Nevertheless the variety of available cheese from camel milk is quite limited.

Most of the researches focused on the origin of chymosin to improve the clotting efficiency rather

than to adapt technologies for increasing the variability of final products. The objectives of the present

study are to make camel cheese type gruyere (cooked or not) and to control microbiological safety.


Camel milk was collected from healthy dromedary camels from the herd of the Camel and

Range Research Center, Al-Jouf, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) at mid of lactation stage. For

clotting, camel milk specific chymosin for camel milk (ChyMax Hansen©, Denmark) was used. To

produce Gruyere cheese, specific ferments comprising Lactobacillus helveticus and Lactobacillus

lactis(Coquard ™, France) were used.

Two trials were carried out using 5 and 10 liters of camel milk, but the procedure was the

same. Gruyere ferments were added to whole camel milk at ambient temperature, and then incubated

for 1 hour. Camel chymosin was added for clotting (for 1-2 h) and then the clot was cut into cube of 1

cm3. After incubation for 1.5 hour the clot was either heated (at 55

oC for 40-45 minutes) or not

heated. It was then hand-filled into cloths; for a first draining for 15 minutes, and a second one in

moulds for 4-24 h. After draining, the pressed cheese (375 kg per m2) was put in brine (10-20%) for

0.5-10 hours. Ripening of cheese was achieved in two steps: for 2-3 weeks at 10-14oC and 2-4 weeks

more at 24-26oC.

Evaluation analysis was achieved according to the standards: 9225-84 Milk and milk

products. Microbiological method of analysis, 30347-97 Milk and milk products. Method of

determination of Staphylococcus aureus, 10444.11-91 "Food products. Method of detection of lactic

microorganisms". By using those standard, mesophilic aerobe and anaerobe facultative bacteria,

coliforms, pathogen Staphylococcus aureus and lactic bacteria were quantified.


Finally, ten cheeses were prepared, six from 5 liters camel milk and 4 from 10 liters. Half of

the cheeses in both groups were cooked (n= 5) and the others non-cooked (n=5). The average yield

was 6.3 ± 1.3% with slight variability according to cooked or non-cooked status and according to

processed milk quantity (Table 1).

Table 1. Cheese yield according to quantity of processed camel milk and cooking status

Type of cheese From 5 liters From 10 liters Total

Cooked 7.3 ± 0.9 5.0 ± 0.5 6.4 ± 1.4

Non-cooked 6.9 ± 0.3 4.9 ± 0.8 6.1 ± 1.2

Total 7.1 ± 0.7 4.9 ± 0.5 6.3 ± 1.3

The higher yield in small quantity of processed camel milk is mainly due to the duration of ripening

time. Texture (crumbly or firm), color (white to yellow) and taste (more or less salty) varied

according to different parameters (quantity of processed milk) cooking status, duration of brining

and/or ripening (Photos 1).

219


Microbiological results. Regarding microbiological status, no pathogen microflora was detected,

except for very small quantity of St.aureus in two cheeses (Table 2). The presence of pathogen

bacteria could be attributed to post processing contamination.

Table 2. Number of bacteria in one gram of camel cheese type gruyere

Cheese nb

Total

microflora Coliform St.aureus Lactobacillus Streptococcus Moistures

1 5,4*10-7

n d n d n d 7,7*10-7

nd

2 1,6*10-5

n d n d n d 3,3*10-5

nd

3 3,4*10-6

n d n d 1,3*10-4

4,1*10-6

nd

4 1,6*10-7

n d 10 5,5*10-4

6,1*10-6

nd

5 10-8

< n d 6 9,6*10-6

10-8

< Penicillium

6 10-8

< n d n d 8,7*10-6

10-8

< Penicillium

7 1,5*10-8

n d n d 5,3*10-6

10-8

< Penicillium

8 9,3*10-6

n d nd 5,6*10-6

3,2*10-7

nd

9 1*10-8

n d nd 6,6*10-7

2*10-8

nd

11 8,5*10-7

n d nd 1,6*10-7

2,8*10-8

nd

12 6,6*10-7

n d nd 4,3*10-6

4,1*10-7

nd

Conclusion Camel milk could be processed into tasty safe cheese with high value, but the yield remains

lower than for cow milk.

References

Farah Z., 1993. Composition and characteristics of camel milk. Review article. J. dairy res., 60, 603-

626

Ramet J.P., 1985. La technologie des fromages au lait de dromadaire. Rome, Italie, Monographie n°

113, Etude FAO, Production et santé animale, 118 p.

a b

c

d

Photo 1. Camel cheese Gruyere type. a. non-cooked type. b. cooked type. c. section of non-cooked

cheese. d. section of cooked cheese.

220


87. The Effect of Parity Number on Some Mineral Level Rations in Camel’s Milk.

A Case Study: North Kordofan State, Sudan

A.A.H.M.Elnour1 and S.A. Bakheit

2

1Department of Biochemistry & Gum Processing, Gum Arabic Research Centre,

University of Kordofan, Elobied-Sudan. 2Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Natural Resources & Environmental Science,

University of Kordofan, Elobied- Sudan.


Introduction The camel population of Sudan was estimated at 2.903 million heads, ranking the country

only second to Somalia worldwide (FAO 1986). Most camels are raised within pastoral systems in the

western (Kordofan and Darfur) and eastern regions of the country. Kordofan alone has some 1.05

million heads, about 36% of the total camel population in the country (Sakr 1998).

The Kababish, Hawaweer, Kawahla and Shanabla tribes of north Kordofan are the main

communities who herd camels. They spend the rainy season in their home territories, moving in

November to January to the juzo grazing area in the northeast corner of the region. From there they

move south, through their home territories, into south and west Kordofan. There they stay until the

onset of the rains in June, when they move back to their home territories. (Sakr 1998).

Camel milk constitutes an important part of the diet in pastoral societies in arid and semi-arid

regions (Holter, 1981; Yagil, 1980). Nawito et al. (1967) reported that in north Kenya under desert

conditions, camel's milk contained 3.8 percent fat, 3.5 percent protein and 3.9 percent lactose. During

subsequent lactations, the levels of protein and fat were elevated and those of lactose and pH

witnessed a decline (Sheriha, 1986). However, limited information is available on camel milk

production and its chemical composition under pastoral systems in north Kordofan, Sudan. This study

attempts to elucidate the effect of parity number on some mineral levels in milk of the Shanabla tribes

camels in North Kordofan.


This study was carried out in the Laboratory of Biochemistry, Nutrition and Toxicology at the

Veterinary Research Corporation Centre in Khartoum in order to investigate the effects of parity

number on some mineral levels in the milk of the one humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). These

include phosphorus, copper, ferrus, iodine, calcium, sodium and potassium. Milk samples were

collected from sixteen she-camels with parity ranging from first till fifth from camel herds of the

Shanabla tribe. They herd camels by traditional nomadic system at Elrahad locality in Umrowaba

province, North Kordofan State. Analysis of variance was used to analyze the data as complete

randomized design (CRD) with least significant difference (LCD) used to detect differences between

means. For determination of elements, a flame photometer and spectrophotometer were used in

addition to titration methods.


Table 1 and 2 indicated that the level of minerals in camel‘s milk was affected by parity. The

levels of phosphorus, ferrous, sodium and potassium were markedly increased with parity number.

The levels of phosphorus in parity one and three were 1.13% and 1.4% respectively, while in the last

parity it was 1.8%. The copper level was not different in all parity numbers.

Table 1: The levels of minerals in camels milk according to parity (%). Parity

No

Phosphorus

Mean±SD

Copper

Mean±SD

Ferrous

Mean±SD

Iodine

Mean±SD

Sodium

Mean±SD

Calcium

Mean±SD

Potassium

Mean±SD

1st Parity 1.13±0.047 0.1±0.0021 1.7±0.029 6.0±0.002 0.65±0.02 5.27±0.92 3.37±0.93

2nd

Parity 1.35±0.070 011±0.0013 1.73±0.029 5.45±0.31 0.75±0.04 2.37±0.28 3.5±0.082

3rd

Parity 1.4± 0.082 0.12±0.013 1.84±0.026 5.17±0.24 0.80±0.03 2.28±0.19 3.6±0.082

4th

Parity 1.5±0.082 0.12±0.0013 1.77±0.076 4.13±0.31 0.86±0.02 2.25±0.07 3.73±0.047

5th

Parity 1.8±0.082 0.12±0.0013 1.91±0.01 3.21±0.17 0.90±0.006 1.55±0.12 4.1±0.82

221


On the other hand, the ferrous levels were not significantly different; 1.7%, 1.84%, and 1.91%

in the first, third and last parity, respectively.The iodine contents were dramatically decreased with

increasing parity number which (p ≤ 0.05) with values of 6.0, 5.17, and 3.21% of first, third, and last

parity.This phenomena confirmed the relationships between the iodine and fertility rate in camels as

well as the majority of vertebrates.

Table 2: Least significant means of mineral in camel milk

Parity

No

Phosphors

Cupper

Ferrous

Iodine

Sodium

Calcium

Potassium

1st Parity 1.13

a 0.10

a 1.70

a 6.00

a 0.65

a 5.27

a 3.37

a

2nd

Parity 1.35 a 0.11

a 1.73

a 5.45

a 0.75

a 2.37

b 3.50

a

3rd

Parity 1.40 a 0.12

a 1.84

a 1.84

b 0.80

a 2.28

b 3.60

a

4th

Parity 1.50 a 0.12

a 1.77

a 1.77

b 0.86

a 2.25

a 3.73

a

5th

Parity 1.80 a 0.12

a 1.91

a 1.90

b 0.80

a 2.55

b 4.10

a

*Means having the same letter are not significantly difference at 0.05%.

The sodium levels slightly increased with the increase of parity number ranging between 0.65

and 0.95% in the first and last parities. The calcium markedly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased with increasing

parity number recording a value of 5.2 % and 1.55% for the first and last parities respectively, which

is in agreement with the values reported by Bakheit (1999).

The levels of potassium ranged between 3.37% to 4.1% for the first and last parities. All

elements increased with the parity number except iodine and calcium. On the basis of results obtained,

it could be recommended to increase awareness of the nomads about the importance of the nutritive

value of camel‘s milk.

References

Bakheit S A 1999 Studies on milk production and composition of camels (Camelus dromedarius)

under nomadic system. M.Sc. thesis. Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum.

FAO, 1986. Production Year Book 1985. Vol. 39, FAO- Rome.

Holter,1981,bj Yagil 1986, Camels (Camelus dromedarius) Under Pastoral System in North

Kordofan, Sudan-Seasonal and Parity Effects on Milk Yield and Composition, Cited by F. M.

Elhag, Journal, vol. 6. 2002.

Nawito, M.F., Shalash, M.R., Hoppe, R. and Rakha, A.M. (1967). Reproduction in Female camel.

Nat. Res. Cent. Bull.2, Egypt, P.82.

Saker; I. and A.M. Majid, 1998; The Social Economics of Camel Herders in Eastern Sudan. The

Camel Applied Research and Development Network/ CARDN/ACSAD/, 30:1-27.

Sheriha, A.M. (1986). Composition of Libyan Camels milk, Australian J. Dairy technology, 41 (1):

33-35.

Yagil, R. (1980). The Camel: Self- sufficiency in Animal protein in drought – stricken areas. Wld.

Anim. Rev., 57: 1-10.

222


88. Comparison of the Composition of Milk from Humans, Camels and Cows with

Commercial Infant Formulas

E.H. Halima*, G. Lamia, S. Imed, Zeineb Zrad and T. Khorchani



Introduction

Milk is a biological fluid of exceptional complexity, containing essential nutrients for the

growth and development of infants. Human milk contains specific proteins, lipids and other

components designed to be easily digestible and having important roles to play in child development.

However, bovine milk-based dried formulations have become a prominent feature of infantile

dietetics. Emphasis has previously been laid on the manufacturing infant formulas with compositional

and biochemical characteristics similar to human milk. To the contrary, camel whey lacks β-

lactoglobulin, a major serum protein found in other ruminant livestock milk. Other whey proteins

which have been identified in camel milk include serum albumin, α-lactalbumin, immunoglobulins,

lactophorin and peptidoglycan recognition protein (Kappeler et al., 2004, El Hatmi et al., 2007).

Camel milk is similar to human milk in that it contains a high percentage of β-CN; this high

percentage could reflect its high digestibility rate and lower incidence of ―allergy‖ in the infants gut,

as β-CN is more sensitive to peptic hydrolysis than αS-CN (Elagamy et al., 2009). The aim of this

work was to characterize proteins by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and to compare the physico-

chemical composition of camel, human, cow milk and commercial infant formula.


Camel milk samples were collected from a multiparous 8-year-old female from a local herd of

camels belonging to the experimental farm of the Arid Land Institute, Livestock and Wildlife

Laboratory, Tunisia. Milking was performed manually. Bovine milk samples were collected from a

local herd. Human milk samples were obtained from three volunteer mothers at different stages of

lactation at the city of Medenine, Tunisia. Bovine milk formula was purchased from the Tunisian

market. Samples of milk were analyzed for fat content by the Gerber Method, total proteins, total

solids (TS), carbohydrates and ash according to the AFNOR method (1993).Proteins milk samples

were separated with the aid of sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-

PAGE) in the presence of 1.1% (w/v) SDS and 5% (v/v) 2-mercaptoethanol. The molecular mass

standards (Sigma) were used.


Table 1: Physico-chemical characteristics of human, camel, cow and commercial

infant formula (CIF)

Human milk Camel milk Cow milk CIF

pH (20°C) 7.03 ± 0.23 6.40±0.07 6.54±000 6.86±0.06

Dornic acidity (°D) 5.36 ±0.93 18.10± 1.13 15.50±0.50 7±0.00

Density 1.032±0.07 1.028±0,001 1.026±0.00 1.028±0.00

Total solids (g/l) 110.80±20.26 110.67±4.91 94.86±1.86 128.83±0.88

Ash (g/100 ml) 0.17± 0,01 0.86±0.02 0.66±0.01 0.32±0.01

Fat (g/l) 30.4± 7,33 34.57±4.77 25.50± 1.80 34.50±3.50

Glucids (g/l) 73.93± 2,79 49.05±1.27 44.60±3.19 65.32± 2.43

Total proteins (g/l) 16.50±6,15 47±6.94 46±7.26 27.81± 6.37

The pH of fresh camel milk was lower than that of human, cow and commercial infant

formula. The gross composition presented in Table 1 of camel milk was similar to that of cow milk,

total solids of commercial infant formula was very high (128.83 g/l) compared to human and camel

milk (110 g/l). Camel milk had a very high ash content (0.86g/l), compared with human milk (0.17

g/l), Farida et al., 2001 reported that the concentration of manganese and iron in camels‘ milk was

higher (7-20-fold and 4-10-fold, respectively) than in human milk, cows‘ milk and infant formula.

223


However, the remarkably high content of iron in camels‘ milk suggests that this milk can be a better

alternative to human milk under certain circumstance. Camel milk has a low content of carbohydrates

compared to human milk and commercial infant formula. On the another hand, Cardoso et al., (2010)

confirmed that camel‘s milk can be considered as an alternative for the individuals intolerant to

lactose who presents symptoms when ingesting cow‘s milk.

Figure 1: SDS-PAGE of human, camel, cow and commercial infant formula (HM: human milk; CM:

camel milk; BM: bovin milk; CIF: commercial infant formula, SA: serum albumin, IgG:

immunoglobulins G).

There are similarities between human milk and cow‘s milk, but also some differences. With

respect to the protein profile (Figure 1), alpha-lactalbumin (α-La) was a common protein present in

the three types of milk and the commercial infant formula. On the other hand, beta-lactoglobulin (β-

Lg) is the main protein in whey of BM and CIF (about 50% of total whey proteins), but it was not

present in human or camel milk. This protein has been demonstrated to be one of the main sources of

infant allergy that limits the use of cow‘s milk for the preparation of infant formula (Uchida et al.,

1996). Proteins can be extensively or partially hydrolyzed in infant formula and some authors agree

that only extensive hydrolysate should be used to avoid any reaction in highly sensitive infants (Chan

et al., 2002). Hydrolysis of whey proteins (especially β-Lg) is under study in order to cause an

extensive protein hydrolysis avoiding even β-Lg traces. Another approach to produce infant formulas

similar to human milk is to try to remove β-Lg from cow's milk or its derivates. However, many of the

commercial products to feed infants contain great amounts of β-Lg (Lönnerdal, 1995; Pouliot et al.,

1999). This is because of the difficulty to find an economic process to remove this protein from milk

or whey, while maintaining the properties of the rest of proteins. In conclusion, the absence of β-Lg in

camels‘ milk suggests that it can be a better alternative to human milk.

References

Association Française de Normalisation (1993). Contrôle de la qualité des produits alimentaires. Lait

et Produits Laitiers AFNOR, Paris, France.

Cardoso Ronald RA., Santos RMDB, Cardoso CRA, Carvalho MO. (2010). Consumption of camel‘s

milk by patients intolerant to lactose. A premilary study. Revista Algeria Mexico, 57: 1, 26-

32.

Chan Y.H., Shek L.P., Qwak A.M. and Lee B.W. (2002). Use of hypoallergenic formula in the

prevention of atopic disease among Asian Children. Journal of Pediatric Child Health, 38:

84–88.

Elagamy E.I., Nawar M., Sherif M. Shamsia, Sameh Awad, George F.W. Haenlein (2009). Are camel

milk proteins convenient to the nutrition of cow milk allergic children? Small Ruminant

Research, 82: Issue 1, 1-6.

El Hatmi H.. Girardet J.M., Gaillard J.L., Yahyaoui M.H, Attia H. (2007). Characterisation of whey

proteins of camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk and colostrum . Small Ruminant Research, 70,

Issues 2-3: 267-271.

α-lactalbumin

β-lactoglobulin

Caseins

SA

lactoferrin

75

50

15

25

100

IgG

CIF CM MW kDa

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921448808002733?_alid=1793469057&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_origin=search&_docanchor=&_ct=9&_zone=rslt_list_item&md5=c838e6d67efbbadabc8149e17428f899

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921448808002733?_alid=1793469057&_rdoc=4&_fmt=high&_origin=search&_docanchor=&_ct=9&_zone=rslt_list_item&md5=c838e6d67efbbadabc8149e17428f899

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921448806000939?_alid=1793467613&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_origin=search&_docanchor=&_ct=2&_zone=rslt_list_item&md5=f4d546b9fe05dfcbccaef1e8f89ba9e1

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921448806000939?_alid=1793467613&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_origin=search&_docanchor=&_ct=2&_zone=rslt_list_item&md5=f4d546b9fe05dfcbccaef1e8f89ba9e1

224


Farida M., Al-Awadi and Srikumar T.S. (2001). Trace elements and their distribution in protein

fractions of camel milk in comparison to other commonly milks. Journal of Dairy Research,

68: 463-469.

Kappeler S.R., Heuberger C., Farah Z. and Puhan Z. (2004). Expression of the peptidoglycan

recognition protein, PGRP, in the lactating mammary gland. Journal of Dairy Science, 87:

2660–2668.

Lönnerdal B.and Atkinson S. (1995). Human milk proteins. In: R.G. Jensen, Editor, Handbook of

Milk Composition, Academic Press, San Diego.

Pouliot Y., Wijers M.C., Gauthier S.F. and Nadeau L. (1999). Fractionation of whey protein

hydrolysates using charged UG/NF membranes. Journal Membrane Science,158: 105–114.

Uchida Y., Shimatani M.M., Mitsuhashi T., Koutake M. (1996). Process for preparing a fraction

having a high content of α-lactalbumin from whey and nutritional compositions containing

such fractions, US Patent 5: 503-864.

225


89. Medicinal Properties in Camel Milk for Treatment of ‘Epidemic’ Diseases

R. Wernery¹ and R. Yagil²

¹Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, P.O.Box 597, Dubai, U.A.E.

²Ben Gurion University, Israel

Corresponding author email: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Introduction

Camel milk use against hunger and as a remedy for different kind of diseases has been first

mentioned in the Moslem Holy Scriptures, Bukhari 7:71 “Medicine” #589 and #590, Words of the

Prophet. This claim is still valid today; it can be more and more substantiated by research results of

modern medicine. An increasing number of scientific publications focus on the medicinal potency of

camel milk with its special components.

Currently three prevalent diseases facing people around the world in epidemic proportions,

which are food allergies, autism and Crohn‘s disease, which are most probably associated with the

intake of cow milk and its products.

This paper gives an overview of the current knowledge on medicinal properties in camel milk.


Camel milk is very suitable for human nutritional requirements, and its composition has

similarities to mother milk. Many folklore tales as well as erious scientific research focus on myth of

highly potent medicinal properties of camel milk have been brought to public attention in the early

seventies. These early treatments have mainly been conducted in Asian countries, where Bactrian

camels predominanted. Research on milk of the dromedary, however has been done at a later time in

greater detail than in the bacterian camel (Yagil and van Creveld, 2000).

Treatment of human tuberculosis and liver diseases

Urazakov and Bainazarov (1974) and Yagil (1982) reported that clinics in Kazaksthan treated

tuberculosis with camel milk. Patients, who were given standard therapies along with raw camel milk

of 1 liter per day as a supplement, gained body weight due to increased appetite. Furthermore,

radiological improvement in terms of lung expansion with no pass formation was also observed. The

treatment was especially beneficial for those patients with multiple drug resistances. Similar

observations were reported by Sharmanov et al. (1978); Zagorski et al. (1998) and Zhangabilov et al.

(2000).

The exact course of the improved condition of patients consuming additional camel milk has

not been thoroughly investigated yet.

Latest research on the successful treatment of various human diseases with camel milk can be

explained by the discovery of components and their medicinal activities.

Treatment of diabetes

Camel milk contains double the amount of insulin of cow milk (Wernery et al., 2000).

Treating diabetes discussed at an International Conference in Mauritania (Yagil et al., 1994), and

studies in India strongly indicated, that Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) patients

considerably profited from daily intakes of 500 ml camel milk, by having their blood sugar

significantly reduced, as well as their HbA1C levels (Agrawal et al., 20002). A possible reason for

this remarkable effect could be explained by the fact that camel milk does not curdle in an acid

environment.

Milk allergies and lactose intolerance

Milk allergy is an autoimmune disease and occurs globally in 1-7% of all infants. The fact,

that camel milk lacks ß-lacto globulin, a powerful allergen in cow milk, makes camel milk a potent

alternative for children suffering from milk allergies (Makinen-Kijunen & Palovsvo, 1992).

Lactose intolerance occurs mainly in people older than 5 years and is a completely different

entity than milk allergy. It is caused by the decrease or absence of the enzyme lactase in the

gastrointestinal tract, which metabolizes the milk sugar lactose. Approximately 90% of black and 25%

226


of Caucasian individuals throughout the world have partial or complete lactose intolerance, associated

with nausea, vomiting, cramps and diarrhea. Lactose intolerance as a result of drinking camel milk is

unknown, even though the concentration of lactose in camel and cow milk is similar.

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

The success of treatment of MS can be explained by recent investigation described by El-

Agamy (2010). Camel milk fat does not only contain long-chain fatty acids (85%), compared to short-

chained fatty acids (15%), but also the fat contains sphingomyelin with a high proportion of nervonic

acid, which plays an important part in the biosynthesis of nerve cell myelin, which may prevent or

even cure MS.

Psoriasis vulgaris

Tissue repair proteins in camel milk, which are not yet clearly defined, triggered a healing

process in patients with Psoriasis, first described by Yagil. A clinical study, conducted in a German

hospital, with 20 patients suffering from a serious, ambulant resistant state of Psoriasis, further

substantiated this achievement by topical application of a cream, containing 40% camel milk.

Autism

Recent scientific findings related to autism revealed a connection to cow milk casein. When

cow milk casein is digested properly, it breaks down into large peptides like casomorphine, and

should then be broken down further into smaller amino acids. It was reported, that urine samples of

people with autism contain high amounts of casomorphin peptides, because of a malfunction of their

immune system. These casomorphin peptides are called neuropeptides, because they have been shown

to react with areas of the brain such as the temporal lobes, which are involved in speech and auditory

integration. Neuropeptides also decrease the ability to feel pain and affect cognitive function.

Neuropeptides can react with opiate receptors in the brain and consequently mimicking the effects of

opiate drugs like heroin and morphine.

Even though there is only anecdotal evidence of symptom remission after exclusion of all

dairy products from cow, autistic children drinking camel milk have had amazing improvements in

their behavior and diets.

Crohn’s disease

A connection between Crohn‘s disease and Mycobacterium avium sp. paratuberculosis

(MAP) seems to exist. Therefore, the effect of camel milk may positively influence the severity of

symptoms of the disease. MAP could enter the human mucosa as a saprophyte, since it is not always

completely destroyed by pasteurization. Severe stress can lead to a secondary autoimmune response,

paving the way for Crohn‘s disease. As the bacteria belongs to the family of tuberculosis and as camel

milk has been used to treat tuberculosis, it becomes apparent, that the powerful bactericide properties

of camel milk, combined with PGRP (Peptidoglycan recognitian protein) have a quick and positive

effect on the healing process. Additionally the intake of camel milk seems to strengthen the patient‘s

immune system.

Components of the milk have been described in various publications by different authors,

defining clearly the bacteriostatic and virucidal activities as further outstanding attributes of camel

milk, generated by the activities of protective proteins (Kappler, 1998). The presence of these proteins

helps explain some of the healing properties of camel milk.

However, profound clinical trials are still not been carried out to substantiate these claims and

we hope that this forum will be inspired by this presentation to initiate research on these subjects.

References

Agarwal R.P., Swami S.C., Kothari D.K., Sahani M.S., Tuteja F.C. & Ghouri S.K. (2002). Camel

milk as an alternative therapy in Type 1 Diabetes: A randomized controlled trial.

Endocrinology/Metabolism: diabetes mellitus, 28.

Kappeler S. (1998). Compositional and structural analysis of camel milk proteins with emphasis on

protective proteins. Ph.D. Diss. ETH No. 12947, Zurich.

Makinen-Kijunen S. & Palosne T. (1992). A sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for

determination of bovine beta-lactoglobulin in infant feeding formulas and human milk.

Allergy. 47: 347-352.

227


Sharmanov T.S., Kadyrova R.K., Shlygina O.E. & Zhaksylykova R.D. (1978). Changes in the

indicators of radioactive isotope studies of the liver of patients with chronic hepatitis during

treatment with wholecamels‘ and mares‘ milk. Voprosy Pitaniya.1: 9-13.

U. Wernery, B. Johnson and W. Tawfig Ishmail. (2006). Insulin content in raw dromedary milk and

serum measured over one lactation period. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 13 (2), p.

89-90.

Urazakov N.U. and Bainazarov S.H. (1974). The 1st clinic in history for the treatment of pulmonary

tuberculosis with camel‘s sour milk. Probl. Tuberk.2:89-90.

Yagil, R. (1982) Camels and Camel Milk. Invited publication from FAO (Food and Agricultural

Organization of the UN) 26, 69

Yagil R. and van Creveld C. (2000). Medicinal use of camel milk. Fact or fancy? In: Proc. 2nd Intl.

Camelid Conf. Agro-economics of Camelid Farming. Almaty. September 2000, p.80

Yagil R., Zagorski O., van Creveld C and Saran A. (1994). Science and camel milk production. In:

Chameux et dromedaries, animaux laitiers. Ed. Saint Martin, G. Expansion Scientifique

Francais, Paris, 75-89.

Zagorski O., Maman A., Yaffe A., Meisles A., van Creveld C. and Yagil R. (1998). Insulin in milk – a

comparative study. Int. J. Animal Sci.13: 241-244.

Zhangabilov A.K, Bekishov A.A.C. and Mamirova Y.N. (2000). Medicinal properties of camel milk

and shubat. In: Proc. 2nd Intl.Camelid Conf. Agro-economics of Camelid Farming. Almaty,

September 2000, p.100.

228


90. Isolation and Characterization of Camel Milk Protein Hydrolysate with ACE

(Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme) Inhibitory Activity

L.C. Laleye1*, H. Habib

2, H. Kamal

3 and A. Wasesa

4

1Department of Food Science,

2Department of Nutrition & Health,

3Department of Food Science

U.A.E. University, Al-Ain, P.O. Box: 17555, U.A.E 4Department of President's Affairs, Al Ain, UAE.


Introduction

ACE (Angiotensin I Converting Enzyme) has been classically associated with the renin-

angiotensin system which regulates peripheral blood pressure, where it catalyzes both the production

of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin-II and the inactivation of the vasodilator bradykinin (Hall and

Guyton, 2006).Naturally occurring peptides in snake venom were the first reported competitive

inhibitors of ACE and thereafter, many other ACE inhibitors were discovered from enzymatic

hydrlysates or the related synthetic peptides of bovine and human caseins (CNs), as well as plants and

other food proteins (Sheih et al., 2009). Food products containing hypotensive peptides are of interest

for maintaining good health of humans with moderate hypertension (Mullally et al., 1997). In

principle, milk products with hypotensive peptides can be produced in two ways, i.e., by enrichment

with antihypertensive peptides produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of precursor proteins, or by

fermentation of milk with lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Mullally et al., 1997).


Both Camel and Bovine milk casein (0.5% protein) and bovine and camel whey were

fermented using pepsin , trypsin as well as various Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) species, including

Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus SS1, L.acidophilus LA 102, L. plantarum LA 301,

L.salivarius LA 302, Streptococcus thermophilus LA 104, Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis and

Cremoris and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb 12 at 44°C for 4-6 hours till the pH reaches 4. Fermented

milk was then subjected to centrifugation at 16000 x g at 10°C, for 30 minutes and the resulting

supernatant obtained was further processed by ultra filtration using hydrophilic 3000Da cut off

membrane.The permeate and retentate obtained after ultra filtration from the fermented milk was then

tested for ACE inhibition property.

The ACE-inhibition study was carried out in using the spectrophotometric assay and RP-

HPLC. The Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibition (ACEI) activity was initially measured by a

spectrophotometric assay according to the method of Cushman and Cheung (1971) with some

modifications.


A set of in vitro spectrophotometric and RP HPLC assay conditions were selected for the

determination of ACE inhibition activity in camel milk by the enrichment of gastrointestinal enzymes

(pepsin and trypisn) and also by lactic acid bacteria fermentation (LAB) using seven different strains,

all known for ACE inhibition activity in cow milk. The mode of reaction was the interaction between

sample and ACE enzyme, resulting into amounts of HA (hippuric acid) and HL (histidyl leucine). The

HA is then absorbed at 228 nm and the measurements of absorbances are proportional to the

inhibition exercised by the assayed sample (inhibitor), such that a decrease in absorbance concludes

low activity of sample (inhibitor).

Table 1: Percentage (%) ACEI (Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition) of different protein

hydrolysates. Type of

enzymatic

hydrolysate *

% ACEI of

Camel Casein

% ACEI of

Camel Whey

% ACEI of Bovine

Casein

% ACEI of Bovine

Whey

Pepsin 83.34% 82.84% 89.37% 91.53%

Trypsin 79.47% 78.08% 82.74% 85.53%

* Each experiment conducted twice and mean of 5 measurements for each experiment.

229


Spectrophotometric assay for both the simulated enzymatic hydrolysis and functional

fermented camel milk casein and whey samples concluded that camel milk consists of ACE inhibition

peptides encrypted in the primary structure, which when either hydrolysed or fermented release ACE

inhibition peptides as observed in gastrointestinal enzymes pepsin, i.e.,83.34% for camel casein and

82.84% for camel whey, some trend was observed in trypsin such that 79.47% for camel casein and

for camel whey 78.08% (Table 1). However, ACE inhibition was observed higher in Lactococcus

lactis subsp. Lactis and Cremoris (79.58),Bifidobacterium lactis (79.11%) and L.acidophilus LA

102(78.65%) respectively. Reversed phase HPLC was followed by spectrophotometric analysis,

which confirmed the results of spectrophotometric assay, thus validating the presence of ACE

inhibition activity in camel milk protein, both casein and serum proteins (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Percentage (%) ACEI activity between different strains assayed by spectrophotometer and

HPLC.

References

Cushman, D.W., and Cheung, H.-S. (1971). Spectrometric assay and properties of the Angiotensin-

converting enzyme of rabbit lung. Biochem. Pharmacol. 20: 1637-1648.

Hall, J.E. and Guyton, A.C. (2006). Texbook of medical physiology. Elsevier Publisher, St. Louis,

MO, USA.

Mullally, M.M., Meisel, H. and FitzGerald, R.J. (1997). Identification of a novel angiotensin-I-

converting enzyme inhibitory peptide corresponding to a tryptic fragment of bovine beta-

lactoglobulin. FEBS letters. 402:99-101.

Sheih, C., Fang, T.J. and Tung-Kung W. (2009). Isolation and characterization of a novel angiotensin

I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptide from the algae protein waste. Food Chem.

115:279-284.

230


91. Chemical Properties and Acceptability of Yoghurt Made from Camel-Sheep Milk

I.E.M. El Zubeir1,

*, R.M.E. Babekir1 and E.S. Shuiep

1,2

1Department of Dairy Production, Faculty of Animal Production. University of Khartoum. Khartoum

North, P. O. Box 32, Postal code 13314, Sudan. E-mail: [email protected] 2Department of Animal Production. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Nyala, Nyala, South

Darfur State, Sudan.

Correspondence author email: [email protected]

Introduction

The lactating she-camel is a very valuable animal for the nutrition of the camel herder‘s in the

arid regions. Camel milk has certain properties which enable it be kept for longer periods than cow‘s

milk. Traditionally, the most common forms of consumption of camel milk are either fresh or

fermented (Farah et al., 2007). However during the lactic fermentation process, dromedary milk

showed behavior different from that of bovine milk at the microbiological, biochemical and structural

levels that are certainly due to intrinsic factors (Attia et al., 2001). In fact the coagulation caused by

lactic fermentation did not produce a curd but simply flakes that lack firmness and that were unable to

undergo further technological treatment (Abu- Tarbouch, 1994). Because sheep is reared together

with camel and it is well documented that its milk is of high compositional contents, the present study

is a trial to improve camel fermentation by incorporating different ratio of sheep milk.


In this study, camel and sheep milk (15 L each) were obtained from local farmers. Mixtures

of camel and sheep milk were prepared where camel milk was used as 100%, 75%, 50%, 25% and

0%. Milk samples were collected from each group for chemical analysis by Lactoscan before

processing. Milk was pasteurized at 63º C for 30 minutes (Attia et al., 2001) then cooled to 43ºC

before adding 2.5% starter culture (Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp.

bulgaricus (YO-mix 532, DANISCO, Denmark), after which milk was incubated at 42ºC. The

produced yoghurt was chemically analyzed to determine the percentage of fat, protein total solids and

ash according to Bradley et al. (1992). The acidity of the product was determined by titration (Bradley

et al., 1992). Sensory evaluation including appearance, texture, flavor, color and acidity was also

done. The data were statistically analyzed using SPSS (Version 13).


The comparison of the compositional contents of milk showed variations between camel and

sheep milk (Figure 1). Pure camel milk yoghurt had significantly (P<0.05) lower content of SNF, fat

and protein compared to sheep and the camel-sheep yoghurt mixtures (Table 1) as well as watery

texture and high acidity (Table 2). However the composition and texture were improved by increasing

the level of sheep milk. This supported El Zubeir and Shueip (2009) findings on the propriety of

yoghurts made from camel and sheep milk. The rate of change in the acidity was slow at the

beginning which supported El Zubeir and Ibrahium (2009) findings Attia et al. (2001) concluded that

dromedary milk appear less favorable for the lactic fermentation because the activity of the inoculated

lactic starter was lower in camel milk than in bovine milk.

The present study concluded that the addition of sheep milk to that of camel would improve

the quality of fermented milk. This indicated the possibilities of processing and marketing it as the

health benefits of camel milk and fermented products are well known. Small scale mobile processing

units may established to make use of the valuable camel milk. This may be a solution for proper

utilization of resources which could improve food security and enhancing rural development.

231


Table 1: Composition of camel- sheep yoghurts

Camel-sheep milk ratio Total solids% Fat% Protein%

100% camel milk 9.6d 2.7

c 3.39

c

75% camel milk 12.85c 4.45

b 6.25

b

50% camel milk 15.15b 4.6a

b 6.71

ab

25% camel milk 15.62b 4.75

ab 6.78

ab

100% sheep milk 19.22a 4.85

a 7.14

a

Different subscripts within the same column in this and the following table are significantly

different (p<0.5)

Table 2: Sensory evaluation for camel- sheep yoghurts

Milk mixture Appearance Texture Flavor Color Acidity

100% camel milk 1.125b 1.375

b 1.750

b 2.500

a 3.500

a

75% camel milk 2.875a 2.625

a 3.25

a 3.375

a 2.500

bc

50% camel milk 2.625a 2.875

a 3.125

a 3.125

a 3.000

ab

25% camel milk 3.25a 3.125

a 2.875

a 3.375

a 2.125

c

100% sheep milk 2.875a 3.250

a 2.375

ab 3.000

a 2.500

bc

SE 0.304 0.343 0.38 0.351 0.273

References

Attia, H., Kerouatou, N., Dhouib, A. (2001). Dromedary milk lactic acid fermentation:

Microbiological and rheological characteristic. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 26: 263-270.

Abu-Tarboush, H. M. (1994). Growth behavior of Lactobacillus acidophilus and biochemical

characteristic and acceptability of acidophilus milk made from camel milk. Milchwissenschaf,

49: 379- 382.

Bradley, R. L. J., Arnold E. Jr., Barbano D. M., Semerad R. G., Smith D. E., Viries B. K. (1992).

Chemical and physical methods. In: Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy

Products. Marshall R. T. (ed). American Public Health Association Washington Dc. USA.

El Zubeir, Ibtisam, EM. and Ibrahium, Marowa, I. (2009). Effect of pasteurization of milk on the

keeping quality of fermented camel milk (Gariss) in Sudan. Livestock Research for Rural

Development, 21.

El Zubeir, Ibtisam, E. M.and Shuiep, E. S. (2009). The processing properties, chemical characteristics

and acceptability of yoghurt made from non traditional animals. The 9th Scientific Conference

of National Centre for Research, Ministry of Scientific Research. 22nd

-24th December 2009.

Khartoum, Sudan.

Farah, Z., Mollet, M., Younan, M. and Dahir, R. (2007). Camel dairy in Somalia: Limiting factors and

development potential. Livestock Science, 110: 187–191.

232


92. Effect of Pasteurization on the Keeping Quality of Camel Milk

I.M.A. Mohamed1 and E.M.I. El Zubeir

2

Department of Dairy Production, Faculty of Animal Production. University of Khartoum. Khartoum

North, P. O. Box 32, Postal code 13314, Sudan. 1E-mail: [email protected] ;

2E-mail: [email protected]

Correspondence author: [email protected]

Introduction

The shelf life of camel milk is longer than that from other animals because it contain

antibacterial agents (Wernery et al., 2005). However raw camel milk may contain microorganisms,

which are potential pathogens (Younan et al., 2001; Sheuip et al., 2007). Pasteurized camel milk can

last for more than 10 days at 4°C (Wernery, 2008). Hassan et al. (2006) found that pasteurization of

camel milk before fermentation improved the microbial content and increased the shelf life of the

product. In the present study the microbial loads and shelf life of camel milk were estimated using

low temperature long time (LTLT) and high temperature short time (HTST) pasteurization methods.


Camel milk samples were obtained from Camel Research Center, University of Khartoum.

Milk samples were collected in sterile bottles and immediately transferred after milking to dairy

microbiology laboratory in Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum. The herd is

managed under semi-intensive system.

Raw milk samples (5 liter/ 5 batch) were divided into three portions; one was kept as control

and the 2 other were heat treated in glass containers, using water bath temperature adjusted heat

treatment at 63°C for 30 min (Low temperature long time, LTLT) and 72°C for 15 sec (High

temperature short time, HTST). Then the samples were cooled immediately and stored at refrigerated.

The microbiological examinations, acidity and clot on boiling were done daily to assess the shelf life

of milk. Titratable acidity and colt on boiling test were done according to AOAC (1990). The camel

milk samples (raw and pasteurized milk) were examined for total bacterial count (TBC), coliform

count, psychrotrophic bacterial count, thermophilic bacterial count, thermoduric bacterial count and

yeast and moulds counts were done according to Marshall (1992). The analysis of the data was

conducted using SPSS version13.


There was no significant variations between the two procedures of pasteurization for the

measurements which is supported by Attia et al. (2001) that more heat and time are required for camel

milk. The pasteurized (two methods) camel milk samples had longer keeping quality, since the shelf

life of the pasteurized samples extended up to 20 days under refrigeration temperature. When

comparing the shelf life of raw camel milk samples that showed a shelf life of 7 days at refrigeration

temperature. The variations in the shelf life of raw and pasteurized milk might be due to the presence

of antimicrobial and antibacterial agents in the camel‘s milk (Wernery et al., 2005). The non complete

destruction of organisms after pasteurization was reported by Hassan et al. (2006).

There was a decrease in the means values of microbial measurements (total bacteria,

coliforms, total yeast and mould, psychrotrophic bacteria, and thermoduric bacteria) after

pasteurization of camel milk (Table 1). The total bacterial and coliform counts of raw camel milk

were higher than that reported by Shuiep et al. (2007). The high total counts and coliform count

indicate low quality of some raw camel milk, which may be due to milking procedures (Shuiep et al.,

2007 ; Semereab and Molla (2001). High coliform count may be due to contamination with feacal

material, improper sanitation, and/or mastitis (Murphy and Boor, 2000). The yeast and moulds counts

of raw camel milk samples were higher than that reported by Shuiep et al. (2007). The results of

psychrotrophic bacteria were high, however Shuiep et al. (2007) did not reported psychrotrophic

bacteria and he concluded that this might be due to the lack of cooling facilities for camel owners.

233


Table 1: Comparison between some microbiological quality tests of raw and pasteurized camel milk Parameters (cfu/ml) Treatments

Raw milk LTLT pasteurized milk HTST pasteurized milk

Total bacterial count 1.2×1010b

±1.2×108 2.004×10

7a±1.2×10

7 2.004×10

7a±1.2×10

7

Coliform count 1.3×107b

±8.1×104 9.4×10

5a±5.1×10

4 8.1×10

5a±5.1×10

4

Thermodric count 1.5×109b

±7.7×107 1.3×10

6a±4.8×10

7 1.3×10

6a±4.8×10

7

Yeast and moulds

counts

5.6×105b

±1.2×107 3.6×10

4a±1.2×10

4 3.9×10

4a±1.2×10

4

Psychrotrophic count 1.9×109b

±1.2×107 1.4×10

6a±1.2×10

7 1.4×10

6a±1.2×10

7

Thrmophilic count _ _ _

The same superscript letter in the raw indicate non significant differences (P> 0.05)

Figure 6: Effect of pasteurization and

storage period on the acidity (lactic acid %)

of camel milk

The present results of acidity were significantly affected (P< 0.001) by storage conditions

(Figure 1). Higher level of camel milk acidity was found during the present study than that reported

by Shuiep et al. (2007). The increase in acidity level was gradually at the beginning of storage period

and this might be due to presence of the antimicrobial agents in the camel milk (Wernery et al., 2005).

References

Attia, H., Kherouatou, N. and Dhouib, A. (2001). Dromedary milk lactic acidfermentation:

microbiological and rheological characteristics. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol, 26: 263- 270.

Bradley, R.L., Arnold, R., Barbano, D.M., Semerad, R.G., Smith, D.E., Vines, B. K. and Case, R.A.

(1992). Chemical and physical methods. In: Standard Methods for the Examination of Dairy

Product, by R. T. Marshal (1992), 16th edition, American Public Health Association,

Washington, DC, USA. P 433-533.

Hassan, Rihab A.; El Zubeir, Ibtisam, E.M. and Babiker, S. A. (2006). Microbiology of camel

fermented milk (Gariss) in Sudan. Res. J. Microbiol. 1: 160- 165.

Marshall, R. T. (1992). Standard methods for examination for dairy products. 16th ed. American

public health association (APHA), Washington, DC. USA.

Murphy, S.C. and Boor, K.J. (2000). Trouble-shooting sources and causes of high bacterial count in

rawmilk. Dairy Food Environ. Sanit., 20: 606- 611.

Semereab, T. and Molla, B. (2001). Bacteriological quality of raw milk of camel

(Camelusdromedarius) in Afar region (Ethiopia). J. Camel Res., 8: 51- 54.

Shuiep, E. S., El Zubeir, I. E. M.; Al Owni, O. A. O. and Musa, H. H. (2007). Assessment of hygienic

quality of camel (Camelus dromedarius) milk in Khartoum state, Sudan. Bull. Anim. Hlth.

Prod. Afr., 55: 112-117.

Wernery, U. (2008). Camel milk-new observations. In:Conference Proceedings:International Camel

Conference. Recent trends in camel research and futurestrategies for saving camels. India:

Bikaner.

Wernery, U., Johnson, B. and Abrahm, A. (2005). The effect of short-term heat treatment on vitamin

C concentrations in camel milk. Milchwissenschaft, 60: 266- 267.

Younan, M., Ali, Z., Bornstein, S., and Muller, W. (2001). Application of California Mastitis Test in

intramammary Streptococcus agalactia and Staphylococcus aureus inections of camels

(Camelus dromedaruis) in Kenya. Prev. Vet. Med., 51: 307.

234


93. Thermographic Study of the Dairy Camel (Camelus dromedarius L.) Mammary

Gland Before and After Machine Milking

M. Ayadi1*, E. M. Samara

1, A. Al-Haidary

1, R. S. Aljumaah

1, M. A. Alshaikh

1 and G. Caja

1,2

1Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University

(KSU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P. O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451. 2Grup de Recerca en Remugants (G2R), Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments, Universitat

Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain


Introduction

Much research work has been done on the milking management of dairy cattle, sheep and

goat, but comparatively few research data is available on camels. As results of market demand,

intensive camel dairy farms using machine milking, have been recently established in Saudi Arabia

for commercial milk production. Machine milking routines can affect the udder temperature and

udder health (Vegricht et al., 2007). The teat is the most stressed part of the udder during milking

(Hillerton al., 2002). Information on skin temperature may be of interest for detecting teat over

milking and intramammary infections (Colak et al., 2008). Infrared thermography (IRT) is a non-

contact and non-invasive technique that detects surface heat emitted as infrared radiation. This

technology was previously used for measuring udder temperatures in goats (Caruolo et al., 1990),

cows (Kunc et al., 2000) and ewes (Stelletta et al., 2007). As far as we know, infrared thermography

has not been used before in camels. The aim of this study was to explore the effect of machine

milking on udder and teat skin surface temperature of two breeds of dairy camels raised in Saudi

Arabia.


Twelve multiparous dairy camels (6 Majahiem and 6 Maghatier) averaging 135 ± 21 DIM

and 9.14 ± 1.07 L/d of milk yield (mean ± SD), were used. She camels were housed together at Al-

Watania Agri FarmStock intensive industrial system (Al-Jouf district, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia),

electronically identified and fed twice a day before milking with alfalfa hay and concentrate; water

was freely available. Machine milking (45 kPa, 60 pulses/min, and 60:40 ratio) was done twice daily

(0500 and 1700 h). Left side IRT images for udder body and front and rear teat surface were obtained

immediately before (Figure 1), without udder preparation, and immediately after milking using an

infrared vision camera (VisIR-Ti200, Thermoteknix Systems, Cambridge, UK) placed

perpendicularly and at 50 cm from camel‘s udder. Climatic measurements were recorded using data

loggers and temperature-humidity index (THI) calculated (West, 1994). Milk yield and milking time

were recorded at each milking. Data was were analyzed by the Proc Mixed procedure of SAS (SAS

version 9.2, SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC).

Results

Daily THI values ranged from 60 to 83 during the study period. No differences were observed

in udder and teat surface temperature according to camel breed (P> 0.05) and between front and rear

teats (P> 0.05). Milking time was 8.50 ± 0.31 min/camel for a milk yield of 4.60 ± 1.12 L, on

average. Udder and teat surface temperatures before milking were higher (P < 0.05) at p.m. (36.07 ±

0.19 and 35.35 ± 0.17OC, respectively) than at a.m. (34.80 ± 0.25and 33.93 ± 0.23

OC, respectively).

Regarding temperature changes after milking no differences (P > 0.05) were observed in udder

temperature after a.m. and p.m. milkings, while teat surface temperature decreased only after the p.m.

milking (from 35.35 ± 0.17 to 34.26 ± 0.17OC; P<0.01).

235


a) b)

Figure 1. Thermograms of the udder of dairy camels a) before and b) after milking.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, no IRT images and THI have been used previously in dairy

camels. Morning and evening milkings coincided with the overall means of daily minimum and

maximum THI. According to Hahn et al. (1998), our camels were not under heat stress conditions.

Observed decrease of teat temperature (–1.1OC ) after p.m. milking in camels disagree with that

reported in dairy cows, where teat temperature increased (+2.6OC) after milking (Kunc et al., 2000),

while agreed with results in dairy ewes in which teat temperature decreased (–1.0OC) after milking

(Stelletta et al., 2007). Milking time, machine milking management (with or without udder

preparation) and teat vasculatization differences could explain the discrepancy between these studies.

IRT may be a suitable tool for evaluating the effect of milking technique on teat and udders of dairy

camels. However, further research should be done for taking profit of the use of IRT for monitoring

the effects of machine milking in dairy camels.

References

Aljumaah, R.S. Almutairi, F.F. Ayadi, M.A. Alshaikh, M.A. Aljumaah, A.M. and Hussein, M.F.

(2011). Factors influencing the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in lactating dromedary

camels in Riyadh Region, Saudi Arabia. Tropical Animal Health and Production (in press).

Caruolo, E.V. Jarman, R.F. and Dickey, D.A. (1990). Milk temperature in the claw piece of the

milking machine and mammary surface temperature are predictors of internal mammary

temperature in goats. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A 37:61

Colak, A., Polat B., Okumus, Z., Kaya, M., Yanmaz, L.E., and Hayirli A. (2008). Early Detection of

mastitis using infrared thermography in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 91:4244

Hahn, G.L., Eigenberg, R.A., Nienaber, J.A. and Littleedike, E.T. (1990). Measuring physiological

responses of animals to environmental stressors using a microcomputer based portable data

logger. Journal of Animal Science 68:2658

Hillerton, J.E, Pankey, J.W and Pankey, P. (2002). Effect of overmilking on teat condition. Journal of

Dairy Research 69:81

Kunc P., Knížková I., Koubková M., Flusser J. and Doležal O. (2000). Machine milking and its

influence on temperature states of udder. Czech Journal of Animal Science 45:1

Stelletta, C., Murgia, L., Caria, M., Gianesella, M., Pazzona, A. and Morgante, M. (2007).

Thermographic study of the ovine mammary gland during different working vacum levels.

Italian Journal of Animal Science 1:6

Vegricht, J. Machalek, A. Ambroz, P. Brehme, U. and Rose, S. (2007). Milking-related changes of

teat temperature caused by various milking machines. Research in Agricultural Enginieering

53:121

West, J. W. (1994). Interactions of energy and bovine somatotropin with heat stress. Journal of Dairy

Science 77:2091

236


94. Thermal Characteristics of Different Components of Camel Milk

H. Al-Hamani, M.S. Rahman, A. Al-Alawi and I. Al-Marhubi

Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos

University, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

There is a large quantity and variety of materials produced industrially in powder form and

there is a need for information about their handling and processing characteristics. Thermal properties

aid in product process control, prediction of storage characteristics and in alimentation. Differential

Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is used widely to characterize biological materials for its thermal

properties. Typical observed transitions include the glass transition of the amorphous phase, melting

and crystallization processes, denaturation, free and bound water, onset of oxidation, and heat

capacity (Roos,2002 & Jouppila).

The milk composition of dairy animals has been widely studied throughout the world and

thousands of references are available especially with regard to milk consumed by humans. The

literature data mainly concerns cow milk, which represents 85% of the milk consumed in the world

and, to a lesser extent, goat and sheep milk. Studies on other dairy animals (buffalo, yak, mare, and

camel) are rather scarce, in spite of their nutritional interest and medicinal properties. In addition,

unlike other milk-producing animals, camels can thrive under extreme hostile conditions of

temperature, drought, and lack of pasture, and still produce milk (Yagil and Etzion, 1980). For that in

this context, thermal characteristic of camel milk and cow milk need to be further investigated in

order to have more information about the biological value of heat-treated camel milk.


Milk cream and fat were separated according to the method described by KARRAY et al,

2004, casein and whey were separated according to the procedure described by Wangoha, 1998 and

lactose was separated according to the method described by Bund and Pandit (2007). All obtained

samples were freeze-dried and kept at -20oC.

Differential scanning calorimetry with and without modulation (DSC Q10, MDSC Q1000,

TA Instruments, New Castle, Delware) were used to measure the glass transition and meting of

freeze-dried whole camel and cow milk powders, and other components of camel milk (fat, cream,

casein, whey protein and lactose). The procedures were similar as discussed by Rahman, 2010. All

analyses were done in 3-6 replicates.


Milk is a multi component mixture containing mainly water, protein, fat, lactose and other

minor constituents, thus it is a challenge to trace different state and phase changes from its complex

thermogram as measured by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). In the literature, negligible

research works are reported on the thermal characteristics of camel milk power, especially for

different components of camel milk. This is mainly due to the complex interactions between different

types of complex components present in the milk. Thermal characteristics of freeze-dried whole and

skimmed camel milk were measured by DSC. The thermogram showed three endothermic peaks (two

for fat-melting and other for non-fat solids-melting) and three shifts. Two shifts at low temperature

could be related to the glass transitions. However, it was difficult to identify which components in the

milk were providing these transitions. The shift at higher temperature after melting of non-fat solids

could be related to structure ordering in the milk. However, it was difficult to trace the glass

transitions of each component in the milk due to the complex interactions of the components' phases.

For this reason, different components of the camel milk (fat, cream, casein, whey protein, and lactose)

were separated and then measured its thermal characteristics. The thermogram of camel milk fat

showed two endothermic peaks, one wide and the other sharp. The wide peak at low temperature was

due to the melting of different fractions of fatty acid and the sharp peak indicated melting of a

significant amount of specific fatty acid. The melting of fat started at -5OC and ended at 52OC,

respectively. The melting of fat in cream started at lower temperature -l2OC as compared to the pure

fat at -5OC. This decrease in melting temperature could be due to the effects of protein content in the

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237


cream.

Casein showed one endothermic peak due to non-fat solids-melting and two shifts in the

thermogram line indicating two glass transitions. The first glass transition started at 38OC, second

glass transition started at 77OC and melting onset at 95OC, respectively. Similarly whey protein

precipitated by ammonium sulfate and ethanol also showed two glass transitions and one melting

endotherm. In the cases of all types of protein, the second glass transition was observed just before

melting of nonfat solids. In the case of first scan of lactose, only two endothermic melting peaks were

observed without any trace -of glass transition. However, the second scan with annealing showed two

glass transitions and two endothermic peaks. The onset of the first and second glass transitions were at

56 and 114OC, respectively. Similarly the onsets of first and second melting endotherms were at 145

and 213OC, respectively.

In case of commercial lactose, the glass transition could not be traced, however two similar

melting endotherms were observed, first one at 141OC and second one at 215

OC, respectively.

References

Bund, R. and Pandit, A. (2007). Rapid lactose recovery from buffalo whey by use of ‗anti-solvent,

ethanol‘. Journal of Food Engineering. 82: 333-341.

Jouppila K., Roos Y.H. (1994). Water sorption and time-dependent phenomena of milk powders,

Journal Dairy Science. 77:1798–1808.

Karray, N., Lopez, C., Lesieur, P., Ollivon, M., (2004) Dromedary milk fat: Thermal and structural

properties 1. Crystalline forms obtained by slow cooling, Lait 84: 399–416.

Rahman .M.S. (2010) Food stability determination by macro-micro region concept in the state

diagram and by defining a critical temperature. J. Food Eng. 99, 402-416.

Roos Y.H. (2002). Importance of glass transition and water activity to spray drying and stability of

dairy powders, Lait 82: 478– 484.

Wangoha, J., Faraha, Z., Puhana, Z. (1998). Iso-electric Focusing of Camel Milk Proteins,

International Dairy JournalVolume 8, Issue 7: 617-621

Yagil, R., and Etzion, Z. (1980). Effect of drought condition on the quality of camel milk. Journal

Dairy Res. 47:159–166.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02608774

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238


95. Synergic Effect of Nutrition on Work Performance of Indian Camels

J.L. Chaudhary

Associate Professor & Liaison Officer

Directorate of Planning and Monitoring

Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur – 313 001, Rajasthan (India)


Introduction Camel belong to the family camelidae in the suborder Tylopoda of the order Artidactyla. The

genus camels has 2 spicier viz. camelus dromedarius (Single humped) having habitat in dry hot arid

lands of Africa and Asia and camelus bactrianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands

of central palaeretic. The camel (camelus dromedarius) is an important component of the desert

ecosystem. The camel possesses many unique qualities, which make it distinitly superior to other

domenticated animals in the hot and arid desert ecosystem. Camels is the only draught animal which has

survived in adverse environmental conditions of desert. Moth straw, (Phaseolus acovtifolius Jacq.),

Guar straw (cympsis tetragonaloba) and groundnut straw (Arechis hypogea) is the most common fodder

for draught camels. Not much work has been done to assess the feeding value of these feeds in draught

camels. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to study the synergic effect of feeding leguminous

straw with concentrate mixture on draught performance, physiological responses in camels.

Materials and Methods Nine draught camels of 6 to 10 years of age and body weight ranging from 525 to 615 kg

were selected and randomly divided in to three groups on the basis of their body weight and fed on 3

dietary treatments. The animals were offered ad lib. moth straw, groundnut straw and guar straw

supplemented with the concentrate mixture. The concentrate mixture was fed as per requirements of

draught camels (ICAR, 1985). The camels was fed three dietary treatments i.e. moth straw (T1),

groundnut straw (T2) and guar straw (T3), respectively along with concentrate mixture. The camels

were housed in a well ventilated shed having sandy floor, asbestos roofing and provision for manger

for individual feeding. All camels were offered fresh water once at 5 pm daily and refusal of water, if

any, was also recorded to know the actual voluntary water intake. The quantity of water received by

the animals through feed and fodder were also calculated to know the total water intake by the camel.

The leguminous straw was fed to each camel as a sole diet between 5 to 6 pm. The daily allowance of

concentrate mixture was offered to all camels at 2.7 kg pm/camel. All other management practices

were kept the same for all the groups. After a preliminary feeding of 54 days, a six days experimental

trial was conducted on all the draught camel. The refusal of straw, if any was also recorded to know

the actual intake of feed and total faecal out put in 24 hrs was collected by harnessing faecal bags to

individual camels. The representative samples of feeding and faeces were pooled and analyzed for

proximate principles (AOAC 1995).

A 2 wheeled camel cart was used as a loading device for applying the load cell (Dynometer of

540 kg Ecl, UK) between the body of the cart and the beam for meaning the draught. The cart was

pulled on a sandy track to cover a distance of 25.5 km with 18% pay load in 4 to 5 hrs. The camels

were allowed to pull payload including the weight of the cart and the driver in such a way the

experimental camels could exert an average draught of 18% of their body weight.

The physiological response such as respiration rate (flank movement), pulse rate (coccygeal

palpation), body temperature and body weight of the camels were recorded before and after the

carting. The data obtained from the trial was evaluated statistically as per the procedure (Snedecor and

Cochran, 1980).


The leguminous kharib straw contained 88.15 to 89% DM, 10.10 to 14.11 CP, 12.0 to 18.50%

DV, 1.20 to 2.12 % BE, 39.85 to 58.67% NRE and 8.25 to 11.85% TA on dry matter basis (Nagpal

and Jabbar, 2005). The DCP and TDN values observed in the present investigation were 7.23 to 8.28

and 60.75 to 63.88 respectively for T1 T2 and T3. The difference of DCP and TDN values was

significantly (P<0.05) between T1 and T3 but there was a non-significant difference between T1 and

T2. The mean daily dry matter intake (kg/day) in T1 T2 and T3 was 11.50, 12.66 band 13.40 kg/day

239


respectively which was significantly (P<0.05) higher in T3 followed by T2 and T1. The values of

DCP1 and TDN1 (kg/day) were significantly higher in T3 (927.50) followed by T2 (812.22) and T1

9730.23) which is in accordance with the findings of Nagpal et al (1996). The average daily gain

(g/day) was significantly (P<0.05) higher in T3 (310) over that of T2 280) and T1 (125.0). However,

Nagpal and Jabbar (2005) reported average gaily gain of 227.30 g/day on feeding dry moth fodder in

camels.

There was increased in body temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate in all the treatments

after carting over the initial values. The camels fed with Guar straw exhibited less physiological stress

during carting as compared to camels fed moth straw and ground nut straw. The result found in the

present investigation an in close agreement with Nagpal et al (1996). Khanna and Rai (2000) and

Chaudhary et al 2008 and Chaudhary & Tiwari, (2010).

When the camels were made to pull cart of a pay load of 2.8 kg/kg B W on Two wheeled cart, the

average speed in T1 T2 and T3 groups were 2.68, 2.92 and 3.21 kg/h respectively. The variation observed in

power developed by different groups of draught camels was significantly higher (P<0.05) in T3 group

followed by T2 and T1. These results are in confirmation with the findings reported by Rai and Khanna,

(1994).

In conclusion, ad libitun feeding of Guar straw with concentrate mixture resulted in improved

in take of DM, DCP and TDN by draught camels. The average speed and power developed was

significantly higher in T3 as compared to T1 and T3. Further the camels tolerate the work stress

without any apparent ill effort on physiological responses which fed on guar straw in the diet. Thus it

may be recommended that draught camels preferred guar straw as compared to other leguminous

straws.

References

ICAR (1985). Nutrient Requirements of Livestock and Poultry. Ist Edn. Publication and Information

Divisions of ICAR, New Delhi. pp 8-9.

AOAC (1995). Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Analytical Chemists, Washington.

Chaudhary J.L., Tiwari, G.S. and Gupta L. (2008). Effect of feeding different levels of dietary energy

on Nutrient utilisation, draught performance and physiological responses in Camels. Journal

of Camel Practice and Research, pp 195-200.

Chaudhary J.L. and Tiwari, G.S. (2010). Effect of energy supplement fed moth straw based diets on

Nutrient intake and utilisation in draught camels. Journal of Camel Practice and Research, pp

269-272.

Khanna ND and Rai AK (2000). Reviewed papers, investigations on work potential of Indian Camel.

Camel News Letter No. 17, Sept. pp 15-22.

Nagpal AK and Jabbar A (2005). Productivity of lactating camels on complete feed blocks. Indian

Journal of Animal Nutrition 22(2):102-106.

Nagpal AK, Rai AK and Khanna ND (1996). Nutrient utilisation and serum electrolytes in pack safari

camels. Indian Journal of Animal Science 66:1166-1169.

Rai AK and Khanna ND (1994). Draught performance of Indian camels of Bikaner bred. Indian

Journal of Animal Science 64(10):1092-1096.

Snedecor GV and Cocharan WG (1980). Statistical Methods, 6th Ed. Oxford and IBH Publicating Co.,

New Delhi.

240


96. Diversity of the Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Foregut’s Bacteria

A.A. Samsudin1, 2

, A.D.G. Wright3 and R. Al Jassim

1*

1The University of Queensland,School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Gatton, QLD 4343,

Australia. 2Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.3Department of Animal Science, University of Vermont, 570 Main Street

Burlington, Vermont 05405-0148 USA


Introduction

Australia has the world second largest area of arid and semi-arid lands in the world

(McKnight, 1969). The camel population increased significantly since the release of camels into the

wild in 1920s to reach more than a million (Edwards et al., 2004; Saalfeld and Edwards, 2008).

Australia is now home to the largest herd of wild camels in the world. Arabian camels (dromedary)

are unique animals due to their adaptability to harsh arid environment. When the sources of food

become scarce, camels can utilise the abundance of low quality shrubs and trees, and contains high

level of anti-nutritional compounds such as Mulga (Acacia aneura), Ironwood (Acacia estophiolata),

and River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) growing along dry river beds (Philips et al., 2001).

The high content of lignocellulose compounds in the shrubs and trees aforementioned has limited

other domesticated ruminant species from using these plants as a food source. Little is known about

the bacterial community of the camel GI tract. This project was designed to investigate the bacterial

community using independent molecular techniques based of the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis.


The foregut contents were collected immediately after slaughter from 12 feral dromedary

camels that were harvested from the central Australian desert. The animals were fed on native

vegetation available abundantly in the central Australia desert region. This study was conducted

according to the animal ethics guidelines set by The University of Queensland Animal Ethics

Committee (AEC Approval Number: SAS/069/08/UQ). One ml of the digesta fluid was used to

inoculate a pre-reduced culture tubes containing different fibre type, namely filter paper (FP) (Mann,

1986), cotton thread (CT), and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) as a carbon source to study the effect of

cellulose type on the bacterial community in the foregut of the dromedary camels. Genomic DNA was

extracted from the foregut content and from the enrichment media. The DNA was PCR amplified

using bacterial universal primer set (27f/1492r), cloned and sequenced.The derived sequences were

aligned and their nearest-neighbour for each sequences were identified. The cell number of general

bacteria community, F. succinogenes and R. flavefaciens in the foregut of the dromedary camel were

quantified using real-time PCR.

Result

The study of the bacterial community in the foregut of the dromedary camel revealed a total

of 267 near-complete 16S rRNA clones, with 151 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) identified at a

99% species-level identity cut-off criterion. The prediction of actual diversity in the foregut of the

dromedary camel, using the Chao1‘s approach, was 238 OTUs, while the richness and evenness of the

diversity estimated, using Shannon‘s index, was 4.84. The majority of clone bacteria in the current

study were affiliated with the bacterial phyla Firmicutes (67% of total clones) and Bacteroidetes

(25%). Meanwhile, a total of 283 near-complete 16S rRNA gene sequences derived from the three

fibre-enrichment media (CT, FP, NDF) were examined. At the phylum the Firmicutes was the most

abundant phylum present in both FP and CT enrichment media, while the phylum Proteobacteria was

prevalent in the NDF media. Fourty-two OTUs were predicted by the Chao1, and the richness of the

diversity estimated using the Shannon‘s index was 2.82 from the combined clone libraries.

LIBSHUFF analysis of the 16S rRNA clone libraries derived from enriched media revealed

significant differences across all of them. Using an absolute quantification method, the numbers for

total bacteria was highest in CT media with 2.7x109 cell ml

-1. F. succinogenes has the highest cell

number in the FP media with 2.2x105 cell ml

-1 and R. flavefaciens was found to be high NDF media

with 3.5x104 cell ml

-1. The bacterial cell density of F. succinogenes and R. flavefaciens in the foregut

241


of the feral dromedary camel estimated using real-time PCR were lower than other domesticated

ruminants.

Discussion

Sequence data from the present study represent novel bacterial sequences representing new

species, several new genera and likely, a new family. The use of molecular approaches to study

microorganisms‘ diversity, based on analyses of DNA, has allowed for the possibility of exploring the

rumen bacteria niche widely and eliminated the complexity involved in the isolation and enumeration

of fibre-digesting bacteria, which tightly adhere to the substrate. A very low number of clones of

predominant fibre-degrading bacteria were detected using genomic DNA. The dynamics of the

fibrolytic rumen bacteria is highly influenced by the type of fibre supplied in the cultured media as a

substrate. The presence of plant secondary metabolites in the rumen content of dromedary camels has

reduced the population of the fibre-degrading bacterial community. In summary, despite camels

having a low population density in the rumen samples compared to domesticated ruminants, the data

presented here would help to develop feeding regimes for dromedary camels since they do not share a

common interest with domesticated livestock in the forage each consumes, especially during drought

seasons.

References

Edwards, G. P., Saalfeld, K. and Clifford, B. (2004). Population trend of feral camels in the Northern

Territory, Australia. Wildlife Research. 31: 509-517.

Mann, S. O. (1986). An improved method for determining cellulolytic activity in anaerobic bacteria.

Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 31: 241-244.

McKnight, T. L. (1969). The camel in Australia. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.

Philips, A., Heucke, J., Dorges, B. and O'Reilly, G. 2001, Co-grazing cattle and camels. Rural

Industries Research and Developement Corporation, Alice Spring.

Saalfeld, W. K. and Edwards, G. P. (eds) (2008). Ecology of feral camels in Australia. Managing the

impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business, Desert Knowledge

Cooperative Research Centre, Alice Springs.

242


97. Fibrolytic Bacteria in the Foregut of the Feral Arabian Camel (Camelus

dromedarius)

A.A. Samsudin1, 2

, A.D.G. Wright3 and R. Al Jassim

1*

1The University of Queensland,School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Gatton, QLD 4343,

Australia; 2Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia;3Department of Animal Science, University of Vermont, 570 Main Street

Burlington, Vermont 05405-0148 USA


Introduction

Australia has the world‘s second largest area of arid and semi-arid lands (McKnight, 1969). It

is here that the camel population has increased significantly since their release into the wild in the

1920s to numbering more than one million animals (Edwards et al., 2004; Saalfeld and Edwards,

2008). As a result, Australia is now home to the largest herd of wild camels in the world. Arabian

camels (dromedary) are unique animals due to their adaptability to harsh arid environment. Camels

feed on range of trees and shrubs that are found in the Australian desert. The Mulga (Acacia aneura),

Ironwood (Acacia estophiolata), and River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are among those

mostly preferred by camels (Philips et al., 2001). The high contents of lignocellulose and tannins in

these shrubs and trees have limited domesticated ruminant and other herbivore species from feeding

on them. It is well acknowledged that fermentation of feedstuffs in the foregut of the camels occurs in

the same fashion as that in cattle. However, little is known about the bacterial community of the

camel‘s foregut. This project was designed to investigate the bacterial community using independent

molecular techniques based of the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and to study the effect of

cellulose type on the bacterial community.


The foregut contents were collected immediately after slaughter from 12 feral dromedary

camels that were harvested from the central Australian desert. The animals were fed on native

vegetation available abundantly in the central Australia desert region. This study was conducted

according to the animal ethics guidelines set by The University of Queensland Animal Ethics

Committee (AEC Approval Number: SAS/069/08/UQ). Samples of foregut contents were collected

immediately after post mortem, strained through four-layer cheesecloth, kept under carbon dioxide in

a pre-warmed bottle until processed. One ml of the strained forestomach fluid was used to inoculate a

pre-reduced media containing either filter paper (FP) (Mann, 1986), cotton thread (CT), or neutral

detergent fibre (NDF) as the only carbon source. The cultures were incubated anaerobically at 39 ⁰C

for two weeks. Genomic DNA was extracted from the foregut content and from the enrichment media.

The DNA was PCR amplified using bacterial universal primer set (27f/1492r), cloned and

sequenced.The derived sequences were aligned and their nearest-neighbour for each sequences were

identified. The density of the general bacteria community, F. succinogenes and R. flavefaciens in the

foregut of the dromedary camel were quantified using real-time PCR.

Result

A total of 267 near-complete 16S rRNA clones were assigned to 151 operational taxonomic

units (OTUs), based upon a 99% species-level identity criterion. The prediction of actual diversity in

the foregut of the dromedary camel, using the Chao1‘s approach, was 238 OTUs, while the richness

and evenness of the diversity estimated, using Shannon‘s index, was 4.84. The majority of clone

bacteria in the current study were affiliated with the bacterial phyla Firmicutes (67% of total clones)

and Bacteroidetes (25%). Meanwhile, a total of 283 near-complete 16S rRNA gene sequences derived

from the three fibre-enrichment media were also examined. At the phylum level, the Firmicutes was

the most abundant phylum present in both FP and CT enrichment media, while the phylum

Proteobacteria was prevalent in the NDF media. Forty-two OTUs were predicted by the Chao1, and

the richness of the diversity estimated using the Shannon‘s index was 2.82 from the combined clone

libraries. LIBSHUFF analysis of the 16S rRNA clone libraries derived from enriched media revealed

significant differences across all of them. Using an absolute quantification method, the numbers for

total bacteria was highest in CT media (2.7x109 cell ml

-1). Fibrobacter succinogenes had the highest

243


cell numbers in the FP media with 2.2x105 cell ml

-1 and R. flavefaciens was found to be higher in the

NDF media with 3.5x104 cell ml

-1. The bacterial cell density of F. succinogenes and R. flavefaciens in

the foregut of the feral dromedary camel estimated using real-time PCR were lower than estimates

reported in other domesticated ruminants.

Discussion

Sequence data from the present study represent novel bacterial sequences representing new

species, several new genera and, likely, a new family. The use of molecular approaches to study

microorganisms‘ diversity, based on analyses of DNA, has allowed for the possibility of exploring the

rumen bacteria niche widely and eliminated the complexity involved in the isolation and enumeration

of fibre-digesting bacteria, which tightly adhere to the substrate. A very low number of clones of

predominant fibre-degrading bacteria were detected using genomic DNA. The dynamics of the

fibrolytic rumen bacteria is highly influenced by the type of fibre supplied in the cultured media as a

substrate. The presence of plant secondary metabolites in the rumen content of dromedary camels has

reduced the population of the fibre-degrading bacterial community. In summary, despite camels

having a low population density in the forestomach samples compared to domesticated ruminants, the

data presented here provide an insight into different consortia of bacteria that may play the same role

under different conditions.

References

Edwards, G. P., Saalfeld, K. and Clifford, B. (2004). Population trend of feral camels in the Northern

Territory, Australia. Wildlife Research. 31: 509-517.

Mann, S. O. (1986). An improved method for determining cellulolytic activity in anaerobic bacteria.

Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 31: 241-244.

McKnight, T. L. (1969). The camel in Australia. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.

Philips, A., Heucke, J., Dorges, B. and O'Reilly, G. 2001, Co-grazing cattle and camels. Rural

Industries Research and Developement Corporation, Alice Spring.

Saalfeld, W. K. and Edwards, G. P. (eds) (2008). Ecology of feral camels in Australia. Managing the

impacts of feral camels in Australia: a new way of doing business, Desert Knowledge

Cooperative Research Centre, Alice Springs.

244


98. Organic Matter Digestibility and Gas Production Characteristics of Some Camel

Feeds in Butana Area-Sudan

M.H.M. Elbashir, B. Alwasila and A.A. Mohammed

Tumbool Camel Research Center, Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Animal

Resources and Fisheries. Khartoum-Sudan. 2bdelnasir Mohammed Ahmed Fadlelseed

University of Khartoum, Faculty of Animal Production, Department of Animal Nutrition. Corresponding author email: [email protected]

Introduction The rumen is the largest stomach compartment in ruminants, where millions of bacteria grow

under anaerobic conditions. These bacteria are responsible for the digestion of fiber (cellulose) and

are the reason why ruminants can consume a wide variety of byproduct feedstuffs derived from the

processing of plants for human food. The rumen contains a very well adapted microbial population in

order to utilize cellulosic materials that will be later used by the host animal. The motility pattern of

the compound stomach of the camel differs from that of true ruminants (Engelhardt et al., 1988). A

continuous separation of solid feed particles from fluids and solutes seems to occur throughout the

motility cycle, there by retaining larger feed particles in the rumen. The objective of this study was to

assess the organic matter digestibity and gas production characteristics of some pasture grasses, forbs,

trees, concentrates and agricultural by-products from Butana area using camel rumen fluids.


In vitro gas production was undertaken according to the procedure described by (Menke and

Steingass, 1988). Rumen fluid was collected by a manually operated vacuum pump from two

slaughtered she camels at Wadelbashir Slaughter House (western Khartoum State) into a pre-wormed

thermos flask and immediately transferred to the laboratory. The rumen fluid was filtered and flushed

with Co2. The Co2 flushed rumen fluid was added to the buffered mineral solution (1:2 v/v), which

was maintained in a water bath at 39oC. Samples (200 mg) of the air-dry feedstuffs were carefully

weighted into syringes fitted with plungers. Buffered rumen fluid (30 ml) is pipetted into each

syringe, containing the feed samples, and the syringes were immediately placed into the water bath at

39oC. Pistons were lubricated with vaseline and inserted into the syringes. Two syringes with only

buffered rumen fluid were incubated and considered as blanks. Each incubation was completed using

(12) individual feedstuffs with each run repeated. The syringes were gently shaken every 2–4 h. The

incubation terminated after recording the 96 h gas volume. The gas production was recorded after 3,

6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of incubation. Total gas values were corrected for the blank incubation and

reported gas values are expressed per 200 mg DM. The metabolizable energy (MJ/kg DM) content of

feeds were calculated using equations of (Menke and Steingass, 1988) as: ME (MJ/kg DM) = 2.20 +

0.136 GP + 0.057 CP + 0.0029 CF2. The organic matter digestibility percent (OMD) % of feeds was

calculated using equations of (Menke and steingsss, 1988) as OMD% = 14.88 + 0.889GP + 0.45CP +

Ash content. Where GP is 24 net gas production (ml/20 mg DM); CP, CF and CA are crude protein,

crude fat, and crude ash (% DM), respectively. Data were subjected to analysis of variance following

the completely randomized design


The incubated samples showed a fast initial gas production without lag time in all

investigated feedstuffs Table 1. This was likely due to the micro-organism which takes a longer

period of time to be growing and dividing. Sorgum grain and Clitoria ternata showed highly

significant differences values of gas compared to the other plants during (3 - 96h). A study by Cone et

al., (1997) showed that gas production could be divided into three phases, representing gas production

caused by fermentation of the water-soluble fraction, the non-soluble fraction and microbial turnover.

Generally, there was considerable differences in cumulative gas production profiles between different

incubated individual feedstuffs.

The parameters of gas production are presented in Table 2. Ipomoea- cordofana, Sonchus-

oleraceus, Clitoria- ternata and Plepharis- edulis had significantly (p<0.05) more a-values compared

245


to the rest feedstuffs. This shows that the soluble fraction in these plant species was degraded or

released faster than the others. (Stefanon et al., 1996) and (Schofield and Pell, 1995). The presence of

soluble but not digestible materials may be a factor which contributed to low gas production. Only

Acacia- seyal which had significantly (p<0.05) higher (a) and (a+b) values than other plant species. It

would appear that the insoluble material of Acacia seyal was less fermentable when incubated. There

could be one explanation for this result, is the greatest concentration of antinutritional factors in

Acacia- seyal. Convolulus- fatmensis, Ipomoea- cordofana, Sonchus- oleraceus, Acacia- seyal,

Sorghum bicolor and sesame cake had significantly (p<0.05) highest c-values. There were

considerable differences among the feedstuffs in terms of a, b, a+b, and c values.

Baggasse and Acacia- seyal together had significantly (p<0.05) lower values of ME (Table 4).

Guerouali et al., (1992) concluded that camels require less comparative energy for maintenance than

sheep or cattle. Wardeh (1990) reported that the contents of energy releasing entities of such plants

were high enough to meet the maintenance and certain production requirements. The organic matter

digestibility (OMD) % of individual feedstuffs incubated ranged between (31.33 – 71.07%). The

OMD % was significantly (p<0.05) higher in sesame cake, while, Acacia- seyal and baggasse had

significantly (p<0.05) lower values. There were considerable variations in metabolizable energy

contents and organic matter digestibility values of investigated feedstuffs. The results are in

agreement with Elshami, (1985), Bhattacharya et al. (1985) and Gihad et al. (1988) who stated that

camels digest dry matter and crude fibre of range plants more efficiently than ruminants.

Table 1 Camel gas production volumes (3 – 96 h) Species 3 6 12 24 48 72 96

Convolulus fat mensis 1.00ghi 4.50hijk 13.66fghi 24.33efgh 30.66efg 42.66c 43.66ef

Ipomoea cordofana 2.33ghi 8.50defgh 17.66cdefg 24.16efgh 31.50ef 36.16de 37.16gh

Sondus deraceus 7.66bcd 16.00b 26.00ab 33.33abcd 37.83cd 43.83c 44.83de

Sesbania sesabon 7.00bcd 11.83bcd 16.16defgh 27.16defgh 33.83de 35.50def 37.50fgh

Clitoria ternate 14.33a 22.83a 30.33a 39.16a 44.16b 51.83ab 52.83bc

Plepharis edulis 3.8efg 9.83def 22.33bc 35.83ab 42.16bc 57.50a 58.16ab

Leucaena glauca 5.5def 10cdef 15.50efghi 21.16hij 26fgh 28.16ghi 30.66ijk

Acacia seyal 3.83efg 5.83fghij 10.33ij 17.83ijk 30.33efg 32.83efgh 35.50hij

Sorghum grain 3.83efg 7.50defgh 18.50cdef 39.16a 53.66a 57.66a 60.66a

Groundnut cake 9.00b 14.33bc 21.00bcd 28.00defg 30.00efg 31.00efghi 32.00hijk

Sesame cake 8.66bc 15.00b 25.33ab 35.16abc 39.66bcd 40.66cd 42.16efg

Baggase 1.66ghi 2.83ijk 4.66k 14.00k 25.50fghi 31.16efghi 32.50hijk

abc Mean on the same column with different superscripts differs significantly at p<0.05.SE: Standard

Error

Table 2 In vitro gas production parameters by plant species (ml/200 ml/kg)

Species Camel

A B a + b C

Convolulus fat mensis 2.65fgh

49.04cde

46.39cd

0.030hij

Ipomoea cordofana 3.01ghi

39.88ef

36.87defgh

0.056ef

Sondus deraceus 1.093de

41.25def

43.18cd

0.065 de

Sesbania sesabon 2.44cde

34.97fghi

37.40defgh

0.047fg

Clitoria ternate 10.95a

41.14def

52.10bc

0.048fg

Plepharis edulis 0.87efg

60.63ab

59.77ab

0.035ghij

Leucaena glauca 2.61cde

27.02hij

29.63ghi

0.050fg

Acacia sayal 0.05efg

38.59fg

38.54defg

0.028ijk

Sorghum grain -6.64ij

68.90a

62.20a

0.042fghi

Groundnut cake 2.43cde

28.81hij

31.24gh

0.088bc

Sesame cake -0.22 41.53def

41.31def

0.078bc

Baggase 2.44fgh

49.38def

41.94de

0.021jkl

abc Mean on the same column with different superscripts differ significantly at p<0.05. SE: Standard Error

Table 3: Metabolizable energy and organic matter digestibility from gas production: Species ME/Mj/Kg/DM OMD%

Convolulus fat mensis 6.58fg

63.91abcde

Ipomoea cordofana 7.10def

58.81def

Sondus deraceus 7.70bcde

67.09abc

Sesbania sesabon 6.68efg

61.21cde

Clitoria ternate 8.64bac

65.59abcd

246


Plepharis edulis 7.57dcef

63.58bcde

Leucaena glauca 6.63efg

60.64cde

Acacia sayal 5.57g

51.09f

Sorghum grain 8.25bcd

58.18ef

Groundnut cake 8.69ab

69.69ab

Sesame cake 9.59a

71.07a

Baggase 4.12h

31.33g

abc Mean on the same column with different superscripts differ significantly at p<0.05. SE: Standard Error

References Bhattacharya, A.N., S. Al-Motairy, A. Hashimi and S. Economides. 1985. Studies on energy and

protein utilization of alfalfa hay and barley grain by yearling camel calves. The Br. Soc.

Anim. Prod., 74: 481-485.

Cone, J.W., VanGelder, A.H., Driehuis, F., 1997. Description of gas production profiles with a three –

phasic model. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 66, 31-45.

El-Shami, E.M. 1985. Comparative study of utilization of browse plants by camels and goats. in:

Annual Report. Camel Research Unit, Faculty of Vet. Sci, University of Khartoum. pp 173-

182.

Engelhardt, W.V., M. Lechner-Doll, R. Heller, H.J. Schwartz, T. Rutagwenda and W. Schultka. 1988.

Physiology of the forestomach in camelides with particular reference to adaptation to extreme

conditions. A comparative approach. Seminaire sur la Digestion la Nutrition et l'Alimentation

du Dromadaire. Feb. 8-29. 1988. Ouargla, Algerie.

Gihad. E.A., T. T. El-Gallad, A.E. Sooud, H.M. Abou El-Nasr and M. Farid. 1988. Feed and water

intake, digestibility and nitrogen utilization by camels compared to sheep and goats fed low

protein desert by products. Seminaire sur la Digestion, la Nutrition et l'Alimentation du

Dromadaire. Feb. 8-29, 1988 Ouargla, Algerie.

Guerouali, A., Zine Filali, R. (1992); ‗Maintenance energy requirements of the dromedary

camel.‘Proceedings of the First International Camel Conference, pp 251-354. R&W Pub.,

Newmarket.

Menke, K. H. and Steingass, H. (1988). Estimation of the energetic feed

Schofield, P. and Pell, A. N. (1995). Measurement and kinetic-analysis of the neutral detergent-

soluble carbohydrate fraction of legumes and grasses. J.Anim. Sci. Vol. 73, No 11, pp. 3455-

3463.

Sommart, K., D.S Parker, P. Rowlinson and M. Wanapat, 2000. Fermentation characteristics and

microbial protein synthesis in an in vitro system using cassava, rice straw and dried ruzi grass

as substrates. Asian-Aust.J. Anim. Sci., 13: 1084-1093.

Stefanon, B., Pell, A. N. and Schofield, P. (1996). Effect of maturity on digestion kinetics of water-

soluble and water-insoluble fractions of alfalfa and brome hay. J. Anim. Sci. Vol. 74, No. 5,

pp. 1104-1115. The First International Camels Conference, pp 412. R&W Pub., Newmarket

Van Soest P. J., J.B. Robertson and B.A. Lewis, 1991. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent

fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74:3583

Wardeh, M.F. 1990. The nutrient requirements of the dromedary camels. Third International

Symposium: Relationship of Feed Composi-tion to Animal Production. The International

Network of Feed Information Centres (lNFlC). June 25-29, 1990. University of

Saskatchewan. Saskatoon, Canada. ACSAD /ADS/P 110/1990.

247


99. Effect of Replacing Organic With Inorganic Ingredients on the Efficacy of Mineral

Supplements for Camels in the Arid Northern Kenya

S.G. Kuria1, H.K. Walaga

1 and I.A. Tura

2

1Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Marsabit Research Centre, Marsabit Kenya

2Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Garissa Research Centre, Garissa Kenya


Introduction

The importance of camels in the arid areas of the world cannot be overemphasized. However,

camels are hardly given supplemental feeds (Vittorio et al., 1999) and therefore have to depend on the

scarce natural forages for all their nutritional requirements including minerals (McDowell & Conrad,

1990). Previous studies by Kuria et al (2004), and Kuria et al., (2006a, b) confirmed mineral

deficiencies in Marsabit district located in northern Kenya. A mineral supplement was formulated

using local material, tested with pastoralists camels and found to improve milk yield and calf growth

by over 30%. The objective of the current study was to validate a modified version of this mineral

supplement. The components of the original formulation were a) ground livestock bones mixed with

b) locally available natural salt. In the revised formulation, the bone component was replaced with

industrial general purpose chemicals. The validation was done on-station.


The experiment was carried out in KARI Gudas station from late October 2009 following the

end of a severe drought to April 2010. Rainfall in the area comes in two peaks, that is, March-May

and October-December and it ranges between 300 to 400mm. The temperature range recorded during

the study was 21°c to 44°c. The experimental period was characterized by plenty of grazing resources

for camels. The need to replace bones in the original formulation was necessitated by international

concerns regarding the use of animal ingredients in the making of animal feeds due to health risks

associated with mad cow disease. The mineral elements supplied by the bones in the original

supplement i.e. calcium, phosphorus and magnesium were supplied through calcium carbonate, di-

calcium phosphate and magnesium sulphate, respectively, in the revised supplement. These chemicals

were mixed with naturally occurring salt collected from a local desert called Chalbi. Care was taken in

calculating the mixing ratios so that as closely as possible maintain the original proportions of the

various mineral elements in the revised supplement. The experimental camels were all of Somali

breed whose parity ranged between 1 and 4 while the age ranged between 5 and 12 years. The stage of

lactation was between 3 and 17 months. The experiment lasted about six months. The camels were

randomly assigned the treatments such that a total of 27 camels were in the experiment with 15 treated

and 12 controls. The experimental design was a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with two

treatments. Repeated measurements taken from each camel on weekly basis served as replicates. Each

camel on treatment was given 200g of the mineral supplement every morning before releasing them

for grazing. The milk measurements were repeatedly taken on weekly basis from each experimental

camel. The milk yield was determined by milking one hind and one front teat (complete stripping) in

the morning while the other two teats were left for the calf to suckle. To estimate yield from the four

quarters i.e. whole udder, milk from the two teats was multiplied by two. This latter volume was

further multiplied by two to get an estimate of the daily milk yield. Data relating to the number of

parities, age and stage of lactation of the experimental dams was also recorded. The calves which

were not receiving any supplement directly were weighed on weekly basis using a clock scale

anchored on a tripod stand. Weekly weight gains (kgwk-1

) were computed by getting the difference

between the readings for week two and week one, week three and week two and so on for each calf.

Daily weight gain (gd-1

) for each calf was computed by dividing the weekly weight gains by 7. The

data analysis was done using Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2003). For the purpose of statistical

analysis, the lactation stage (months) was categorized into four i.e. 1-3 months (A), 4-6 months (B), 7-

9 months (C) and >9 months (D). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model

(GLM) procedure of SAS was done to test for treatment differences, effect of parity and stage of

lactation on milk yield. The same procedure was used to analyze treatment effects on calf growth. In

both analyses for milk yield and calf growth, age was entered as a covariate. Treatment means were

separated using Least Significant Differences (LSD) at 95% level of confidence.

248



The mean daily milk yield for treated camels (4.4±0.2 ld-1

) was significantly higher

(p<0.0001) than that of the controls (3.7±0.2 ld-1

). These figures were higher than those earlier

reported by Kuria et al., (2004) i.e. 2.7 to 3.4 ld-1

. The difference is attributable to variation in the

breed of camel used in the experiment, the ones in the current study being of Somali breed while those

used in the previous experiment were a mixture of Somali and Rendille breeds. In similar

environmental and management situations, Somali camel breed produce more milk than the Rendille

(Simpkin et al., 1998). The quantity and quality of vegetation in Gudas where the current study was

conducted was better than where the previous experiment had been conducted. This can also explain

the difference in the observed responses to the supplementation. In the current study, the supplement

increased milk yield of camels by 17.0% compared to 30% recorded with the original supplement.

Digestibility and bioavailability of minerals in an animal body is a function of the source, among

other factors. While the source of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in the original formulation

was organic in nature (livestock bones), the source of these minerals in the revised formulation was

inorganic chemicals. Greater minerals bioavailability has been reported for organic sources than that

observed for inorganic forms (Spears 1989, 2003; Wedekind et al., 1992; Greene, 2000). The daily

milk yield increased from lactation stage A to C and declined from C to D. This means the peak yield

for the supplemented camels was attained between the 7th and 8

th month of lactation. These results

compares favorably with earlier reports by Kuria et al, (2004) who recorded peak production at

between 5th and 7

th month of lactation. Farah (1996), Simpkin (1998) and Yagil (2000) had earlier

observed that most of the milk in camels was produced within the first 6 to 7 months of lactation. It is

important to note that at commencement of the experiment, all the camels had lactated for over three

months and appear to have already attained an early production peak (Figure 1).

Camels in parity 2 produced significantly higher (p<0.0001) milk than those in parity 1. On the other

hand, camels in parity 3 produced significantly less (p<0.0001) milk than those in parity 2 while those

in parity 4 produced milk equal to (p>0.05) camels in parity 3. It was not immediately clear why

camels in parity 3 produced less milk than those in parity 2 as this disagreed with previous reports

(Bekele et al., 2002; Hulsebusch et al., 1994; Simpkin, 1996). Bekele et al., (2002) observed that

camels in the fourth parity showed the highest mean daily average off-take and showed a higher peak

than other parities. Simpkin (1996) reported increasing mean daily milk yields from parity 1 through

2, peaking at parity 3 with a decline from parity 4. Simpkin (1996) results were in agreement with

those of Hulsebusch et al., (1994).

The mean daily weight gain for calves from supplemented dams (561.7±36.3) was

significantly higher (p<0.0001) than that of calves from the control dams (448.9±37.7). The

supplement increased the calf growth rate by 25.1% compared to 48% recorded with the original

supplement (Kuria et al., 2004).

This early production peak may have been induced by feed and heat stress associated with severe drought conditions which prevailed when the camels were calving down. However, the supplementation increased persistence in milk yield with the normal peak production of almost 5 ld-1 a day being attained between two and three months later unlike the milk yield of the control camels which continued declining even with plenty of quality forage available during the period. Following the attainment of peak production by the supplemented camels, the daily milk yield declined

steadily.

Figure 1: Effect of the mineral supplement on the daily

milk yield of camels

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Time (weeks)

Milk

yie

ld (

litre

s)

Control

Treated

249


attaining the maximum growth of 700gd-1

at the 6th week of the experiment (about four a half months

of age) and maintaining it for the following three weeks. Thereafter, the calves whose mothers were

supplemented continued gaining weight at a declining rate that was higher than for the controls.

In conclusion, the original supplement exhibited more profound influence on milk yield and

calf growth compared to the modified one. However, responses registered with the modified

supplement were significant. It is recommended that the modified supplement is commercially

produced and promoted among camel pastoralists of northern Kenya in order to address mineral

deficiencies facing camels in the area.

References

Bekele, T., Zeleke, M and Baars, R.M.T. (2002). Milk production performance of the one humped

camel (Camelus dromedarius) under pastoral management in semi-arid eastern Ethiopia.

Journal of Livestock Production Science 76 (1-2): 37-44.

Farah, Z. (1996). Camel milk properties and products. St. Gallen, Switzerland: SKAT.

Greene, L.W. (2000). Designing mineral supplementation of forage programs for beef cattle. Journal

of Animal Science 78 (E-Supplementary): E13.

Hulsebusch, C.G., Kaufmann, B.A., Atkins, A.J and Evans, J.O. (1994). Milk production of Somali

and Turkana type dromedaries under semi-arid conditions in Kenya. Proceedings of

conference on ‗Chameaux et Dromedaires, Animaux Laitiers‘, Nouakchott, Mauritanie, 24-

26th October 1994. UCEC, CIRAD.

Kuria, S.G., Gachuiri, C.K., Wanyoike, M.M and Wahome, R.G. (2004). Effect of mineral

supplementation on milk yield and calf growth of camels in Marsabit District of Kenya.

Journal of Camel Practice and Research 11 (2): 87-96.

Kuria, S.G., Wahome, R.G., Wanyoike, M.M and Gachuiri, C.K. (2006a). Effect of mineral

supplement on plasma minerals concentration of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya.

International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 8(2): 168-171.

Kuria, S.G., Gachuiri, C.K., Wahome, R.G and Wanyoike, M.M. (2006b). Mineral profile in the

plasma of free ranging camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Indian Journal of Animal

Sciences 76(12): 1068-1070.

McDowell, L.R and Conrad, J.H. (1990). In: Seventh International Symposium on Trace Elements in

Man and Animals (TEMA-7), Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia. pp 36-1.

Statistical Analysis System Users Guide (2003). Statistics Version 6 Edition, SAS Inst, Inc, Cary, NC,

USA.

Simpkin, S.P. (1996). The effect of breed and management on milk yield of camels in Kenya. PhD

Thesis, university of Newcastle, UK.

Simpkin, S.P., Mbui, M.K., Kuria, S.G and Lucas, D.K. (1998). An analysis of the present knowledge

of camel breeds and their productivity in the ASAL regions of Kenya. Technical Report,

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, National Arid Lands Research Centre, Marsabit-

Kenya.

Spears, J.W. (1989). Zinc methionine for ruminants: Relative bioavailability of zinc in lambs and

effects of growth and performance of growing heifers. Journal of Animal Science 67:835-843.

Figure 2: Effect of the mineral supplement

on the daily weight gain of camel calves

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

Time (weeks)

Weig

ht g

ain

(gram

s)

Control

Treated

The superior performance of camels on the original supplement may be attributed to higher bioavailability of mineral elements due to the organic nature of the source. This explanation agrees with Greene (2000) who observed that there is usually considerable difference in bioavailability of minerals from different sources noting that organic sources (bones in this case) are more bio-available than inorganic sources (the case in the revised supplement).At the beginning of the experiment, the calves appear to have already attained the maximum growth rate of about 600gd-1. The control camel calves maintained this growth rate for the first four weeks of the experiment.However, the calves whose mothers were supplemented steadily gained weight,

250


Spears, J.W. (2003). Trace mineral bioavailability in ruminants. Journal of Nutrition 133:1506S-

1509S.

Vittorio, D.O., Donata, C., Ernesto, B., Antonella, B and Giovanni, S.E. (1999). Effects of trace

element supplementation on milk yield and composition in camels. International Dairy

Journal. 10:873-879.

Wedekind, J.K., Hortin, A.E and Baker, D.H. (1992). Methodology for assessing zinc bioavailability:

Efficacy estimates for zinc methionine, zinc sulfate and zinc oxide. Journal of Animal Science

70:178-187.

Yagil, R.V. (2000). Ecophysiology of the desert camel (Camelus dromedarius). In: Selected topics on

camelids. Editor: Gahlot T K Pp51-60. The Camel Publishing House, Bikaner-334001, India.

251


100. Feed Intake, Digestibility and Milk Production in Mid Lactation of Tunisian

Maghrebi Camels Fed Alfalfa-Based Diet

M. Hammadi, A. Barmat and T. Khorchani



Introduction

It is well documented that dry matter intake is important in nutrition of dairy species. It

determine the amount of nutrients available to an animal for health and production. Dry matter intake

is important for the formulation of diets to prevent underfeeding or overfeeding of nutrients and to

promote efficient nutrient use.

Intensive camel dairy farms have been recently established in Southern Tunisia (Hammadi et

al., 2006; Hammadi et al., 2010). Durability of these farms is strongly related to their profitability

which depends to the produced milk. Milk yield potential depends on genetic traits and environmental

factors such as feed intake and digestibility. Legumes provide a major source of proteins for dairy

animals. Studies on intake and digestibility of Mediterranean legumes such as alfalfa in camels are

absent. This study aimed to investigate: (1) the ingestion and digestion of alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

based diet and (2) performance in mid lactation of Tunisian Maghrebi dairy camels.


The present study was conducted at the experimental station of the Arid Regions Institute in

Chenchou (E9°53‘21‖, N33°53‘12‖). Six healthy Maghrebi camels (9.0 ± 4.0 yr of age; 464 ± 4 kg

BW) at the 5th month of lactation were used. Dams were individually fed and water was offered daily.

They received ad libitum alfalfa hay (90% DM, 15% CP and 42% NDF), 6 kg of green alfalfa (47%

DM, 16% CP and 47% NDF) and 2 kg of concentrate (90%DM, 15%CP and 33%NDF). Dams were

hand-milked twice a day (08:00 and 16:00). Milk production and feed ingestion intake were daily

recorded. Digestibility was calculated using the indirect AIA technique. After adaptation period,

representative samples of distributed and remained diets were collected daily and a small sample of

feces was collected from rectum. Feed, refusals and feces were analyzed for neutral detergent fibre

(NDF; Van Soest, 1973), dry matter, nitrogen and ash (AOAC, 2000). Samples were also subjected of

acid insoluble acid (AIA) analysis according to Van Keulen and Young (1977). Coefficients of

apparent digestibility for dry matter, organic matter, crude protein and neutral detergent fibre were

calculated following the internal marker method. Data are presented as mean ± standard error means

(SEM)

Results and Discussion Feed intake and digestibility are given in Table 1. Compared to most of literature response

(Khorchani et al., 1992; Ben Arfa, 2004), daily dry matter intake in this study was high but remains

within the range of data (7 to 14 kg DM / d) by Le-Houérou (1995) in camels raised on pasture. Dry

matter intake in camel is related to the quality of the diet. Under the range conditions, daily dry matter

intake varied between 10.8 kg in dry season to 11.3 kg in rainy season. Expressed per kg metabolic

weight, the amount of dry matter intake in our study was higher than that (56.6 g DM/kg 0.75

) reported

by Al-Motairy (1991) in camels fed wheat straw and concentrate. Dry matter digestibility of the

alfalfa-based diet was 69.3 ± 1.4%. In cows, Llano and DePeters (1985) reported dry matter

digestibility of 60.8% for alfalfa hay mixed with 30% concentrate. Similarly organic matter and crude

protein digestibilities of diet were higher than reported (66.3% and 63.6%, respectively) for camel fed

peanut hay and concentrate (Mohamed et al., 2009).

252


Table 1. Feed intake and apparent digestibility of the alfalfa-based diet in dairy camel

n Min Max Mean

Feed intake

Dry matter

- kg/day 36 11.1 16.0 13.5 ± 0.2

- kg/ 100 kg BW 36 2.2 3.5 2.8 ± 0.1

- g/kg BW0.75

36 107 158 136.0 ± 2.0

Organic matter

- kg/day 36 9.5 13.8 11.7 ± 0.2

- kg/ 100 kg BW 36 1.9 3.0 2.5 ± 0.1

- g/kg BW0.75

36 92 139 118 ± 0.2

Digestibility (%)

- dry matter 36 50.6 83.0 69.3 ± 1.4

- organic matter 36 51.1 84.8 71.8 ± 1.4

- crude protein 36 63.5 87.7 77.1 ± 1.0

- NDF 36 22.7 80.3 62.0 ± 2.1

Daily milk production ranged from 5.16 to 10.80 L and averaged 7.72 ± 0.27 L. This value was

slightly higher than that (6.5 L/day) reported by Hammadi et al. (2006) for dairy camels. Milk

secretion rate in the camel udders was 410 ml/h during 8 hours milking interval and 278 ml/h during

16 hours milking interval.

Conclusion

Intake and digestibility obtained in this study demonstrate high values of digestible dry matter

intake, digestible organic matter intake and digestible crude protein intake. Alfalfa-based diet

provides enough nutrients to produce milk in camel.

References

Al-Motairy, S. (1991). Feed resources in Saudi Arabia and the possibility of feeding urea reated

straws to growing camels. M.Sc. Thesis. Gulf University, Bahrain.

AOAC, (2000). Official Methods of Analysis, 17th Ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists,

Arlington, VA, USA.

Ben Arfa, A., Khorchani, T., Hammadi, M., Chammem, M., El-Hatmi, H., El-Jeni, H., Abdouli, H.,

Cheniti, T.L. 2004. Digestibilité et ingestion de la végétation d‘un parcours d‘halophytes par

le dromadaire dans le Sud tunisien. Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes, 62: 301-303.

Hammadi, M., Atigui, M., Ayadi, M., Barmat, A., Belgacem, A., Khaldi, G., Khorchani, T. (2010).

Training period and short time effects of machine milking on milk yield and milk

composition in Tunisian Maghrebi camels (Camelus dromedarius). Journal of Camel Practice

and Research, 17: 1-7.

Hammadi, M., Khorchani, T., Seddik, M.M., El-Hatmi, H., Sghaier, M., Barmat, A. Fatnassi, B., Ben

Ahmed, B. (2006). Dairy potential of Maghrabi camel in intensive oasis breeding system. 1st

Conf. ISOCARD. Al Ain EAU, 15-17 April, 92: 133.

Khorchani, T., H. Abdouli, A. Nefzaoui, M. Neffati, Hammadi M.,. (1992). Nutrition of the one

humped camel. II. Itake and feeding behaviour on arid ranges in southern Tunisia. Animal

Feed Science and Technology, 39: 303-311.

Le Houérou, H.N. 1995. Forage halophytes in the Mediterrean basin. In halophytes and biosaline

agriculture. Proceedings of the workshop on halophyte utilization in agriculture, Ed. R.

Choukr-Allah, C.V. Malcolm and A. Handy. Marcel Dekker. Inc. (New York, U.S.A.).

Llano, C.A. and DePeters, E.J. (1985). Apparent digestibilities of diets varying in ratios of forage to

concentrate and quality of forage at two intakes by dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science, 68:

1189-1197.

Mohamed M.I, Maareck Y.A., Abdel-Magid Soha S., Awadalla I.M. 2009. Feed intake, digestibility,

rumen fermentation and growth performance of camels fed diets supplemented with a yeast

culture or zinc bacitracin. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 149: 341-345.

Van Keulen, J. and B.A. Young, 1977. Evaluation of acid-insoluble ash as a natural marker in

ruminant digestibility studies. Journal of Animal Science,44: 282.

Van Soest, P.J. 1973. Collaborative study of acid-detergent fibre and lignin. Journal of the

Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 56: 781–784.

253


101. Nutrient Utilization and Performance of Pregnant Camels Kept on Different Levels

of Energy

S.M. Shawket1, M. K. Mohsen

2, E.S.M. Abdel-Raouf

2 and A.M. Rabee

1

1Department of Animal and Poultry Nutrition, Desert Research Center, P.O. Box: 11753 El-Mataria

Cairo, Egypt. 2Department of Animal Production, Kafrelsheikh University, Faculty of Agriculture


Introduction

The energy requirements for pregnant female animals are well described in most of domestic

animals, and the requirements of farm animals are widely published. However, there are few

references concerning energy requirements for pregnant female camels. The present study was carried

out to investigate the response of pregnant female camel's performance to change dietary energy

levels.


Twenty-eight female camels (Camelus dromedarius) (555±33kg body weight, with parities 1-

3) in late stage of pregnancy (in the 11thmonth in pregnancy) were used to study the effect of four

levels of dietary metabolizable energy 100, 120, 140 and 160 Kcal/kg0.75

for G1, G2, G3 and G4

respectively on the performance of pregnant camels keeping similar CP (9.5%). Experimental period

lasted 90 days. At the start of the 12th month of pregnancy 4 animals under each feeding regimen were

placed in individual metabolic cages to calculate digestibility trial. Data were statistically analyzed

using the method of least squares analysis of variance using software SPSS for windows (SPSS,

1999).


Difference in DMI /h/d and g/kg0.75

were significant (P<0.05) among the experimental camel

groups during the late pregnancy stage. Previously, research studies indicated that the daily dry matter

intake of pregnant camels was 7.5 kg / day/ head (Seboussi et al., 2009). Although, these results of

DMI values are lesser than the values 8.44 - 9 kg/h/d for 550-600 kg which were reported by

(Wardeh, 2004). Increasing the energy level caused significant ascending effect (P<0.05) on the

metabolizable energy intake (MEI) (kcal /kg0.75

). The present values of MEI are lower than (Wardeh,

2004). Total water intake (TWI) expressed as ml /kg0.82

showed no significant difference between the

experimental pregnant camel groups. At the same trend Shawket and Ahmed (2001) reported that the

amounts of free water intake (ml/d/kgw0.82

) were not affected significantly by changing the level of

energy supplementation.

The nutritive value as ME Mcal significantly increased (P<0.05) by increasing ration energy

level. Mosaad et al. (2003), showed that high energy diet improved the condition of camels, by

increasing the utilization of the nutrients.

Nitrogen retention (NR) as g/day or as percent of nitrogen intake (NR/NI %) did not differ

significantly among the experimental four groups. These results confirmed the early findings of Gihad

and Sooud (1989) who reported better retained N% and N intake with all animal species (camels,

sheep and goats) with increasing the ration energy level.

The difference in total and daily body weight were significant (P<0.05) among the camel

groups. The present total and daily body gain of the pregnant camel groups was less than that reported

by Negpal (2007) which ranged from 124 kg/head to 177 kg/head for total gain and ranged from 1.01

to 1.44 kg/day in 123 days before parturition for Indian pregnant heavy camels breed. Loss in body

weight at calving were not significant (P<0.05) among the experimental groups. Hammadi et al.

(2001) reported that the values of weight loss of pregnant camels at parturition were 11-13% of the

pre-calving weight. The difference in birth weight of camel calves was not significant among the four

groups, our values of birth weight are close to the average values which were recorded by Shawket et

al. (2010)

254


Results of this study indicated that the ration G1 providing energy level 100 kcal ME/kg0.75

,

wa sufficient to cover the energy requirements needs for the pregnant dromedary female camels in

late pregnancy stage.

References

Gihad, E.A. and A.E. Sooud (1989). Feed and water intake, digestibility and nitrogen utilization by

camels compared to sheep and goats fed low protein desert by-products. Options

Me'diterranéennes - Série Séminaires - No 2: 75.

Hammadi, M.; K. Touhami; G. Khaldi; A. Majdoub; N. Slimane; D. Portetlle and R. Renaville (2001)

Effect of diet supplementation on growth and reproduction in camels under arid range

conditions. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 5: 69.

Mosaad, G.M.; A.N. Sayed and D.R. Ibrahim (2003). Relationship between the dietary energy and the

nutrients utilization, blood biochemical changes and follicular dynamics in dromedary she-

camel (Camelus dromedarius). Assiut-Vet. Med. J. 49: 46.

Nagpal, A.K. (2007). Nutrient Utilization and Performance of Pregnant Camels Kept on Different

levels of protein .Journal of camel practice and research 14:79.

Seboussi Rabiha; B. Faye and M. Askar (2009). Effect of Selenium Supplementation on Blood Status

and Milk, Urine, and Fecal Excretion in Pregnant and Lactating Camel. Biol Trace Elem Res

128:45.

Shawket, Safinaz. M. and M.H. Ahmed (2001). The influence of the level of energy supplementation

on the utilization of saltbush (Atriplex nummularia) by camels. Egyptian J. Nutr. And Feeds 4

(Special Issue): 557.

Shawket, Safinaz. M.; K.M. Yousf and M.H. Ahmed (2010). Comparative Evaluation of Egyptian

Clover and Atriplex Halimus Diets for growth and milk production in camel. Animal Science

Report, January. Volume 4, Issue 1.

SPSS. (1999)." Statistical Package for Social Science "Release 11, SPSS INC, Chicago. USA.

Wardeh, M.F. (2004).the Nutrient Requirements of Dromedary Camel .J. camel science. 1:37.

Table 1: Effect of level of the energy on dry matter intake, metabolizable energy intake (MEI), total

water intake, nutritive value, nitrogen retention, total and average body weight, loss in body weight at

calving and calves birth weight of pregnant female camels (Mean ± SE) Experimental rations Items

G4 G3 G2 G1

8.39±0.38b 6.88±0.22

a 6.85±0.38

a 6.24±0.36

a DMI, kg/h/day

70.37±0.47c 58.32±1.03

b 60.06±1.75

b 52.38±0.81

a DMI, g/kg

0.75

154.70±1.05c 119.82±2.12

b 119.72±3.5

ab 98.69±1.52

a MEI kcal/kg

0.75

137.62±6.23 113.41±6.90 121.39±13.34 111.44±13.09 Total water intake

2.20±0.04c 2.05±0.03

bc 1.99±0.03

ab 1.88±0.054

a Nutritive Value ME Mcal

17.42±7.30 16.26±3.91 14.37±2.85 11.01±2.65 Nitrogen Retention g/d

14.79±5.46 14.39±3.86 14.06±2.20 11.49±2.89 Nitrogen Retention NI%

82.38±6.85b 88.50±6.91

b 88.00±12.59

b 45.25±14.93

a

Total body weight changes

(kg)

1014.0±0.11b 1056.0±0.18

b 967.50±0.14

b 433.20±0.14

a

Average body weight

changes g/d

81.60±13.68 64.86±6.47 71.75±3.28 59.75±3.97 Loss in body weight (kg)

12.96±2.24 10.37±0.83 11.90±0.83 9.97±.92 loss% of pre-calving weight

32.45±1.90 33.23±0.42 35.32±3.38 32.32±1.67 Calves Birth weight (kg)

*G1 = 1.89 Mcal, ME satisfy (100kcal/kg0.75

)

G2 = 2.08 Mcal, ME satisfy (120kcal/kg0.75

).


)


)

255


102. Feeding Preferences of One-Humped Camels (Camelus dromedarius) on a Semi-

Arid Thornbush Savannah in East Africa. Adaptive Advantages in View of Increasing

Aridity of the Environment

H.J. Schwartz

1, W. Schultka

2 and I. Learamo

3

1Professor (retired) Livestock Ecology, Faculty of Agriculture, Humboldt University Berlin, Germany

2Director (retired) Botanical Garden, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany

3Senior Research Technician, c/o Selian Agricultural Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania


Introduction

During the past 40 years there has been an increasing frequency of droughts in East Africa,

and more noticeable in the past two decades, a decline in annual rainfall. NASA data suggest a decline

by 15 % since the late 1980s (NASA 2008). As a result pastoral livestock production encounters

higher risks and lower productivity mainly in the Ethiopian lowlands, Somalia, Kenya and Northern

Tanzania. During the same time period camel numbers have been increasing in the area (FAO 2011),

camel herds have been spreading southwards into Northern Tanzania, and traditional cattle keepers

like the Samburu and Maasai pastoralists have successfully embraced camel production. Revisiting

data collected by the authors in the early 1990s showed that camels owe this positive development to

a large extent to their superior harvesting ability and their distinct feed preferences, which allow them

to select high quality diets on degraded and drought affected rangelands where cattle and small

ruminants are under severe nutritional stress.


A comparative study of feed preferences of camels, cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys was

carried on a semi-arid thornbush savannah in Isiolo District, Kenya, approximately 250 km north of

the equator. Only the results on camels are reported here. The study area includedannual grassland,

dwarf shrub land and semi-deciduous Acacia spec. dominated thornbush of medium density; the

annual rainfall was approximately 500 mm in a bimodal pattern. The study comprised of three major

components.

Direct feeding observations were carried out using six adult male castrated dromedaries

within a free ranging herd of close to 100 animals. Each of the six animals was observed for two 10-

minute intervals during the morning grazing period. Feeding time per forage species was recorded to

the nearest five seconds, feeding stations were counted. Height of feeding above ground was likewise

recorded. The observations were repeated every two weeks for 32 months amounting to a total of 768

10-minute records. Parallel to this activity samples of five dominant forage species for each of the 64

observation events were taken for chemical analysis to estimate the approximate nutritive value of the

ingested diet. Larger samples were taken to be processed for measuring in-vivo digestibility with the

―nylon bag‖ technique. The latter measurements were carried out within one month of the sample

collection using four other camels fitted with fore-stomach fistulas. The animals were regularly

herded with the aforementioned herd on the same pastures. Data processing and descriptive statistics

were done with the STATISTICA 6.5 software.

In a separate but related activity a botanical inventory of the study pastures was established

listing close to 350 plant species and containing information on spatial and seasonal occurrence as

well as ground cover and density of the more important forage species (Schwartz and Schultka, 1995).

This information was used to calculate relative dietary preferences, i.e. a selectivity index for

individual forage plant species and taxonomic groups.

Results

The dromedaries fed regularly on 74 plant species out of the total inventory. During a single

observation event any individual animal would utilise between 3 and 12 different species, the group of

six would utilise between 10 and 25. Overall 44.2 % of the total observation time was spent feeding.

The animals showed a distinct absolute preference for bushes, trees and dwarf shrubs with 37.9 %,

29.2 % and 27.6 % respectively of the total feeding time observed. Grasses, forbs and others together

accounted for only 5.3 %. Average feeding height above ground was 1.6 m; maximum feeding height

was 3.6 m.

256


The five most preferred forage species represented 32.4 % of the total intake time. All were

woody species, two dwarf shrubs, one large bush, and two trees. One dwarf shrub and one tree are

semi-deciduous legumes, the large bush and one tree are evergreen and fleshy leaved, the remaining

dwarf shrub is semi-deciduous.

Table 1: Observed feeding time by species and selected mean quality parameters for the five most

preferred forage species

Plant name % feed

time

NDF

%

ADF

%

ADL

%

CP % DMDR*

24

DMDR

48

Cadaba farinosa 7,6 28.4 18.5 8.9 27.0 81.7 79.9

Indigofera spinosa 6,7 49.7 38.1 9.6 13.7 36.9 42.4

Vernonia

cinerascens

6,4 44.2 30.0 9.0 18.5 49.5 53.0

Maerua crassifolia 6,0 28.3 16.9 5.4 22.7 67.1 72.2

Acacia tortilis 5,7 35.9 25.0 8.1 18.9 57.3 63.5 *DMDR = Dry matter disappearance rate

Calculation of preferences relative to the supply on the pasture (selectivity index) showed high

positive values (0.94 to 0.98) for the five most preferred species, indicating that the displayed

preference was not a function of abundant supply.

Discussion

The results showed that feed preference was related to forage quality, in particular to protein

content and digestibility, as the five most preferred species were also the five most nutritious of all

species recorded in the camels‘ diet. Several factors contribute to this. Camels prefer woody plants

which are usually much deeper rooted than the herblayer and have better access to soil water reserves.

Therefore they often bear green foliage even in the dry season or highly nutritious flowers or fruits

like most of the Acacia specs. Many of the larger woody species are evergreen and the foliage is of

high quality throughout the seasons. Among the woody species a larger number are legumes, which

are particularly rich in protein. Of the pastoral livestock camels are best suited to exploit the woody

vegetation. The ability to feed up to heights of 3.5 m or more above ground gives them a substantial

niche without competition from other domestic livestock. The prehensile lips allow camels to

selectively harvest very small feed items such as Acacia leaves from between large thorns and the

positioning of the canine teeth and the canine shaped premolars allows sideways leaf-stripping as an

efficient harvesting technique for larger and fleshy leaves of evergreen trees and bushes.

Due to their feed preferences and harvesting ability camels are efficient users of rangelands with a

drought affected or degraded herblayer or those suffering from bush encroachment. Consequently

they are less prone to drought related nutritional stress and related reduced productivity and/or

increased mortality. Pastoralists traditionally keeping cattle like the Samburu of Kenya and the

Waarush group of Maasai in Tanzania have, in the recent past, adopted and still are adopting camels

to replace the drought susceptible cattle with good results, retaining the traditional multiple use

character of production of milk, blood, meat and transport capacity.

References

FAO (2011). Production Stats, Primary Livestock Products. Retrieved March 18, 2011, from:

http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center (2008). Some African Drought Linked To Warmer Indian

Ocean. Retrieved June 20, 2011, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/htm

Schwartz, H. J. and Schultka, W. (1995). A Compendium of important forage plants in the semi-arid

rangelands of Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. III,9. Republic of Kenya,

Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi

257


POSTERS

258


Genetics

and

Biotechnology

259


1. Phenotypic Characteristics of Two Sudanese Camel Ecotypes (Camelus dromedarius)

Raised in Butana Area

M.H.M. Elbashir

1, B.E. Abdel-Aziz

2 and I.A. Ishag

2

1Tumbool Camel Research Centre, Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Animal

Resources and Fisheries, Sudan 2Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sinnar, Sudan


Introduction

The population of Sudan camels was estimated to be 3.908 millions contributing to about

11% of country‘s animal biomass. These figures also represent about 20% of the world's camel

population which ranks Sudan second to Somalia (30%), between them they owns more than half of

the world's- camels. In eastern Sudan, camels (Camelus dromedarius) are mainly raised in the Butana

region and the Red Sea coast. In the former, the camel population was estimated around 750.000 head

representing more than 25% of total Sudan camel herd population (Darosa, 2005). The main camel

keeping tribes in the Butana region are the Lahawiyin, Kawahla, Shukriya, Rashaida, Bija and

Bawadra. There are two distinguished types of camels in Sudan, the slow heavy pack or baggage type

and the fast light riding or racing camels. The objective of this study was to characterize the two

Sudanese ecotypes in the Butana region according to their phenotypic measurements.


Body measurement data were collected from 256 camels from two Sudanese ecotypes, the

Arabi breedwhich is known as pack or baggage type and Anaffi breed which is identified as racing or

riding type. These data were collected from central of Butana plain. A measuring tape was used for all

measures with the exception of height at withers and height at hump tip which were measured with a

calibrated stick. The body weights of animals were estimated according to (Boue, 1949) formula.

Basic information such as sex, age and breed were recorded for each camel. The age of camel was

classified into in to five groups. Phenotypic measurements data were subjected to analysis of variance

(ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM). The statistical model used was:

Yijkl= µ + Bi + Sj +Ak + (B×S)ij + (B×A)ik + (S×A)jk+ eijkl

Where Yijkl is the individual observation for each trait of the animal;µ is the general mean of

each trait; Bi: is the fixed effect of the ith ecotype, Sjis the fixed effect of jthesex; Ak is the fixed effect

of ktheage group;(B×S)jiis the effect of the interaction between sex and ecotype; (B×A)ik is the effect

of the interaction between ecotype and age group; (S×A)jk is the effect of the interaction between sex

and age group and eijkl is the random error effect associated to the ijklobservations.


Table 1 showed the influence of breed, sex and age group on the studied body measurements

of Butana plain camels. The breed of camel had significant (P<0.05) effect on barrel circumference,

heart circumference and body weight, while it had no significant (P>0.05) influence on height at

wither, body length and height at hump. The Arabi camel had significantly (P<0.05) higher values of

barrel circumference, heart circumference and body weight compared to the Anafi camel. The body

measurements obtained in this study for Arabi and Anafi breed were lower than that reported by Ishag

et al. (2010), Ishag et al. (2011a) and Ishag et al. (2011b). On the other hand, the body weight of

Anafi camel in this study was different from the findings of Wardeh (1989), Khouri (2000) and

Wardeh (2004). The sex of camel significantly (P<0.05) affected heart circumference, height at

withers and body weight, but it did not influence barrel circumference, body length and height at

hump. The male camels had higher body measurements than the females, which was similar to that

reported by Dioli et al. (1992) and Mehari et al. (2007), Ishag et al. (2010), Ishag et al. (2011b) who

stated that there is quite distinctive sexual dimorphism in camels, i.e. the male camels is usually taller

and of heavier than the female. These differences between males and females may reflect differences

in the hormonal secretions and their activities in the two sexes. The age group had significantly

influence on all studied measurements except height at hump was insignificantly affected. The all

tested measurements had increasing trend from 1st age group (3-4 years) to 4

th age group (9-10 years),

260


after which some measurements were slightly increased and other were slightly declined. This results

was somewhat is agree with findings of Ishag et al. (2010) and Ishag et al. (2011b); who mentioned

that the camels of Sudan reach maturity (growth peak) within 7 to 9 years; after which the different

measurements decline. The interaction between breed and sex of camel had significant (P<0.05) effect

only height at wither; the males of Arabi camel were higher than females, while there was no

difference observed between males and females of Anafi camel. Also, the interaction between breed

and age group was significantly affected only body length. On other hand; the interaction between sex

and age group had significant influence on barrel circumference, heart circumference and body

weight. The height at hump was only body measurement that not significantly affected by the studied

factors.

Table (1) Means and standard errors of barrel circumference (BC), heart circumference (HC), height

at wither (HW) and body weight (BW) for camel of Butana Plain.

Source of

variation

N BC (cm)

mean ± SE

HC (cm)

mean ± SE

HW (cm)

mean ± SE

BW (kg)

mean ± SE

BL (cm)

mean ± SE

HH (cm)

mean ± SE

Breed: * *** NS ** NS NS

Arabi 120 232.3a± 2.4 175.6

a± 1.0 181.5

a± 1.0 390.1

a± 6.6 158.3

a± 1.2 188.2

a± 1.7

Anafi 136 222.3b± 2.3 170.3

b± 0.9 179.1

a± 0.9 362.6

b± 6.4 155.8

a± 1.2 186.5

a± 1.6

Sex: NS * * * NS NS

Male 122 228.3a± 2.5 174.7

a± 1.0 182.4

a± 1.0 385.5

a± 7.0 158.5

a± 1.3 188.2

a ± 1.8

Female 134 226.2a± 2.3 171.2

b± 0.9 178.9

b± 0.9 367.2

b± 6.3 155.6

a± 1.1 186.5

a ± 1.6

Age groups: *** *** ** *** *** NS

1st (3-4 years) 66 209.3

c± 3.5 165.6

c± 1.5 177.6

b± 1.4 321.9

d± 9.8 150.0

c± 1.8 186.2

ab± 2.5

2nd

(5-6 years) 53 218.7b± 3.4 168.1

c± 1.4 178.7

b± 1.4 350.2

c± 9.6 157.3

b± 1.7 185.8

ab± 2.4

3rd

(7-8 years) 49 237.5a± 4.2 175.6

b± 1.7 178.9

b± 1.7 397.4

b±11.7 157.3

b± 2.1 185.4

b± 3.0

4th

(9-10 years) 36 238.5a± 4.0 177.3

ab±

1.6

183.3a± 1.6 409.1

a±11.2 159.2

ab±2.0 191.3

a± 2.9

5th

(≥ 11 years) 49 232.3a± 3.7 178.0

a± 1.5 184.5

a± 1.5 403.2

a±10.3 161.4

a± 1.9 188.1

ab± 2.6

Breed*Sex NS NS * NS NS NS

Breed*Age

group

NS NS NS NS * NS

Sex*Age group * * NS * NS NS

Overall mean 256 227.3 ± 1.7 172.9 ± 0.7 180.7 ± 0.7 376.4 ± 4.7 157.1 ± 0.8 187.3 ± 1.2

References

Boué, R., (1949). Weight Determination in the North African Dromedary. Révéué de levage et de

medicine veterinaire des pays tropicaux, 3, 13-16.

Darosa, A. E. M. (2005). Studies on Some Camel Production Traits and Health in Butana Area,

Sudan. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Khartoum, Sudan. P. 135.

Dioli, M., Schwarz, H.J. and Stimmelmaryr, R. (1992). Management and handling of the camel.

Ishag, I. A; Eisa, M. O. and Ahmed, M-K. A. (2011a). Phenotypic Characteristics of Sudanese Camels

(Camelus dromedarius). Livestock Research for Rural Development, 23 (4).

Ishag, I. A; Eisa, M. O. and Ahmed, M-K. A. (2011b). Effect of breed, sex and age on body

measurements of Sudanese camels (Camelus dromedarius). Australian Journal of Basic and

Applied Sciences, 5(6): 311-315.

Ishag, I.A.; Reissmann, M.; Peters, K.J.; Musa, L.M-A. & Ahmed, M-K. A. (2010). Phenotypic and

Molecular characterization of Six Sudanese camel breeds. South African Journal of Animal

Science, 40 (4).

Khouri, F., (2000). Camel in Sudan: Ecology, production systems, characterization and herd

dynamics. The Camel Applied Research and Development Network (CARDN). The Arab

Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Land (ACSAD). CARDN/ACSAD/ Camel/ P 96/

2000. 137 pp.

Mehari, Y., Z. Mekuriaw and G. Gebru, 2007. Potentials of camel production in Babilie and

Kebribeyah

Ministry of Animal Resources, (2005). Department of Statistics and Information, Khartoum-Sudan.

Wardeh, M.F., (1989). Arabian Camels: Origin, Breeds and Husbandry. Al-Mallah Publ., Damascus.

500 pp. (Arabic).

Wardeh, M.F., (2004). Classification of the Dromedary Camels. J. Camel Science., 1: 1-7.

261


2. Factors Affecting the Performance of Racing Camels in the United Arab Emirates

S.A. Al-Shorepy

1 and A.M. Yousef

2

1Department of Aridland Agriculture, Faculty of Food and Agriculture, United Arab Emirates

University, P. O. Box, 17555, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates 2Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates


Inroduction

In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), camel racing has become a deeply appreciated and a

valued tradition. Despite the many opportunities made available by the modern and diversified local

economy, people in the UAE continue to breed, raise and train camels for racing. Camel owners in

the UAE can identify three lines of origin that have provided the bulk of genetic pool for modern

racing camels; namely Omani, Najdi and Sudanese origins (Camel Race Association, 2002).

Similar to the horses, the racing performance of camels is affected by both genetic and

environmental factors (Ekiz et al., 2005; Orhan and Kaygisiz, 2010). Racing performance of camels

is generally measured by racing time or finish rank for given distance and age group (Thiruvenkadan

et al., 2009). Thus, it was reported that race finishing time is a direct measure of speed and is regarded

as the proper method of evaluating race performance of horses (Burns, et al., 2004). Therefore, the

objective of the present study was to identify environmental factors that affect racing performance of

UAE race camels in order to contribute to a selection program aiming to improve the racing

performance for this breed.


The data used in the present study were obtained from UAE Camel Race Association (CRA).

As part of regulation, races should be filmed from two different views using two cameras run parallel

to the inner fence of the racetrack. The photo finish video camera records the first tin winners and the

winning time of the race. Finishing time data from 4000, 5000, 6000 and 8000 meters races

belonging to year 2008 representing 250 race records were used in this study. One hundred ninety

races of varying distances with 50 camels per race were studied.

Three linear models were used in the evaluation of environmental factors affecting the racing

time and racing speed. In model-1, the fixed effect of age was included. Model 2 included the fixed

effects of sex and breed as well the interaction between them. In model-3, race distance factor (4000,

5000, and 6000 m) was included for a four-year race camel. The following mathematical models

were used in the analysis of the data:

Yij = µ + Ai + eij (Model-1)

Yijk = µ + Si + Bj + SBij + eijk (Model-2)

Yij = µ + Di + eij (Model-3)

Results And Discussion

The descriptive statistics of racing time and racing speed at the distances studied are shown in

Table 1. Average speed of race camels in UAE was 10.6 m/s (SD=0.26; range: 9.2-11.79 m/s). The

higher speed was observed (P < 0.05) at shorter distance compared with longer distances. Speed of

race camels is much lower compared to the average speed of racehorses (Corrêa and Mota, 2007; Ekiz

and Koçak, 2007; Schurink et al., 2009).

Table 1. Least square Means, coefficients of variation (CV), minimum maximum and values for the

racing speed (m/s) and racing time (s) by distance

Distance

(m)

Mean S.E C.V

(%)

Minimum Maximum Mode

Speed (m/s)

4000 10.64a 0.01 1.83 9.21 11.07 10.64

5000 10.51b 0.02 1.85 9.67 11.79 10.55

6000 10.50b 0.01 1.52 9.81 10.88 10.33

262


8000 10.15c 0.04 2.12 9.75 10.40 -

Time (s)

4000 376.08 0.25 1.92 361.3 434.50 375.60

5000 475.8 0.72 1.83 424.20 517.00 473.60

6000 571.43 0.64 1.55 551.13 611.50 563.50

8000 788.29 3.26 2.12 768.70 820.30 -

Speed of race camels in UAE was significantly affected by age of the camel (P < 0.05) for the

fastest three. The highest race speed was attained by the 3-year-old camels, while the lowest racing

speed was obtained by the 6-year-old camels for the fastest three. The trend of camel‘s age effect on

racing performance observed in the present study is different from those figures reported for horses.

Females were significantly (P < 0.05) faster than males in other age groups for the fastest ten. These

results in the present study are in contrast with most of the figures reported for horses in which males

were superior to females in all types of races. Purebred camels showed a significant (P < 0.05) lower

performance than crossbred camels for the fastest ten. Crossbred males tended to perform better than

other animals. In conclusion, the results of the present study provide insight into the environmental

factors affecting racing performance of race camels in UAE.

Refrences

Burns, E.M., R. M. Enns and D. J. Garrick. 2004. The status of equine genetic evaluation.

Proceeding, Western Section, American Society of Animal Science, 55, 82-86.

Camel Race Association, 2002. Camels in the Emirates: the ship turned champ. Camel race

Association, Abu Dhabi, UAE.

Corrêa, M.J.M. and M. D. Mota. 2007. Genetic evaluation of performance traits in Brazilian Quarter

Horse. J. Appl. Genet. 48, 145–151.

Ekiz, B. and Ö. Koçak. 2005. Phenotypic and genetic parameter estimates for racing traits of Arabian

horses in Turkey. J. Anim. Breed. Gen. 122, 349–356.

Orhan, H. and A. Kaygisiz. 2010. Genetic and Environmental parameters effecting racing

performance of Turk-Arabian Horses raised at Anatolian state farm. Asian J. of Anim.Vet.

Adv. 5, 112-119.

SAS/STAT 9.1, 2003. User's guide. SAS Inst. Inc. Cary, NC 27513, USA.

Schurink, M. C. J., B. J. Theunissen, P. Ducro, E. M. Bijma, Grevenhof., 2009. Identification of

environmental factors affecting the speed of purebred Arabian racehorses in The Netherlands.

Livest. Sci. 125, 97–100.

Thiruvenkadan, A. K., N. Kandasamy and S. Panneerselvam. 2009. Inheritance of racing

performance of Thoroughbred horses. Livest. Sci. 121, 308–326.

263


3. Genetic Characterization of Local and Crossbred Racing Camels in the United Arab

Emirate

A.M. Yousif1, M.A. Aly

2 and S.A. Al-Shorepy

2*

1Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, Abu Dhabi, UAEU

2Department of Aridland Agriculture, Faculty of Food and Agriculture,

United Arab Emirates University


Introduction Camel breeds are not as differentiated and classified as breeds in other livestock. Systematic

selection for productive traits has never been done in camels, except for racing animals (Kappeler,

1998). Nevertheless, there are different breeds used for different purposes like riding, meat or milk

production. The breed most common in the UAE is the ‗Al-Khawar‘ breed. It is mainly known for its

racing performances but also bred for milk production (Fontainebleau, 2007).

In developing an effective animal selection program, estimates of the genetic characteristics

and relationships is important for the identification of parents for the hybridization and for reducing

the number of accessions needed to maintain a broad range of genetic reliability. With the

development of molecular genetic techniques, it has become possible to establish a new class of

genetic markers based on variability of DNA sequence level Chung et al. (1995). Previous genetic

studies included the development of a microsatellite marker set for parentage and an identity

verification test for dromedary racing camels (Sasse et al., 2001). These studies employed

microsatellites as markers. Besides analysis of microsatellite alleles, polymerase chain reaction and

restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) provide the possibility of the practical

application of polymorphic genetic markers to livestock improvement Soller and Beckmann, (1982).

The use of information on genetic markers is expected to increase genetic progress through increasing

accuracy of selection, reduction of generation interval and increasing selection differentials

(Meuwissen and Van Arendonk, 1992). Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize

genetic diversity and relationship between local, crossbred racing and lactating camels in UAE based

on molecular markers.


Camel blood samples were collected from 28 Camels, namely, 6 females, 6 males local and

6 female, 6 males crossbred and 4 lactating camel as control. In addition, samples were collected

separately from 3 lactating females to serve as controls and also to examine variability between them.

Samples were taken directly from 3 racing camels representing each group of competition after

finishing the race from Ned Al Sheba Camel Racetrack. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood

samples using DNease Blood & Tissue Kit (Promega, UAS) according to the manufacturer

procedures.

The primers used in this study were utilized in several studies to examine Arabian Camel

(Camelus dromedarius), (Mehta et al., 2006 and Al-Swailem et al., 2007). In addition, one primer

(OPA-04) has been previously used with milk camels in Biotechnology Lab at Faculty of Food&

Agriculture system UAEUniversity where they proved polymorphic. Genomic DNA of camel with

same sex and breed were examined with each primer. Each primer was examined with individual

samples.

Comparisons of DNA profiles generated from each pooled group were performed by Gel

Documentation data software. Fingerprint similarities values were based on the presence or absence

of bands. Data were then computed and subjected to statistical analysis with SPSS computer software

program, Diversity Database Fingerprinting Software, to produce a genetic distance matrix using the

Jacart Value which assesses the similarity between any two populations on the basis of the number of

generated bands as reported by Nei (1978).


The primers examined resulted in a reproducible DNA-based fingerprints for the three major

camel groups and lactating camel group as control under investigation, namely, Local, Crossbred, and

lactating. Also the samples were assigned as males and females. With the pooled DNA samples,

264


certain primers amplified similar DNA fragments for all samples per primer. On the other hand, the

other primers revealed diversity between the different groups which allowed the possibility of

assigning certain molecular markers to specific racing or lactating groups as well as distinguishing

local from crossbred camels. In addition, number of bands and the degree of polymorphism were

different between breeds as well as primers. The Dendrogram (Fig. 1) indicated that the five groups

can be distinguished from one another and resulted in two clusters based on the RAPD assay.

Figure 1. Dendrogram Average Linkage (Between Groups) Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine.

References

Al-Swailem, M.A., , Al-Busadah, A.K., Shehata, M.M., Fallatah, S., Al-Anazi ,O.I., Askari,E. (2007).

Classification of Saudi Arabain Camel (Camelus dromedaries ) subtypes based on PAPD

technique. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment. Volume, 5 (1) : 143-148.

Chung, E.R., Kim, W.T., Han, S. K. (1995). Analysis of DNA polymorphisms and genetic

characteristics in Holstein dairy cattle using RAPD-PCR technique. Korean Journal of

Animal Science 37, 455-466.

Fontainebleau, E.V. (2007). Hygienic status of camel milking Dubai (United Arab Emirates) under

two different milking management system. Central Veterinary Research Laboratory. PhD.

Thesis. Dubai.

Kappeler, S. (1998). Composition and structural analysis of camel milk proteins with emphasis on

protective protein. Ph.D. Thesis. ETH No. 12947.

Mehta, S.C., Goyal A., Sahani M.S., (2007) . Microsatellite markers for genetic characterization of

Kachchhi camel . Indian Journal of Biotechnology. pp. 336-339.

Saastamoinen, M. T., Ojala M. J. (1991). Estimates of genetic and phenotypic parameters for racing

performance in young trotters. Journal of Agriculture Science. Finland. 41, 427–436.

Soller, M., Beckmann J. S.,(1982). Restriction fragment length polymorphisms and genetic

improvement. in : proceedings of the second world congress on Genetics Applied to

Livestock Production (Madrid, 1982). Volume, 6: 396-404

265


Physiology

Biochemistry

Pharmacology

and

Immunology

266


4. Antimicrobial Activity of Camel’s Colostrum Against Listeria innocua

Zeineb Jrad1,2

, El Hatmi Halima1, Samira Arroum

1, A. Isabelle

2, O. Nadia

2, D. Pascal

2

and T. Khorchani1

1Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands Institute 4119 Medenine Tunisia

2Bioengineering andMicrobial Dynamicsat Food Interfaces, Technopole Alimentec, IUT Lyon 1,

F-01000 Bourg en Bresse, France


Introduction

For all mammals, colostrum is considered as a vital food of newborn within the first days after

birth. It protects the newborn against infectious diseases, due to its combined action of a high

concentration of transfer-immunity factors and nonspecific inhibitory system (lactoferrin,

lactoperoxydase and xanthin oxidase) present in this biological fluids. Several investigators (Elagamy

et al., 1992; Kappeler et al., 2004 ; El Hatmi et al., 2007) have studied the concentration of

antimicrobial factors in camel‘s milk. No such work, to our knowledge, has been carried out on

antimicrobial activity of camel‘s colostrum. The present study aimed to evaluate the natural protection

of camel‘s colostrum against Listeria innocua LRGIA01.


From experimental herd of camels in Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands

Institute, we collected colostrum within the first 2 days of parturition in clean bottles. Samples were

immediately stored at –20°C until use. Samples were then centrifuged at (20000 g, 4°C, 20 min). The

pH of supernatant obtained is decreased at pH= 4.2 by HCL (1M), recentrifuged and neutralized by

NaOH (1M). Finally, serocolostrum obtained is dialyzed against 3 days at 4°C and freeze-dried.

The target strain is stored in Broth Heart Infusion (BHI, Biokar, France) contained 25 % of

glycerol at – 20 °C. Before experimental use, strains were activated by two successive transfers in

their appropriate broth and incubated overnight at 30 °C.

The freeze-dried camel‘s colostrum resuspended at a concentration of 20 and 40 mg /ml

indistilled water were sterilized with filter-syringe 0.2 µm. The antimicrobial activity was determined

using a semi-automatic unit with spectrophotometric monitoring of microbial cultures in liquid

medium in microplates Bioscreen (ThermoFisher, Illkirch, France). For this purpose, 30 µl of Listeria

innocua LRGIA 01 (106 CFU / mL) was inoculated into 270 µl of medium (BHI) supplemented with

different concentrations of colostrum in the microplate wells incubated with stirring for 24 hours at 30

° C. The growth of L. innocua LRGIA 01 was followed at 600 nm. Positive controls (medium

supplemented with 2400 IU / mL nisin) and negative (BHI medium without colostrum) were also

performed.


L. innocua is a Gram-positive rod that occurs individually or forms short chains. Listeria

innocua is widely distributed throughout the environment, but primary habitats are considered to be

soil and decaying vegetable matter, living as a saprophyte. Listeria can also survive in many extreme

conditions, such as high salt concentrations, high pH, and high temperature. Both pathogenic and

innocuous forms of Listeria have this ability. Listeria species also form biofilms, which allow them to

attach to solid surfaces where they proliferate and become extremely difficult to remove (Howard et

al., (1992).

267


Figure 1: Growth curves (optical density, O.D, at 600 nm) of Listeria innocua LRGIA 01 at different

concentrations (0; 20 and 40 mg/ml) of camel‘s colostrum and Nisine 2400 UI.

No difference during the lag phase for the first 2-3 h was observed between the positive

control and the samples. After 4 h, in the early exponential phase, clear differences in the growth of L.

innocua were observed with a dose dependent effect (20 and 40 mg/ml). The lowest concentration (20

mg/ml) of camel‘s colostrum samples inhibited slightly the bacterial growth between incubation times

5- 8 h. Therefore, a significantly inhibition of growth of L.innocua is observed at the concentration

(40 mg/ml) of colostrum samples in the exponential phase and first hours of stationary phase. The two

concentration of camel‘s colostrum showed stimulation of microbial‘s growth, after 10 h and in

subsequent hours of stationary phase.

Conclusion

This antimicrobial activity in camels‘ colostrum might be partially due to lactoferrin and

immunoglobulins, El Hatmi et al. (2007) showed that colostrum contains a large quantity of

immunoglobulins.

A large number of studies have demonstrated bactericidal and bacteriostatic effect of

lactoferrin from colostrum of different species other than camel. In conclusion, this study has

highlighted that camels‘ colostrum contains different protective antimicrobial factors, including

peptides released during the digestion process that can exert a beneficial impact on gut health,

particularly for the low immune defense system of children, elderly and the convalescent.

References

Elagmy, E.I., Ruppanner, R., Ismail, A., Champagne, C.P and Assaf, R. (1992). Antimicrobial and

antiviral activity of camel milk protective proteins. J. Dairy. Sci. Rese. (59) : 169-175.

El Hatmi, H., Girardet, J.M., Gaillard, J.L., Yahyaoui, M.H and Attia, H. (2007). Characterisation of

whey proteins of camel (Camelus dromedaries) milk and colostrum. Small. Rum. Res. (70) :

267-271.

Kappeler, S.R., Heuberger C., Farah Z. and Puhan, Z. (2004). Expression of the peptidoglycan

recognition protein, PGRP, in the lactating mammary gland, J. Dairy Sci. (87) : 2660–2668.

Howard, P.J., Harsono, K.D., and Luchansky, J.B. (1992). Differentiation of Listeria monocytogene,

Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, Listeria seeligeri by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis.

App. Env. Microb (58): 709- 712

268


5. Production and Application of Camelid Antibodies

S. Joseph

1, P. Varghese

1, R. Wernery

1, N. Georgy

1, R. Herwig

2, R.A. Harrison

3 and U. Wernery

1

1Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 597, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

2Hämosan Life Science Services, Neudorf 41, 8262 Ilz, Österreich

3Alistar Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine,

Pemborke Place, United Kingdom


Introduction

The application of hyperimmune serum in diseased animals or humans is an efficient short-

term prophylactic method to save lives of humans and animals alike. This method especially works

well in acute cases through neutralization of circulating toxins. These antitoxins will circulate for

more than 20 days in the animal‘s body after application and can also be used as a therapeutic tool in

case of urgent operations or castrations. In sheep, for example, the administration of the Clostridium

perfringens epsilon antitoxin, 20 IU/kg body weight will save the animal‘s life.

Dromedaries are excellent antibody producers for 2 reasons. Firstly, an adult animal possess

more than 30 L of blood and secondly, they have also a considerable fraction of heavy-chain

antibodies (HCAbs) circulating in their blood which are composed of a heavy-chain homodimer.

These unique HCAbs may account for the reported thermostability and long shelf life. Camelid IgG is

less immunogenic and less likely to activate complement than most mammalian IgG (Cook et al.,

2010).

Results

We report here the production and the application of camelid hyperimmune immunoglobulin

for Clostridium perfringens alpha-toxoid and for anti- snake venom development. For the production

of hyperimmune serum against Clostridium perfringens alpha-toxoid, vaccination of two dromedaries

was carried out according to the recommendation of the vaccine producer (IBT, Dessau, Germany)

(Wernery et al., 2009). Two dromedaries were vaccinated thrice with 10ml of vaccine

subcutaneously. Antibody levels were tested using a competitive ELISA kit, BIO-X Diagnostics

ELISA BIO K221. When the antibody response was at the peak, six liters of blood were taken from

the jugular vein of each camel, blood was allowed to clot at room temperature (RT), centrifuged and

sera collected and stored at -20ºC.

For anti-venom development, five dromedaries were immunized with a mixture of venom to

prepare polyspecific anti-venom. Three additional camels were immunized with venom from a single

snake species to prepare three distinct monospecific anti-venoms. A total of 13 immunisations were

administered with an equal amount of adjuvant, over a period of 64 weeks. After the 7th

immunization, six liters of blood were taken from each camel and sera were stored at -20ºC (Cook et

al., 2010).

Hyperimmune sera were subjected to a series of processes, which included, solvent-detergent

extraction that effectively inactivates the lipid-enveloped viruses. Serum proteins of the extract were

precipitated by caprilic acid (octanoic acid) without loss of yield and purity. Subsequent filtrations

and chromatographic separations resulted in highly purified IgGs.

For Clostridium perfringens alpha-toxoid, the purified IgGs were then further concentrated to

14g/L and filled in 50 -100ml sterile transfer bags (Compoflex, Fresenius Kabi AG, Germany). It is

available at CVRL for animal applications. While camelid IgG anti-venom were concentrated to

50g/L and stored for human clinical studies.

Applications

Anti-toxins are especially very effective in acute cases. Intravenous application of Clostridum

perfringens alpha-toxoid immunoglobulins to camels suffering from acute clostridial enterotoxaemia,

showed significant improvement and thus saved the animals. Symptomatic gazelles, antelopes and

sheep were also treated effectively without any side effects.

The results of the different preclinical assays in laboratory animals showed that purified

camelid IgG anti-venom have venom-neutralizing capability. It also showed that camelid anti-venom

269


can drastically reduce the venom induced haemorrhagic effect of some snake venoms at the bite. We

have not conducted yet a clinical trial in humans, but it is anticipated to start very soon.

References

Cook, D.A.N., Samarasekara, C.L., Wagstaff, S.C., Kinne, J., Wernery U. and Harrison, R.A. (2010).

Analysis of camelid IgG for antivenom development: Immunoreactivity and preclinical

neutralization of venom-induced pathology by IgG subclasses, and the effect of heat tratment.

Toxicon, 56, 596-603

Cook, D.A.N., Owen, T., Wagstaff, S.C., Kinne, J., Wernery U. and Harrison R.A. (2010). Analysis

of camelid IgG for antivenom development: Serological responses of venom-immunised

camels to prepare either monospecific or polyspecific antivenoms for West Africa.

Toxicon,56, 363-372

Wernery, U., Joseph, M., Zachariah, R., Jose, S., Syriac, G. and Raghavan, R. (2009).New

preliminary research in Clostridium perfringens in dromedaries. J. Camel Pract. and Res.,

16(1), 45-50

270


6. Humoral Immune Response in the Dromedary: Kinetic of the Production of

Immunoglobulins and their Physicochemical Characteristics

I. Salhi, S. Bessalah, T. Khorchani and M. Hammadi

Livestock and Wildlife Laboratory, Arid Lands Institute, 4119 Medenine Tunisia


Introduction

It has always been thought that the structure of immunoglobulins is restricted to a tetramer of

two heavy chains and two light chains. in 1993 Hamers-Casterman et al. (Hamers-Casterman et al.,

1993) discovered that besides producing conventional tetrameric IgGs, camelids (camel, dromedary,

llama, alpaca, guanaco and vicuña) produce functional homodimeric IgGslacking light chains and are

therefore constituted only of two identical heavy chains (Hamers-Casterman et al., 1993, Maass et al.,

2007).

Three subclasses of IgG were identified in the dromedary serum and classified according to

their decreasing MW of the H-chain; IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3. IgG1 has the conventional IgG structure,

a tetramer of two Heavy chains and two light chains with a molecular weight of 150 kDa and binds to

proteins A and G in affinity chromatography. The IgG2 and IgG3 are HCAbs with an apparent

molecular weight of about 100 kDa. IgG2 binds only to protein A, whereas IgG3 binds to protein A

and protein G but it elutes at higher pH than IgG1. The differential affinities allow the purification of

these subclasses by fast protein liquid chromatography.

The unique structure of HCAbs is made possible due to some modifications in the sequence

of the antibodies. Moreover, tetrameric and homodimeric IgGs differ in their V regions, VH and VHH

regions respectively, which are encoded by a distinct set of V genes (Nguyen et al., 2000).

Homodimeric IgG chainslack the CH1 domain due to a point mutationon the donor-splicing site

(Nguyen et al., 1999).

Although genetics of immunoglobulins is well characterized, little is known about the

development of an HCAb immune response. The aim of this study is to determine the kinetic of

production of antibodies in response to the immunization with HSA.


Four male dromedaries aged one year from the local herd in the arid lands institute

(Medenine, Tunisia) were immunized 4 times (j0, j7, j21 and j35) with 1 mg of HSA, the first

injection with the complete Freund's adjuvant and the others with the incomplete adjuvant.

The animals were bled at j0, j2, j4, j7, j9, j14, j21, j28, j35, j42 and j52 and serum recuperated

by centrifugation after blood coagulation. One ml of serum was passed over the protein G column

previously equilibrated with phosphate buffer pH 7. Only IgG1 and IgG3 are retained by the G protein

and other serum proteins including IgG2 eluted from the column. The IgG3 are eluted first with buffer

0.15 M NaCl, 0.58% acetic acid pH3.5. The IgG1 are then eluted with a solution of 0.1 M glycine

buffer pH2.7.

The antigen (HSA) was dissolved in a carbonate-bicarbonate buffer to obtain the working

concentration of 5 µg/ ml. This antigen solution was distributed in the 96-wells plate at a rate of 100μl

per well. The purified antibodies were deposited in the wells after a 1/1000 dilution. Then, the wells

were incubated with a rabbit anti-camel IgG antibody that we developed by immunizing a rabbit with

purified IgG1 and IgG3. The final step is the incubation with the anti-rabbit-HRP conjugate

(Promega) at a dilution of 1/10000. The substrate used was OPD, the plate is incubated in the dark at

room temperature for 30 minutes, the reaction is then stopped by inhibiting the enzyme by adding 50

µl of a solution of 3M HCl and the plate is read at 492 nm.

Thermostability was evaluated by incubating the purified antibodies at 65°C and 80°C at

different times ; 10, 20 and 30 minutes. The residual activity was evaluated by ELISA (as previously

described) and compared with the activity at 37°C. For pH resistance, antibodies were incubated at pH

3, 5, 7 and 8 and activity evaluated by ELISA. For ethanol tolerance, antibodies were incubated with

10%, 30%, 50% and 70% of ethanol.

271



Following immunization, the body develops a so-called primary response with the production

of IgM. After a few days, the IgG response develops; it is the secondary response that is specific to

the antigen. This delay reflects the time required for the activation and proliferation of cells producing

specific antibody to the antigen.

In the four camels there are two different profiles in terms of their secondary response that is

taking place from day 21 for all animals. Thus, in animals 809 and 817 the curves have a sigmoidal

profile mounting a rapid increase in the response between J21 and J35, followed by a plateau between

J35 and J52. By contrast, in 808 and 812 there is a gradual evolution of the production of antibodies

J21 and J52 which shows a response that is taking place gradually (Figure 1). These results show tha

the immune response can be supported by conventional antibodies or by both conventional and

HCAbs.

Our results show that HCAbs, especially IgG3 isotype are more thermostable than

conventional antibodies. At 65°C and 30min which correspond to the temperature of pasteurization

IgG3 loses less than 10% of its activity at 37°C while IgG1 loses about 60% (Figure 2).

At acidic pH, IgG3 loses about 50% of its activity at pH 7 while IgG1 loses about 75%

(Figure 3).

The HCAbs are less affected by the presence of high concentration of ethanol in the solution

than the IgG1.

These results can be explained by the dimeric structure of the HCAbs which is more resistant

than the tetrameric one of conventional antibodies and demonstrate the HCAbs can constitute an

interesting alternative to rabbits or mice antibodies commonly used in biotechnology.

References Hamers-Casterman, C., Atarhouch, T., Muyldermans, S., Robinson, G., Hamers, C., Songa, E. B.,

Bendahman, N. & Hamers, R. 1993. Naturally occurring antibodies devoid of light chains.

Nature, 363, 446-8.

Maass, D. R., Sepulveda, J., Pernthaner, A. & Shoemaker, C. B. 2007. Alpaca (Lama pacos) as a

convenient source of recombinant camelid heavy chain antibodies (VHHs). J Immunol Methods,

324, 13-25.

Nguyen, V. K., Hamers, R., Wyns, L. & Muyldermans, S. 1999. Loss of splice consensus signal is

responsible for the removal of the entire C(H)1 domain of the functional camel IGG2A heavy-

chain antibodies. Mol Immunol, 36, 515-24.

Nguyen, V. K., Hamers, R., Wyns, L. & Muyldermans, S. 2000. Camel heavy-chain antibodies:

diverse germline V(H)H and specific mechanisms enlarge the antigen-binding repertoire. EMBO

J, 19, 921-30.

Figure 1: kinetic of the production

of antibodies to HSA

Figure 2: thermostability of the different

IgG (residual activity relative to 26°C( at

54°C and 74°C at different times

272


Figure 3: pH stability of the different IgG (residual activity

relative to pH7) at pH 3, 5and 8

273


7. Trypaonocidal Effect of Cannabis Sativa on Experimental Camel Trypanosomiasis

S.H.Abdelrahman1*

, M.M. Israa1, M.E.K. Salwa

1 and A.A. Ismail

2

1Department of Biochemistry, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory,

Animal Resources Research Corporation, Khartoum Sudan 2Faculty of Veterinary medicine, Sudan University of Science and Technology Khartoum, Sudan


Introduction

Camel trypanosomosis is caused by Trypanosoma evansi and the disease is referred to as

surra (FAO,1988). Surra is of great economic importance in Africa, where thousands of animals die

each year (Stephen, 1986). The disease is transmitted by the blood biting fly Tabanids. Control of

Camel trypanosomosis is based mainly on treatment by trypanocidal drugs. The extensive use of these

drugs resulted in the appearance of drug-resistant trypanosomes ( El Rayah, 1999). The situation was

made worth by the slow development of new tryapanocidal drugs. This why an ethnobotanical

approach collaboration with traditional healers remides may prove to be a rich source of drug

discovery (Fornsworth et al, 1985). Herbal medicine is a common practice all over the world.

Sirelkhatim, (2011) studied the cytotoxicity and biological activity of many Sudanese medicinal

plants. In this study Cannabis sativa is selected upon its use in many countries for the treatment of,

constipation, gout, malaria and absent-madness (Marijuana, 1975). Identifying bioactive compounds

and establishing their health effects are active areas of scientific enquiry (Etherton et al., 2004).


White albino rats were used in the present study, They were obtained from the central

veterinary research laboratory, Soba. They were housed in laboratory cages, fed with pellets and were

watered ad libitum. The parasite was isolated from naturally infected camels at Alshowak, Algadarif

estate. Cannabis sativa is a member of the family Cannabinaceae. It was obtained from Niala, South

Darfur, Sudan. The powder of Cannabis sativa whole plant obtained was successively extracted with

methanol for 4 hrs, using a soxhelt apparatus. The extract was occasionally shaken during the first

four hours and was then filtrated. The filtrate was evaporated under vacuum, and the residue is

brownish in color. The aqueous extract was extracted by dissolving in distilled water and then put in

water bath for half an hour.

Results

Trypacide was used as a standard drug in this experiment at a dose rate of 10 mg/kg BW. It

was found that that drug cured the parasite on the third day of treatment but relapses occurred after ten

days of treatment. With the plant, it was clear that there was an immediate cure as from the second

day of treatment when the methanolic extract was given at both doses. All the rats either given 125 or

250 mg/kg BW became aparasitaemic till day 48 when the parasite appeared with clearance

percentage 100%. There was death in the group that given 125 mg/kg BW together with the standard

drug, and the percentage rate was found to be 90%. There was death associated with the untreated

group with percentage rate 50%. The results were shown in table 1,fig 1&2. The best result was

obtained with methanolic extract.

References

El-Rayah, U.E.; Kaminsky, R.; Schmid, C. and Elmalik, K.H.(1999).Drug resistancein

SudaneseTrypanosoma evansi. Veterinary Parasitology. 80: 4, 281-287.

Etherton, P.M; Lefever, M; Beecher, G.R; Gross, M.D; Keen, L.L and Eiborton, T.D (2004).

Bioactive compounds in nutrition and health research, methodologies for establishing the

biological function - the antioxidant and anti inflammatory effects of flavonoids against

Atherosclerosis. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 24: 511-538.

FAO, (1988). Food and Agriculture Organization Animal Health year book. Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nation. Rome.

Fornsworth, N.R; Akele, O; Bingel, A.S; Soejarto, D.D and Guo, Z. (1985). Medicinal plants in

therapy, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 63 (6); 965-981.

274


Marijuana, (1975). Marijuana and health, fifth Annual Report to U.S. Congress, Rockville, MD.,

National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Sirelkhatim,B.E, (2011). Cytotoxicity and biological activity of selected Sudanese medicinal plants.

Res. J. Med. Plant, 5(3): 201-229. DOI: 10.3923/rjmp.

Stephen, L.E. (1986). Trypanosomosis, A Veterinary Perspective Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Table 1: Antitrypanosomal activity of Cannabis sativa extracts compared to Trypacide

Group

No.

Treatment Dose used Initial

trypanosome

s clearance

Relapse Percentage of

Death

Group

1

Infected untreated

control

None 50 % between day

40-45

Group

2

Treated with

Trypacide

10 mg/kg

BW

Day 4 Day 11 20% between 30-

45 day

Group

3

Treated with (M)

extract

125 mg/kg Day 2 Day 48 none

Group

4

Treated with (M)

extract

250 mg/kg Day 2 Day 48 none

Group

5

Treated with (A)

extract + trypacide

125 mg/kg +

10 mg

_ 50 % On Day 2

Group

6

Treated with (A)

extract + trypacide

250 mg/kg Day 8 Day 18 90%

Each group was composed of 6 rats each. The parasite was given at a dose rate of 5x105

(M) represents Methanolic extract . (A) represents Aquous extract

275


8. Assessment of Changes in Body Surface Temperature Associated with Ambient

Temperature Using Infrared Thermography in Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

K.A. Abdoun1, E.M. Samara

1, A.B. Okab

1, A.I. Al-Haidary

1*

1Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University.


Introduction

Controlling surface temperature is an important mechanism in temperature regulation of

homeotherms (Philips and Health, 1992). Vasomotor tone of peripheral blood vessels in specialized

heat exchanger regions depends on the surrounding Ta (Tattersall et al., 2009). The major mechanism

of sensible heat loss is the cutaneous vasodilatation in specialized body regions that serve as heat

exchanger with the environment. Such specialized regions are characterized by high surface to

volume ratio, absence of fur, dense network of blood vessels and the presence of arteriovenous

anastomoses (Mauck et al., 2003). The term ''thermal window" is applied to describe these regions

(Klir and Health, 1992). Recently, thermal window has been defined as a restricted surface area which

is visible as hot spot in a thermal vision and differ by more than 5C from its adjacent regions

(Weissenbock et al., 2010). Exchanging body heat with the surrounding environment through thermal

windows is achieved by modifying blood flow in these regions via controlling vasomotor tone

(Sumbera et al., 2007). Camel's skin has numerous arteriovenous anastomoses which could facilitate

heat dissipation via high cutanoeus blood flow. However, it is still questionable which regions of

camel's body are engaged in dissipation of excess body heat. Therefore, this study was designed to

investigate the regional variations in surface temperature and to visualize body thermal windows

responsible for the dissipation of excess body heat in dromedary camels.


This study was conducted during summer season on five dromedary camels of native breed

(Majaheem) with mean body weight of 450±20.5 kg and 2 year of age. Animals were housed

individually in shaded pens, fed twice a day at 07:00 am and 04:00 pm, and had free access to clean

tap water. Ambient temperature (Ta), relative humidity (RH), sweating rate (SR), and body surface

temperatures (Tsurface) were measured every 3 hours for 2 successive days. Seven body regions (head,

neck, shoulder, axillaries, hump, flank, and hip) were shaved and used as sites for measurements of

sweating rate and body surface temperature. Sweating rate was determined according to the method

modified by Pereira et al. (2010). Different body regions surface temperature were recorded using

infrared thermal camera model Ti200/40 (Thermoteknix Systems Ltd., Cambridge, England). The

collected data were analyzed using Proc GLM; the general linear models (GLM) procedure for

analysis of variance (ANOVA) of Statistical Analysis System (SAS).

Results

Circadian variation in body surface temperature (Fig. 1) was greatest in the hump region (18.8 C) and lowest in the axillary and flank regions (6.9 and 5.8

C, respectively). However, daily

variation in thermal gradient between camel's body surface and the surrounding environment was

lowest in the hump region and highest in flank and axillary regions. The correlation of sweating rate

versus body surface temperatures revealed moderate correlation (r = 0.57; p<0.001).

Figure 1: Variation in body surface temperature at different ambient temperature.

12:00 am (Ta = 45.40 C)

46.3C

39.6C 39.1

C

6:00 am (Ta = 25.12C)

27.5C

32.2C 33.8

C

276


Discussion

It is still unclear which regions of camel's body function as the main avenues for the

dissipation of excess body heat? Therefore, infrared thermal vision was taken every 3 hours

throughout the day, and the daily variation in thermal gradient between camel's body surface and the

surrounding environment has been monitored during the present study. The thermal vision showed

that body surface temperature was higher at high Ta and lower at low Ta. However, the variation in the

body surface temperature was lowest in the flank and axillary regions. The flank and axillary regions

showed lower thermal gradients at higher Ta (during the day) and higher thermal gradients at lower Ta

(during the night). This indicates that flank and axillary regions might work as thermal windows

dissipating heat during the night. This observation support the previous reports on guanaco which

demonstrated that axillay and flank regions with very short and sparse pelage are potentially more

effective in heat dissipation (Morrison, 1966). Furthermore, this observation confirms the earlier

report that heat gained during the hot day is dissipated during the cool night as water economy

mechanism in camels (Lee and Schmidt-Nielsen, 1962). Correlation of sweating rate versus body

surface temperatures revealed moderate correlation (r = 0.57). This indicates that body surface

temperature might work as potential thermal driver of sweating in camels. Similar results have been

reported for lactating cows (Berman, 1971) and ox (Whittow, 1962). However, thermal modulation of

sweating in camels needs more research.

References

Berman A (1971). Thermoregulation in intensively lactating cows in near-natural conditions. J.

Physiol. 215:477–489.

Klir JJ, Heath JE (1992). An infrared thermographic study of surface temperature in relation to

external thermal stress in three species of foxes. Physiol. Zoo. 65:1011-1021.

Lee, DG, Schmidt-Nielsen K (1962). The skin, sweat glands and hair follicles of the camel. Anat. Res.

143:71-94.

Mauck et al. (2003). Thermal windows: hot spots for thermoregulatory evaporation? J. Exp. Bio.

206:1727–1738.

Morrison P (1966). Insulative flexibility in the guanaco. J. Mammal. 47(1):18–22.

Pereira et al. (2010). A device to improve sweating rate measurements. Int. J. Biomet. 54:37–43.

Phillips PK, Heath JE (1992). Heat exchange by the pinna of the African elephant. Com. Bioch.

Physiol. 101(4):693–699.

Sumbera et al. (2007). Patterns of surface temperatures in rats as revealed by IR-thermography. Phys.

& Beh. 92:526–532.

Tattersall et al. (2009). Heat exchange from the toucan bill reveals a controllable vascular thermal

radiator. Sci. 468–470.

Weissenbock et al. (2010). Thermal windows on the body surface of African elephants. J. Therm.

Biol. 35:182–188.

Whittow GC (1962). The significance of the extremities of the ox in thermoregulation. J. Agric. Sci.

58:109–120.

277


9. Pharmacopathological Effect of Cymelarsan and Oxytetracycline Interaction in

Camels Infected Naturally with Trypanaosoma Evansi

F.M. Youssif1, K.H. Elmalik

2 and T. Hassan

3

1Central Veterinary Research Laboratories (CVRL) –Animal Resources Reseearch Corporation,

P.O.Box 8067, Khartoum-Sudan. 2Department of Prev. Med. -Fac. Vet. Med. Khartoum University, B. O. POX 32khartoum North.

3Department of Med. Pharm. Toxi. -Fac. Vet.Med. Khartoum University,

B. O. POX 32 khartoum North.


Introduction

In Sudan, the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) plays an important role in the

national income and constitutes a major proportion of foreign currency revenue. Sudanese camels

are affected by three major diseases, namely mange (Jereb), internal helminthiasis especially

haemonchosis (Holaa), and trypanosomosis (Guffar). The latter is the most important health problem

of all (Wilson, 1984).

Since 1961 no additional drugs for use against animal trypanosomosis have gone beyond the

experimental stage. Drug resistance between diamidines and isometamidium group seems to exist.

Treatment in camels is dependent on one of two drugs suramin and quinapyramine (Bujon,

1990). However, suramin has become less effective (Gad-el Mwla and Fayed, 1979). It is well known

that drug combinations are used mainly to overcome resistance or any undesirable side effects. Drugs

are often given in combination with potentially beneficial or adverse effect results.


Twenty-five one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) 1–3 year-old, of both sexes

weighing 250-300 kg were obtained from El Gadarif State and were stabled in Elmewelh Market pens

(Omdurman-Khartoum State).

Animals were divided randomly into groups, each group consisted of 5 camels, kept for 14

days before commencement of the study for acclimatization. General health examinations were done

daily and samples of urine; faeces, blood and serum were taken for determination of normal base-line

data.

Trypanosoma evansi (T.evansi)

Drug 1- Cymelarsan

® 0.25mg/kg(Rhône – Mérieux – France).

2-Oxyteracycline (Remacyline®) 20mg/kg(Coophavet – France).

Each camel in group 3 was given single intramuscular dose of CymelarsanR at the rate of

0.250mg/ kg (therapeutic dose) followed by 20 mg/ kg of oxytetracycline, (therapeutic dose) while

animals in group 4 were given a single intramuscular dose of Cymelarsan® at 0.125 mg/ kg (half

therapeutic dose) followed by oxytetracycline at 50 mg/ kg (two and half therapeutic dose). A single

dose of Cymelarsan® at 0.125 mg/ kg (half-therapeutic dose) followed by a single intramuscular dose

of oxytetracycline at 100mg/ kg (five therapeutic) were given to each camel in the groups.

Camels in group 1 were used as un- infected-untreated (control negative), while camels in group 2

were infected-untreated (control positive).

Animals were bled from the jugular vein (at the first day after infection, and then three days

post infection, 1 hour, 3 hours, 24 hours, 3 days, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42 and/or 49 days post-treatment.

Two plain vaccutainer test tubes were used (Becton and sons- France) the tube containing no

anticoagulant was left to clot, centrifuged at 3000 rpm and serum was collected and kept at -20oC

until analyzed for the activity.

The haematological methods and serobiochemistry were measured. All data were

computerized using MSTAT-C program (Michigan State University), for the analysis of variance and

for mean separation.

278


Results

The parasitaemia post infection and post treatment was examined, also clinical signs, gross

findings, the histopathological findings, the histophathological findings, haematological changes and

the Serobiochemical changes. The combination treated groups recorded a normal data in all

parameters.

Discussion

In single dosages the parasite was found in the liver at 25-50% after period of relapse for

approximately two weeks post treatment, the combination cleared the blood and the liver from the

parasite without death when given to camels naturally infected with T. evansi. This seems to be in

agreement with previous findings (Anosa, 1988a; Losos and Ikede et al., 1972,Baltz et al., 1989 and

Youssif, (2005). The death in the daily treatment combination program is attributed to the toxic

effects of these drugs although the blood and the liver are free of the parasites.

A good health improvement as judged by clinical signs, pathological findings and

haematological and serum biochemical result, was observed in camels which received the

combination. The half recommended therapeutic dose of Cymelarsan with single or two and half

recommended therapeutic dose of OTC-LA at the recommended therapeutic dose twice a week for

two weeks or in treated camels, indicated that the combination was toleratable and successful to

overcome the infection.

Combination preparation, may act by complementary mechanisms at different sites, or one of

the drug may potentiate the clinical efficacy of the other by altering its distribution, biotransformation

or excretion. (Baggot, 2001).

References Anosa, V.O. (1988a). Haematological and biochemical changes in human and animal

trypanosomiasis. Part 1 Rev. Med. Vet. Pays. Trop., 4(1): 65-78.

Baggot, J.D.(2001). The physiological basis of veterinary clinical pharmacology. Blackwell Sci.

LTD. Edit. Office- Oxoford.

Bujon, B. (1990). Cymelarsan, A new trpanocide for treatmentof camel trypanosomosis. Rhône

Mérièux, Lyon.1-18.

Gad el-Mwla, B. and Fayed, A.A.(1979). The efficacy of suramine in the treatment of

trypanosomiasis in Egyption camels under desert conditions. J. Eyg. Vet. Med. Asso. (35),

65-70.

Wilson, R.T. (1984). The camel. First edit. Longman group Ltd. London and New York.122-127.

Youssif, F.M. (2005). Pharmacotoxicicty of some trypanocidal drugs in food animals (Camelus

dromedaries and Nubian goats). A thesis submitted for PhD. K.U. Fac. Vet. Med. Oct. 2005.

279


10.Relationship Between Copper and Ceruloplasmine in Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

H. Elrayah


Introduction

The current study was initiated to asses the relationship between copper and its indicator-

ceruloplasmine. Ceruloplasmine is a carrier protein for copper; it contains more than 90% of the

circulating copper in normal animals, so ceruloplasmine is usually well correlated with copper. In the

camels, it appears that ceruloplasmine is also correlated with copper and can be a useful indicator of

nutritional copper status as indicated in cattle and sheep (Blackley and Hamilton, 1985), but a copper

sub deficient situation (plasma copper concentration below (50µg /dl ),the ceruloplasmine doesn't

allow one to assess the deficiency status level . Most of the camels in these two localities are not

receiving any mineral supplements and their feeding resources are generally scattered and poor.

Indeed, trace elements in the camel are believed to have biological roles similar to that

described in other ruminants. In this study, copper was assessed directly by measuring its

concentration in the blood of camel and indirectly by measuring its related indicator-ceruloplasmine.

The area selected for this study was north and South Kordofan and sex and age were

considered in the study.

Material And Methods

The survey was conducted, during the period from October 2004 to September 2005.

The survey covered two states (North Kordfan State and South Kordfan State), Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) in different sexes and ages were used in this study. All animals grazed freely

in opened system (Nomadic system). A total of 500 serum and blood samples were collected from

both North and South Kordfan.

Blood in plain vacutainers tube was taken from the Jugular vein by veni-puncture, the serum

was separated by centrifugation and stored at -20oC for analysis.

Serum copper was determined according to the method of Butrimovitz and Purdy (1977).

The method of Houchin (1958) was used for the determination of plasma ceruloplasmine

activity using a Jenway 6505 Uv/Vis. Spectrophotometer.

Results

Statistical methods have revealed that none of the three factors employed in this study have any

impact on copper levels as well as on ceruloplasmine. Results show that both copper and

ceruloplasmine were below the normal values reported in the literature. Also, a non significant

positive correlation exist between copper and ceruloplasmine.

Reference

Blakely, B.R. and Hamilton, D.L. (1985). Ceruloplasmin as indicator of copper status in cattle and

sheep. Can. J. Comp. Med. 49: 405-408.

280


11. Effect of Sex Factor on Macrominerals Profile in Vital Organs of Dromedary

Camels in Western Darfur, Sudan

A.B. Mustafa¹, E. Haroun², Khadiga Abdelaati³ and S.H.M. Alsharif4

¹University of Bahari, P.O. Box: 12327, Code 11111 Khartoum, Sudan. [email protected]

²Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, West Darfur State, Sudan. [email protected]

³Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum, Postal

Code 13314 Khartoum North, Sudan. [email protected] 4Africa City of Technology, Ministry of Sciences and Technology, Sudan. [email protected]

Introduction

Generally in tropical areas, animal do not receive mineral supplements and are dependent on

pasture for their needs (Mcdowell et al., 1995). Otherwise, mineral deficiencies decrease livestock

production efficiency, prevent forage digestibility and herbage intake, often associated with

alterations in many metabolic processes and cause various kinds of diseases, (Bureau et al., 2008).

Whereas, the mineral content in soils is highly variable. Usually, camels depend on salt plants

(halophytes), salty soils (kuro) and sometimes commercial salt supplements to cover mineral needs

(Macdowell; 1995). Minerals status can be determined by the analysis of serum, tissues (liver, kidney

and spleen) and feed or plants species (Scheideler et al; 1994). The physiological variations of

mineral concentration in camel plasma and sometimes liver show the peculiarities of mineral

metabolism and include increasing of the absorption capacity, tolerance for minerals in excess and

maintenance of enzymatic activity in deficient periods (Faye et al 2006). The main objective of this

paper was to examine the macrominerals status of local camels in western Darfur by measuring the

levels of Ca, P and Mg in vital organs of both matured male and female camels.


The study has been carried out on herd of mature camels (5-10 years). They were slaughtered

at a Traditional abattoir of AlGenana town in west Darfur state. The camels were grazing on free

pasture without any supplementary feeding. The 10 samples of liver, spleen and kidney from each

male and female camel were collected from abattoir in December 2010 then kept under frozen

condition for latter laboratory analysis. The samples were dried, digested and dissolved. A flame

atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) was used for the analyses. For comparing the mean

concentrations of different macrominerals in different tissues for both male and female camel, the data

of research were analyzed using the student t-test were used SSPS version 11 and the correlation

coefficient of Macrominerals in organs has be done.


In the current study calcium, phosphorus and magnesium levels in kidney are shown in Figure

1. The phosphorus content of the male kidney is high than the mean level of phosphorus in kidneys of

female camels. Moreover, the phosphorus level in camel kidney is higher than other macrominerals

level; because kidney is considering the main filter in body, therefore high minerals were deposited.

Significant correlation between macrominerals in camel kidneys. The female kidney magnesium level

was lower the male camel.

Figure 1. Macrominerals percentage level in kidney of Male and Female Camel.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Ca (%) Mg (%) P (%)

Male

Female

281


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Ca (%) Mg (%) P (%)

Male

Female

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Ca (%) Mg (%) P (%)

Male

Female

The current result of macrominerals content in camel liver has been observed in Figure 2. The

concentration of Mg, Ca and P in liver of male camel are high than those in female camel. The data in

current study are agreed with findings by Rashed (2002) in camel meat in semi-arid region. The P

level in liver of female camel is highest than that P level in kidney or spleen because liver is consider

the main site of almost physiological processes in the body. The concentration of Ca and Mg in spleen

is highest rather liver and kidney either in male or female camel, that have shown in Figure 3.

Therefore, the concentrations of Ca and Mg in camel organs are response to effect of sex factor

whereas; P concentrations in camel organs have been variable.

Figure 3. Macrominerals percentage level in spleen Figure 2. Macrominerals percentage level in liver

of Male and Female Camel of Male and Female Camel

Conclusion and Recommendation

The chemical analysis of different organs of male and female camels from west Darfur state

reveals that organs contain high concentrations of P in male or female camels compared to Ca and Mg

concentrations. while the kidney contains high level of P rather than liver and spleen. These results

may relate to the presence of these elements in high concentrations in the plants of free pasture and

also, to the ability of the camel tissues to concentrate these elements as they have a biological role in

camel metabolism. The future studies should be done to cover all belts of camel should be appreciated

to document baseline of minerals to monitor any risk of imbalance and deficiencies of minerals in

camel.

References

Barakat, S.M., I.Y. Turkey, S.M. El Bashir, S.A. Ali and S.A. Omer, 2007. Comparison of some

blood constituents in stabled and grazing camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Sudan. First

scientific camel workshop in Sudan University. J. of Sci. and Tech. vol.8 (2), pp. 21-26.

Faye, B., Bengoumi M. and Seboussi, R. (2006). Metablism of some minerals in camels: A face of the

adaptation to harsh condition: in international scientific conference for camel, Gassiem, KSA.

4:1593-1615.

Mc Dwell, L.R.; Cornal, J.H. and Hemby, F.G. (1995). Mineral for grazing ruminants in tropical

regions, Anim. Sci. Dept., University of Florida, CBAG.

Scheideler, S.E., Wallner - Pendleton, E.A., Schneider, N., and Carlson, M. (1994) Determination of

baseline values for skeletal (leg bone) growth, calcification and soft tissue mineral accretion.

Rashed, M.N. (2002). Trace elements in camel tissues from a semi-arid region. Kluwer Academic

Publishers manufactured in The Netherlands. The Environmentalist on line, 22, 111–118,

2002.

282


12.Use of Exogenous Creatinine to Evaluate Kidney Function in Hydration and

Dehydration Conditions of Camels

A. Kamili*, M. Bengoumi, M. Oukessou, B. Faye and H. Lefebvre


Introduction

The dromedary camel is an animal well adapted to extreme temperature conditions and

osmotic fluctuations (Yagil, 1986). Camel adaptation to dehydration is the consequence of its

anatomic and physiologic particularities (Bengoumi et Faye, 2002). It has been shown, that

dromedary camel kidney function is one of the most important factors of its ability to adapt to extreme

conditions of osmotic stress and additional water needs as during milking periods (Yagil, 1993,

Bengoumi et al., 1993).

Objectives

This trial aims to study kidney function in camel dromedary under normal hydration and

dehydration conditions via follow up of glomerular filtration using exogenous creatinine as marker.


This trial was carried out at the Hassan II Agronomic and Veterinary Institute (IAV Hassan II in

Rabat-Morocco) on six 7-10 year old females; animals were fed before and during this experiment

with concentrated feed (MARAA) at 2kg/animal/day which contains very little water. In addition,

they received one bale of wheat straw (18kg) once per day in the morning and water was given ad

libitum during normal hydration period. Body weights were assessed on experiment day using

barymetric measurements (Schwartz et al., 1992).

Experimental Protocol

1st

Phase:

Product and doses used

To prepare the solution to be injected to dromedaries at 8g/100ml (8%), 40g creatinine

(anhydrous powder) was progressively dissolved in 500 ml of distilled water, and sterilized by

filtration using 0.22 µm paper filter. The prepared solution was injected to animals at16 mg/kg of

body weight corresponding to 20 ml of the solution/kg of body weight. Volume injected to each

animal was calculated on the basis of body weight assessed on the same day.

Bloodsampling and plasma processing

Blood samplings (8-10 ml) were performed on right jugular vein in a vacuum tube with

anticoagulant at times T0 (just before injection), 2 ; 6 ; 10 ; 20 ; 40 ; 60 and 90 min and 2 ; 4 ; 6 ; 8 ;

12 ; 18 and 24 h after injection. T0 blood sampling was performed to determine basal blood creatinine.

Blood samples were centriguged for 30-45 min (3000g/min during 15 min) and plasma was stored at -

20°C until creatinine dosage. Hematocrit, density and total proteins were performed on whole blood.

To establish RCN, Nebauer cells counter was used

Phase 2: Dehydration during 34 days

Dehydration began the next day after completion of blood samplings which was spread over

24 hours. Camels were deprived from water intake and kept in stable where night and diurnal

temperature conditions are under control (20°C-23°C). For animal welfare, camels dromedaries were

examined every day to take body temperature and to observe their reactivity state to ovoid possibly

apathy and pain. Blood samplings were carried out at the beginning of this stage and every week to

determine total proteins, hematocrit, density, Red Cells Number (RCN) and Mean Cell Volume

(MCV) which were used as indicators of the camels dehydration status. At 34th

day post water

deprivation, dromedaries were subject to the same experimental protocol previously described, during

hydration period, to follow up creatinine kinetics during a period of 24 hours.

Creatinine determination

Plasma creatinine was analyzed using the Jaffe method.

283


Data analysis

All parameters measured on the 6 dromedaries were used for data base conception in Excel

and analyzed then as follows:

Comparisons of studied parameters means, in hydration and dehydration states were realized

by Excel software, using matched means comparison function with p=0.05 to consider the test

significant. Results are expressed as mean±standard error.

Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed by WinNonlin Software (Version 5.2, Build

200701231637 Core version 18 Sept 2006) using non compartmental approach.

Results and Discussion To compare parameters studied on camels, corresponding to normal hydration and

dehydration periods (34 days of thermic and hydric stress), paired means comparison tests were used.

Equality esperances test for paired observations in Excel offers the possibility to compare means with

Student test; p=0.05 was retained as meaning threshold test. Pharmacokinetic data analysis were

performed using non compartmental approach, considered to be more suitable especially when

sampling period is 24 hours, because it doesn‘t need specific mathematic modeling. Laroute et al.,

(1999) reported also that lonely parameter required is AUC which is then easy to calculate and

extrapolated party of AUC should not exceed 15% of total AUC. In the present study, at the moment

of GFR calculation in normally hydrated and dehydrated states, extrapolated party of curve has as

mean respectively 9.3 ± 6.3% and 11.2 ± 4.9%.

Camels dromedaries of the present study showed a body weight decrease of 15% following

34 days dehydration, which can be interpreted as adaptation to lack of water. These results are

different from Bengoumi (1993) who reported that 14 days water deprivation caused body weight

decrease of 35%. This difference can be linked to ambient temperature (45°C) and dehydration

severity. According to Djegham and Belhadj (1986), camel dromedary resistance to water deprivation

is due to its ability to mobilise its water storage and to transfer it from one to another compartment.

Thus, camel dromedary is able to lose up to 25% of its total body water without any dehydration

symptoms. Hematocrit mean values in the six dromedaries (27±1 % in normal hydration state and

28±2 % in dehydration state) are included in the interval of usual hematocrit mean values [20-33%]

as described by Yagil et al.(1974) and are lower than those reported by Bengoumi (1993) with values

of 30% in hydration state and 38% in dehydration state, but still compared to those of Yagil et al.

(1974) with 28.5±0.82% in summer and 32±1.02% in winter. Differences between these values can be

explained by season and hydration status which affect directly this parameter. So then, it‘s important

to know conditions of normal values in dromedary camel (Yagil et al., 1974). Hematocrit mean values

in dromedary camels in normal hydration and dehydration states did not show any significant

difference. This can be explained by individual variations that should mask this effect or because

dehydration state was not so severe to influence this parameter. Thus, this parameter can be

considered as later parameter to detect hydration state in the dromedary camel. RCN in this trial

(8.6±1.4×106/mm3) is included in physiologic values interval as reported by Yagil et al, (1974)

(3.8×106/mm

3 and 12.6×10

6 /mm

3). Dehydration caused a significant decrease in RCN which is in

agreement with data reported by Yagil et al., (1974) as hematocrit and RCN follow same evolution.

MCV was influenced by dehydration. It has been significantly increased (from 31.9±4.6×10-7

mm3

to

48.2±7.3×10-7

mm3) after 34 days of water deprivation. Results of this study showed significant

plasma creatinine increase with rate of 30% with dehydration, except for camel A (from 1.18±0.28

mg/dl (104±25 µmol/l) to 1.53±0.14 mg/dl (135±12 µmol/l)). These results agree with Bengoumi‘s

work (1993). Plasma creatinine values in dromedaries seem to be higher than those reported in other

species (Soliman et Shaker, 1967). In our study, 34 days of water deprivation in camels induced

significant GFR diminution (from 1.33±0.22 ml/min/Kg to 1.06±0.21 ml/min/kg) which presents a

decrease of 20%. These results are in agreement with those of Bengoumi (1993) who found GFR

decrease of 60% after 13 days of water deprivation and then it increased after rehydration.

Explanation of these phenomena can be attributed to hormonal factors.

Conclusions and Recommandations

Significant decrease of body weight in camel dromedary in dehydration conditions is an

adaptation way to water restriction and RCN and MCV can be used as dehydration state indicators.

The role of the kidney to minimize water loss is the result of both anatomic and hormonal factors

284


controlling glomerular filtration. Indeed, GFR is lower than that reported in other animal species and

has significantly decreased under effect of dehydration. These results should be taken into account

during drugs administration. In this effect, this animal should be considered as a model for studies of

dehydration effect on hormones and enzymes implicated in water metabolism regulation.

Use of exogenous creatinine in bolus for kidney function evaluation in camel dromedary is a

practical method, reliable, quick, not expensive and has less risks for animals compared to other

methods based on urine collection. Nevertheless, other investigations are necessary in large number of

animals to study creatinine tubular secretion, particularly in dehydration conditions and according to

the sex. Fifteen blood samplings during 24 hours is a tedious work in routine practice. So then, it‘s

very interesting to draw up limited strategy for blood samplings in order to determinate blood

samplings number and best time with minima risks errors.

References

Alamer M., 2006. Physiological repsonses of Saudia Arabia indigenous goats to water deprivation.

Small Ruminant Research. 63: 100-109.

Bengoumi M., 1993. Biochimie clinique du dromadaire et mécanismes de son adaptation à la

déshydratation. Thèse de doctorat Es-Sciences Agronomiques. Institut Agronomique et

Vétérinaire Hassan II-Rabat.

Bengoumi M., Riad F., Giry J., De La Farge F., Safwate A., Davicco M.J and Barlet J.P, 1993.

Hormonal Control of Water and Sodium in Plasma and Urine of Camels during Dehydration

and Rehydration. General and Comparative endocrinology. 89: 378-386.

Bengoumi M. and Faye B., 2002. Adaptation du dromadaire à la déshydratation. Sécheresse. 13 (2)

121-129.

Djegham M. and Belhadj O., 1986. Comportement de thermorégulation et résistance à la privation

d'eau chez le dromadaire, Variations saisonnières des profils biochimique et hématologique

chez le dromadaire. Maghreb Vétérinaire. 2(10).

Kamili A., Bengoumi M. and Faye B., 2006. Assessment of body condition and body composition in

camel by barymetric measurements. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 13 (1): 67-72.

Kumar R., Singh A.P. and Rai A.K., 1999. Pharmacokinteics, bioavailability and dosage regimen of

sulfadimidine in camels (Camelus dromedarius) under hot, arid environmental conditions.

Vet. Res. 30: 39-47. inra/Elsevier, Paris.

Laroute V., Lefebvre H.P, Costes G. and Toutain P.L., 1999. Measurement of golemrular filtration

rate and effective renal plasma flow in the conscious beagle dog by single intravenous bolus

of iohexol and p-aminohippuric acid. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 41 : 17-25.

Shwartz H.J and Dioli M., 1992. The one humped camel in eastern Africa. A pictorial guide to

diseases health care and management. Weikersheim, Verlag Joseph Nargmf ; 282 p.

Soliman M.K and Shaker M., 1967. Cytological and biochemical studies on the blood of adult camels.

The Indian. Vet. J. 44(12): 989-995.

Yagil R., Sod-Moriah U.A. and Meyerstein N., 1974. Dehydration and Camel blood. II. Shape, size

and concentration of red blood cells. Am.J. Physiol. 226 (2): 301-304.

Yagil R., 1993. Renal function and water metabolism in the dromedary. Moving Points in Nephrology

Contrib. Nephrol. Basel, Karger. 102 :161-170.

285


13. Comparative Assessment of Some Trace Minerals Level in Camel Tissues From

West Darfur State, Sudan

E. Haroun, A.B. Mustafa and Khadiga Abdelaati

¹Red (R) UK, West Darfur State, [email protected].

²University of Juba, P.O. Box: 12327, code 11111 Khartoum, Sudan, [email protected]

³Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum, Postal Code 13314

Khartoum North, Sudan, [email protected]


Introduction

West Darfur is located on Sudan's western border with Chad and the Central African

Republic. The people practice farming, herding and the acute geographical changes with recurrent

famines that is brought the region to the conflicts over pasture and land between farmers and Nomadic

herders, (Transitional Darfur Regional Authority, 2008).

Generally, in tropical areas animal do not receive mineral supplements and depend on

pastures for their needs. They consume a considerable amount of earth. However, the mineral contents

of soils are highly variable. Usually, camels depend on salt plants (halophytes) and salty soils (kuro).

Minerals status can be determined by the analysis of serum, liver and feed or plants species

(Scheideler, et al., 1994). It was the intention of this paper to assess the level of iron, zinc, copper and

manganese in serum and liver in male and female camel from West Darfur State.


This study was carried out in Western Darfur state, Sudan on camels over four years of age.

They were slaughtered at a traditional abattoir. The camels were grazing on natural pasture without

any supplementary feeding. The camel‘s liver and blood samples were collected in November and

December 2010.

The fresh liver and blood serum samples were obtained from mature clinically healthy

animals. A total of 5 samples of liver and serum were obtained from each male and female camel at

different ages. The samples of blood serum were collected from camels by jugular veni-puncture and

the serum was separated. Liver samples were maintained in formalin until undergoing laboratory

analysis. All samples were analyzed by Atomic Absorption Analytical Methods, Perkin-Emer (1982).

A student t.test was applied to assess the difference between treatments.


This study was carried out to assess the level of trace elements (Iron, Zinc, Copper and

Manganese) in blood serum, liver of camel from West Darfur-Sudan. In the present study, Figure 1

shows the results of iron, zinc, copper and manganese level of serum. The iron level in the serum of

female camel is higher than in male camels. Also is highest than 169.3 + 209.9 μg/dl reported by

Mustafa (2007). While, the mean level of serum zinc in this study in female camel is higher than male

camel and those values is high than 104.8+9.5 μg/dl and 24.5 + 15.8 μg/dl found by Abu Damira

(1993) and Mustafa (2007) in Eastern Sudan camels.

The copper level of male camel sero was higher than in females and also higher than in

camels raised at different sites under nomadic conditions which was 59±1.98 μg/dl in Nuba

Mountains, 70±1.14 μg/dl in Darfur and 67±1.37 μg/dl in Egyptian camels by Espinosa et al; (1982)

and higher than 60.74+20.6 μg/dl in adult camel in Buttana area, Mustafa (2007). Whereas, the mean

manganese level in serum of female camels was higher than in male camels. Unfortunately, there

were no previous studies done on the manganese status in blood of camel.

286


Figure 1: Shows the trace mineral level μg/dl (Iron, Zinc, Cu and Mn) in the Serum of male and female camel.

The results obtained in the current study of iron, zinc, copper and manganese levels of liver

have been shown in Figure 2. The mean level of iron in male liver is higher than in female and lower

than the range 287.1 – 317.3mg/kg on dry basis reported by Abu Damir et al; (1993). While,

meanlevel of liver zinc in male is high than in female camel and lower than 143+4.8mg/kg reported

by Awad and Breschneider (1977). The level of liver copper in the female is lower than in male,

moreover, the both levels are lower than 64.86+46.80 mg/kg copper level of liver of local slaughtered

adult camels in Butana region by Mustafa (2007). Xin et al; (1993) confirmed that, the copper

concentration in liver is affected by physiological needs. (Mc Dowell et al; 1993) confirmed that, the

concentration of copper in liver of ruminants is correlated to bioavailability of copper in feed. In this

study it observed the mean concentration of iron in the liver of both male and females is higher

compared to the concentration of copper. This observation is the same as reported by the Tartour

(1969) He found the correlation between iron and copper content in liver of camel is a negative.

Whereas, the mean level of liver manganese in female is lower than in male camel. However, the

mean level of manganese in liver of female camel is seem to agree with the findings in Bactrian camel

was 6.9+1.9mg/kg, Liu Zongping (2004).

Figure 2. Shows the concentration of trace mineral level mg/kg (Iron, Zinc, Copper and Manganese) in the liver

of male and female camel.

Conclusions

Poor concentration of copper in liver and serum of camel that was appeared in the results of

the current study may be correlated with the elements shortage in natural pasture of camel. therefore

in order to improve the camel productivity, serious consideration of supplying supplementary copper

providing by injectable preparations, oral dosing with copper oxide needles or provide mineral licks

containing elements should be given. Results shows that Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn concentration in liver of

male was higher than in female camel.

287


References

Abu Damir, H.,Tartour G.,and Adam, S.E.I.(1993). Minerals contents in livestock in eastern sudan.

Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod., 15: 15-16.

Awad, Y.L. and Breschnieder, F. (1977). Values of certain minerals and trace- minerals in some

tissues of camel (Camelus dromedarius). Egypt. J. vet. Sci., 14, 31-35.

Elemer, P. (1982). Biochemistry, BC5, BC7. Analytical Methods for Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer.

Espinosa, J.E., L.R. Mc Dowell, R. Juan, J.K. Loosli, J. Conard, M. Hand and K.G. Frank (1982).

Mineral status of Lamas and sheep in the Bolivian Allipano. J. Nutr. 122:2286-2292.

FAO (1995). Quarterly Bulletin of statistics. Food and Agriculture Organization, UN Rome 8: 31–36.

Liu Zongping (2004). Studies on rickets and osteomalacia Livestock Diseases in Darfur, Anglo-

Egyptiant Sudan, during the period of the Condominium, 1916 – 1956. The International

Journal of Africa History Studies vol 12(1): 62 – 82.

Mustafa, A.B.(2007). Microminerals levels in Grasses, Some Organs and Serum of Camel in Butana

Region,University of Khartoum, Sudan. (Thesis).

Mc Dwell, L.R.; Cornal, J.H. and Hemby, F.G. (1993). Mineral for grazing ruminants in tropical

regions, Anim. Sci. Dept., University of Florida, CBAG.

Scheideler, S.E., Wallner - Pendleton, E.A., Schneider, N., and Carlson, M. (1994) Determination of

baseline values for skeletal (leg bone) growth, calcification and soft tissue mineral accretion.

Tartour, G. (1969). Studies on metabolism of copper and iron in camel. Sudan journal of veterinary

science and animal husbandry 10:14- 20.

Transitional Darfur Regional Authority book, (2008).

Xin, Z, D.F., Waterman, R.W. Hemken and R.J. Harmon (1993). Copper status and requirement

during the dry period and early lactation in multiparous holstien cows. J. dairy sci. 76; 2711-

2716.

288


14. Erythrocyte Osmotic Fragility Curve of Male and Female Camels (Camelus

dromedarius)

Alia S.A. Amin1*

, K.A. Abdoun2 and A.M. Abdelatif

2

1Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Nyala,

Nyala, Sudan. 2Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum,

Khartoum North, Sudan.


Introduction

Camels (Camelus dromedarius) have an exceptional ability to rapidly replace water lost

during prolonged periods of dehydration within a few minutes of access to drinking water (Schmidt-

Nielsen et al., 1956). The camel erythrocytes are highly resistant to osmotic haemolysis, being able to

expand to 240% of their original volume without rupturing in hypotonic solutions (Perk, 1966). The

oval shape of camel erythrocytes (Jain and Keeton, 1974) and the composition of its membrane (Al-

Qarawi and Mousa, 2004), partly make camel erythrocytes less susceptible to osmotic haemolysis

than other mammalian. In addition to that, the erythrocytes of the dehydrated camel were more

resistant to hypotonic saline solutions than those of hydrated camels (Yagil et al., 1974). This work

was designed to investigate whether sex had an effect on the erythrocytes osmotic fragility curve of

camels.


This study was carried out in southern Darfur state, Sudan (Latitudes 8° and 13° North,

Longitudes 22° and 28° East). It was conducted during the dry season in camels' summer habitat

(Masaif), the camel herds were naturally ranging and have had access to water every 5 to 9 days. The

blood samples were collected from adult camels (5-12 years) using capped and heparinized tubes

(Medical Disposable Industrial Complex, MDIC), and transported in an ice-cooler to the laboratory.

The erythrocyte osmotic fragility test was measured by subjecting it to decreasing concentrations of

sodium chloride (NaCl) solution (0.9-0.1%) according to Jain (1986). The statistical analysis was

performed using windows based SPSS (Version 10.0, 1999) using Student t- test to evaluate the effect

of sex on the erythrocytes osmotic fragility of the camels. The data are presented as mean ± SD and P

< 0.05 was considered significant.


The curve of osmotic fragility of camel's erythrocytes is shown in Figure 1. The pattern of

the erythrocytes response to haemolysis was basically increased with decreasing concentration of

saline solution (0.9% NaCl). Haemolysis started at 0.4% NaCl for males (3.86 ± 6.37%) and females

(3.71 ± 3.95%). The maximum haemolysis occurred at 0.2% NaCl showed a percentage of 96.09 ±

4.02 and 95.05 ± 6.41 % for males and females, respectively. In both sex, 0.1% NaCl resulted in

100% haemolysis. In the present study the curve of both sexes of camels started haemolysis at 0.4%

NaCl , which demonstrates that camels have more resistant erythrocytes than that of sheep, cattle and

humans which commence haemolysis at 0.85%, 0.70% and 0.55% NaCl, respectively (Arikan, 2003).

The higher concentration of phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins in the erythrocytes membranes of

camels that are not altered by dehydration or starvation may have a role in the stability of the camel

erythrocytes (Al-Qarawi and Mousa, 2004).

289


Figure. 1: Erythrocytes osmotic fragility curve of males and females camels (Camelus dromedarius).

The study shows that camel erythrocytes of males were osmotically more fragile than those of

females at 0.3% NaCl that shifted the osmotic fragility curve to the left in males compared to females.

It has been established that erythrocytes of males are more susceptible to haemolysis than those of

females in domestic fowl (March et al., 1966; Oyewale and Durotoye, 1988) and cattle (Olayemi,

2007).

References

Al-Qarawi, A. A., H. M. Mousa (2004). Lipid concentrations in erythrocyte membranes in normal,

starved, dehydrated and rehydrated camels (Camelus dromedarius), and in normal sheep

(Ovis aries) and goats (Capra hircus). J. Arid Environ. 59:675-683.

Arikan, S (2003). A comparison of the effect of methyl-β-cyclodextrin on the osmotic fragility of

ovine, bovine and human erythrocytes. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 27:383-387.

Jain, N. C., K. S. Keeton (1974). Morphology of camel and Ilama erythrocytes as viewed with

scanning electron microscopy. Br. Vet. J. 130:288-291.

Jain, C. N (1986). Schalm's veterinary haematology. 4th Edn, Lee and Febiger publishing,

Philadelphia.

March, B. E., V. Coates, J. Biely (1966). The effects of oestrogen and androgen on osmotic fragility

and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes in chicken. Can.J. Physiol. Pharm. 44(3):379-387.

Olayemi, F. O (2007). The effect of sex on the erythrocyte osmotic fragility of the Nigerian White

Fulani and Ndama breeds of cattle. Trop. Vet. 25:106-111.

Oyewale, J. O., L. A. Durotoye (1988). Osmotic fragility of erythrocytes of two breeds of domestic

fowl in the warm humid tropics. Lab. Anim. 22:250-254.

Perk, K (1966). Osmotic haemolysis of the camel's erythrocytes. I. A microcinematographic study. J.

experimental Zoology. 163:241-246.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B., K. Schmidt-Nielsen., T. R. Houpt, S. A. Jarnum (1956). Water balance of the

camel. Am. J. Physiol. 185:185-194.

SPSS (1999). SPSS Base 10.0 : User's Guide. Published : Chicago, 11: SPSS Cop. ISBN: 0-13-01

7902-7.

Yagil, R., U. A. Sod-Moriah, N. Meyerstein (1974). Deydration and camel blood. III. Osmotic

fragility, specific gravity and osmolality. Am. J. Physiol. 226(2):305-308.

290


15. Effect of Disease and Physiological Conditions on Drug Pharmacokinetcs in Animals

A. Mahrous

Professor of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

Cairo University, P.O. Box 12211


In veterinary medicine, the drug‘s pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters are generally based upon

data that are derived from studies on small groups of young healthy animals, often of a single breed. It

is rare to find all information that can influence drug exposure characteristics. Therefore, it is

important to recognize some of the factors that can alter the outcome of PK studies and therefore

potentially alter the pharmacological response. Some of these factors are easily identified, such as

breed, gender, age, and body weight. Others are less obvious, such as disease, heritable traits, and

environmental factors. Failure to identify appropriate conditions can lead to substantial errors when

predicting the dose-exposure relationship within a population. Such information is rarely available

because of the difficulty in collecting blood samples from the animal patient under clinical conditions

of use. Furthermore, while new human drug applications are required to contain PK data (21 CFR

320), no corresponding regulatory requirements are associated with applications for new veterinary

drug approvals. Although the very limited number of subjects in veterinary clinical trials and PK and

safety studies challenges the identification of conditions or subpopulations, such factors can influence

the safety and effectiveness of veterinary therapeutics.

291


16. Serum Protein Electrophoresis of Dromedary Camels in Tunisia: Early Tool for

Prediction and Diagnosis in Trypanaosoma evansi Infections

R.B. El Andalousi

Institut superieur debiotechnologie, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia


Introduction

At present, efforts are made to save the camel in Tunisia in particular and improve the

knowledge both of the breeding behavior, physiology and in pathology. In this context we have

undertaken this work to determine normal values of serum protein and different protein fractions in

camels clinically healthy and to study their variations in a pathological situation as the case of

trypanosomiasis.


One hundred and twenty-five male camels, from southern Tunisia were used. Marked with

numbered collars, these animals between 4 and 7 years, underwent clinical examination allowing us to

divide them into three different lots, the first batch of 45 healthy camels with negative serology for

trypanosomiasis, second batch of 54 apparently healthy but infected camels based on the IFI test and

final batch of 26 camels clinically ill and seropositive by IFI.

After local antiseptise, the samples were taken by puncture of the jugular vein. Blood was

collected vacutainer tubes and centrifuged at 3000 g per minute within two hours after collection. The

sera were then separated, divided into two aliquots of 2 ml, then frozen at minus 20°C until analysis

within no more than a month.

The serum total protein was assayed by the reaction of Biuret with a kit Biomaghreb ref

20161. Measurements of absorbance were performed using a spectrophotometre UV-Visible

SCHIMADZU. The serum protein electrophoresis was performed on a base of cellulose acetate at pH

8.6 in veronal buffer and powered by 175 volts (generator HELENA) for 13 minutes.

After Ponceau staining, the electrograms were quantization using hydrometer HELENA PROCESS u-

24, at 520 nm.

Indirect immunofluorescence was performed by the technique adopted by Katende et al. (8).

By setting the dilution 1/100 for the conjugate and Evans blue. The antigens consist of freeze-dried

trypanosomes diluted 1/4 as recommended by the ILRAD in Nairobi and the reading was made using

an immunofluorescence microscope LEITZ type. The positivity threshold was set at 1/80.

Statistical calculations were performed on Macintosh computer using the software Stat View

The statistical distribution was first displayed graphically and normality was assessed by the

Kolmogorov Smirnov (KS) Statistical analysis of the various results was performed with ANOVA

The test was considered significant for p <0.05.

Results

The distribution of values of total serum protein concentration in camels healthy and

seronegative for trypanosomiasis is shown in Figure 1 with a Gaussian distribution.All the results

obtained are given respectively in Table 1 for numerical values and in Tables 2 and 3 aspects of the

profiles in animals and sick animals are shown. The statistical analysis shown in Table II showed

significant differences between healthy animals and animals infected by Trypanosoma evansi.

Discussion

It appears that in the south of Tunisia, total serum protein in camels healthy, male sex and age

between 4 and 7 years was 61.1 g / l on average. The electrophoretic profile "normal" camel is

characterized by the existence of five fractions shown in Figure 2. The average frequency for each

fraction was 50% for albumin, 3% for α1, 5% for α2, 13% for β and 30% for γ globulins. Thus

constituted, the electrophoretic profile of the camel is reminiscent of dogs, humans and goats. It also

presents differences with that of cattle and horses (1, 7, 8, 9, 10). Observed values at the end of our

work are generally consistent with the literature under similar conditions such as age, physiological

status, diet and season greatly affects the camel herd ( 6, 7, 9).

292


In camels with positive serology for Trypanosoma evansi, there was a maked increase in sero

protiens with or without clinical signs of the disease. For all parameters studied, statistical analysis

showed a significant increase (p <0.05) in camels infected compared to healthy animals. In our work,

the increase in serum protein was detected before the onset of symptoms and may thus be considered

as a first diagnosis of trypanosomiasis.

Conclusion

During a trypanosomiasis, there was a marked increase in serum protein with essentially a

hyper γ globulin reflecting primarily the immune response during disease.

All of our results allows to consider the application of serum protein electrophoresis as a tool

for early diagnosis before the onset of symptoms and monitoring of trypanosomosis camelina by

Trypanosoma evansi.

References

Anosa, VO. Heamatological and biochemical changes in human and animal trypanosomiasis. Part I.

Rev Elev. Med Vét Pays trop., 41, 65-78. 1988

Anosa, VO. Heamatological and biochemical changes in human and animal trypanosomiasis. Part II.

Rev Elev. Med Vét Pays trop.,41, 151-154. 1988.

Azzabi, N. Contribution à l‘étude de la trypanosomose caméline en Tunisie. Thèse Doct Vét. Sidi

Thabet.. 1993.

Bajyana, S. and Songa, E. Method of diagnosis of tryponosomiasis in leverstock. Revue Mond. Zoot.,

1, 7-10. 1992.

Ben Goumi, M. Biochimie clinique du dromadaire et mécanisme de son adaptation à la

déshydratation. Thèse Doct Vét. Sciences agronomiques, I.A.V. Hassan II Rabat Maroc. 1992

Ben Goumi, M., Kessabi, M. and Hamliri, A. Teneurs et fractionnement des protéines seiques chez le

dromadaire : effet de l‘âge et du sexe. Maghreb Vet., 4, 31-33. 1989.

Bourdoiseau, G. Bonnefont, C., Chabanne, C. and Gevrey, J. Modifications sanguines chez le chien

leishmanien : suivi de chiens infectés traités et non traités. Revue Méd. Vét. 148, 219-228.

1997.

Katende, J.M., Musoke, A.J., Nantulya, V.M. and Goddeeris, B.M. A new method for fixation and

preservation of trypanosomal antigens for use in the indirect immunofluorescence antibody

test for diagnosis of bovine trypanosomiasis. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 38: 41-44

(465). 1987.

Dia M.L., Van Meirvenne N., Magnus E., Luckins A.G., Diop C., Thiam A., Jacquiet P., Hamers

R.Evaluation de quatre tests de diagnostic : frottis sanguins, CATT, IFI et ELISA-Ag dans

l‘étude de l‘épidémiologie de la trypanosomose cameline à Trypanosoma evansi en

Mauritanie. Revue Élev. Méd. vét. Pays trop., 50 (1) : 29-36. 1997.

Shah, S. R., Phulan., M. S., Memon, M. A., Rind R. and Bhatti. W. M. Trypanosomes infection in

camels. Pakistan Vet. J., 24(4). 2004.

Figure 1 Histogram of total protein serum concentrations in 45 healthy camels

293


Figure 2 Appearance of the profile of electropherograms Figure 3 Aspect of the profile of electropherograms

of serum proteins in camels healthy. of serum proteins in camels suffering from

trypanosomiasis to Tyrpanosoma evansi.

Table 1 Serum proteins and their fractions in the camel : variation in trypanosomiase to Trypanosoma évansi.

Dromadary Dromadary seropositive

healthy with no symptoms with symptoms

(n=45) (apparently healthy) (ill)

(n=54) (n=26)

PARAMETERS A (g/l) SD A (g/l) SD A (g/l) SD

Total Protein 61.1 9.0 104.6 18.2 103.2 18.7

Albumin 30.8 4.6 48.1 9.9 40.0 9.0

Alpha 1 Glob. 1.8 0.7 3.0 1.2 2.4 1.4

Alpha 2 Glob. 3.0 0.9 5.2 1.8 5.0 1.5

Beta Glob. 8.4 2.5 13.6 4.6 12.8 4.9

Gamma Glob. 17.1 3.9 34.6 8.4 43.1 8.4

Alb/Glob 1.1 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.2

Table 2 Serum proteins and their fractions in camels: mean difference (absolute values) between seropositive

and seronegative in trypanosomiasis.

Mean difference Ill/Healthy App.healthy/ Healthy Ill/App.

healthy

Total Protein 42.1* 43.4* 1.4

Albumin 9.2* 17.3* 8.1*

Alpha 1 Glob. 0.5* 1.2* 0.7*

Alpha 2 Glob. 2.0* 2.2* 0.2

Beta Glob. 4.5* 5.3* 0.8

Gamma Glob. 26.0* 17.5* 8.4*

Alb/Glob 0.4* 0.2* 0.2*

*significant at 95%

294


17. Mycobacterium Avian Subsp. Paratuberclosis in Camels: An Epidemiological Study

Sheick E.A. AbdelRahim, Mohammed Yahia Al Saiady

ARASCO- Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Al-Akariyah shopping center. Suite 625, P.O.Box 53845, Riyadh 11593,

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Paratuberclosis (Johne‘s Disease JD) is a slow developing infectious disease that has been

reported in ruminants in several countries around the world. However, the disease has been more

recently reported as an important endemic disease in the Kingdom by camel owners, who called the

disease locally as (Silag). The symptoms of the disease were mixed with other diseases showing the

same symptoms. Accordingly, unsuccessful treatments were practiced by the Vets and the owners.

The aim of this epidemiological study was to clarify prevalence of JD in camel herds in different

regions of the Kingdom based on a survey of camel herds by analysis of fecal, blood samples and

recording clinical symptoms exhibited by the camels.


A total of 15 herds with about 1500 camels in different regions in the Kingdom were visited,

based on complaints from their owners, that their animals were showing specific clinical symptoms,

mainly diarrhea and emaciation ending in higher mortalities. All the necessary information about the

disease was collected, mainly clinical symptoms, age of animals and predisposing factors. Fecal and

blood samples were collected from animals showing the symptoms and those exhibiting abnormal

feeding behavior. The 62 Fecal samples were analyzed by ZN acid fast bacilli test,( Hamid Bushara,

2011), and 45 blood samples were analyzed by ELISA and PCR techniques at the Central Diagnostic

Lab (IDAC). Those techniques could be used successfully to inform camel breeders of their herd‘s

status in relation to the disease and also to screen camels prior to purchasing for restocking (Hamid

Bushara, 2011). Al Hajiri and Al Hinawi, A. M. (2007), had also used ELISA & PCR in detecting

subclinical paratuberclosis in Saudi Dairy herds. More information on prevalence of the disease was

also collected from cases admitted to the clinic at the college of Veterinary Medicine, Gassim

University. Screen tests were carried out for the herd if a camel exhibited the clinical symptoms and

was tested +ve.


Results of the study indicated that Johne‘s disease affects camels and results of the analysis

were highly significant indicating the importance of further investigation. Incidence of JDS in the 4

regions studied were 98 % confirmed +ve with clinical symptoms and 64 % confirmed carriers

respectively. Camels infected exhibit specific symptoms and high percent were carriers. Clinical

symptoms were mainly severe weight loss and persistent diarrhea, mainly in young camels (2-3

years). Similar symptoms were reported in other ruminants (Clarke, 1997). Sources of infection were

introduction of infected animals to the herd, the habit of eating infected manure due to nutritional

deficiencies, searching for undigested seeds in feces and milk from infected camels. Control of the

disease in camels depends mainly on management including provision of well balanced diets. Early

detection of the disease by regular screen testing the herd followed by culling the infected animals.

Effective treatments were tried in ruminats, St-Jean, g. and Jernigan A,D. (1991), and Slocombe, R.E.

(1982) in goats. Although treatment of infected animals are considered expensive in small ruminants,

more studies in camels might be justified since the owners of expensive breeds are ready to pay the

cost for the drugs. Production of a vaccine for controlling the disease is urgently needed to overcome

the danger of spreading JD as the camel owners will not be willing to accept the culling strategies

applied for other ruminants.

295


References

Al hajiri,and Al hinawi, A.M.(2007), The efficiency of ELISA and PCR in detecting subclinical

Paratuberclosis in Saudi dairy herds. Vet.Micobiol.(2007), 121,-384-38

Clarke, C.J., The pathology of paratuberclosis in ruminants& other species. J.Com.Pathol. (1977)

116,217-261.

Hamid. O. Bushara, (2011), personal communication

St-Jean, G., Jernigan, A.D.Treatment of mycobacterium paratuberclosis infection in ruminants.

Vet.Clin. North Am. (1991), 7 (3) ,793-804

Slocombe, R.E. Combined streptomycin – Ionized- Rifamin in therapy treatment of JD. In a goat.

Can. Vet. J. (1982), 23 (5): 160-163

296


18. Purification, Physico – Chemical and Bio-Chemical Characterization of the Major

Camel Immunoglobulins ( IgG, IgM and IgA)

M.M. Musa1 and I.E. Hajar

2

1University of Bahry Khartoum,Sudan

2University of Elneelan, Khartoum,Sudan


Isolation and purification of IgM, IgG and IgA from serum, colostrums and pulmonary lavage

of the camel was done by precipitation, gel filtration and anion exchange chromatography.

Immunoelectrophoresis and double diffusion were used to analyse the purified fractions and to assess

the reliability of the separation procedures. Immunolobulin molecules were characterized on the basis

of their electrophoretic mobilities, chromatographic behavior, antigenic inter-relationships and

molecular weights. Their concentrations in camel serum were also determined.

Cellulose acetate strips electrophoresis coupled with immunoelectrophoresis distinguished

slow, medium and fast IgG arcs that occupy the gamma region. The IgM and IgA arcs were identified

according to their shape and their distribution in the beta and the alpha regions respectively.

Immunoelectrophoretically, slow and medium IgG were eluted in the fall through in the form of twin

peaks from DEAE (DE52) anion exchanger with 0.01 M phosphate buffer (PH 7.4) while the fast IgG

and the IgA were eluted with 0.05 M and 0.06 M respectively. Camel IgM was readily obtained at the

first peak of sepharose 6-B gel filtration.

Camel IgG, IgM and IgA shared common antigenic determinants. Spurs of partial antigenic

identity were observed between slow IgG and medium IgG on one hand and fast IgG on the other.

However complete antigenic identity was observed between colostral slow, medium and fast IgG and

between slow and medium IgG from serum colostrums and pulmonary lavage.

The molecular weight of camel IgG was found to be 155 × 10³ Daltons, and its heavy

polypeptide chain was estimated as 57.0 × 10³, 56.5 × 10³ and 56.5 × 10³ Daltons from slow, medium

and fast respectively. The light polypeptide chain from the same IgG preparations had a molecular

weight of 27.6 × 10³, 27.5 × 10³ and 27.65 × 10³ Daltons respectively. Monomeric IgA had a

molecular weight of 165 x 10³ Daltons. The molecular weight of IgA secretory piece was found to be

73.5 × 10³ Daltons. Estimated molecular weights of the heavy and light polypeptide chains of IgA

molecule were found to be 65.0 × 10³ and 27.5 × 10³ Daltons respectively and those of IgM were

estimated as 72.0 × 10³ and 27.0 × 10³ Daltons respectively.

It was observed that each of camel IgG (slow, medium and fast) IgM and IgA contained an

additional polypeptide chain of similar molecular weight (46.15-47.1 × 10³ Daltons). An extra

molecule was also found in reduced IgM and its molecular weight was determined as 56.2 x 10³

Daltons.

Camel serum IgG, IgM and IgA, albumin and total proteins were quantitatively determined.

IgG was the predominant immunoglobulin class in the serum (18.06-29.13 mg/ml) and accounting

25.6-41.4% of the total proteins. The concentration of IgA and IgM were found to be 5.27 and 1.71

mg/ml respectively.

297


Medicine

Infectious Disease

and

Health

298


19. A Note On Rabies in a Camel

D.V. Joshi, B.J. Patel, R.Singh*, R. Mahesh, S.S. Galakatu and J.K. Balani

College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, S.D. Agricultural University

Sardarkrushinagar-385506, Gujarat, India


Introduction

Rabies (OIE List-‘B‘ disease) is one of the most dreadful diseases and a major viral zoonosis.

It is caused by RNA virus of family Rhabdoviridae, genus lyssa virus, which infects all warm-blooded

animals and birds characterized by signs of abnormal behavior, nervous disturbances, impairment of

consciousness, ascending paralysis and death. Although all mammalian species are believed to be

susceptible to rabies virus, there are few reports of rabies in domestic Camelidae (Afzal et al., 1993;

Kumar and Jindal, 1997, El Mardi and Ali, 2001, Dongre and Joshi, 2006).

History and laboratory investigation: A seven year old male camel of Border Security Force, Dantiwada of Gujarat state in India

reported in the morning with sudden symptoms of hyper excitement with aggressive nature and

abnormal behavior, yawning, tendency to attack and bite handler and other camels as well as

inanimate objects and salivation. Death occurred 3 days after onset of symptoms. A detailed

postmortem examination was conducted and brain was collected in 10% formalin for histopathology

and also in 50 % glycerin phosphate buffered saline. Brain Impression smears were also prepared and

sent to Central Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis,

Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, India.


The clinical signs as observed in the present case were also reported earlier in India by Kumar

and Jindal, (1997) and Dongre and Joshi, (2006). Clinical signs of camel rabies reported by Afzal et

al. (1993) included hyper-excitability, attacking inanimate objects, self-biting offorelimbs, salivation

sternal recumbency, paralysis of hind legs anddeath within 3-7 days. Omer et al., (2005) reported

rubbing, incoordination (Staggering gait), slight excessive salivation, recumbency, excitement,

abnormal movement of the eye, laryngeal and pharyngeal paralysis and self biting of forelimbs in a

camel in Sudan. The postmortem examination revealed no appreciable gross changes in any organ

except moderate congestion of the brain. Histopathological changes were characterized by non

suppurative perivascular cuffing, neuronophagia and presence of Negri bodies in neurons with non

suppurative meningitis in H&E section of brain. Sellers stained impression smear showed inclusion

bodies indistinguishable from Negri type. Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) was applied on

brain impression smear as well as on formalin fixed samples and was found positive for rabies. FAT

is the most widely used method for diagnosing rabies infection in animals and humans and

recommended by both WHO and OIE. In thepresent study, there was a history of wound on the hind

limb, thus possibility of dog bite could not be ruled out.

References

Afzal, M., Khan, I.A. and Salman, R. (1993).Symptoms and clinical pathology of Rabies in the camel.

Vet. Rec. 28:220.

Dongre, R.A. and Joshi, D.V. (2006). Rabies in camel (Camelus dromedaries) - A case Report.

Veterinary Practioner7:114.

El Mardi, O.I. and Ali, Y.H. (2001). An outbreak of rabies in camel (Camel dromedaries) in North

Kordofan State. The Sudan J. Vet. Res.17: 125-127.

Kumar, A. and Jindal, N.(1997). Rabies in a camel- A case Report. Tropical Animal Health and

Production 29: 34.

Omer, M.M., Aziz, A.A. and Salil, D.A.(2005). A note on Rabies in a camel(Camelus dromedarius)

in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan. The Sudan J. Vet. Res.21: 81.

299


20. A Deadly Respiratory Camel Disease

A. Raziq*, A. Khudaidad and M. Hamza


A highly contagious respiratory disease was first reported from Rakhshan region of

Balochistan (July, 2010). The disease was frivolously taken as the results of dust storms and dry spells

as the disease spread with the dust fill winds after a long drought period in Balochistan and adjoining

areas of Iran and Afghanistan. The spread of the disease was very quick, after the introduction of

infected camels, in a livestock fair (Sibi mela). The sign of disease were noticed in healthy camel six

days after exposure. The disease is highly contageous and about 80% of the camel herd was affected.

The symptoms of disease consist of white & sticky nasal discharge, nasal congestion, regurgitation, an

ultimately the animal becomes inappetent. Treatment with amoxicillin trihydrate by local

veterinarians and other practitioners was considered affective. A single injection resulted in recovery

within 12 hour and all the physiological activity restored in 24 hours. Larynx of dead camels were

swollen and the whole trachea lacerated. The lungs were filled with sticky exudates. There were black

spots on the lungs and lungs were fused with the ribs.

According to the findings, Bacterium (Pasturrelle) was responsible for this disease, though

other types of bacteria like Streptococci were also found in the samples (findings from the

unpublished data from Central Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (CVDL), Sindh and Bahauddin

Zakria University (BZU) Multan, Pakistan.

The disease exhibited similar signs as the disease reported by Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla from

the Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya (1996-2006) caused by PPR virus, a morbillivirus of the

Paramyxoviridae. He advised to send swabs, lymph node and lungs samples to CIRAD or IAEA

laboratories for lab diagnosis. Non infected camels may be vaccinated with sheep PPR vaccine..

300


21. Composition and Anti-Hypoglycemic Effect of Camel Milk

A. El Imam Abdalla

Karary Univesity – Department of Pharmachology Sudan.


Introduction

In the previous section it was shown that camels can produce an adequate amount of milk in

drought areas where other domestic animals have very low production. Of prime importance for

young camels, and especially for man, who drinks the milk, is the composition. However, data

concerning the composition of camel milk vary greatly, this can be partly attributed to the inherited

capabilities of the animal, but the stage of lactation, age, and the number of calvings.Of special

significance to the quality of the produced milk are the feed and water quantity and quality.

Most camel milk isconsumed fresh, it can also be consumed when slightly sour or strongly

soured. Normally it has a sweet and sharp taste, but some times it is salty, the change in taste are

caused by the type of the fodder and the availability of drinking water.

Camel milk contains high levels of minerals such as potassium, iron, zinc, magnesium,

cooper, sodium, and manganese.

However compared to cow‘s milk it has lower levels of sugar and lactose. Camel milk is

lower cholesterol than cow and goad milk, and three times higher in vitamin C than cow's milk and

ten times higher in iron. Its low protein and large concentration insulin has positive effect on

immunity and the anti-diabetic action of camel milk can be attributed to the camel's choice grazing on

natural vegetation in the desert, including medical plants such as neem and salts herbs. It is also high

in unsaturated fated acids and vitamin B but less in vitamin A and B2. Camel milk supposis

supposedly can prevent ulcers. Regular intake of camel milk helps to control blood sugar levels.

Camel milk also benefits infection such as tuberculosis, gastro-enteritis and cancer, and is supposed to

be a new Viagra.


Selected suitable healthy thirsty six albino rats, 8 weeks old weighting 130-150 gm were

used. They were kept in the laboratory for not last than one week before use in the assay and

maintained on adequate & controlled diet, with water available at all times except during the assay

when they were fasted for 18-24 hours prior to the assays. They divided into four groups ( Group 1,

Group II, Group III and Group IV ) with 8 rats each . Diabetes was induced of Group 1, Group II and

Group III by injected intraperitonial with 60 mg/kg body weight of streptozotocin 60 mg/kg weight.

Rats in group IV served as a control group. Fasting blood glucose levels of all these were estimated

after there days of treatment. The animals in addition to the normal diet, were fed with camel milk

(Group1) raw cow milk (Group II), water (Group III) and normal diet (Group IV). Rats of Group1 and

Group II were administrated 250 ml of milk daily with watering bottle instead of water. Whereas rats

in Group III and Group IV were given tap water. The plasma glucose level was measured daily

spectrophotomatrically employing glucose oxidace methodology .

Results

The mean initial blood glucose of treated animals were 190.52 +7.36 mg/dl maintrace in case

of untreated 80.5 +11.55 mg/dl .After three weeks of the treatment of Gruop1 the mean blood glueose

levels markedly 98.0+3.5 and 85.71+12.8 mg/dl maintrance in Group II, it decreased at a lowering rat

to 158.3+45.3, 132.8+23.49 and 101.1+8.98 mg/dl, and in Group III it dropped at still lower rate.

202.77+10.11, 162.8+8.43 and 125.3+24.22 mg/dl. Every time the mean blood glucose level in

control group was within the normal range (70 to 80 mg/dl). The mean treatment of three weeks the

blood glucose showed a significant decrease in Gruop1 animal which treated with camel milk, in

comparezon to those gelling raw cattle milk. Three weeks of treatment blood glucose level in diabetic

animals observed to be 210% and 114% in animal treated with raw camel milk and water .

301


Discussion

The finding of the present study confirmed the glycemic control in streptoztocin induced

diabetic rats. High concentration of insulin of camel milk may be responsible of anti-diabetic effect

(Agrawal et al 2003). Camel milk contains approx 52 units/litre insulin.

In conclusion, the present study showed a significant hypoglycemic effect of camel milk and

maybe a scientific justification for drinking camel milk by certain diabetic patients.

References

Agrawal RP , kochar DK, sahani MS , Tuteja FC, Ghouri SK, hypoglycemic activity of camel milk in

streptozotocin induced diabetic rats . Int.J.diab.dev. countries.2004;24;47-9.

Yagil R, Zagorski O, van creveld C saran A, science and camel milk production. chameaux et

dromadaire , animaux laitiers (congress , Mauritania 1994) part 78-91.

Agrawal RP, swami SC, beniwal R, kochari RP. Effect camel milk on glycemic control, risk factors

and diabetes quality of life in type 1 diabetes :A randomized prospective controlled study .

Int..diab.dev. countries .2002;22;70-4.

Agrawal RP, swami SC, beniwal R, kochar DK, salani MS, Tuteja FC , ghouri SK. Effect of camel

milk or glycemic control lipid profile and diabetes quality of life in type 1 diabetes :A

randomized prospective controlled cross over study. Indian journal of life animal sciences

.2003;73 (10);1105-10.

Knoess KH, milk production of the dromedary. In :camels. IFS symposium, Sudan .1979;201-14.

Singh R. annual report NRCC, bikaner .2001;pp50 .

Abo-lehia , J.H (1998). Physical and chemical characteristics of camel milk fat and its fractins. Food

chem.. 34:262-71.

El-agamy, E.J, ruppanner, R, ismail, A , champagne, C.P. and assdf R. (1992). Antibacterial and

antiviral activity of camel milk protective proteins .J.dairy res. 59:169-175.

Farah, Z. rettenmaier , R. and atkins, D. (1992) vitamin control of camel milk. Intern. J. vit. Nutr . res.

62:30-33.

302


22. Health Considerations in Intensive Camel Dairy Farming Units: The Case of

Southern Tunisia

M.M. Seddik* and T. Khorchani

Arid Land Institute 4119 Medenine Tunisia;


Introduction

In Southern Tunisia, almost all camel herds are fed on large areas of pasture over an extended

period, depending to the extensive breeding system by exploiting large areas of pastures. In this

system, milk production remains under-exploited by the camel breeders because of the difficulties of

collection and transport to market. In recent years, attempts to install units for intensive breeding of

lactating camels have led to improved production. The creation of these units requires the

establishment of special facilities and mastering new techniques. Controlling of the health aspects

plays a significant role in the success of any livestock. Indeed, health considerations must be taken

into account at the beginning, during and at the end of the breeding period.


Each year, since 2004, at the beginning of the lactation period, a group of 10 female calves

were transferred from the herd of the Institute of Arid Regions, led in Médenine according to the

semi-extensive system, to the experimental station of Chenchouin Gabes (oasis condition), in order to

be conducted according to the method for intensive milk production. Each she-camel received daily

10 kg of hay of alfalfa or oats, 8 kg of fresh alfalfa and 2 kg of concentrate. Before weaning the young

at 3 months, half the quantity of milk produced by the camel is milked by hand in the presence of calf

suckling the two rights teats. The entire quantity of milk was milked with the milking machine after

weaning; each female was milked twice a day at eight a.m and at four p.m. During the breeding period

in intensivesystem, regular veterinary examinations are performed to diagnose and treat pathological

cases. The CMT (Californian Mastitis Test) was done in a collective and periodic way for all she-

camels and in an individual wayfor suspected mastitis.


Risks in intensive system

At the beginning of the breeding period, there is a risk of stress during the adaptation period

especially for primiparous she-camels, as well as during initiation to machine-milking. Moreover, the

probability of infestation by internal parasites such as tapeworms and gastrointestinal strongyles

increases in relatively wet conditions of oases and especially owing to the fact that significant part of

food is based on fresh forage (alfalfa) which can lodge parasitic eggs and larvae. Digestive disorders

(enterotoxemia, colic, etc) related to sudden changes in farming conditions and diet can also be

recorded.

During the period of lactation, clinical and sub-clinical mastitis are the most observed

pathologies under intensive conditions (Table 1).

Table 1: Number and proportion of mastitis observed in Chenchou station

Mastitis Subclinical

Clinical(n=14)

Traumati

c

Septic Gangrenou

s

General complications

Number 4 9 5 2 2

Percent % 5.17 64.29 35.71 14.28 14.28

The acute clinical mastitis observed are characterized, in addition to the inflammatory and

edema that develops in one or more quarters, by gradually changing of physical and chemical aspects

of milk e.g.contain blood, pus or to become fully exudates. Clinical mastitisduring the seven years

occurred in 14 cases on70 females bred. Nine cases were due to trauma which happened during the

introduction of she-camels to machine milking and by congener‘s attacks. Indeed the teat canals of the

she-camel udder appear to be more susceptible to internal abrasions than the penetration of germs

because each teat has two narrow holes (Khanna, 1986, WERNERY, 2003). The Five septic mastitis

303


are observed during the last 3 months of lactation coinciding with the autumn season. Even if it is less

frequent (two cases), more rapid and more serious evolution is noted for gangrenous mastitis caused

by Staphylococcus aureus. Moreover, Streptococcus spp.and S. aureus with Micrococcus spp. seem to

be the major pathogens of mastitis in camels (Woubit et al., 2001, Azmi et al., 2008, Abera et al.,

2010). Despite of its low prevalence (5.12 %), the risk of subclinical mastitis is important since it

poses a problem of detection and can usually progress to chronic mastitis.

At the end of the breeding period, there are risks of excessive fattening since female magherbi

camels are more meat-oriented and therefore the possibility of health (ketosis, retained placenta) and

fertility (absence of ovulation and difficulty in coitus) disorders are possible. In addition, the risk of

enterotoxaemia in camel‘s transferred back to the rangelands may occur.

The health benefits of intensive system

Besides improving productivity, dairy farming in intensive system is a more controlled

system allowing more effective health monitoring and reduces the risk of developing contagious

diseases caused in extensive system by direct contact on rangelands and around watering points.

Strategy to adopt

First it is necessary to choose an aerated locality with an acceptable humidity to reduce stress

on she-camels in an intensive system. Females must be in good health, free of udder discomfort and

they should be vaccinated against enterotoxemia before being transferred to the intensive farming

system. The animals must receive a preventive medication against internal parasites by oral or

parenteralrootsand against external parasites by pulverization while respecting the withdrawal periods

relating to the products used.Also during the period of adjustment to machine milking oxytocin (10 IU

/ camel) can be usedin order to induce milk ejection reflex for stressed females and especially for the

primiparous.

During the breeding period, a permanent follow-up of the sanitary conditions of the she-

camels should be performed and areas reserved to milking females should be cleaned, and breeding

areas should be treated with acaricides and insecticides. A periodic stool examination for assessment

and identification of helminth infection should be performed and serological examination should be

made in case of need. Furthermore, before each milking, the udder and the first jets of milk must be

examined in addition to periodic tests with CMT for early diagnosis especially of sub-clinical mastitis.

The increase in somatic cells of camel milk is a good indication of inflammation (Barbour et al.,

1985, Sargeant et al., 2001). The treatment of mastitis should be done by external massages of the

udder and by parenteral route. However, the application of intramammary tubes designed for cattle is

unsuitable for the dromedary udder because of the narrow diameter of the teat canal and orifices. A

good practice of milking: whether it is manual (avoid excessive pressure on the teat canal) or

mechanical (periodically check pulses and the level of vacuum in the milking machine) besides a

regular disinfection before and after each milking of the pots and teats should be done.

At the end of lactation period, it is recommended to make vaccination against enterotoxemia

and reduce energy intake to avoid fattening in order to reduce the risk of ketosis and infertility.

Conclusion

The market demand for camel milk requires the establishment of intensive livestock units that

must follow good health practices to minimize losses and ensure a good quality of commercial milk.

The prevalence of mastitis is relatively higher in intensive conditions. The camel population in the

Tunisian southern is not a dairy breed, its exploitation in the production of milk requires extra efforts

and more technical and health care throughout the period of intensive breeding.

References

Abera, M., Abdi, O., Abunna, F. and Megersa, B.(2010). Udder health problems and major bacterial

causes of camel mastitis in Jijiga, Eastern Ethiopia: implication for impacting food security.

Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 42(3):341-7

Azmi, D.H. and Dhia,S.H.(2008). Mastitis in One Humped She-Camels (Camelusdromedarius) in

Jordan. Journal of Biological Sciences, 8: 958-961.

Barbour, E.K., Nabbut, N.H.Frerichs, W.M.. Al NakhliH.M and Mukayel, A.A. (1985). Mastitis in

Camelusdromedarius in Saudi Arabia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 17: 173-179.

Khanna, N.D., (1986). Camel - The model desert animal. Indian Farming, 10: 31-35.

304


Sargeant, J.M., Leslie, K.E. Shirley, J.E.PulkrabekB.J. and Lim, G.H. (2001). Sensitivity and

specificity of somatic cell count and California mastitis test for identifying intramammary

infection in early lactation. J. Dairy Sci., 84: 2018-2024.

Wernery U., (2003). New observations on camels and their milk. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates,

Dar Al Fajr, 50 p.

Woubit, S., Bayleyegn, M. Bonnet P. and Jean-Baptiste, S. (2001). Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

mastitis in Borena lowland pastoral Area, Southwestern Ethiopia. Revue Elev. Med. Vet. Pay

Trop., 54: 207-212.

305


23. Molecular Characterization of Pseudocowpoxvirus (PCPV) Isolates from Indian

Dromedarian Camels

G. Nagarajan, S.K. Swami, S.S. Dahiya, G. Sivakumar, F.C. Tuteja and N.V. Patil

National Research Centre on Camel, Post Bag No.7, Jorbeer,

Bikaner, Rajasthan-334 001, India


Introduction

The disease Camel Contagious Ecthyma (CCE) is widely recognized in camel-rearing regions

of the world (Ali et al.,1991; Housawi et al., 2004). Recently, Pseudocowpoxvirus (PCPV) has been

reported as the etiological agent of CCE (Abubakr et al., 2007; Nagarajan et al., 2010). In CCE,

nodules appeared on the lips of affected animals followed in most cases with swelling of the face and

sometimes the neck. Papules and vesicles appeared later and within a few days developed into thick

scabs. Lesions occurred sometimes on the face, eyes and nares. Healing occurred within 20 to 30 days

in most cases (Khalafalla, 1998). The important genes of PCPV isolates from the camels have yet to

be characterized.

The objective of the present study was to amplify RNA binding protein (RBP) gene and

virion core protein (VCP) gene of Pseudocowpoxvirus isolates from Indian dromedarian camels by

PCR and subsequent cloning of the PCR amplified DNA fragmenst into the vector for sequence

analysis and to find out its relatedness with the other parapoxviruses available in the NCBI database.

Materials and Methods In the mid September 2010, Camel calves of below one year of age of either sex in the camel

herd of NRC on Camel, Bikaner, Rajasthan ,India were showing symptoms of contagious ecthyma

lesions around the facial region. Scab materials were collected from a total number of 15 severely

affected animals.Total DNA was extracted from collected skin scabs using AxyPrep Multisource

Genomic DNA Miniprep kit (Geneaxy Scientific Pvt. Ltd.) according to the manufacturer‘s

instructions. For the amplification of RNA binding protein gene and Virion Core protein

gene,nucleotide primers were designed based on the respective gene sequences of

Pseudocowpoxvirus isolate from Finlnish reindeer (GenBank accession No.GQ329669) ;The primer

pairs for RNA binding protein gene, forward (RBPF) 5‘tta gaa gct gat gcc gca g ttg tcg atg agg 3‘ ,

reverse (RBPR) 5‘atg gcc agc gac tgc gct tcc ctg atc ctc 3 and the primer pairs for virion core protein

gene, forward (VCPF) 5‘ctagagcatg ccctcgtacg cgcgcg 3‘ and reverse (VCPR) 5‘atg gag gca att aac

gtt ttt ctc gag acc 3‘. PCR amplification of the topoisomerase gene was performed using the following

thermal profiles: initial denaturation at 940C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94

0C

for 1 min, annealing at 570C for 1 min, extension at 72

0C for 1 min, and final extension at 72

0C for 10

min. The PCR-amplified products were checked by electrophoresis in a 1.5% agarose gel. The

amplified products using parapoxvirus-specific primers were cloned in pGEM-T Easy Vector

(Promega) and used to transform Escherichia coli DH 5α [ Sambrook et al., 1989]. Positive clones

were identified by colony PCR using gene- specific primers and restriction analysis with EcoRI.

Positive clones were sequenced in both directions using universal T7 and SP6 primers at the DNA

sequencing facility of Delhi University (South Campus), Delhi and analysed with that of different

parapoxviruses published earlier in the GenBank (Table 1 & 2) using computer software BIOEDIT

Version 7.0.9. These sequences were compared in Clustal X (Thompson et al., 1997) and

phylogenetic tree was constructed in Treeview 1.6.5 by neighbour joining method (Page, 1996).

Results

The disease was characterized by papules and then pustules on the lips-muzzle and eye lids of

infected camels. Profuse salivation, foul mouth odour and facial edema were also observed. The

pustules on the lips ruptured and became ulcerated. Those in the muzzle dried and became covered by

grey or brown scabs. Infected animals were showing pruritis and intermittent rubbing against the wall

of the corrals, which eventually led to the sloughing of the skin at the affected areas.

Total DNA was extracted from all the fifteen infected scabs and both RBP and VCP genes

were amplified successfully. DNA fragments of RBP gene (555 bp) and VCP gene(415 bp) were

306


observed on agarose gel electrophoresis .There was no amplification in the PCR using the DNA

isolated from the camelpox positive scab materials (negative control).

Confirmation of recombinants was done by restriction analysis and positive clones were

sequenced. The nucleotide sequences of both RBP and VCP genes were submitted to GenBank, NCBI

database, for which the assigned accession No.are JN712917 and JN712918,respectively.

Phylogenetic trees constructed using nucleotide sequences of both RBP and VCP genes of various

parapoxviruses revealed that the Indian PCPV clustered with different parapoxviruses published

earlier, supported by high bootstrap values (Fig. 1 and Fig.2). The gene had a high G+C content

(63.06%), consistent with the relatively high G + C content in the whole genome of parapoxviruses

(Delhon, et al., 2004). We compared both RBP and VCP gene sequences of PCPV- camel with all

other sequences representing ORFV, PCPV and BPSV available in the database The percent

identitities of both RBP and VCP genes of PCPV-Camel with different parapoxviruses at nucleotide

level were given in Table 1 and Table 2.

Discussion

The clinical signs of camelpox, camel contagious ecthyma and camel papillomatosis are

similar and can be confused, especially in the generalized form (Munz et al., 1990) and so far can be

distinguished only by virus identification in electron microscope. In addition to the complexity and

high skills required to operate electron microscopy, this technique is not usually available for

veterinarians in the field services. Therefore, with the advent of molecular tools such as PCR and gene

sequencing, it is possible to detect even a few copies of viral DNA from the clinical samples and is

found to be more efficient and specific for the epidemiological studies of contagious ecthyma in

camels. The development of PCR methods for the molecular detection of parapox DNA has met the

demands for specific and sensitive laboratory diagnosis (Mazur et al., 2000; Guo et al., 2004;

Tryland et al., 2005).

Sequence analysis of RBP gene at nucleotide level revealed that Indian PCPV shared 91.1-

91.35% sequence identity with PCPV reindeer. ORFV from different regions of the world shared

75.4-75.9 % sequence identity with PCPV camel. With BPSV, PCPV camel showed 91.7 % sequence

identity As far as the nucleotide identity of VCP gene is concerned, PCPV- Camel has got almost

equal relatedness with both PCPV- reindeer (97.1 -97.8 %) and ORFV (93.2 -95.1 %). High

nucleotide sequence identity of VCP gene in ORFV and PCPV also reveals that the protein is well

conserved in the members of the genus Parapoxvirus. For the first time, complete nucleotides

sequences of both RBP and VCP genes of PCPV of camels were analyzed.

References Abubakr, M.I., Abu-Elzein, E.M., Housawi, F.M., Abdelrahman, A.O., Fadlallah, M.E., Nayel, M.N.,

Adam, A.S., Moss, S., Forrester, N.L., Coloyan, E., Gameel, A., Al-Afaleq, A.I., Gould,

E.A., 2007. Pseudocowpox virus: the etiological agent of contagious ecthyma (Auzdyk) in

camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Arabian peninsula. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 7,257-

260.

Ali, O.A., Kheir, A.M., Abdulamir, H., Barri, M.E.S., 1991. Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

contagious Ecthyma in the Sudan. A case report. Revue d‘ elevage et de medicine veterinaire

des pays tropicaux, Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop. 44, 143-145.

Guo, J., Rasmussen, J., Wunschmann, A., de La Concha-Bermejillo, A., 2004. Genectic

characterization of orf viruses isolated from various ruminant species of a zoo. Vet.

Microbiol. 99, 81-92.

Housawi, F.M., Abu-Elzein, E., Gameel, A., Mustafa, M., Al Afaleq, A., Gilray, J., Al-Hulaibi, A.,

Nettleton, P., 2004. Severe Auzdyk infection in one-month old camel calves (Camelus

dromedarius). Veterinary Archives. 74, 467-474.

Khalafalla, A.I.,1998. Epizootiology of Camel pox, Camel Contagious Ecthyma and Camel

papillomatosis in the Sudan. Proceedings of the Third Annual Meeting for Animal

production Under Arid Conditions. 2, 115-131.

Mazur, C., Ferreira, I.I. , Filho, F.B., Galler, R., 2000. Molecular characterization of Brazilian

isolates of orf virus. Vet. Microbiol. 73, 253-259.

Munz, E., Moallin, A.S., Mahnel, H., Reimann, M., 1990. Camel papillomatosis in Somalia. Zbi Vet

Med B. 37, 191–196.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Abubakr%20MI%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Abu-Elzein%20EM%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Housawi%20FM%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Abdelrahman%20AO%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Fadlallah%20ME%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Nayel%20MN%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Adam%20AS%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Moss%20S%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Forrester%20NL%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Coloyan%20E%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Gameel%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Al-Afaleq%20AI%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Gould%20EA%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Gould%20EA%22%5BAuthor%5D

307


Nagarajan, G., Ghorui, S. K., Kumar, S.K. , Pathak, M. L., 2010. Complete nucleotide sequence of

the envelope gene of pseudocowpox virus isolates from Indian dromedaries (Camelus

dromedarius). Arch Virol. 155, 1725–1728.

Page, R.D.M., 1996. TREEVIEW: an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers,

Comput Appl Biosci. 12, 357-358.

Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E.F., Maniatis T., 1989. Molecular cloning.A laboratory manual, 2nd edn.,

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York

Thompson, J. D., Gibson, T. J., Plewniak, F., Higgins, D. G., 1997. The Clustal X windows interface:

flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Nucleic

Acids Res.25, 4876-4882.

Tryland, M., Klein, J., Nordoy, E.S., Blix, A.S., 2005. Isolation and partial characterization of a

parapoxvirus isolated from a skin lesion of a Weddell seal. Virus Res.108, 83-87.

Table 1. Percent nucleotide identity of RBP gene of PCPV –Camel with different parapoxviruses

Table 2. Percent nucleotide identity of VCP gene of PCPV-Camel with different parapoxviruses

308


24. Study on the Incidence of Blood Parasites in Camels of Sistan and Bluchestan

Province (South-East Iran)

S. Ranjbar-Bahadori

1 and A. Afshari-Moghadam

2

1Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Garmsar branch, Islamic Azad

University, Garmsar, Semnan, Iran 2College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zabol, Zabol, Sistan & Blouchestan, Iran.


Introduction

Camel breeding is practiced in Iran and many tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

The importance of this animal in transmission of some diseases to other ruminants is caused for many

studies about it (Mirzai, 2007). Number of camels in Iran is almost 143000 that 36000 of them are in

Sistan and Bluchestan province (Southeast Iran). One of the most important breed of camel in Iran is

Bluchi camel that it finding this province and other areas including: Hormozegan, south of Khorasan

and Southeast region of Iran and are used scattered for passenger and transportation (Eskandari,

2002). So, according to the number of camels in the country and its role in the transfer of pathogens

especially as reservoir host, there was a need for this research.


One hundred and thirteen blood samples of different areas of Sistan & Blouchestan province

were taken and collected blood samples were studied. Samples were examined with three methods:

A): 10 ml of blood mixed with anticoagulant and centrifuged for 15 minutes in microhematocrite

tubes and was studied for Trypanosoma evansi in its buffy coat layer. B): 1 ml of blood was mixed

with 9 ml of 2% formol (modified Knott's method) and after centrifuging, its precipitants were

studied for microfiaria. C): Preparation of blood sample on the slide and staining with Gimsa for study

on blood protozoa. Moreover, animal information including: age, and sex were recorded in prepared

forms and relationship between them and infection were studied with chi square method.


Results showed that 30.09% of studied camels were infected to blood parasites and that the

highest rate of the infection was with Trypanosoma evansi (19.47%) with Theileria sp. (6.20%),

followed by Babesia sp. (3.54%) and microfilaria (0.88%) (Table 1). Trypanosoma evansi was shown

in the blood of an infected camel (Fig. 1). The rate of infection in studied camels based on their sex

was shown in Table 2 and statistical analyses did not show significant relationship between the

infection with blood parasites and sex of camels (p>0.05). Also, relationship between infection and

age of camels was not significant.

Table 1. The rate of infection to blood parasites in camels of Sistan & Bluchestan province

Non-infected

camels

No. (%)

Infected camels Total

No. (%) Blood

microfilaria

No. (%)

Theileria

sp

No. (%)

Babesia

sp

No. (%)

Trypanosoma evansi

No. (%)

79 (69.91) 1 (0.88) 7 (6.20) 4 (3.54) 22 (19.47) 113 (100)

Table 2. The rate of infection to blood parasites in camels of Sistan & Bluchestan province based on sex

Total

No. (%)

Non-infected camels

No. (%)

Infected camels

No. (%)

Sex

81 (71.68) 58 (51.33) 23 (20.35) Male

32 (28.32) 21 (18.58) 11 (9.74) Female

100 (113) 79 (69.91) 34 (30.09) Total

Figure 1. isolated Trypanosoma evansi in blood of camels in Sistan & Bluchestan province

309


Importance of this study is due to the presence of 143000 camels in different regions of Iran

including Sistan & Bluchestan province, transmission of some diseases including parasites, other

ruminant and even humans. Trypanosoma evansi was reported by some researcher in other areas of

the world (Desquesnes et al., 2008). Also, other blood parasites were reported in other countries

(Mazyad and Khalaf, 2002, Nassar, 1992). In Sudan, unknown sheathed microfilaria was isolated

from blood of 7 camels (Elamin et al., 1993). In another study, Onchocerca armilata was isolated

from 41% of studied camels (Awad et al., 1990). Therefore, with regard to presence of the infection

with blood parasites in camels of Sistan & Bluchestan province, control of the infection is important

for health of camels, other ruminants, and humans. It is possible by treatment of infected animals

control of arthropods as main vector of blood parasites.

References Eskandari, A. (2002). Study on fasciolosis in slaughtered camels of Mashhad abattoir. DVM

dissertation. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic azad University, Garmsar branch. No:

247.

Mirzai, I. (2007). Study on infection to blood parasites in slaughtered camels in Tehran

slaughterhouse. DVM dissertation. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic azad University,

Garmsar branch. No: 456.

Awad, M.A., Osheik, A.A., Tageldin, M.H. and Zakia, A.M. (1990). Note on Onchocerca armillata in

the Sudanese camel (Camelus dromedarius). A histological and anatomo-pathological

approach. Revue delevage et de medecine veterinaire des pays tropicaux, 43(3): 345-8.

Desquesnes, M., Bossard, G., Patrel, D., Herder, S., Patout, O., Lepetitcolin, E. and et al. (2008). First

outbreak of Trypanosoma evansi in camels in metropolitan France.Veterinary Record, 7:

162(23): 750-2.

Elamin, E.A., Mohamed, G.E., Fadl, M., Elias, S., Saleem, M.S. and Elbashir, M.O. (1993). An

outbreak of cameline filariasis in the Sudan. Britanian Veterinary Journal, 149(2): 195-200.

Mazyad, S.A. and Khalaf, S.A. (2002). Studies on Theileria and Babesia infecting live and

slaughtered animals in Al Arish and El Hasanah, North Sinai Governorate, Egypt. Journal of

Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 32(2): 601-10.

Nassar, A.M. (1992). Theileria infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Egypt. Veterinary

Parasitology, 43(1-2): 147-9.

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Awad%20MA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Osheik%20AA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Desquesnes%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Saleem%20MS%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Mazyad%20SA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Khalaf%20SA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

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25. Investigation of Occurrence and Persistence of Brucellosis in Chronically Infected

Dromedary Dams (Camelus dromedarius) and Their Calves

M.D. Hieber and U. Wernery

Central Veterinary Research Laboratory


Introduction

Brucellosis is a major zoonotic disease induced by bacteria of Brucella species. It affects wild

and domestic animals and often manifests as a sub – acute or chronic disease. Predominant clinical

sign in animals is abortion. Many species including camels can become chronic carriers, which can

lead to the intermittent shedding of Brucella spp. in milk during lactation and sets human consumers

of dairy products at risk of an infection.

Results

At the beginning of this Master thesis (von Hieber, 2010), a comparative study of 221

dromedary serum samples from a brucellosis infected herd was performed to estimate the sensitivity

of Rose Bengal Test (RBT) and competitive ELISA (cELISA). It revealed a 10.86% higher sensitivity

of cELISA (87.33% cELISA vs. 76.47% RBT). The cause for this finding is, first the broader range of

detectable immunoglobulin classes in cELISA, and secondly the spectro - photometric test evaluation,

which is more precise than adspective evaluation. These findings show the superiority of cELISA

over RBT for the brucellosis detection in dromedary camels.

The main focus of this study concentrated on an investigation of 118 dromedary dams for

alterations in their brucellosis serological status over a period of two years. After purchase from

Sudan in 2008, 88.13% (RBT) of the above mentioned dams were positive in the initial investigation.

After 18 months, 116 dams gave birth to live calves. At that time, 82.20% of the dromedary dams

were found positive RBT and 89.83% by cELISA. Six months later all dams were re–tested. The

serological investigations revealed a significant decrease in sero–prevalence within six months after

parturition, compared with the period of 18 months prior to parturition. The percentage of positive

dams declined to 69.90% (RBT) and 82.52% (cELISA), respectively. In total, a decrease of

brucellosis positive dams of 18.23 % (RBT) was observed over a period of 24 months, 5.93% (RBT)

whereas a decrease was observed in the first 18 months after purchase and further 12.30 % (RBT)

decrease within 6 months after parturition.

The reason for the higher reduction of positive dams after parturition is not clear, but

presumably parturition and lactation have influenced the immune system of dromedaries to an

unknown extent. The reason for the general decrease of positive found dams over two years is most

probably the chronic state of brucellosis. It is not exactly known how long they have been infected

since there were no data available of the time in Sudan. However, it can be assumed that they had

already been infected several years before the purchase in 2008 and that the disease has turned into a

chronic state. It is known that in chronic course of brucellosis, Brucella organisms can retreat into

biological niches, mostly into lymph nodes, which would explain the decline in antibody levels.

Alarming was the observation of 4.84% of the studied dams whose serological status has

changed from positive to negative to positive during the two years of investigations. It is therefore

recommendable, that when ―stamping – out‖ methods are applied for the eradication of brucellosis

formerly positive animals should be included in this programme.

All calves were screened serologically for the first time within 24 hours after birth. In these

first investigations, 30.17% were found positive with RBT and 39.66% with cELISA. A second

screening took place 6 months later and most of the calves were found serologically negative. Only

1.14% (RBT) and 15.91% (cELISA) positive calves were found at that time. Further elucidation of

antibody development in cELISA of positive calves, showed a significant decline in the amount of

immuno globulins compared with the immunoglobulin levels after birth. This is due to the continuous

decrease in maternal antibody levels, which the calves have ingested with the colostrum after birth.

Maternal antibodies in dromedary calves usually disappear within six to eight months post partum.

Moreover, blood culture revealed no active brucellosis. Therefore, calves of chronically infected dams

311


seem not to be at risk to contract an acute brucellosis infection. However, for confirmation of this

finding further investigations of the calves, when adult and/or pregnant, are recommendable.

Since the cultivation of Brucella spp. was experienced to be tedious, several trials were

performed to improve the cultivation frame work for these bacteria, whereby the main aim was to

focus on different culture media. Two typical media, Brain Heart Infusion (BHI) and Brucella specific

medium (BSM), were compared. BSM medium was based on Farrel‘s medium and supplemented

with a range of antibiotics, to suppress growth of non – Brucella species. In this specification, BSM

has been used as the main culture medium for Brucella spp. in CVRL for 13 years. BHI medium

supplemented with a range of antibiotics revealed its clear superiority over BSM in connection with

the duration of incubation and the density of bacterial growth reached during incubation.

Along with bacteriological and serological investigations of the test herd, also tissue rt – PCR

was performed on placentas, lymph nodes, lung, liver and spleen, which were all negative. Due to

these results, the sensitivity of rt – PCR was tested by using either spiked tissue samples with B.

melitensis or dilutions of B. melitensis colonies in several different solvents. The results showed that

probably the presence of a high amount of non – target DNA interferes with the efficiency of the

method. These findings emphasized the low sensitivity for the tissue – based rt – PCR, but have also

shown the method‘s reliability in the amplification of pure target DNA in bacterial dilutions.

Reference

von Hieber M.D. (2010). Investigation of occurrence and persistence of brucellosis in clinically

infected dromedary dams (Camelus dromedarius) and their calves. Master Thesis (M.Sc.),

Ulm University, Germany

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26. Relevant Dromedary Parasites in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)

R.K. Schuster and J. Kinne

Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Dubai, U.A.E.


Introduction, Material and Methods

Literature data showed that more than 80 different parasites can be found in Old World

Camelids. However, since dromedaries and Bactrian camels are kept in countries with extreme

climate conditions, the spectrum of economically important parasites is limited. Our knowledge on

parasites of dromedaries in the UAE is based on a large number of parasitological examinations and

necropsies carried out at CVRL in Dubai. Thus, over the past 10 years we carried out 1,500 camel

necropsies and examined more than 80,000 camel samples for parasites.


The none-cyclically transmitted T. evansiis in general the most important parasite of camels.

Due to the broad use of Cymelasan® in racing camels in the UAE and due to limited biotopes for

horseflies as main vectors, camel trypanosomosis is less significant compared to the situation in other

countries.

Contrary to other hosts, Eimeria coccidiosis is less frequent in camel calves. Coccidiosis is

more often diagnosed in racing camels. Tissue stages (schizonts and gamonts) of up to 300 μm

damage the intestinal mucosa and open the doors for secondary infection. Toltrazuril that is used in

other farm animals for prophylactic purposes does not protect camels from infection (Gerlach, 2008).

Hygienic measures and quarantine are important tools to prevent camel yards from eimeriosis.

Fatal cases of isosporosis caused by Isospora orlowi occur between December and March

mainly in calves in an age group between 3 weeks and 3 months (Kinne et al., 2002). The infection

source is unclear but it is suggested that there are tissue stages in dams that become activated in the

perinatal period or even might be excreted with milk. Isosporosis was also diagnosed in adult camels

in connection with bacterial lunginfections.

Single cases of cryptosporidiosis occur in 4 to 8 weeks old calves. Since Cryptosporidium

parvum is not host specific, other farm animals can be considered as source of the infection.

Cryptosporidiosis is an opportunistic infection and can be found when calves are weakened by other

diseases.

A large variety of helminths has been described in camels but under authochthonous

conditions only Haemonchus longistipes, H. contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., Nematodirus spp. and

Trichuris were identified. The spectrum of adult cestodes consisted only of Moniezia expansa and M.

benedeni while heavy burdens of Stilesia vittata were seen in dromedaries imported from Africa.

Due to the absence of dogs in camel breeding facilities and a proper disposal of carcasses of

dead animals, hydatids of Echinococcus granulosus were not found in indigenous camels in the UAE

and were only seen in old camels imported from other countries. For this reason also sarcosporidiosis

is abscent in the UAE.

Mange due to Sarcoptes scabies is the most important arthropod infection in dromedaries.

Deep skin scrapings need to be taken for diagnostic purposes. Treatment is done by washing with

amitraz, phoxime or metrifonat. Macrocyclic lactones like ivermectin, doramectin and others are less

effective in camelids (Kinne and Wernery, 2003). All the animals in the affected group have to be

treated at least two times.

Hyalomma dromedarii is the only tick found on indigenous camels. H. dromedarii does not

transmit blood parasites infective for camels but it is a host for equine piroplasms.

Only a few cases of myiasis caused by Chrysomya bezziana (Old world screwworm) and

Wohlfahrtia nuba were seen in the past. Also nasopharyngeal bots (Cephalopina titillator) seem to be

a rare parasite in the UAE.

313


References

Gerlach, F., (2008). Kokzidiose beim Dromedar (Camelus dromedarius). Thesis, Freie Universität,

Berlin, Germany, 157 pp.

Kinne, J., Ali, M., Wernery, U. and Dubey, J.P., (2002). Clinical large intestinal coccidiosis in camels

(Camelus dromedarius) in the United Arab Emirats: Description of lesions, endogenous

stages and redescription of Isospora orlovi Tsyganov, 1950 oocysts. J. Parasitol., 88 (3) 548-

552.

Kinne, J., and Wernery, U., (2003). Experimental mange infection in camels (Camelus dromedarius).

J. Camel Pract. Res., 10 (1), 1-8.

314


27. Diagnosis of Brucellosis Camels

N.A. Ivanov, A.N. Kozhaev and F.A. Bakiyev

The Kazakh National Agrarian University


Camel, as the livestock industry, is widespread in the Central Asian republics and the

countries of the Middle East. From this species of animals one receives milk, wool, meat and as well

camels can be used as a transport. Of particular importance is the fact that the camels can grow in the

zone of dry steppes, deserts and semi-deserts, where the development of other branches of animal

husbandry is very difficult.

However, in the development of camel breeding the main obstacle is infectious diseases,

among which occupies a special place brucellosis, representing danger to people, that can be infected

with the use or processing of the products of sick camels.

Consumption of milk and dairy products from these animals and wide spread of brucellosis

dictate the necessity for development of methods of research for products derived from camels.

We tested different methods of diagnostics of brucellosis in camels through the study of blood

serum and milk.

Procedure of sedimentary reaction is as follows.

Color antigen, intended for setting the ring reactions of cow‘s milk is added to 2,0 cm3 of

fresh camel milk. Mixture is shaken (and is placed in a thermostat for 2 hours or) and centrifuged with

3000-5000g for 15-20 minutes. After that the reaction is visually determined by the presence of

agglutination at the bottom of the tube. The degree of agglutination is estimated by the four-point

scale:

- the lack of agglutination, i.e. milk evenly painted in bluish colour, or sludge takes the form of a

smooth surface "buttons". The result is negative;

+ agglutination expressed weakly, milk also has blue color. The result is doubtful;

++ a clear agglutination, milk slightly painted in blue color. The result is positive;

+++ clear agglutination with milk white. The result is positive.

When comparing the results of sedimentary reaction with the data of serological studies of the

blood serum of camels (RBA, RSK) has noted, that with the help of sedimentary reaction in a

disadvantageous brucellosis a herd of camels is revealed from 5 to 15 % of reacting animals. In the

study of serum blood of the same herd of camels (136 heads) of the positive results obtained from 3 to

8% of the total number of the surveyed (RBA, RA, RAC). It is important to know the degree of

epizootic hazard animals identified with the positive results of a sedimentary reaction. With this

purpose we put bio probe in guinea pig with milk positively reacting camels (7 animals). Within 15

days after the introduction of the pathological material 5 guinea pigs, which provided the pathological

material reacted positively to the diagnostic tests (allergies, RA, RAC). Thus has proved the

specificity and activity of the sedimentary of the reaction.

In addition, 5 camels were killed for bacteriological study of organs (lymph nodes, heart,

liver, spleen, kidney, bladder, right, and left inguinal, retropharyngeal, paraortic and bone marrow).

As a result of the conducted research in four cases, the culture was located from the liver, the spleen

and the pelvic lymph nodes.

During the epiziootiological survey, it was found that all the camels were in direct and

indirect (in pasture) contact with disadvantaged sheeps.

We additionally examined with the help of sedimentary reaction shubat (fermented milk

product) obtained from the same animal,we obtained 100%-matching results.

Moreover, we examined shubat (fermented milk product) from the same herd and 100%

matching results were obtained.

The findings lead to the following conclusions:

1. The most effective method of diagnostics of brucellosis of camels in the study of blood serum is

lamellar reaction agglutination test with rose bengal antigen (rose bengal test - RBA);

315


2. Milk of camels can be explored for brucellosis by the color antigen, designed for the circular

reactions. The complex antigen+antibody forms a precipitate. The immunological test is sedimentary

reaction;

3. The results of the sedimentation reaction in 95% of cases coincided with other serological tests.

However, sedimentary reaction allows fro testing of milk at places where camels are kept.

4. Bacteriological studies of breast cancer show that the positive testimony of sedimentary reactions

indicates the presence and the possible allocation of the causative agent of bovine brucellosis with

milk.

5. Brucella isolated from milk belong to B. melitensis biotypes.

6. The sedimentation reaction developed by us for testing camel and goat milk is specific, sensitive

and quick safety procedure.

7. Sedimentary reaction can be successfully applied in the study of sour camel's milk (shubat).

The use of the proposed test to study brucellosis of camel‘s milk will identify the most

hazardous sick animals and prevent illness of people.

316


28. The Effectiveness of the Allergic Complex in the Diagnosis of Brucellosis in Camels

N.A. Ivanov and A.N. Kozhaev


Brucellosis among the camels is often found in places of their group content and is of great

public health danger, especially when used in the food received from dairy products.

Brucellosis pathogens in camels can be Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis depending

on the type of poor livestock, with whom they have direct contact or through factors of transmission.

Diagnostics of brucellosis camels is one of the main links in the general complex of

brucellosis event.

Serological (RA CFT) and allergic tests in the diagnosis of brucellosis in camels complement

each other.

In epizootic outbreaks of brucellosis, the number of positively reacting to the specific,

allergen camels often exceeds the same indicator of serological reactions (RA CFT)

Coincidence of the testimony of an allergic tests and serological reactions are observed in

47,0% of cases. The number of positively reacting only for allergy among spontaneously infected

animals is 28% of the total number, and by serology this indicator is equal to 25%.

Most of the diagnostic value is allergen, prepared from the strains Brucella abortus 104-m and

Brucella melitensis Rev-1.

The high efficiency of health-improving activities is achieved through an integrated allergic

study and conduction of veterinary-sanitary measures for destruction of the pathogen in the external

environment.

317


29. Experiences From a National Health Care Program in Swedish Camelids

K. de Verdier, Karin Lindqvist Frisk and Andrea Holmström


Camelid keeping has a short tradition in Sweden, and the experience and knowledge about

management and diseases are limited among camelid keepers and veterinary practitioners. Imports of

camelids from all over the world are common and the risk for spread of infectious diseases from

camelids to Swedish livestock is a reality. Therefore, a national health care program for camelids was

launched in 2008.

Due to the health care program, the knowledge about camelid management and diseases has

increased among camelid keepers and veterinary practitioners. Several ―new‖ diseases in the Swedish

camelid population have been diagnosed and reported, e.g. dicrocoelios and neosporos.

Recommendations for camelid imports have been discussed and spread among keepers and

veterinarians.

Information was gathered from reports from farm visits, lab reports, news letters to camelid

keepers and articles in national veterinary journal.

Camelid keeping is new in Sweden. There is a lack of knowledge among camelid keepers and

veterinary practitioners. Imports of camelids are common and pose a threat for spread of infectious

diseases among Swedish livestock. Therefore, a national health care program for camelids was

launched in 2008.

Knowledge about camelid management and diseases has increased among camelid keepers

and veterinary practitioner. Several ―new‖ diseases in the Swedish camelid population have been

diagnosed and reported, e.g. dicrocoelios and neosporos.

318


30. A Study of Dental Abnormalities of Camels in Nigeria

A. Yahaya, O. Akinlosotu, J.O. Olopade and H.D. Kwari


Adaptation feature of the camel includes its ability to feed without discretion on desert and

semi-desert vegetations, and to browse trees and shrubs beyond the reach of other animals. We

decided to investigate if these voracious and liberal feeding skills could be at the expense of a healthy

dental profile. We looked at the macerated skulls of 29 adult camels from three different regions of

Nigeria comprising 15 females and 14 males. A total of 12 different types of dental and related

osteologic pathologies identified were attrition, bone recession, carious tooth, dental abrasion,

erosions, fractured tooth, and gingival recession, missing tooth, split tooth, extra tooth (wolf tooth),

splint and stain. The prevalence rate of dental abnormalities of 100% was observed for attrition and

gingival recession in all skulls examined from the three different locations (Maiduguri, Kano and

Sokoto). Also, the prevalence rate of 79.9% for stains, 68.9% for erosions, 37.9% for fractured tooth,

34.5% for caries and 30% for missing teeth were observed. The other dental abnormalities such as

split teeth (17.2%), extra teeth (wolf tooth) (7%), abrasion (6.8%), bone recession (3.4%) and splint

(3.4%) were less frequently observed. Every single camel skull had a minimum of three dental

pathologies. Sexual dimorphism occurred in the expression of dental abnormalities with mild group of

65% (females) and 35% (males); moderate, severe and very severe group of 46% (females) and 54%

(males) animals. In addition, severe to very severe dental abnormalities occurred in camels from

Sokoto (40%), Kano (33%) and Maiduguri (23%) suggesting variation in the prevalence rates at the

various locations. In conclusion, our study has shown a high prevalence rate of dental abnormalities in

camels in Nigeria and the implications of their occurrence have been discussed in relation to their

possible pathogenesis. We suggest that more attention be given to their oral health.

319


31. Most Common Medical Conditions of Camels in Oman as Observed by

Veterinarians in Private Practice: A Practitioner Survey

S. Mathan Kumar*, E.H. Johnson and M.H. Tageldin



Introduction

There is paucity of literature regarding medical conditions afflicting camels in Oman.

Practicing veterinarians assume the first line of defense in protecting both animal and public health.

Private veterinarians are valuable partners in sharing data regarding the prevalence of common

diseases and conditions of each species that they treat. To underline this concept, the present study

was conducted with the aim to gather data regarding the frequency of occurrence of medical

conditions encountered in private practice. Previous prevalence studies conducted on livestock in

Oman have gathered data limited to one disease, such as the study by El Sinnary et al., 1998 for

trypanosomiasis in camels. The aim of the present study was to record the prevalence of common

medical conditions of camels in Oman.


A questionnaire listing 57 medical conditions was organized by body systems and given to

veterinarians in several regions in Oman. The survey was pretested with two veterinarians to check

the appropriateness of the language utilized on the survey. They took approximately 30 minutes to

complete the survey. They did not have any difficulty in understanding the questions, which ruled out

the need for a bilingual questionnaire (English/Arabic). All the participating veterinarians were

briefed about the survey on the first visit and the questionnaires were collected on the next visit to the

practice. A total of 23 questionnaires were distributed among the private vets of different regions in

Oman such as Ash Shariqiyah (n=9), Al Batinah (n=12), Al Dakiliyah (n=1) and Al Buraimi (n=1).

Responses were analyzed and the results were shown in terms of most frequent conditions/diseases of

various body systems, presence of paraveterinary professionals within their practice and the

hypothetical questions regarding their agreement in setting up more numbers of clinical diagnostic

facilities and a camel referral hospital. Answers to questions concerning the most frequently observed

conditions in relation to season (summer/ winter), racing camels/ camel calves and their results are not

included in this preliminary result. The survey responses were analyzed in Microsoft ExcelR2010,

using general tools as filtering and percentile to check the most frequent conditions of different body

systems.

Results

From a total of twenty three veterinarians, who received a questionnaire, there were twenty

respondents. One respondent vet declined to participate and two had not filled in their questionnaire in

time for their results to be analyzed and included be in these preliminary results. The results of this

study are summarized in the Table 1.

Table1

Conditions Percentage of

their frequency

Digestive system

1. Indigestion 85%

2. Impaction 68.75%

3. Endoparasitism 67.5%

Respiratory system

1. Upper resp. tract Infection 73.75%

2. Bronchopneumonia 72.5%

3. Pneumonia associated with camel pox 52.5%

Musculo skeletal system

1. Sprain and strain on joints 71.25%

2. Post-race muscle exertion 70%

320


3. Lameness of forelimbs 68.75%

Skin and Integumentary

1. Mange 97.5%

2. Ring worm 95%

3. Acariasis 92.5%

Wound and other conditions

1. Maggot wounds- Myiasis 61.25%

2. Wounds arising out of RTA 51.25%

3. Wounds-eye and surroundings 41.25%`

Nutritional deficiency

1. Copper deficiency 80%

2. Vit E/Selenium deficiency 70%

Infectious diseases

1. Trypanosomiasis 100%

2. Camel pox 65%

3. Camel Orf 55%

Udder

1. Acute mastitis 80%

2. Hemogalactia 60%

Reproductive system

1. Infertility treatment to she camels 70%

2. Dystocia 57.5%

3. Abortion 57.5%

Urinary system

1. Cystitis/ urethritis 36.25%

2. Partial obstruction of urinary passage 33.75%

The present survey results convey that a large majority of private vets are practicing without

para vets within their teams (75%). There was widespread agreement for the need of advanced

regional diagnostic facilities (80%) within the country to service clinical samples.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge this is the first study in Oman undertaken to ascertain

information from field veterinarians relative to diseases commonly encountered in their camel

practices. Undoubtedly, trypanosomiasis, mange, acariasis, endoparasitism and mycotic disease-ring

worm, and viral diseases, such as, camel pox and contagious ecthyma are the most widespread

infectious diseases seen. These results are in harmony with those reported in a review of camel

diseases by Fassi- Fehri., M.M. (1987), who reported that the most common diseases of camels are

endoparasitism, trypanosomiasis and mange. The significance of the results underlines the economic

importance of these diseases.

An approach of ‗Field to lab‘ is most important for the developing countries to identify the

animal disease and conditions of economic and public health concern. Extracted from this study is

also the importance veterinarians give to the availability of veterinary technologists, who work in

conjunction with field veterinarians and who would contribute in the field, laboratory diagnostics,

prophylactic immunizations and also in extension activities, which can be of paramount importance to

the national veterinary service in Oman, as the majority of practicing veterinarians work without

paraveterinary professionals and diagnostic facilities.

References

El Sinnary, K.A., Tageldin, M.H., and El Sumary, H.S. (1998). Prevalence of Trypanosomiasis in

camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Sultanate of Oman. Camel newsletter 15:77-83.

Fassi-Fehri., M.M. (1987). Diseases of camels. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.6 (2): 337-354.

321


32. An Outbreak of Severe Dermatophylosis in Young Omani Camels

O. Mahgoub1*

, M.H. Tageldin1, A. Nageeb

2, S.A. Al-Lawatia, M.H. Al-Busaidi, A.S. Al-Abri

2 and

E.H. Johnson1

1Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Sciences,

2Agricultural Research Station, College of

Agricultural and Marine Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

Camels in Oman are reported to show a frequently recurring skin condition, especially during

the rainy season, in Dhofar. Skin diseases are common in camels ranging from parasitic (sarcoptic

mange), fungal (ring worm), bacterial (dermatophylosis) and viral (pox). A reported causative agent

of bacterial dermatophylosis is Dermatophilus congolensis which is a gram positive bacterium,

belonging to the heterologous group of Actinomycetes with members that affect animals and humans.

The disease, also known as cutaneous streptothricosis, is an exudative, pustular dermatitis with the

formation of crusty scabs that contain the microorganism. Skin infections caused by Dermatophilus

congolensis have been reported in natural (Gitao, 1992; Gitao et al. 1998 a,b) and experimental

infection in camels (Abu Samra et al., 1976).

History

Twelve Omani camel calves, below one year of age were brought to Sultan Qaboos

University from the south of Oman (Dhofar). They were kept in one enclosure for quarantine

purposes. Initially, the camels did not show any ill-health signs. Two weeks later, two animals showed

small, round areas of alopecia on different parts of the body, involving the flank, chest, neck and

upper fore and hind limbs. The lesions were characterized by grey-whitish circumscribed areas

ranging in size from few millimeters to several centimeters (Figure 1). Thick crusts were observed,

which came away with a tuft of hair that left a depressed area on the skin. The animals suffered from

intense pruritus causing them to rub their bodies against the poles in the enclosure. Within a few days

the infection spread rapidly to the rest of the herd. The lesions in all animals tended to develop on the

hind limbs, abdomen, neck and less frequently on the head. Infected areas with long hair cover,

especially on the rump and flanks showed extensive hair matting. The lesions on the neck developed

into areas of alopecia and hair loss where thick whitish dry scabs were formed. The regional lymph

nodes were enlarged in most cases. Morbidity rate was 100% but no mortality occurred among the

affected calves.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis was based on clinical signs, as well as from smears made from scabs. Fresh skin

crusts were cut on glass microscope slide with scalpel blade and emulsified with a drop of distilled

water. The smear was allowed to dry, fixed by gentle heat and stained with Giemsa stain. The slide

was then examined under an oil-emersion lens.

Discussion

Information from local field veterinarians indicated the prevalence of this skin condition in

the southern region of Oman, especially, during the rainy and post rainy season. It spreads widely

within herds and is extremely pruritic resulting in the camels rubbing their bodies against hard

objects. Feed intake decreases and secondary infections of open skin lesions occur.

322


In the present report, on the basis of the characteristic crusting of the lesions, the appearance

of branching filaments composed of coccal zoospores observed in parallel lines (Figure 2), and

seasonal predilection, a diagnosis of dermatophilosis was made caused by Dermatophilus congolensis.

Thesymptoms and lesions were similar to those reported by Gitao et al., 1998. Dermatophilus

congolensis, as well as Microsporum gypseum infections have been reported separately in camels, as

well as mixed infections involving both agents (Gitao et al., 1998a). The characteristic staining and

morphology of Dermatophilus congolensis is generally considered evidence of a diagnosis (Quinn et

al. 2004). The spread of dermatophilosis in cattle has been associated with Amblyomma variegatum

ticks. Although this observation has not been extended to camels, the tick has been found in Omani

camels (Dr. Akin Bobade, personal communication). Other external parasites such as Tabanidae have

also been suspected to transmit dermatophylosis in camels (Gitao et al., 1998b).

Upon arrival, camels were injected with Ivermectin (WE NEED TO GIVE THE ACTUAL

DOSE===HOW MANY MG WERE IN EACH ML). The entire camel was sprayed with 1/1000

Gematox concentrated solution using a pump derived jet, three times with a 12 day interval. Skin

lesions were sprayed daily with oxytetracycline+gentin violet spray. Suspected fungal infected areas

were weekly sprayed with Dichorphen (7%) two times a week. The camels were also given an long

acting penicillin comprised of -(MUST GIVE THE ACTUAL AMOUNT=HOW MUCH WAS IN

ONE ML) of Benzathin penicillin B.P., 112.5 mg Procain penicillin B.P. 150 mg, every two days for

5 days. This protocol appeared to be effective, as the infection cleared within few weeks. Field

veterinarians may benefit from the current work to draw a protocol for controlling this common skin

condition in Oman.

References

Abu-Samra, Muk.T. Imbabi, S.E. MahgoubEl Sheikh. 1976. Experimental infection of domesticated

animals and the fowl with Dermatophilus congolensis. J. Comp. Path. 86, 157-172

Anonymous (2008). Dermatophilosis. OIE Terrestrial Manual. Chapter 2.4.10., 725-728.

Gitao CG. 1992. Dermatophilosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius Linnaeus, 1758) in Kenya.Rev Sci

Tech. 11,1079-86.

Gitao CG, Agab H, Khalifalla AJ. 1998a. Outbreaks of Dermatophilus congolensis infection in

camels (Camelus dromedarius) from the Butana region in eastern Sudan. Rev Sci Tech.

17(3):743-8.

Gitao CG, Agab H, Khalifalla AJ. 1998b. An outbreak of a mixed infection of Dermatophilus

congolensis and Microsporum gypseum in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi

Arabia.Rev Sci Tech. 17(3):749-55.

Quinn PJ, Carter, ME, Markey B and Carter GR. 2004. Actiomycetes. In: Clinical Veterinary

Microbiology. Section 2, 144-155, Mosby international Limited

Figure 1: Lesions tended to develop on the neck, hind

limbs, abdomen, and less frequently on the head,

characterized by alopecia, crust formation and hair

matting.

Figure 2: A micrograph showing branching filaments

and zoospores of Dermatophilus congolensis derived

from camel skin scrapings (Giemsa stain)

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Gitao%20CG%22%5BAuthor%5D




http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Agab%20H%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Khalifalla%20AJ%22%5BAuthor%5D


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Agab%20H%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Khalifalla%20AJ%22%5BAuthor%5D


323


33. Use of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for Identifying Sensitive and Resistant

Isolates of Trypanosoma evansi from Selected Sites of Sudan

A.E. Abdel Gadir1, K.M. Saeed

2 , K.H. Elmalik

1 and I. Aradaib

2

1Department of Preventive Medicine & Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

University of Khartoum, P.O.Box 32, Sudan 2Department of Medicine & Pharmacolgy and Toxicology , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

University of Khartoum, P.O.Box 32, Sudan


Introduction

Trypanosomiasis is one of the major diseases affecting camels, caused mainly by

Trypanosoma evansi and transmitted mechanically primarily by Tabanus species and other biting

flies. The disease generally takes a chronic form where huge production losses occur due to lowered

milk and meat production in adults, abortion, and mortalities in young camel calves (Schwartz and

Dioli, 1992).

Drug resistance emerged as one of the major obstacles for the control of trypanosomiasis. It

can be defined as the ability of a trypanosome strain to survive, despite the administration of a

trypanocide given in doses equal to or higher than those usually recommended. Therefore, this study

is planned to:

1. Determine the extent of drug resistance of some Sudanese isolates of Trypanosoma evansi from

Butana, Gadarif and Kordofan State against Quinapyramine sulphate and Cymelarsan drugs using an

in-vivo method.

2. Study the DNA profile of some isolates to demonstrate possible differences between resistant

and sensitive isolates.


The study was conducted in three Districts namely Butana, Gadarif and Southern Kordofan.

These areas are regarded as the most important sites for camel rearing in pastoral production system

in Sudan

Experimental design

Each isolates of T. evansi was tested for drug resistance against Quinapyramine and

Cymelarsan. For that purpose albino mice were used as described by Eisler (2001).

1- Control group: Positive control: Each isolate of T.evansi from each district was inoculated

intraperitoneal in 6 albino mice and observed for two months without drug administration.

2- Experimental group: Each isolate of T.evansi from each district was inoculated intraperitoneally

in 6 albino mice and then tested for drug resistance against Quinapyramine and Cymelarsan; the drugs

were given S/C. The mice were monitored over two months. A trypanosome isolate was considered as

drug-sensitive if at least 5 out of the 6 treated mice were cured. If fewer than 5 mice were cured, the

isolate was considered resistant to the dosage used (Eisler, 2001).

Polmerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

The DNA (5 µl) was added to 17.5 µl mixture, 2 µl primers and 0.5 µl polymerase (Taq).

Then the mixture was centrifuged for 1 minute. Then the PCR was running for 2 hours at 56 ºC. PCR

containing amplified products were loaded onto gels of Seakem agarose and electrophoresed gels

were stained with ethidium bromide and T. evansi primary PCR products were easily identified

following visualization under UV light.


The results of all states showed that out of 36 mice tested (18 in tested group and 18 in control

group) only 6 mice were cured with Quinapyramine sulphate. Out of 36 mice tested (18 tested group

and 18 control group) 16 mice were cured and only two mice were not cured with Cymelarsan (Table

1).

324


Table 1: Testing Trypanosoma evansi in mice for drug resistance in Butana, Gadarif and

Southern Kordofan state

Drug

Isolates

tested

control

group

tested

group

mice

cured

Interpretation

Quinapyramine

sulphate

13 18 18 6

33.33%

Drug-

resistance

Cymelarsan

13 18 18 16

88.89%

Drug-

sensitive

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) was used on 13 isolates of T. evansi from Butana, Gadarif and

Southern Kordofan state and the result showed that PCR was very sensitive in detecting differences in

Butana and Gadarif state. All isolates of T.evansi were similar. In Butana and Gadarif states, 9 of

isolates T.evansi were resistant to Quinapyramine sulphate and 7 isolates were sensitive to

Cymelarsan. One isolate out of 4 isolates tested by PCR in Southern Kordofan state was different (the

isolate was sensitive to both Quinapyramine sulphate and Cymelarsan (Figure 1,).

Figure 1: Trypanosoma evansi

from Butana state

Many techniques have been developed for the detection of T. evansi infection including microscopy,

card agglutination test (CATT), microhematocrit centrifugation technique (MHCT), enzyme-linked

immunosorbent assay (ELIZA), DNA hybridization and polymarse chain reaction. A study by

Wasana et al. (2000) had shown that PCR-based assay is one of the most powerful tools for the

detection of T. evansi in several animals and vectors. It will be therefore beneficial for

epidemiological studies of this parasite and for the control program. In Sudan, Ardaib and Majid

(2006) indicated that nested polymarse chain reaction (nPCR)-based assay, using well characterized

T. evansi primers, provides a simple, rapid, sensitive and specific detection in naturally infected

camels (Camelus dromedaries) and can be used as a valuable tool during epidemiological surveys and

control program.

References Aradaib, I. and Majid, A. (2006): A simple and rapid method for detection of Trypanosoma evansi

in the dromedary camel using a nested polymerase chain reaction. Kinetopastid Biology and

Disease. 5: 16-21.

Eisler, M. C.; Brandt, J.; Bauer, B.; Clausen, P. H.; Delespaux, V.; Holmes, P. H.; Ilemobade, A.;

Machila, N.; Mbwambo, H.; McDermott, J.; Mehlitz, G.; Murilla, G.; Ndung, J. M.;

Peregrine, A. S.; Sidibe, I.; Sinyangwe, L. and Geerts, S. 2001): Standardized tests in mice

and cattle for the detection of drug resistance in tsetse-transmitted trypanosomes of African

domestic cattle. Veterinary Parasitology. 97: 171-182.

Schwartz, H. J. and Dioli, M. (1992): Introduction: The camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Eastern

Africa. In Schwartz, H. J. and Dioli, M. (eds). The one-humped camel in Eastern Africa. A

pictorial guide to diseases, healthcare and management. Verlag Josef Margraf, Weikersheim,

F.R. Germany.

Wasana, S.; Sintawee, K.; Nopporn, S.; Narrat, V. and Kosum, C. (2000): Application of PCR Based

Assay for Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Different Animals and Vector. Trop. Med.

Parastol. 23: 1-16.

325


34. Studies on Pathological Changes of Contagious Skin Necrosis (CSN) in Camels

(Camelus dromedarius) in Hail Region, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Bakhiet1 A. O., AlKanzee

1 A. G., Hassan

2 A. B.; Yagoub

3, S.O. and Mohammed

1, G.E.

1College of Veterinary Medicine, Sudan University of Science and Technology PO Box 204

Khartoum-North, Sudan; 2Faculty of Science, University of Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia


Introduction

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is one of the most valuable domestic animals

in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. The population of camels in Hail region is about 160,000 heads

(Agri-report, 2010). CSN in camels was first described by Cross (1917). The disease is sporadic and

mainly affects camels under nomadic husbandry (Leese, 1927; Yagoub, 1996; Yagoub and

Mohammed, 1996; Yagoub and Mohammed, 2001).The prompt detection and effective management

of skin diseases in camels rely greatly on field diagnosis. The cornerstones of the diagnosis are

pathological examination; gross examination and necropsy with supporting laboratory investigations.

The objective of this study was to study the gross pathological changes associated with CSN.

Materials and Methods This study was conducted in Hail area at Northern Saudi Arabia. A field survey included

11,000 camels of both sexes from 220 herds with ages range 6-month to 8-year during one year

period (2009-2010). Infected camels with CSN were carefully examined and the site and type of

lesions were recorded. Description, phase of lesions development and distribution of lesions on camel

body were recorded.


The control camels were healthy with no skin lesions detected. The total number of infected

camels with CSN was 1080 camels, which represented 9.6% of total number in the 220 herds. The

present study showed that the disease was highly contagious, which is in accordance with findings of

Higgins (1986) and Yagoub, (1996). There were no changes in the body temperature and the

respiratory rate of diseased camels. However, lymph nodes were seen to enlarge in some camels,

which is in agreement with findings of Cross (1917) and Leese (1927). Hot, painful swellings, which

suppurated and sloughed off leaving necrotic areas and defined characteristic lines of demarcation of

necrosis, loss of color, loss of strength and zone of demarcation between necrotic and viable tissue

were detected (Figure 1). These findings were more or less similar to that described by Cross (1917),

Leese (1927), Higgins, (1986) and Yagoub (1996). Lesions were situated in center of gluteal region,

inguinal, perineal, shoulder, neck, flanks, limbs, thoracic area and abdominal area.

Figure 1: Gross pathology of lesions of CSN in the flank region of camels

The anatomical locations of the lesion found in this investigation (Figure 2) were similar to

that observed by Edelesten and Pegram (1974) and Domenech et al (1977). Other sites including the

root of neck and tail, head and median aspect of the thigh were affected. This observation was in

326


agreement with findings of Yagoub (1996), Yagoub and Mohammed (1996), Yagoub and Mohammed

(2001).

The current study was the first to confirm the presence of CSN in Hail Region, Kingdom of

Saudi Arabia.

Figure 2: Gross pathology lesions of CSN in the limbs of camels

References

Agri-report (2010). Hail Ministry of Agriculture report No.91033, 15 March 2010

Cross, H.E. (1917). The Camels and its Diseases, Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, London.

Domenech, J, Guidot, G and Richard, D (1977). Pyogenic infection of the dromedary in Ethiopia:

Symptomatology and etiology. Rev. Elev.Med.Vet.Pays.Trop, 30 251-258.

Edelesten,R.M and Pegram, R.G (1974). Contagious skin necrosis of small camels associated with

Streptococcus agalactia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 6, 255-256.

Higgins, A.J. (1986). The Camel in Health and Disease. Baillere Tindall, London, 104 pages.

Leese, A.S. (1927). A Treatise on One Humped Camel In Health and Disease. Stamford,

Lincoinshire: Haynee and Son.

Yagoub, S.O. (1996). Studies of Contagious Skin Necrosis of Camels in Sudan. Ph.D Thesis,

University of Khartoum, Sudan.

Yagoub, S.O. and Mohamed, G.E. (1996). Incidence, clinical observation and etiology of contagious

skin necrosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Sudan. Journal of Camel Practice and

Research 3:1 95–98.

Yagoub, S.O. and Mohammed, G.E. (2001). Clincopathological studies on contagious skin necrosis in

camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Sudan. Sud. J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb. 40 (1&2) pp. 120-126.

327


Reproduction

328


35. The Appropriate Time Required for New-Born Calf Camel to Get Optimal Amount

Of Colostrum Immunoglobulin (IgG) with Relation to the Levels of Cortisol and

Thyroxin

A.M. Besher and A.B. Magdub*

1College of Pharmacology, University of Tripoli

2College of Agriculture, University of Tripoli


Introduction

Camel placenta is of epitheliochorial type, and the new born are considered

agammaglobulinemic. The amount of colostum immunoglobulins that can be absorbed will depend on

the passive transfer through intestines in the early days. Failure of passive immunity transfer (FPT)

due to gut closure, might expose calves to infection leading to high mortality. The relationship

between cortisol and thyroxin and passive immunity in camelidae has not been reported. The

objective of this study was to determine the appropriate time required for the new-born calf camel to

get optimal amount of immunoglobulin (IgG) with relation to the levels of cortisol and thyroxin.


The study used 11 pregnant female camels with varied age and gestation. After delivery 7

calves were used for this investigation. Blood sera and colostrum whey samples were collected.

Immunoglobulin (IgG) was determined using Single Radial immune Diffusion(SARL). Protein was

analyzed by Biuert method. Thyroxin and cortisol were estimated using ELISA methods. Data was

treated as complete randomizing design mean separated by Duncan .Turn – over rate calculated using

semi – log curve.


Table 1 summarizes the average concentration of Total protein (TP), immunoglobulin (IgG), cortisol

and thyroxin.

Table 1 : Average of total protein (TP) , immunoglobulin (IgG ) , cortisol and thyroxin during : )

0 , 24 , 48 , 72 , 96 , 120 , 144 hrs , 2nd

, 3rd

, 4th wks post-partum

Total protein increased significantly(p<0.05) at 24 hrs post suckling which agree with the findings of

Garmendia et al, (1987) but was higher than other study (Kamber et al, 2001). Values remained

unchanged thereafter. Levels of IgG increased sharply (140.75 mg / ml) within 1st 24 hrs, declined

gradually to lower levels at 144 hrs (41.97 mg / ml), similar result was reported by Sedlinska et al,

(2006). The average Turn – over rate ( K ) of plasma IgG ( fig 1 ) estimated to be 0.24, the T1/2 was

3.22 days (80 hrs), indicating the optimum time for the new born calf to get the amount of IgG. This

time may depend on the amount of IgG absorption, age at first suckling and breed (Wernery, 2001).

Calves with IgG values greater than the average, the K = 0.27 and T1/2 = 2.56 days (30 hrs), while

those with lower values, the K = 0.03 and T1/2 = 7.7 days (185 hrs ). In this study Cortisol levels

showed no significant correlation with IgG utilization. In lambs Hough et al, (1990) reported high

Thyroxin

( ng / ml )

Cortisol

( ng / ml )

IgG

( mg / ml )

Total protein

( gm / 100 ml)

Time

( hrs .. wks )

218.3±19.4a 19.0 ± 7.0 a 0.0 ± 0.0 6.02 ± 1.12 a 4

222.0±37.2a 14.1± 2.6 a 140.75±62.91a 7.56 ± 1.06ab 24

197.0±49.3a 22.8 ± 9.9 a 127.76±63.11ab 7.01 ± 1.67ab 48

171.5±45.7a 23.80± 16.0 a 119.73±61.78ab 6.58 ±1.29ab 72

201.8±32.0a 19.60± 8.5 a 87.88±60.74abc 6.76 ± 0.60a 85

199.2±38.7a 17.60 ± 10.5a 76.02±48.59bc 7.12 ± 1.36ab 120

181.5±29.3a 19.0± 10.40a 41.97±5.61cd 6.69 ±0.79ab 144 hrs

186.6±29.2a 16.60± 10.4a 42.10±5.88cd 8.52 ± 2.59ab 2nd

191.1±22.5a 16.0 ±5.3 a 39.86±4.42cd 6.96 ± 1.29ab 3rd

200.0±33.2a 12.8 ± 5.0 a 38.50±5.84cd 7.61 ±1.79ab 4th wks

329


levels of cortisol during early hours post-partum led to delay in gut closure and elevation in IgG

absorption. Thyroxine plasma levels did not show significant changes (range ; 171.5 – 222 ng /ml)

during the whole period. These values were similar to previous report ( Magdub and Johnson,1986 ).

Figure 1: Concentration of IgG during post-suckling

In summary, it appears that one hump newborn calf can get enough IgG within 1st 24 hrs

post-suckling. However, this may vary with the amount of IgG absorbed. No correlation was detected

between Cortisol and thyroxin levels with rate of IgG utilization.

References

Hough, R.L.,McCarthy , C. D. , Thatcher , H.D. , Eversole , D. E. 1990 . Infleunce of lucocorticoid

on macromolecular absorption and passive immunity in neonatal lambs. J. Anim. Sci . 68 :

2459 – 2464

Kamber R., Farah Z., Rusch P. and Hassig M. 2001. Studies on the supply of immunoglobulin G to

newborn camel calves (Camelus dromedarius). J.Dairy Res., 68: 1-7 .

Magdub A. and H. Johnson 1986. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in female camels and

cows. The Libyan Journal of Agriculture 12; 5 – 7.

Sedlinska M., J. Krejci, M. Vyskocil and H. Kudlackova 2006. Postnatal Development of blood serum

concentrations of immunoglobulin IgG, IgA and IgM isotypes in suckling foals. ACTA VET.

BRNO 75; 175-182.

Wernery, U. 2001. Camelid Immunoglobulins and Their Importance for the New-Born - A Review. J.

Vet . Med . B 48, 561-568 .

330


36. A Preliminary Study On The Effect Of Follicle Numbers Recruited Into A Follicular

Wave On Superovulatory Response in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

B.M.Manjunatha*, N.Pratap and S. AL-Bulushi




Introduction

Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) in dromedary camel has been considered as

one of the efficient methods for increasing the number of offspring from genetically superior animals

in a relatively short breeding period (Skidmore, 2005). Superovulation was induced by using either

FSH (20 IU ovine FSH or 400 mg porcine FSH) or equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG; 2000–6000

IU) alone or a combination of eCG and pFSH, however, ovarian response and embryo yield remain

highly variable and unpredictable (Tibary, 2010). Ovarian response to superovulation depends on the

number of gonadotropin sensitive follicles present prior to superovulation treatment in farm animals

(Draincourt, 2001). Hence the present study was carried out to examine the effect of follicle numbers

(high versus low) recruited into a follicular wave on superovulatory response in dromedary camels.


This study was conducted on adult dromedary camels (n=13) aged between 8 to 22 years

during the peak breeding season (January to March). Ovulation was induced in these animals by the

use of a single intravenous injection of 1500 IU hCG (Chorulon, Intervet, EU) when there was a

mature dominant follicle in the ovaries. Superovulation treatment with pFSH (Folltropin-V; Bioniche;

Canada) was initiated 4 days after the first hCG injection. All animals received 400 mg pFSH twice

daily intramuscularly in declining doses (80, 60, 40, 20 mg) for 4 days. Ovarian scanning was carried

out daily by using an ultrasonographic equipment (LOGIQ P5, GE Health Care, Wauwatosa, WI,

U.S.A) equipped with 5 to 10 MHZ linear transducer (I739; GE Health Care) by the same operator,

beginning at the time of the first hCG injection and continuing until mating. At each ultrasound

session, the total number and size of the follicles in the ovaries of each animal was determined.

Animals were divided into three groups based on number of follicles (≥2 mm in diameter) recruited

into a wave following ovulation prior to pFSH treatment: low (8 to 15 follicles, n=7), intermediate (16

to 25 follicles, n= 1) and high (> 25 follicles, n= 5). Animals in the intermediate group were not

included in this study. Animals were mated twice, 24 h apart, when the majority of growing follicles

reached to a diameter of about 10 to 20 mm (Mature follicles) and treated with hCG after the first

mating and monitored every 8 h for 48 h by ultrasonography. The uteri of the animals were flushed

non-surgically 8 days after mating. Embryos were assessed morphologically and graded 1-4 (IETS

grading system). All statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 15.0 software (SPSS Inc,

Chicago, IL, USA). Student‘s t test was used to find significance between the groups.


The superovulatory response in low and high group animals are presented in Table 1. High

group animals developed twofold more mature follicles than low group animals. Similarly a positive

correlation was found in bovines between the follicle numbers and ovarian response to

superstimulation (Singh et al., 2001; Ireland et al., 2007). In the present study, the transferable

embryo yield in high group was fivefold lower than low group animals. Asynchronus follicular

growth and follicles of different sizes were recorded at the time of mating in high group animals. The

poor embryo yield in high group animals might be due to high number anovulatory follicles.

Anovulatory follicles in superovulated dromedary camels affect the fertilization rate and embryo

transport (McKinnon et al., 1994). In the present study, the transferable embryo yield in the low group

animals was equal to that reported by others in dromedary camels (McKinnon et al., 1994; Skidmore

and Billah, 2005). In conclusion, the results of the present study showed that the development of

matured follicle numbers following superovulation treatment depends on the number of small follicles

331


present in the ovaries prior to superovulation treatment. The transferable embryo yield was very poor

in high group than in the low group animals.

References

Skidmore, J.A. (2005). Reproduction in dromedary camels: an update. Anim. Reprod, 2:161-171.

Skidmore, J.A and Billah, M. (2005). Embryo transfer in the dromedary camel ( Camelus

dromedaries) using asynchronous, meclofenamic acid treated recipients. Reprod Fertil Dev,

17: 417-421.

Tibary, A. Embryo transfer in camelids. 82nd

western veterinary conference. Feb 14 to 18.Casino. Las

Vegas. Nevada.

Draincourt, M.A. (2001). Regulation of ovarian follicular dynamics. Implication for manipulation of

reproduction. Theriogenology, 55:1211-1239.

McKinnon, A.O., Tinson, A.H and Nation, G. (1994). Embryo transfer in dromedary camels.

Theriogenology, 41: 145-150.

Ireland, J.J.,Ward,F., Jimenez-Krassel, F., Ireland,J.L.H., Smith, G.W., Lonergan, P and Evans, C.O.

(2007). Follicle numbers are highly repeatable within individual animals but are inversely

correlated with FSH concentrations and the proportion of good-quality embryos after ovarian

stimulation in cattle. Human Reprod, 22: 1687–1695.

Singh J, Dominguez M, Jaiswal R and Adams. G.P. (2004). A simple ultrasound test to predict the

superstimulatory response in cattle. Theriogenology, 62:227–243.

Table 1. Superovulatory response (mean ± SEM) in dromedary camels treated with eight decreasing

superovulatory doses of pFSH.

Variables Low group High group P value

Follicles recruited 13.4±0.4a 37.6±3.4

b <0.001

Mature follicles 11.3±0.5a 30.4±3.3

b <0.001

Follicles ovulated 8.6±0.9a 21.6±2.6

b <0.001

Anovulatory follicles 3.6±0.8a 12.6±1.7

b <0.001

Transferable embryos 4.4±0.5a 0.8±0.8

b <0.002

Values in the same row with different superscripts differ.

332


37. Motion Characteristics of Inra 96 Diluted Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Semen Stored at 4°C

N. Pratap*, B.M. Manjunatha and S. Al-Bulushi

Laboratories and Animal Research Centre, Directorate General of Veterinary Services,

Royal Court Affairs, P.O.Box64, P.C.111, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

Artificial Insemination (AI) is an important technique that ensures rapid genetic progress in

any species. A large number of extenders (green buffer, lactose,Tris) have been used for fresh and

liquid storage of dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) semen (Skidmore, 2005). Most extenders

for short term preservation contain either egg yolk or milk of animal origin which may differ between

batches. INRA96 a chemically defined extender containing native phosphocaseinate instead of milk

was used for storage of fresh stallion semen (Batellier et al., 2001), fertility rate of 68% and 40% were

reported after AI at 0 and 72 hours respectively. However, the report of its use in dromedary camel

semen is limited, hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate its suitability as an extender for

camel semen and assess sperm motion characteristics using CASA at 0 hour (37°C) and during

storage (4°C) at 24 and 48 hours.


In the present study, six ejaculates were collected during the breeding season from dromedary

male camels (n=2) belonging to the Royal Camel Corps. Semen collection was carried out by artificial

Vagina. Fresh semen was immediately diluted (1:1) in INRA96 and kept in a water bath (37°C) for

liquefaction, final dilution was carried out based on sperm concentration (Spermacue, Minitube,

Germany). Motion characteristics were evaluated by placing a 5 µl drop of diluted semen on a 2X-

CEL dual sided sperm analysis chamber (20µm depth) and examined using 20x objective of CASA

(CEROS, Version12, Hamilton Thorne Biosciences, USA). Analysis setup Camel with preset

parameters was used. Five frames were acquired and 400 sperms counted. Motion characteristics of

spermatozoa estimated were total motility (T.Mot%), progressive motility (P.Mot%), path velocity

(VAP, µm/s), progressive velocity (VSL,µm/s) and track speed (VCL,µm/s), lateral head amplitude

(ALH, µm), beat cross frequency (BCF, Hz), straightness (STR%) and linearity (LIN%). Initial

motility (0 hour, 37°C) was estimated, diluted semen transferred to cold handling cabinet (4°C, IMV,

France) and motility of chilled semen estimated by CASA during storage at 24 and 48 hours.

Statistical analysis was carried out using non-parametric Kurskal Walis test to find the significance in

percentage data and ANOVA for all other variables.


The average volume of semen and sperm concentration during the present study were 4.5 ml

and 379 x106/ml respectively. It was observed that complete liquefaction of semen occurred within 30

minutes after extending camel semen with INRA 96 and motion characteristics of sperm easily

evaluated by CASA. The mean values observed in the present study of sperm motion characteristics

by CASA are presented in Table 1. The total motility of camel semen extended in INRA96 during

present study at 0 hour was similar to the findings of Wani et.al.,(2008), who reported motility of 71-

84 percent using different extenders at 0 hour. In addition, total motility at 0, 24 and 48 hours in our

study was higher than the findings of Zeidan et.al (2008) who reported motility of 60.7, 51.3 and 41.8

percent during storage for 0, 1and 2days respectively. Present study showed no difference between 0

and 24 hours of storage at 4°C for few motion characteristics (T.Mot, P.Mot, VAP, VCL and BCF),

however difference was observed in other motion characteristics (VSL, ALH, STR and LIN). Over

time reduction in most motion characteristics was observed at 48 hours of storage at 4°C. The mean

values observed in the study were higher than those reported by Al-Qarawi et.al,.(2002) using a

computer cell motion analyzer for variables, T.Mot, VAP and VCL (57.3, 124.9 and 129.8), but lower

for variables, VSL, ALH, STR and LIN (121.5, 6.9, 97 and 92), however, value of P.Mot (50.6)

333


reported was similar in both studies. During the present study camel semen extended in INRA96 was

used for AI (24h, 4°C) of four female camels and resulted in birth of one calf. Similarly, AI (24h,

4°C) of two superovulated donor camels resulted in harvest of five grade ‗A‘ expanded Blastocyst.

Results indicate INRA 96 as an ideal extender for dromedary camel semen stored at 4°C and fit for

artificial insemination (AI) upto 48 hours.

References

A.A.Al-Qarawi et al,. (2002). Use of computerized system for evaluation of spermatozoa motility and

velocity characteristics in relation to fertility levels in dromedary bulls. Animal Reproduction

Science. 74, 1-9

Batellier. F. et al., (2001). Advances in cooled semen technology. Animal Reproduction Science. 68,

181-190

Skidmore.J.A.(2005). Reproduction in dromedary camels: an update. Anim.Reprod. Vol.2(3), 161-

171

Wani. N. A. et.al., (2008). Studies on liquefaction and storage of ejaculated dromedary camel

(Camelus dromedarius) semen. Animal Reproduction Science. 109, 309-318

Zeidan. A. E. B. et al.,( 2008). Viability and enzymatic leakage of the cooled camel spermatozoa in

relation to different extenders. American-Eurasian J. Agric.& Environ. Sci.4(2) 142-149

Table 1: Motion characteristics of dromedary camel semen estimated by CASA (Mean±SE)

Variables CASA

At 0 hour At 24 hour At 48

hour

P value

Total Motility (T.Mot) % 80.6±2.5a 72.6±2.6

ab 44.4±2.9

c 0.002

Progressive Motility (P.Mot) % 50.6±2.1a 44.6±3.0

ab 26.4±3.6

c 0.004

Path Velocity (VAP)µm/s 134.9±3.2a 126.4±3.8

ab 110±3.2

c 0.001

Progressive Velocity (VSL)µm/s 104.9±2.7 103±3.5 95.7±1.8 0.126

Track Speed (VCL) µm/s 175.2±10.4a 168.4±5.7

ab 128.4±5.3

c 0.012

Lateral Amplitude Head (ALH)

µm

4.7±0.08a 4.0±0.11

b 3.1±0.08

c ˂0.001

Beat Cross Frequency (BCF) Hz 0.7±0.02b 0.8±0.02

ab 0.5±0.04

c ˂0.001

Straightness (STR) % 80.8±1.1 81±1.1 83±1.0 0.237

Linearity (LIN) % 66.1±1.5 64.8±1.6 69.6±1.7 0.158

Values with different superscripts in same row differ.

334


Anatomy

and

Surgery

335


38. Histological and Histochemical Study of Skin in Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

A.A. Sawad and H.M. Ali

Department of Anatomy,College of Veterinary Medicine,University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq

Corresponding author email:[email protected]

Introduction

The skin consists of two layers the epidermis that works as a protective layer for the dermis

and the dermis, as well as the skin appendages and glands (Parakkal and Montagna (1974), Dellman

and Brown, (1976) Revis and Seagle, (2006) explain the responsibility of the small subcutaneous

nerve trunks under the skin on the establishment of nerve plexus, which in turn sends branches to the

reticular layer of the epidermis, for the processing layers of the skin and its accessories in general.

Montagna, (1962) show that the distribution of glycogen varies in the dermis layer, as it noted

that the dermal papilla are rich in glycogengranules, while the quantities begin to recede in collagen

fiber bundles in the retinal layer.

Lee et al., (2007) pointed out that the neutral fat granules distributed through the hair follicles

are distinct with different sizes granules lipid. In the upper part of the hair bulb, and the external root

sheath of the hair follicle neutral pigment lipid granules have been observed (Montagna 1962).

Materials and Methods The present study was carried out on fifty healthy camel skin ,the samples were collected

from Al-Zubair abattoir in Basrah, each contains skin of back, neck and muzzle The samples were

immersed in 10% formalin solution before being transported to the laboratory for the purpose of

testing of the present study. The sample cuts into small pieces (1 cm) and sequentially numbered and

post fixed for 24 hours in 10% formalin. Fixed tissue was washed in current water dehydrated in a

graded series of alcohol, cleared in xylene and embedded in paraffin wax. Serial sections of five

micrometers thick were made. Mounted on slides and stained with haematoxylin and eosin (Luna

1968) ,The following stains was suggested for histochemical studies;

- Periodic acid schife: For glycogen investigation

- Osmium tetroxide: For lipids demonstrations.

Results

The result of study was determined for histological and histochemical characterization

(Glycogen and Lipids) in the samples examined.

The epidermis layer appeared different in thickness among the examination samples,

depending at the site of sample, however, the it consists of four secondary layers; stratum corneum,

stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum basal layers, while the dermis composed of two

nuclear non separated layers contain of superficial papillary and reticular layers.

The histochemical study showed the presence of glycogen and lipid. The glycogen granules

were noticed at the cells of basal layer of the epidermis, as well as in the dermis layer. In addition, the

glycogen compound was found at blood vessels, smooth muscle associated with the folliculars and

sweat gland ducts. The lipids drops were detected in the dermis and epidermis layer, the lipid droplets

found in graduated concentration toward the tissue lining cells.

Discussion

Camels skin is composed of stratified squamous epithelium that composed of the stratum

corneum, the granular layer, spinous layer and basal layer. This is identical to what is reported by

Tomlinson et al., 2004. The hair follicles are arranged individually and in regular manner, this is what

was observed in most mammals (Bacha and Wood, 1990).

Dermis layer is characterized by the presence of neutral polysaccharide and gave a positive

reaction with PAS. This finding is similar to Montagna, (1962)

The skin layer gives a strong response to neutral lipid technique, especially in the stratum

corneum This corresponds with the findings of Elias et al., (1988).

References

336


Bacha, W. J. and Wood, G. L. M. (1990). Integument (skine). Pp. 81-89. color Atlas of veterinary

histology, Willium and Wilkinf. Waverlly Company. Hong Kong. Pp:269.

Dellman, H. D. and Brown, E. S. (1976). Textbook of veterinary histology. Lea and Fibger.

Philadephia. Pp: 850-857.

Elias, P. M.; Menon, G. K.; Grayson, S. and Brawn, B. (1988). Membrane structure alteration in

murine stratum corneum: relationship to the localization of polar lipids and phospholipidase.

J. Invest. Dermatol. 91: 3-10.

Lee, L.; Debono, D. A.; Campagna, D. R.; Young, D. C. Moody, B. and Fleming, M. D. (2007). Loss

of the acyle-coA binding protein (Acbp) results in fatty acid metabolism abnormalities in

mouse hair and skin. J. Investigative Dermatol. 127(10): 16-23.

Luna, L. G. (1968). Manual of histology staining method of armed forces. Institute of Pathology. 3rd

Ed. The Blackistor. Division. M. H. Book Company. London. Pp: 34-215.

Montagna, W. and Parakkal, R. E. (1974). The structure and function of the skin. 3rd

Ed. New York.

Academic press. Pp: 73-76

Montagna, W. (1963). Comparative aspects of sebaceous glands. Pergran Press. Oxford. Pp:32-45.

Revis, D. R. and Seagle, M. B. (2006). Skin anatomy. Medicine World Medical Library. 2(11): 181-

200.

Tomlinson, D. j.; Mulling, C. H. and Faklerm, T. M. (2004). Invited review: formation of keratins in

the bovine claw: roles of hormones, mineral and vitamins in function claw integrity. J. Dary

Sci. 87: 797-809

337


39. Rectal and Reproductive Tract-Associated Lymphoid Tissue in Camels (Camelus

dromedarius)

M.S. Abubakar1,2

, B.K. Tanimomo4, M. Zamri-Saad

2 and M.Y. Fatihu

3

Department Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology 1Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto Nigeria

2Universiti Putra Malaysia

3Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Nigeria

4Department of Animal Health and Production, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

University of Abuja, Nigeria


Introduction

Mucosal membranes mediate an interface between the body and environment, which present a

variety of innate and adaptive immune defense mechanisms against microorganisms (Holmgren,

1991; Bowersock et al., 1999; Gerdts et al., 2001). These surfaces are covered by a layer of epithelial

cells, separating the internal organs from an environment rich with potential pathogens. Lymphoid

tissues comprise of mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues (MALT) are distributed in various locations

such as respiratory, intestinal or urogenital tracts (Shewen et al., 2009). MALT are the initial

inductive sites for mucosal immunity, antigens are sampled from mucosal surfaces and cognate naïve

B- and T-lymphocytes stimulated. MALT structures are the origin of lymphocyte trafficking to

mucosal effector sites. MALT contains lymphatics which transport immune cells and antigens to

regional lymph nodes that can therefore be called part of the inductive sites of mucosa and augment

the immune responses (Liebler-Tenorio and Pabst, 2006). The vast majority of infectious diseases in

all species are initiated by colonization of or entry across, mucosal surfaces of the respiratory,

intestinal or urogenital tracts. There has been a great deal of interest in immune response at these sites

and in development of vaccines that target these portals of entry (Hodgins et al., 2005). The reality is

that most current vaccines for such infections are delivered parenterally and act thorough induction of

systemic rather than mucosal immunity. Recently, there are reports of outbreaks of diseases in camel

species, which mostly involve respiratory associated illness and cause abortions and in most cases

leads to sudden death (Dawo, 2010). This preliminary investigation attempts to assess the presence or

otherwise of mucosal associated lymphoid tissue in the rectum and the reproductive tract as these sites

has the potentials of vaccines delivery in this animal species.


Seventy-five (75) Adult Camels (Camelus dromedarius) presented for slaughter at randomly

selected camel slaughter houses in Nigeria were used for this study. Ante-mortem examination was

conducted to exclude animals with reproductive, gastrointestinal and respiratory problems.

During post-mortem examination, attention was focused on the rectum and reproductive

tracts. Representative tissue samples from the rectum, vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus and uterine horn

were collected and placed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 12 h. The samples were then

processed routinely for histopathology using the paraffin embedded technique, sectioned at 5µm,

stained with hematoxylin and eosin [HE].

The processed slides were viewed under light microscopy (Nikon Eclipse 80i) attached to

Nikon NIS element imaging software version 2.33. Attempts were made to identify the rectal-

associated mucosal lymphoid tissue (RAMALT) and reproductive tract-associated lymphoid tissue in

at least 5 microscopic fields before the sizes and/or count of the RAMALT and reproductive tract-

associated lymphoid tissue were determined by measuring the diameters. The numbers of

lymphocytes were determined by counting the cells using the NIS element imaging software version

2.33.

Results

Diffuse lymphoid tissues and intraepithelial lymphocytes were observed in all segments of the

sections examined (Table 1), however, severe infiltration of diffuse lymphoid tissue and

intraepithelial lymphocytes were seen in uterus and uterine horn, but solitary lymphoid nodules were

only seen in the rectum.

338


Table 1: Mean diffuse lymphoid tissue and/or intraepithelial lymphocyte count in Camel (Camelus

dromedarius)

Organ Lymphocyte count (per unit area)

Vulva 120.2±2.30

Vagina 28.5±1.78

Cervix 38.4±1.13

Uterus 312.8±2.80

Uterine tube 288.2±1.05

*Rectum 789.5±2.10

* Only Rectum showed lymphoid nodule with mean size of 385.2±4.7µm

Discussion

The present studies on mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue in the rectum and along the

reproductive tract provides a baseline data on mucosal tissue response in both rectum and

reproductive tract of camels. The study was triggered by the mysterious mortalities of camels in many

region of the world (Dawo, 2010). As studies on mucosal tissue response provide baseline

information on mucosal immunity studies. However, an increasing pattern in the reproductive tract

after vulva from the vagina observed in this study may be associated with level of exposure to

external pathogens. The increasing in intraepithelial lymphocyte in the uterus and uterine horn may

indicate the level of protection to the mucosal integrity and to possible invading pathogens. Certainly,

where the goal is prevention of infection, the presence of mediators on the mucosal surface is needed.

Memory cells generated at mucosal sites and in draining lymph nodes, home preferentially to other

mucosal locations providing a primed response at all potential portals of exposure (Youngman et al.,

2005). There are also non-immunological reasons for seeking vaccines that are delivered without

injection, including ease of delivery and the absence of injection site reactions. Vaccination of food

producing animals would be facilitated by mass delivery of vaccine in feed or bolus, water or by

aerosol, meaning less labour cost for producers and reduced stress on the animals. Additionally,

carcass condemnation due to needle breakage or injection site reactions would be avoided (Roeber et

al., 2002). Increasing consumer pressure for organically produced food and a natural approach to

disease management is more compatible with disease prevention using non invasive methods of

vaccine delivery. This study provide preliminary information, in which further studies on CD4 and

CD8 characterization and other cardinal for confirment of protection along the mucosal surface will

be based in the future.

References Bowersock, T.L., HogenEsch, H., Suckow, M., Guimond, P., Martin, S., Borie, D., Torregrosa, S.,

Park, H. and Park, K. (1999). Oral vaccination of animals with antigens encapsulated in

alginate microsphers. Vaccine, 17, 1804-1811.

Dawo, F. (2010). Mysterious mortality in Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Borana, Ethiopia:

Evidence of Its association with reproductive age groups. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 29(3),

621-628.

Gerdts, V., Uwiera, R.R.E., Mutwiri, G. K., Wilson, D.J., Bowersock, T., Kidane, A., Babiuk, L.A.

and Griebel, P.J. (2001). Multiple intestinal ‗loops‘ provide an in vivo model to analyse

multiple mucosal immune responses. Journal of Immunological Methods, 256, 19-33.

Hodgins, D.C., Yuan, L., Parreno, V., Corbeil, L.B. and Saif, L.J. (2005). Mucosal veterinary

vaccines: comparative vaccinology. In: Mestecky, J., Lamm, M.E., Strober, W., Bienenstock,

J., McGhee, J.R., Mayer, L. (Eds.), Mucosal Immunology. third edition. Academic Press,

Burlington MA, pp. 1085–1107.

Holmgren, J. (1991). Mucosal immunity and vaccination, FEMS Microbiology Immunology, 89, 1-10.

Liebler-Tenorio, E.M. and Pabst, R. (2006). MALT structure and function in farm animals. Vet. Res.

37, 257-280.

Roeber, D.L., Cannell, R.C., Wailes, W.R., Belk, K.E., Scanga, J.A., Sofos, J.N., Cowman, G.L. and

Smith, G.C. (2002). Frequencies of injection-site lesions in muscles from rounds of dairy and

beef cow carcasses. J. Dairy Sci. 85, 532–536.

339


Shewen, P.E., Carrasco-Medina, L., McBey, B.A. and Hodgins, D.C. (2009). Challenges in mucosal

vaccination of cattle. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 128, 192-198.

Youngman, K.R., Lazarus, N.H. and Butcher, E.C. (2005). Lymphocyte homing: chemokines and

adhesion molecules in T cell and IgA plasma cell localization in the mucosal immune system.

In: Mestecky, J., Lamm, M.E., Strober, W., Bienenstock, J., McGhee, J.R., Mayer, L. (Eds.),

Mucosal Immunology. third edition. Academic Press, Burlington, MA, pp. 667–680.

340


40. Anatomical Characterics of Kidney in One Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

in Sudan

I.M.M Dowelmadina

Faculty of Animal Production, Department of Animal Breeding,

University of Gezeria, Wad Medani-Sudan


Introduction

Sudan ranks the first among the Arab countries and the second in Africa with respect to

animal population. According to recent estimates of livestock, there are about 4 million head of camel

(Ministry of Animal Resources, 2005). The kidney of the camel is playing a vital role in water

retention through the production of highly concentrated urine (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964). The

anatomical details of the kidney of domestic animals (Sisson, 1975) One Horne Rhinoceros (Talukdar

et al., 2003) and morphometeric observations on kidney of camel (Camelus dromedarius) (Abdalla et

al., 1978) were reported. The morphometery and detailed sequential differences involved in the

measurement of the kidney in camel breeds is very meager. Hence, the present study was conducted

to elucidate the morphometeric studies of kidneys in Sudanese camel breeds. The available

information on the camel kidney is mainly concerned with general morphology and topography

(Chauveau, 1891; Lesbre, 1906; Leese, 1927; Droandi, 1936; Tayeb, 1948; Joseph, 1969; Abdalla,

1973; Abdelraheem, 1992).

The data concerning the comparative study between the right and the left kidney of camel is

lacking. The objective of this study is to determine of morphology of kidney in one humped camel

and to compare it in two sides.


This study was conducted at Tamboul Camel Research Centre (TCRC) in Butana area where

camels are usually purchased from different regions of Sudan for the slaughter at local market of

Tamboul for human consumption. Samples were collected from slaughtered camels at Tamboul

Slaughter House (TSH) during the period from April - May 2011. The kidneys were removed

immediately after slaughter from apparently healthy animals. The samples were collected after

slaughtered, the weight of the kidneys were taken by digital balance, separately for right and left (gm)

kidneys and the greatest length, girth and width (cm) was measured by using tape.The data between

right and left kidney were statistically analyzed by using (SPSS, 13) andcompared using student's t-

test.


The difference in camel non carcass components may be due to physiological, behavior, type

of feed and age of the animal (Yagil et al., 1994).Both kidneys of the camel (male and female) are

bean-shaped, the capsule is thick, whitish in colour and not elastic. The various biometrical

parameters to right and left kidneys of different sex have been depicted in table (1 and 2). The

measurements of all parameters varied between right and left kidneys. The weight of left kidney in

male and female was higher (P<0.05) than that in the right one. Al-Ani (2004, chap. 6) reported that

the larger kidney, which was twice that in cattle and four times that of sheep, was possibly due to

adaptation of camel to arid desert life.

The length values reported of the left kidney was greater than the right one. Likewise, was

observed for the width. The left kidney exhibited higher values than its right counterpart in the all

anatomical characteristics in sexes of camel. The girth of both kidneys varied significantly in left and

right and this variation was highly significant in left kidneys. However, significant variation in the

parameters of kidney was evident between left and right kidneys. In the present study the mean of

weight, length, girth and width of left kidney was greater than right one. (Constantinescu, 2004)

reported that the greatest dimension of kidney may be due to size of the animal, direction and

position.

341


Table 1: The Mean±S.E of biometrical parameters of 120 right kidneys in one humped camel in

Sudan

Width(cm) Girth(cm) Length(cm) Weight(g) Sex Age groups

12.2±0.2 44.8±0.4 16.6±0.22 888.5±34.9 Male (5-8) years

12.3±0.2 47.0±04 19.1±0.22 1121.0±34.9 (9-12) years

11.9±0.2 43.8±0.4 16.6±0.22 813.7±34.9 Female (5-8) years

12.4±0.2 45.9±0.4 18.3±0.22 1192.4±34.9 (9-12) years

Table 2: The Mean±S.E of biometrical parameters of 120 left kidney in one humped camel in Sudan

Width(cm) Girth(cm) Length(cm) Weight (g) Sex Age groups

12.9±0.2 46.6±0.4 17.5±0.22 1108.4±34.9 Male (5-8) years

13.0±0.2 48.8±04 20.5±0.22 1227.0±34.9 (9-12) years

12.7±0.2 45.6±0.4 17.8±0.22 887.5±34.9 Female (5-8) years

13.0±0.2 47.3±0.4 19.0±0.22 1255.6±34.9 (9-12) years

Table 3: Coefficients of correlation between weight and morphometrics of kidneys in one humped

camel

(N = 120). All values were highly significant different at (P<0.05).

Conclusion We concluded that, in one humped camel; kidney is different than bovine. In the present study

the mean of weight, length, girth and width of left kidney was greater than right and difference was

significant (p<0.05). However, dimension of each organ in left and side cannot be variable. For

example, size of many organ such as: left and right ovary. Left and right dorsal lacrimal gland and

etc., in some animals are same. Results of the present study, in same other structures in left and right

sides and without the previous studies.The morphometrics characterics of kidneys in one humped

camel in Sudan secured in this study. All the left kidneys parameters were greater than the right one.

All the parameters were highly correlated with each others.

References Abdalla, M. A. (1973). Anatomical study of the urinary system of camel (Camelus dromedarius).

M.V.Sc. thesis university of Khartoum.

Abdalla, M. A. & O, Abdalla. (1978). Morphometeric observations on kidney of camel (Camelus

dromedarius). J. Anat. 129, (45-50).

Abdelraheem, A. M. (1992). Anatomical study of the urinary system of camel (Camelus

dromedarius). Ph.D. thesis university of Khartoum.

Al-Ani, F. K. (2004). Use and production of camels. In F. K. Al-An (Ed.), Camel management and

diseases (Is ted.) (pp.91-114). Al-Sharq printing press.

Constantinescu, G. M. (2004). Veterinary anatomy of domestic Animals, Textbook and Color Atlas.

Ist Edn, Schattauer Company, Stuttgart, Germany, ISBN: 3-7945-2101-3.

Chauveau, I. A. (1891). Comparative Anatomy of domestic Animals. New York: W. R. J. Atkins.

Droandi, I. (1936). II camelo: Storia natural-anatomia, fiziologia-zootecnica, patologia. Firnze :

instituto Agricolocolonale Italaliano.

Joseph, T. (1969). Das Nierbecken des Dromedars. Zeitschrift fur Anatomie and

Entwicklungsgeschichte 128, 568-572.

Leese, A. S. (1927). A treatise on the one-humped camel StamFord: Hayens and Sons.

Lesbre, F. K. (1927). Recherches Anatomique Sur les camelides. Paris: J. B. Bailliere. et Fils.

Ministry of Animal Resource. (2005). Dept. of statistic and information- Khartoum- Sudan.

Sisson, S. (1975). Ruminant Urogential system. In Sisson and Grossmans The Anatomy of the

Domestic Animals. Ed. Getty,V. I. pp. 937-9.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Elamin%20EA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Rommel%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Afzal%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Hussein%20MF%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Ibrahim%20BB%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus


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SPSS, (1983). Statistical Package for Social Sciences Inc. (1983), users guide. McGraw Hill, New

York, USA.988 pp.

Talukdar, M.; Sarma, M. & Dev Choudhury, K. (2003). Macromorphology of kidney of one horned

Rhino calf. Indian J. of Animal Science. 73(2):184.

Yagil, R., O. Zagrski, C. Van Creveld. (1994). Science and camels meat production, Kimron

Veterinary Institute, Bet dagan, Israel.

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Pastoral Systems

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41. The Role of the Camel in the Preservation of the Flora Covered Rangeland

H. Trabelsi1, A. Chehma

1, A. Senoussi

1 and B. Faye

2

1Laboratoire de Bioressources Sahariennes. Préservation et valorisation.

Université Kasdi Merbah-Ouargla- (Algérie) 2CIRAD-ES Montpellier (France)

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Introduction

Seed dispersal by animals (the zoochory), particularly the endozoochory is one of the crucial

elements for the ecological balance of ecosystems. In Sahara, the camel is the main farm animal using

resources desert flora (Ghauthier Pilters, 1977 and Chehma et al., 2010) and can thus contribute to the

transfer of seeds per endozoochory. The role of disseminator camel has long been noted (Grenot,

1968 ; Barkoudah and Van Der Sar and Correra, 2006) but no real study has focused specifically on

this interesting aspect of its ecology. The aim of the present study was to highlight the quantitative

importance of seeds transferred the camel on the basis of the analysis spatiotemporal its faeces.

Methodology

Samples of droppings fresh faeces, scattered on the ground, several individuals (different

sexes and ages) were collected into two areas involving the six types of journey camels; Ghardaia

(wadi bed, Depression and Hamada) and Touggourt (Reg, Salty soil and Erg) for the four seasons of

the year 2009/2010.

The seeds and faeces were selected, coded and counted in several types. They were been

classified according to their morphology, size and color before they were stored in sealed bottles.


The total number of seeds identified in the faeces of the camel was representing seeds of a

2967 spatiotemporal. Differences in morphological (shape, size and color) seeds were observed and

grouped into 35 different types representing 35 species.

The number of seeds depending on the areas identified. The results showed that the largest

recorded in the Ghardaia region with 1802, Touggourt with 1125 seeds. Chehma et al. (2008) show a

low record of the river seeds, while the lowest of phytomass, reg and salty soils, seeds and the

highest values of phytomass and reg and salty soils, the lowest.

This study showed that the area of Ghardaia is 94.3% and 60% Touggourt of seed types

identified. The inequality, two harvest areas is closely related to the types of rangeland that make up

each.

During summer, 1609 seeds were collected and this figure is of five times more than the

other seasons, followed by winter and spring with 516 and 422 seeds and then fall with 420

seeds. This might be due to variability of the production time of phytomass grazed rangeland.

The number of identified 35 types is unevenly distributed according to the season. The season

summer is the most represented with 28 types, followed by the fall with 21 types, then winter with 15

and 12 types in spring. This uneven distribution is due to the phenological stages of Sahara plants.

Our results showed the special role of the dromedary as a vector seed dispersal in terms of

quantity and quality. In addition, faeces offer conditions for the preservation and seed germination.

From this we can assume that camel is helping to preserve its environment and its role in seed

dispersal may be ecologically important in the community extremely fragile.

References

Barkoudah, Y., Van Der Sar, D. (1986). L‘Acacia raddiana dans la région de beni-abbes (Algerie).

Bull Hist Nat Afr Nord; 81-111.

Chehma, A. (2005). Etude floristique et nutritive des parcours camelin du Sahara septentrional

algérien. Cas des régions de Ouargla et Ghardaïa. Thèse Doctorat, Université Badji Mokhtar,

Annaba.

Chehma, A., Faye, B. and Djebar, M.R. (2008). Productivité fourragère et capacité de charge des

parcours camelins du Sahara septentrional algérien. Sécheresse; 19: 115-121.

345


Chehma, A., Faye, B. and Bastianelli, D. (2010). Valeurs nutritionnelles des plantes vivaces des

parcours sahariens algériens pour dromadaires. Fourrages, 204, 263-268.

Correra, A. (2006). Dynamique de l‘utilisation des ressources fourragères par les dromadaires des

pasteurs nomades du parc national du Banc d‘Arguin (Mauritanie). Thèse Doctorat, Museum

National d‘Histoire Naturelle de Paris (France).

Gauthier Pilters, H. (1977). Contribution à l'étude de l'écophysiologie du dromadaire en été dans son

milieu naturel. Extrait du bulletin de l'I.F.A.N. série A. n°2.

Grenot, C. (1968). Adaptation des plantes au climat désertique chaud. Scien Nat; 18-28.

346


42. A Photo-Essay on Dromedary Camels in Sudan

M.Z. Musa1, M.O. Eisa

2 and A. Majed

3

1Animal Resources Research Corporation, Tambool Camel Research Center,

Nomads Development Council 2Omdurman Islamic University, Department of Animal Production,

National Camel Development Council 3University of Khartoum, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, National Camel Development Council


Abstract The one humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) is a multipurpose domestic livestock. It is

well adapted to the harsh conditions of the arid and semi-arid zones and therefore thrives where other

livestock species do not. The dromedary camel is versatile and its ability to survive and perform in the

harsh, arid and semi-arid areas of the world has earned it a good reputation amongst pastorals of

tropical Africa and Asia (Waziri et al., 1999). The dromedaries are found in the northern parts of

Sudan on latitudes 12ON and 18

ON. Sudan has about 3.6 million camels (Report, 2003). The most

recent estimate puts the Sudan camel population at 4000,000 pastoralists are people who depend for

their living primarily on livestock. The Nomads and pastoral groups in Darfur, Kordufan, Buttana,

Kasala and Gadaref states own most of the camels in Sudan. The dromedary camel can provide a wide

array of functions and products. It is probably best described by Bulliet (1975) who wrote that, ―the

camel can be milked, ridden, loaded with baggage, eaten, harnessed to a plough or wagon, traded for

goods or wives, exhibited in zoo or turned into sandals and camel hair coats‖. The camel feeds on

plants or parts of plants not eaten by more conventional livestock. In addition to being complementary

to other stock as a feed resources, camels complement them in production. Camel keeping is a

common activity in Sudan camel breeding areas. During a field visits to camel regions between July,

2006 and September, 2010 different aspects of camel production were captured using photographs.

The significance of these pictures for camel research and development in Sudan will be highlighted.

The Photo-essay

Photographs can serve as a tool to draw the attention of scientists and researchers to issues relevant to

camel research and development for sustainable livelihood in developing countries like Sudan.

Moreover, photographs are noted as useful tool because they convey complex information and in the

case of a photo-essay, the photographs are not disjuncted from research context (McClatchey et al.,

2005). Informed consent was obtained from camel owners who participated in the field survey.

Photographs were taken from Darfur and Kordufan in Western Sudan, Damer in Northeastern Sudan

and Buttana region in Eastern Sudan. All photographs were taken using a Nikon COOLPIX L18

digital camera with a 5.7-17.1 mm lens. The photographs presented here were selected to provide

visual insight into some aspects of camel production in Sudan. Other than image resizing, the

photographs have not been substantially modified.

Method of keeping camels in Sudan

Nomadic system Semi-Nomadic Sedentary system Racing camel

347


Ridig camel Pack camel School less with camel looking for future

Fire wood (Pastoralism and livelihood)

Camel Festival

Foetal wastage in slaughter camel

Extrusion of soft palate A pregnant camel Camel slaughter Wasted foetus

and frothing of mouth from slaughtered

in dromedary bulls pregnant camel

Significance and recommendations for camel research and development

*Absence of a distinct breed classification of the dromedaries found in Sudan. Identification,

therefore, is mainly by body colour and morphology.

*Four major ecotypes reported in livestock markets in Western Sudan are the sand-brown, grey-white,

dark- brown pied coloured dromedaries (Majid, 2000).

* Mohamed Zain (2007) reported that 34.06% of female camels slaughtered for meat atTambool

abattoir in 2006 were pregnant. Government intervention is needed in marketing of pregnant camels

for slaughter.

* Linkages between pastoralist livelihoods and development: education, health, and women‘s

development are priorities.

* Veterinary antemortem pregnancy diagnosis should be enforced and butchers should be

compensated in a situation where camel is found to be pregnant and slaughter is denied.

* Best practice, joint research, and collaborative learning. Interventions must be based on wider

regional best practice among pastoralists. Capacities of local research institutions and universities

must be built and mobilized. Local universities need to be assisted in the integration of issues of

348


pastoralism, livelihoods, and conflict in their curricula and in broadening their research agendas in

collaboration with national and international institutions.

* Research into veracity of traditional remedies for ailments in camels and documentation of

indigenous knowledge is necessary.

References Mohamed Zain (2007). Slaughter of the one- humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) for meat at the

Tumbool abattoir annual report.

Report (2003). Sudan in Figures. Central Bureau of Statistics, Council of Ministers, Khartoum, p. 15.

Majed (2000). Dromedary camel in Sudan: Ecology, production systems characterization and Herd

Dynamics 23- 125

Waziri, M.A., Shehu, A.A. and Kwari, H.D. (1999). Morphological changes of spermatozoa in sperm

reserve during epididymal transit in the Camel (Camelu dromedarius). Tropical Veterinarian

17:135-141.

Helen Young (2009) Livelihoods, Power and Choice : The Vulnerability of the Northern Rizaygat,

Darfur, Sudan 1-98

349


43. Camel Welfare: A New Challenge

O. Souilem* and K. Barhoumi

Laboratoire de Physiologie- Pharmacologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de

la Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisie.


Animal welfare is a complex and multifaceted issue which includes ethical, scientific,

economic and cultural dimensions. Farm animals including camels, are sentient beings that are

capable of suffering. In fact, there‘s general agreement that good welfare means satisfying an animal‘s

needs which can be classified into physiological needs, safety needs and psychological needs. This

article will consider, some welfare considerations in relation with breeding conditions, transport,

slaughtering, working camel and scientific research.

Breeding conditions

Management practises that may cause pain may not be carried out if painless practical

methods of husbandry are available and restraint should be the minimum necessary to perform

management procedures efficiently. The tethering of camel must allow it to stay in a

comfortableposition such as by using a sufficient rope enabling it to sit down. In addition, any injury,

illness or distress should be treated promptly.

For dromedary pain management, three S concepts (Suppress, Substitute, Soothe), elaborated

by INRA in 2009, can be applied in camel. Therefore, many solutions can be brought aiming at

suppressing some practise breeding at the origin of pain, substituting these practices when they are

improvable but essential and Soothing the pain when it‘s not avoidable.

Water and food must be provided in sufficient quantity and quality in spite of phenomenal

tolerance of camel to the thirst and its high valorization of the poorest food.

Transport

The transport of the camel should not be accomplished on long distance and must allow the

animal to stand at least every 4 hours to stimulate blood flow in their legs and avoid injury. Thus,

camels must be transported in single deck trailers (wide of 2.4 m) with sufficient clearance for them to

stand comfortably.

Slaughtering

The slaughtering of camel must be performed and guarantees a minimum of respect. The

transport of camels for slaughter must be ensured in a way that causes minimum discomfort and pain.

These practises must be respected because handling and transport have significant effects on carcass

quality. Poor handling can lead to bruising and bone or joint trauma, which are painful and can lead to

the carcass being downgraded or having to be trimmed. Moreover, the holding of camel prior to

slaughter should be for a minimum time and animals held for longer than twelve hours must be fed.

According to Islamic religion (Halal slaughter), camel must be slaughtered as quickly as

possible with the knife under the base of the neck.

Working camels

The camel welfare can be preserved by reducing the working time with alternating several

animals. Moreover, camel must be well fed, not maltreated or overloaded in agriculture activities. In

circuses and zoos, camels must be kept under humane conditions.

Scientific research

Camel used for experimentation should profit from the carrying out of the 3Rs rule of Russel

and Burch (Replace, Reduce, Refine) applied on classic laboratory animals. Replacement refers to the

use of methods utilising cells, tissues or organs of animals as well as those that do not require the use

of animals to achieve the scientific aims. Reduction, aims to the decrease of the number of camels

used for scientific purposes with comparable levels of information. Refinement refers to the use of

methods that prevent, alleviate or minimise pain, suffering and distress for the animals. Camels should

benefit from an adequate analgesia and anaesthesia by using some specific products which ensure

350


muscle relaxation, sedation and analgesia. Human endpoints must be determined in some protocols

like dehydration, food restriction and model disease.

In conclusion, the major question is how to manage a balance between an appropriate welfare

and the preservation of the dromedary capacity to live under desert conditions. The interaction

between OIE and Non Governmental Organisms like ISOCARD can achieve the common goal of

promoting camel welfare which leads to increasing the productivity of this species around the world.

References

Abdul Rahman S. Islamic animal welfare conference, Welfare pulse (New Zealand), March 2009,

Issue 01, pp 15.

Arney D.R. Welfare of Large Animals In Scientific Research. Scand. J. Lab. Anim. Sci. 2009, Vol.

36 No 1, 97-101.

INRA. Animal pain: Identifying, understanding and minimising pain in farm animals. INRA Expert

scientific assessment (ESCo). October 2009. pp 99.

OIE. Animal welfare: global issue, trends and challenges, Vol. 24 (2) August, 2005, pp 811.

OIE. Second global conference on animal welfare: Putting the OIE Standards to Work. Cairo (Egypt),

20-22 October 2008.

Standing Committee on Agriculture and resource Management (Report N°61). Model Code of

Practice for the Welfare of Animals. The camel (Camelus dromedarius). CSIRO Publisching

Melbourne, pp 17.

351


44. Dromedary Chamels in Mauritania

D.M. Lamine

CNERV, BP 167 Nouakchott, Mauritania


Introduction

Climatic and socio-economic conditions make Mauritania as a country of excellence for the

breeding of dromedaries. Dromedaries are estimated around 1.4 million heads for a population about

2.5 million persons. With the urbanization, we note an increased number of dromedaries in periphery

of the great urban centres and along the principal road axes (Martinez, 1989), as well as the birth of

co-operatives, associations of stockbreeders and socio-professional organizations on the breeding of

dromedaries.

With an aim to show the big importance the dromedaries in the Mauritanian economy that the

present study is registered.


This study was carried out in the field by investigations near the stockbreeders of

dromedaries, the co-operatives, associations and socio-professional organizations on the breeding of

dromedaries in the cattle markets at the slaughterhouse of Nouakchott, at the producers or to retailers

of fresh milk for the different dairies. In add my personal experience.


Schematically, the study showed 4 dromedary channels in Mauritania: family, trade on feet, meat

and milk.

Family which we meet in the great urban centres for family requirements out of milk at personalities

not wanting to cut themselves from their own rural way of life. The number is 2 to 5 dairy females.

These animals are nourished by concentrate feed with distribution of salt. When they are dried up,

they join their female congeners in the pasture inside the country and are then replaced by others in

lactation and so on.

Trade on feet characterized by the sale of dromedaries inside the country or outside in the border

countries, the Canary Islands or elsewhere. Thus, the transactions made abroad constitute a source of

currencies for the stockbreeders.

Year after year, Mauritania would export the equivalent out of meat of more than 15,000 tons towards

the Maghreb countries.

In Mauritania, the overall yearly consumption per head is 19.7 kg, including 10.9 kg of meat of small

ruminants, 5.5 kg of meat of dromedaries and 3.3 kg of meat of cattle (Dia, 1988). With the dryness,

352


one attends truly the reconversion of the practices as regards red meat consumption. The slaughter of

dromedaries is an increasingly significant place in order to supply the cities for red meat.

In 2010, the national production of red meat of controlled slaughterhouses would be 76 000 tons

including 22.5% from dromedaries, 24% from bovines and 53.5% from small ruminants. In addition,

the liver and the hump of the dromedary are always sold separately of the meat.

The fresh milk is sold on the spot by the producers or to retailers.

Just after the milking this milk is of good bacteriological quality (Tourette et al., 2003). In

Nouakchott and its periphery which are not a cattle-breeding area, there are many herds of

dromedaries only the production of milk for sale and the number of dromedaries is estimated between

2000 and 2500 heads (Garba et Dia, 1999 ; Dia, 2000). The producers of camel milk are organized

into cooperatives,theydeliver milk collected for the different dairies of which the most important are

Tiviski, Top Lait, El Watania and Assava. Each dairy has its own distribution chain and participates

in the incomes of the stockbreeders and the health of the animals Abeiderrahmane, 1994, Ould

Mohamed, (2003). In addition, Mauritania have a dairy which produced a manufactured soft cheese

from the only camel milk.

Manufacture formerly considered in the past impossible because of the difficulties to carry out the

coagulation of camel milk (Ould Eleya et Ramet, 1994).

353


References

Abeiderrahmane, N. J. (1994) . La pasteurisation du lait de chamelle : une expérience en Mauritanie.

In Atelier Chameaux et Dromadaires animaux laitiers, CIRAD-IFS-MDRE-Nouakchott

Mauritanie, Oct. 94

Dia, M.L. (2000) : Milk and dairy derivatives in Mauritania. In Cheese Art 2000, 2nd Biennial

Meeting, Consorzio Ricerca Filiera Lattiero-, Ragusa, Italy, May 23-28, 2000

Dia, M. L.(1988) :Aspects techniques et socio-économiques de la commercialisation des petits

ruminants au Sahel : cas de la SOMECOB de Kaédi (Mauritanie). Mémoire de Formation en

Aménagement Pastoral Intégré au Sahel, EISMV-Université de Dakar, juin 1988, 58 p

Garba, M et Dia, M. L. (1999) : Diagnostic de la filière lait de chamelle en Mauritanie : Rapport de

mission, ONG KARHARA, Niger, 38 p.

Ould Mohamed, A. (2003). Organisation d‘un réseau de collecte de lait en Mauritanie. In. Lhoste, T.

Lait de chamelle pour l‘Afrique . Atelier sur la filière laitière cameline en Afrique, Niamey-

Niger, 5-8 Novembre 2003, FAO, Production et santé animale, 222p. ; p 127-136

Ould Eleya, M. et Ramet, J.P. (1994). Amélioration de l‘aptitude à la coagulation des laits de

dromadaire, de chèvre, et vache par supplémentation en lait de brebis. . InAtelier Chameaux

et Dromadaires animaux laitiers, CIRAD-IFS-MDRE-Nouakchott Mauritanie, Octobre. 94

Martinez, D. (1989) : Note sur la production de lait de dromadaire en secteur périurbain en

Mauritanie. Revue Elev. Méd. vét. Pays trop.,42,115-116.

Tourette, I,.Messat , S., Faye, B.(2003). Interactions entre les pratiques de traite et la qualité sanitaire

du lait de chamelle en Mauritanie. In. Lhoste, T. Lait de chamelle pour l‘Afrique . Atelier sur

la filière laitière cameline en Afrique, Niamey-Niger, 5-8 Novembre 2003, FAO, Production

et santé animale, 222p. ; p 61-70

354


45. Kohi Camel: A Viable Working Animal in Mountainous

Ecosystem of Balochistan

A. Raziq, Khudaidad and Zia ur Rehman

Society of Animal, Vet and Environmental Scientists, Pakistan


Abstract

In Suleiman mountainous region of Northeast Balochistan, the pastoral people continuously

move with their livestock in search of foliage and water. The locale is composed of mountainous

ecosystem and typically Kohi camel is used as working animal for goods transportation of their daily

needs. Camel is always considered as desert beast but Kohi camel is unique of its kind and well

adapted to the mountainous bionetwork of the region. In spite of important draft animal, Kohi camel

is rarely reported in literature. This study was exceptional of its kind designed to know the working

ability of Kohi camel. Fifty (50) Kohi camel pastoralists were interviewed on a prescribed proforma

for the factors like, age & sex, type of work, feed supplementation, distance covered, time and

intensity of work and riding ability of camel. It was known that only male camels at the age of 4 years

and onward are use for work. The pastoral people use it for diverse purposes like water & belongings

transportation, agricultural operation and riding etc. An amount of 4 kg of grains (oat, wheat, maize or

gram) was provided after the work was performed. A camel covered a distance of 16 km in pastoral

movement but for riding camel the distance was even longer and averaged about 25 km. Camel plays

a pivotal role as a work animal in the livelihood pastoral people of the region. Camel need focus of

the research and development arena of the country for its development and support to make it a viable

entity in the livelihood of the pastoral economies of the country.


Draft ability was accessed by interviewing herders 50 camel takers (25 wood cutters and 25

pastoral camel herds) on a prescribed proforma for the parameters like, type of work, age and sex of

working animals, supplementation to working camel, earning of camel taker, distance covered, time

and intensity of work and riding camel. The statistical software program, SPSS (1999) was used for

the analysis of the data..

355


46. Advocacy for Camel Research and Development in Kenya

K.J. Ngeiywa

Livestock Development Kenya


Camels are used for food security and as source of livelihoods. Challenges of climate change

lead to more attention to camel keeping which was unrecognized until 80s. The United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation had identified the huge untapped potential of camels

in 70s. The Government of Kenya was influenced by above findings to focus on the camel together

with stakeholders in the camel value chain to enhance the economic returns from this resource. The

camel potential and its great role in the changing climate in contribution towards attainment of the

Kenya Vision 2030 is also the main aim of the Kenya Camel Association. Three major camel research

and development in the arid and semi arid lands of Kenya were implemented in 70s to early 90s with

varying successes and failures. The Kenya Camel Association was founded to advocate on camel

research and development to better the wellbeing of camel owners. The association works with

partners in creation of appropriate policies, addressing the threats of climate change and uses the

annual Kenya Camel Forums as a platform for information sharing and interaction. The forum is the

trademark in advocacy for camel research and development in Kenya which will be discussed in this

paper. The Government of Kenya and partners have goodwill for camel development thus the future

of camel extension in Kenya is promising.

356


47. Effect of Management System on Camels’ (Camelus dromedarius) Blood

Composition

S.A. Bakheit*, B. Faye, A.M.M. Abu-Nikheila, A.M.A Majid and A.M.A. Eisa


The effect of managementsystem on glucose, non-estrified fatty acids (NEPA) and urea

concentration in one humped Sudanese camels were studied. Eighteen (18) lactating camels were

divided into two equal groups, the first group was raised under semi-intensive system and the second

was reared under traditional system. A total of 324 blood samples were collected during 18 successive

months. Blood samples were analyzed for blood composition.

The results indicated that the management system effect significantly (P<0.01) on the

concentration of blood glucose of camels, the lowest level of glucose (g/l) recorded was 0.59 ± 0.001

and 0.45 ± 0.002 in semi-intensive and traditional system, respectively. The average mean of glucose

concentrate (g/l) during the experimental period in semi-intensive and traditional management was

0.81 ± 0.007 and 0.53 ± 0.005, respectively. The glucose concentrate showed opposite trend in

traditional system so its level decreased significantly (P<0.05) during the first seven months of

experiment and recorded the lowest level during this period on 6th month (0.52 ± 0.003 g/l). The

results indicated that the months of the autumn season showed increasing in glucose level.

The highest value of non-estrified fatty acids content in semi-intensive system was recorded

in the first month of experiment (0.39 ± 0.001) mmol/l and start to decreased significantly (P<0.05)

even reach the lowest value (0.25 ± 0.001) in 7th month of experiment. The non-estrified fatty acids

content in traditional management increased significantly (P<0.05) during the experiment and

recorded period the highest value (0.52 ± 0.003 mmol/l) on the 7th month of experiment. The average

of the blood urea content was (0.19 ± 0.1 g/l) and (0.34 ± 0.002 g/l) in semi-intensive and traditional

system, respectively. The lowest value of urea content under semi-intensive management was 0.13 ±

0.006 g/l, on the other hand the highest value recorded in semi-intensive system was 0.32 ± 0.002 g/l.

The level of urea content declined during all months of supplementing. The urea content under

traditional system was increased, and the highest value (0.39 ± 00.3 g/l) was recorded in 7th month of

experiment while the lowest value was recorded in the 10th month during the experiment period (0.27

± 0.008 g/l).

357


48. Characterization of Indigenous Tunisian Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Populations:

Implications for their Conservation

M.O. Ahmed1 , F.B. Salem

2, S. Bedhiaf

3, B. Rekik

4 and D. M‘Naouer

5

1Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie. Laboratoire des Ressources animales et alimentaires. 43,

Avenue Charles Nicolle. 1082 Tunis, Tunisie.

Tél. : 00 222 46 05 85 48 / 00 222 33 30 84 68 2Office de l’Élevage et des Pâturages. 30, Rue Alain Savary. 1002 Tunis le Belvédère, Tunisie.

3Institut National de Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie. Rue Hédi Karray. 2049 Ariana, Tunisie.

(4) Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture de Mateur, Mateur, Tunisie

5Banque nationale des Gènes. Boulevard du Leader Arafat. ZI Charguia. 1080 Tunis, Tunisie.


Genetic structure and diversity of the camel population, management practices, and orientation

of farmers towards the future of camels in the region were investigated to address the issue of

development programs of camel breeding and conservation in the region and nationwide. Based on

the results of this characterization, some components such as the organization of the sector of camel

production, protection of camels, and valorization of camel products were identified. Revealed

characteristics showed a great potential for the improvement of camel production in the region. These

results can guide the over all pattern of conservation and development of camel in the country. They

furthermore may be an outline of a comprehensive vision forc onservation and sustainable

developmentof the species, which actually has a potential favorable for farming in arid areas.

358


49. A Joint Project on Contemporary and Future Camel Production – For a Global

Review

A. Raziq*, K. de Verdier and A. Saeed

Abdul Raizq: Head of the SAVES and Organizer of the Camel Association of Pakistan (CAP)

Kerstin de Verdier: Epidimologist at the State Vet. Institute, Uppsala, Sweden

Alia Saeed: Lecturer and veterinarian in Khartoum, Sudan


Old world camels (Dromedary and Bactrian) are precious animal genetic resources of

drylands and harsh ecosystems. The dromedary camel is highly adapted to the difficult and hostile

environment in its habitat, and produces in a very low or even zero input livestock production system.

The camel products especially the milk are unique and of high quality. The production traits are

highly variable, especially milk production which ranges from 4 to 40 kg/day. The importance of the

camel is more significant than ever. The camel has potential for development as a farm animal in the

future.

Pastoral people and other camel keeping communities carry the entire burden of preserving

the camel for the future. They face severe difficulties due to climate change, feed and water scarcity,

restriction to grazing lands, faulty livestock policies and other man made consequences. The number

of camels is declining and camel breeds are at risk for extinction, especially in Asia. Scientific work

on camel is often not connected to and relevant for the camel keepers.

However, every cloud has a silver lining. The global camel scientist community ISOCARD

represents an important possibility for joint projects. Other networks like owners of biocultural

protocols and national camel associations connect camel keepers. Camel friends need to work

together and share ideas and support each other. The message about the diversity and capacity of the

camel can then reach the policy makers.

A global review of camel productions and possibilities is urgent and requires pooling of

available data on camel in a systematic and uniform manner. We present a pilot study with data and

conclusions from contemporary and future camel production in three different countries.

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50. Unexpected Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Northern Mauritania Affects Camels,

Small Ruminants and Humans

B.O. Elmamy


End of September-beginning of October 2010 unprecedented rainfall created large ponds of

water in the oases of the Saharan region of Adrar, Northern Mauritania. Such rains had not been

observed for decades, and the locals refer to 1954 (locally known as the ―year of the fever‖) to

describe similar events.

The climatic changes translated in unusual growth of vegetation, attracting shepherds and

pastoralists from remote areas, including South and Southeastern regions of the country. It also

favored the multiplication in high densities of several species of mosquitoes, mainly from the genus

Culex and Anopheles (Cx. Quinquefaciatus, An. Pharoensis, An. protoriensis, Cx. Poicilipes, An.

gambiae, Ae. vexans, Cx. antenatus, An. rufipes, Ma. uniformis, An. Ziemani.) including competent

vectors for major arboviruses.

Few weeks after these rains, severe outbreaks of malaria and Rift Valley fever (RVF) were

reported in several oases (―Graret Levrass‖) of the Adrar region. Interestingly the first probable

reportable case in livestock was a sick dromedary camel during the last week of October 2010 in the

Aoujeft area, with symptoms evocating pasteurellosis. The herdsman slaughtered the animal before it

died, but delayed the cutting up because of the remote location. Subsequently the meat was shared

within the family, in which several people died with intestinal and hemorrhagic symptoms during the

next few days. Testing for several pathogens was requested by the health authorities, including

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever and RVF, and results showed positive for the latter. While it is

improbable that these people got infected through the consumption of meat – the virus is rapidly

destroyed after maturation-, it is now obvious that the virus intensively circulated in this area at the

given time.

Two weeks after this index case additional camel cases, abortion storms in small ruminants

and human fatalities (hemorrhagic fever, icterus, nervous symptoms) were massively reported. At the

end of December 2010, a total of 63 human cases, including 13 deaths, were officially reported, but

the real number is probably much higher due to the remoteness of the affected area. First serological

results indicate an IgM/IgG prevalence reaching 33% in camels and 44% in small ruminants,

respectively. IgM was as high as 43% in Adrar, and even reached 54% in the Eastern Inchiri area 2

weeks after the index case in camel was observed. Interestingly, a significant number of camel

samples showed positive RT-PCR results, while IgM ELISA and serum neutralization test were still

negative, indicating an onset of infection.

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51. Theories of the Dromedary Camel Entry Into Africa Based

on the Archeological Evidence, A New Concept

A.S. Saber

President of the Egyptian Association of the History of Veterinary Medicine,

Department of Anatomy & Embryology,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sadat City, Menofiya

University, Egypt


The proposed time of camel domestication is before 2000 B.C.(Ripinsky, 1985). The only

domestication center for the dromedarycould be mentioned is South Arabia at about the 4th

millennium B.C. The suggested route of camel entry into Africa is either by the south route crossing

the Red Sea, or the north route, crossing Sinai about 2200-2100 B.C., or by both routes.

Many archeological findings were discovered in Palestine, Negev Desert, Jordan, Syria, Iraq

and Sinai, as well as Lybia, Algeria and Morocco confirming the north route of camel entry via Sinai

then it spread in North Africa. In Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia as well as Yemen, Oman, Gulf area

(Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Abo-Zabi) and Saudi Arabia, many archeological findings and cave

encarvings and figures were discovered. This indicates the south route of camel entry into Africa and

its rock drawing presence in the Arabia.

The presence of remnents of large-sized camels (C. thomasii) in Algeria (Zeuner, 1963),

Negev desert (Grisgon, 1983 ) and recently in Syria near the village of El Kowm (2006) may proof

the north entry of wild camels into Africa at first where they have been subsequently tamed or died

out. The domesticated camels entered Egypt after this period which may lead to support of the north

route of camel entry via Sinai.

In conclusion; both the north and south routes of camel entry to Egypt were suggested. In

addition, this paper suggests that the north rout is the most probable route from which camels

travelled to the east and southword up to the African horn. Therefore camels may have not needed to

cross the Red Sea (in its wild form) from Yemen to Ethiopia.

Archeological findings of the dromedary in different countries:

Jordan Syria Iraq Lybia

Egypt Algeria Somali Sudan statue

361


Yemen Yemen Oman

Negev Desert

References

Grigson, C. (1983): A very large camel from the Upper Pleistocene of the Negev Desert. Journal of

Archaeological Science 10: 311-316.

Ripinsky, M. (1985): The camel in dynastic Egypt. J.Egyptian Archaeology 17:131-141

Zeuner, F.E. (1963): A history of domesticatedanimals. Hutchinson of London.

http://www.mapmyphoto.com/users/yafak/karkom/IMG_7956.JPG.html?g2_imageViewsIndex=1





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52. Camel Management and Utilization Pattern in Changing Socio-Economic Scenario

of Arid Region Of India

C. Bhakat1 and N.V. Patil

2

National Research Centre on Camel, Jorbeer, Bikaner – 334001 (Rajasthan), India.


Introduction

Presently, draught camels face challenges like increased use of tractors which have gained

importance in some areas, but much of sandy terrain farming and poverty of the population preclude

this type of power application in the interior villages of the Thar desert. Moreover, increased cost of

fuel, non-availability of spare parts in time in the interior village conditions, difficult maintenance and

upkeep of tractor engines pose problems for farmers compelling them not to replace camel power with

tractors. With the situation that the fossil fuel sources are depleting quickly, the role of draught

animals for agriculture and allied operations continues to remain important. It is urged within the

present day context to know the utilization patterns of camel and the challenges they face.


The quantitative and qualitative data were collected through interview, interaction and

discussion with farmers, key informants, housewives and secondary sources. The selection of

respondent was carried out from two districts (Hanumangarh and Bikaner) by using stratified random

sampling technique based on camel population. From Bikaner district, 8 tehsils were selected and

from each tehsil 3 villages were taken. In Hanumangarh district, 5 villages were selected. From each

village 6 to 8 farmers were participated and total of 203 farmers were interviewed from 29 villages.

The data were analyzed as per Snedecor and Cochran (1989). Chi-square test was applied on various

aspects of feeding management systems and rearing practices of camel.


Socio-economic scenario

The analysis of data on socio-economic status of farmers indicated that mixed farming

(55.48%) was practiced by the majority of respondents although 44.52% of respondents were opting

animal husbandry as major occupation. Economic analysis on camel carting system indicated that

overall total fixed cost of whole camel carting system was Rs. 5056/- which included interest on total

investment, depreciation of cart, (junk value also considered @ 10% ), depreciation of camel (salvage

value was considered @ 12%), insurance on animal and cart (@ 5%) which included basic value,

liabilities, 1% of average actual value of cart and an additional 5% service tax. The different

components of variable cost on yearly basis included wages of operator, the expenses towards

maintenance (feeding and health cover) of camel, repairing and maintenance cost of cart viz:

subcomponents like repairing of tyre puncture, replacement of tyre and repairing/replacement of

different body parts etc. The total expenditure and earning from camel carting system was Rs. 44126/-

and Rs. 76545/-, respectively. The actual profit was Rs 32419/-. The pay back period (P.B.P) was

8.64 months. Finally benefit cost ratio (B.C.R) was 1.73 which indicated that camel carting in these

region is advantageous for farmers. The Spearman‘s correlation test indicated that objective of camel

rearing significantly (P<0.01) differ between camel keepers and camel merchants. Camel selling and

purchasing prices varied according to age, sex, body conformation and health condition. The average

age of cart camel was 7.28 4.19 year (Bhakat and Pathak, 2009).

Camel’s merits and demerits in comparison to tractor system

Many advantages of camel system in comparison to tractor system were reported by

respondents in various agriculture operations included camel requiring comparatively less

maintenance cost (97.82%), protection of land fertility and it‘s sustenance for longer time (95.65%).

The farmers (93.48%) felt that camels were suitable to all type of works on all types of lands and

camel ploughing enhanced the soil fertility. The respondents (82.61%) reported that comparatively

less cost was involved in camel ploughing and whenever needed, camels were available and work can

be done easily(70.65%). It was also reported (98.91%) that in less moisture arid soil, single attempt

363


seeding by camel was successful, so repeated seeding was not needed which ultimately reduced the

cost of cultivation specially in case of cash crops like ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) cultivation in

hot arid villages. The respondents opined that camels never harm the soil texture even during

continuous use and camel manure was pivotal during cultivation activities (85.87%). The demerits of

camel in comparison to tractor were also reported (73.91%) as it require more time to complete the

work, work difficulty, problems in meeting out feed cost, shrinkage of grazing / browsing

land(96.74% respondents) and it was felt as burden during the idle period. To resolve this it was

suggested that camel work days need to be increased. For better work effiency the camel of better

body condition needed and work difficulty can be reduced by use of appropriate camel specific

implements.

Advantages and demerits of tractor in comparison to camel system

Although tractors were used in many cases, majority of respondents (91.30%) reported that

the tractors can finish the work quickly and there is less labour involvement (83.69%). On the

contrary, many demerits of tractor in comparison to camel were perceived by farmers viz: high input

cost requirement (73.91%). Most of respondent felt that tractor can harm to soil texture in continuous

use (95.65%) because it harden the land and it was not suitable for any type of land and work

(96.74%). The low skill of operator (64.13%), it‘s non availability during needed hours (53.26%),

costlier fuel expenditure(68.47%) were reported as major demerits. Most of the respondents felt that

in less moisture arid soil, single attempt seeding may not be successful, so repeated seeding by tractor

increase the cost of cultivation (98.91%). Apart from this spare parts were not available in interior

villages (46.74%) and quality of ploughing depends on the operator‘s skill. In India, various farming

operations are carried out by manual, animal and mechanical power sources and animal power

contribute about one third. Eighty-four million draught animals are used for crop production and

transportation purposes (Cartman, 1994). The present degree of mechanized farming in hot arid region

is selective. This situation prevents to use any labour saving equipment like tractors etc.

Though mechanization came into arid agriculture few years back, tractors are used by

farmers of large categories but use by other categories of respondents is still very limited in hot arid

regions. The results of this study amply demonstrated that average size of operational holdings on

tractor-operated farms was substantially higher than those who use camel. Acquisition of tractor helps

in timely accomplishment of farm operations. Despite of application of tractors in arid agriculture

farming, camel power contributes substantially in hot arid villages. The value produced by draught

animals in India would be over Rs 1000 billion whereas; mechanical sources of agricultural power

depend on fossil fuel that has only limited life. According to current estimates, India‘s petroleum and

natural gas resources may last 25-30 years and coal 130-140 years (Sastry and Thomas, 2005). So it

calls for a viable solution to use the camel for dry land agriculture.

Rearing practices for draught camel

Investigation on camel keeping pattern and the observations on feeding management practices

indicated that the practices varied as per number of animals at household. The analysis of observation

indicated that the farmers who are maintaining 1 camel, (88.64%) of them fed at household level

farmers having 2 – 4 camels, majority of them fed their camel at house hold level along with 6 to 9

hrs grazing/browsing at back yard area where as farmers having more than 4 camels, majority of

them fed their camel in extensive management practices. The Chi-square test indicated that the camel

keeping pattern significantly (P<0.01) influenced feeding management practices of these study area.

Conclusion

The results indicated that with greater advantage and lesser cost of the camels were useful to

perform the arid agricultural operations than when it was done by using the tractors. Major constraints

with camel were more time consumption shrinkage of grazing land and feeding management. Use of

camel in farming may be advantageous and beneficial for small and medium farmers who are in

majority numbers in India. When farmers can meet out proper feeding management practices by their

own source of feed then camel are better than tractor, especially for small and medium farmers for dry

land agriculture. Hence suitable measures needed to be taken to conserve the indigenous camel with

proper feeding management in the changing socio-economic scenario.

References

364


Bhakat Champak, Saini N and Pathak K M L, 2009. Comparative study on camel management

systems for economic sustainability. Journal of Camel Practice and Research. 16 (1) : 77 – 81.

Bhakat C and Pathak K M L. 2009. Socio-economic aspects of dromedary camel management in hot

arid desert ecosystem. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 79 (7): 700-705.

Cartman (1994). National conference on policies and programmes for modernisation of draught

animal power system. New Delhi, 4 - 5 March.

Sastry N S R and Thomas C K. 2005. Livestock Production Management, 4th Edition. Kalyani

Publishers; p : 449.

Snedecor W G and Cochran G W. 1989. Statistical methods. Oxford and IBH publishing Co. New

Delhi, India.

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53. An Epidemiological Study of Internal Parasites and Trypanosomiasis in Camels in

Gedarif and Kasala States of Eastern Sudan

I.A. Goreish1, A.M. Magid

2, A.A. Ismael

3 and A.H.A. Rahman

1

1 Central Veterinary Research Laboratories, Ministry of Science and Technology.

2 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahr El Ghazal.

3 National Centre for Research, Ministry of Science and Technology

Introduction

The camel population in the Sudan is estimated at about 3.039 million head, of which 831

thousands are in the States of Eastern Sudan (Sakr and Magid, 2002). Camels are the basis of a

subsistence economy to a large sectors of pastoralists and are kept majorly for their milk, hair and

transport capacity. At present the camels contributes 30% of the total foreign currency earnings

generated by the animal wealth exports.Camel trypanosomiasis and other parasitic infections i.e

Haemonchosis are cosidered to be the main disease constrains that affect the health and production

among all producing animals including camel (Arzoon et al, 1984 ; Agab and Abbas, 1998).

The present epidemiological study was undertaken to know the prevalence of camel

trypanosomosis and internal parasites in camels inGedarif and Kasala States of Eastern Sudan.


This study was conducted in two major camel producing areas of Eastern Sudan viz: Gedarif,

and Kassla states.The basins of many seasonal streams and their tributaries are good grazing areas for

camels. The main camel owning tribes in Kassala are the Hadandawa and the Rashaida tribes and all

of them own both Bishary and Arabi types of camels.The camel owning tribes of Gadarif State are the

Shukriya, Lahawiyeen, Kenana and Ruffaa tribes.

Blood samples from 580 randomly selected camels were collected by jugular venipuncture

and microhaematocrit centrifugation technique (MHCT) was conducted in all the samples. A total of

328 faecal samples were collected at random directly from the rectum of camels from different herds

of the both the states and further they were examined by the floatation and sedimentation and faecal

culture techniques. (Burger and Stoye, 1983).

Results

The results of internal parasites and trypanosomosis infection rates in eastern states are shown

in Figure (1) and Table (1).

Discussion

The present epidemiological study was conducted in camels belonging to different migratory

groups in Kassala and Gedarif States. Historically, camel trypanosomosis is known to be the most

dreadfull disease by the camel owners and in untreated camels mortalities used to exceed 90%

(Knowles,1927). In this study, the Trypanosome infection rate in both dry and rainy season were low

which may be due to insensitivity of diagnostic method used to detect low parasitaemias which

charaterize the disease situation in the field. Rihab Yagi (2007) reported the wide spread of drug

resistant T.evansi stocks to both quinapyramines and melarsoprols in Kasala and Gedarif and that

treatment with trypanocidals gives clincal cure but the parasitaemias remain at very low levels. This

result was supported by the work of Croof (2008) who found similar T. evansi prevalece rates among

camels of Gedarif State usingconvetional methods, but when he examined the same animals with PCR

the infection rate was higher (90%).

In this study the high trypanosomosis prevalence was observed in the rainy season, a period which

usually coincides with peaks of biting flies abundance, particularly Tabanids and high trypanosomosis

prevalence as well. Therefore, the low disease prevalence might be a result of the good nutritional

status of animals at the time of the survey, due to the good pasture conditions.

The expansion in the mechanized rain fed agricultural projects, together with the

establishment of Rahad and khasmalgirba irrigated agricultural projects, affected the movement of the

camel owners in Eastern Sudan, the camels changed from tree browzers to grass grazing. Parasitic

diseases like Schistosomosis, Coccidiosis started to be a real problem in camels (Majid et al, 2000).

366


Infections with internal parasites were found to be high during the rainy season. The effect of interrnal

parasites and the economic losses they cause in camel production in Gedarif State (Butana) was

previously studied by Agab and Abbas (1998), Arzoon et al (1984) and Abdel Ghaffar et al (1984).

Fadl et al (1992) also studied the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in Butana area and their

results were in line with the results obtained from this strudy. Higher PCV values were obtianed from

camels examined during the rainy season in Kasala State when compared to that in the dry season.

This might be due to the good pastures available in the rainy season and also to the relatively low

parasitic burden of internal parasites during this season. Higher PCVs values were observed in

Gedarif State during the dry season where most of the camel owners keep their camels in post harvest

products. During this period both internal parasites and trypanosomosis prevalence were low and this

might be the reason for this improvement in the general condition of the herd. Holmes et al (2000 )

related the disease prevalence of animal trypanosomosis mainly to the level of nutrition of the infected

animals.

References

Abdel Ghaffar, M.A.,Tag Eldin, MH. And Ygoub, I. A.(1984). Investigation on camel Haemonchosis

in the Eastern region of Sudan.Bull. Anim Hlth. Prod. Afri. (32), 412-414.

Agab, H and Abbas B. (1998): Epidemiologic studies on camel diseases in Eastern Sudan. Camel

News Letter(14), 53- 57.

Arzoon I. H., Hussein, H. S. and Hussein, M. F. (1984): The prevalence and pathogenesis of

naturally- occurring Haemonchus longistipes infection in Sudanese Camels. J. Comp.

Path.94: 169- 174.

Burger, H. J. and Stoye, M. (1983): Kotunterschugstechniken In: Bockeler, W. Walker, W. (eds).

Parasitologisches Prakikum, Verlug, Florida, Basel pp. 119-126.

Fadl, M. ; Mugzoub, M. and Brger, H.J.( 1992): Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes infection

in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) in Butana plains, Sudan.Rev. Elv. Med.Vet.

Pays. Trop.45 (3/4) 291-293.

Gray,A.R., Mahmoud, M.M., Boid, R., Luckins, A.G., Malik, K. H. and Pae, P. (1979):

Epideiological studies on Trypanosoma evansi in the an.Trans., Royal Soc. Trop., Med.

Hyg., 73,(2), 136-137.

Knowles, R.H. (1927) Trypanosomiasis in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: Diagnosis , Chemotherapy,

Imunity. J. Comp. Path. Therap.40, 59-71.

Majid.A.A. and Ibtisam A. Goreish (2000): Preliminary survey of internal parasites of camels in

Eastern and Western Sudan. Sudan J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb. Vol. 39 (1,2) 2000.

Sakr, I. and Magid A.A. (2002): The Socio-Economics of Camel Herders in Darfur Region, Sudan.

CARDN/ACSAD/CAMEL/P 102.

367


Table 1: T.evansi Prevalence Among Camelsin the Eastern States During the Rainy and Dry

Seasons:

Rainy

season

No.

exam

No.

+ve Prev (%)

Dry

Season

No.

exam +ve - ve

Fashaga

(Showak) 144 3 2.1 Kasala 89 0.0 0.0

Hamoshk

oraib 256 1 0.6 Gadarif 99 1 1%

Total 400 6 1.5 Total 188 1 0.5%

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54. Camel Production and Management in Selected Areas of the Somali Region,

Ethiopia

Y. Mehari1, G. Gebru

2*, and Z. Mekuriyaw

3

1Independent Researcher, Private P.O.Box 62824, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

2Deputy Director, Managing Risk for Improved pastoral Livelihoods (MARIL),

Adot multiplex building, 1st floor,Room 117, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Private box 9011;

3Debretabor University, Debretabor, Ethiopia


Introduction Livestock contribute 15 to17 percent of GDP and 45 percent of agricultural GDP, and 37 to

87 percent of the household incomes in Ethiopia (Sintayehu et al, 2010). The population of camels in

Ethiopia is close to 3 million heads and of these nearly 60% are found in Somali region. Camel is the

source of livelihoods and income for millions of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in Ethiopia. The

camel market chain (Yacob and Catley, 2011) has impacted the livelihoods of tens of thousands of

pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, farmers and traders living in diverse agro-ecological zones. With the

growing impact of climate change, pastoralists who never owned camels are now diversifying their

herd by introducing camels. However, little work has been done so far at research, teaching, and

development to support camel production in pastoral production systems. There is a welcome trend at

present, in terms of government commitment to support camel production as evidenced by the

establishment of regional camel research center in Somali region, and the Institute of pastoral and

agro-pastoral studies in Haramaya University. This study is a contribution to the national efforts to

build the knowledge base in understanding the production of camels under the traditional

management.

Materials and Methods The study was conducted in two districts of Somali region-Babilie and Kebribeyah. The

objective was to generate baseline information on the camel herd size, herd structure and camel herd

production and management parameters, under the traditional management. The method of data

collection employed was a single-visit-formal-survey. The data were analyzed using Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).


The mean family size in the study area was found to be 5 and 4 for Babilie and Kebribeyah

disricts, respectively. All respondents from the study area were agro-pastoralists, and migration is

common to all. There are distinct locations in respective district where herds move in search for

forage, water, and mineral lick. The ownership right to camels was variable with one district depicting

male ownership, whereas, in the other, both males and females shared ownership right. The major

sources of household income were sale of camel milk, charcoal and firewood. The mean camel herd

size was 14 and 20 for the two districts. The male to female ratio of camels was found to be (1.25,

0.88) for the age group less than two years old, (1.27, 1.23) between two and four years old, (1.23,

0.43) greater than four years old camels respectively. A similar result was obtained by Ishag and

Ahmed (2011) that the percentage of matured camels found to be 45.8% for females and 3.1% for the

males respectively. From our data we can draw a conclusion that Babilie district respondents depend

on camel as a source of traction power, but in Kebribeyah camel was kept as a source of milk.

Respondents own diverse species of livestock and camels predominate.

Most respondents in Babilie district (88%) herd their camels separately (milking camels; and

dry she-camels with the rest of the herd) irrespective of season, whereas in Kebribeyah district

(48.3%) herding depends on season, i.e. during wet season, they herd all camels in one, but separately

during dry season. Camel feed solely depends on grazing/browsing, and there is limited provision of

supplemental feed. According to respondents, the source of water for camels is mainly well-water,

and the distance of watering points from grazing area for well-water users, was greater than five

kilometers.

There was no special management for breeding bull in both districts. Respondents in Babilie

(80%) and Kebribeyah (90%) districts used one breeding bull for the entire herd. Those who have no

369


breeding bull use their relatives‘ bull free of charge.The mean age at first mating for male and female

camels was 6 and 5 years respectively. According to respondents, a breeding camel bull can cover on

average of 12 female camels per day. The average life span of camels, according to key informants,

was reported to be between 25-30 years, and the average number of camel calves during its productive

life was reported to be 10. Mean weaning age of camel calves were found to be between 8 to 9

months. The mean weight of camels for Babilie district was 435.23 and 377.96 kg; whereas in

Kebribeyah district it was found to be 407.34 and 401.70 kg for male and female camels, respectively.

Estimated mean daily milk yield was reported as 5.69 and 3.82 liters in the wet and dry seasons

respectively. Milking frequency ranges between two and three times a day. During the study period

camel calf death rate ranged from 7-20 for Babilie; and 23- 57 for Kebribeyah district.The reported

production levels are being constrained by variable factors. These as reported by the herders include

fertility problems, diseases, lack of social services, deforestation and loss of browse species, and lack

of water. Others like lack of mineral water, marketing problems, conflicts and drought were also

noted as requiring attention.

Conclusions

The camel will continue to play a significant role not only in supporting livelihoods of

pastoral and agro-pastoral systems, but also as a source of income to pastoral households and the

national economy. The Camel can contribute into the projected livestock export income in the Growth

and Transformation Plan (GTP) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, but a lot of work is

needed to overcome the major constraints of production, particularly emerging camel diseases that if

left unattended can pose a threat to the lives and livelihoods of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in

Ethiopia. Given the emerging trend of increased frequency and severity of drought and the changes in

the natural resources base in some pastoral areas of Ethiopia (increased bush encroachment and

prevalence of woody species), camels are being introduced into the herd. This requires building the

capacity of new camel herders through mentorship by skilled pastoral herders. In view of the growing

camel market as well as the camel milk marketing, efforts need to be exerted on bringing efficiency

into the market, as well as adding value to camel milk products and ensuring quality milk handling

during transit to terminal markets. This study contributes to the possible interventions along these can

only be realized when baseline data is available on the current state of camel production and

management.

References Ishag I A and Ahmed M-K A, 2011. Characterization of production system of Sudanese camel breeds.

Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 23, Article

#56.http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd23/3/isha23056.htm

Kurtu M.Y., 2004. An assessment of the productivity for meat and carcass yield of camels (Camelus

dromedaries) and the consumption of camel meat in the eastern region of Ethiopia. Tropical

Animal Health and Production, 36 (2004) 65-76.

Sintayehu.; Samuel A.; Derek B.; and Ayele S., 2010. Diagnostic study of live cattle and beef

production and marketing:Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system.

International Livestock Research Institute, July 2010, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Yacob A. and Catley A., 2011. Shifting Sands: The Commercialization of Camels in Mid-altitude

Ethiopia and Beyond. Feinstein International Center, Tufts University, 200 Boston Ave.,

Suite 4800 Medford, MA 02155 USA. April, 2011.

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55. Camel Research Status and Future Research Strategy in the Somali Regional State

of Ethiopia

S. Tilahun

Somal Regional Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Research Institute (SoRPARI)


Background

The Somali National Regional State (SRS) is the second largest Federal state of Ethiopia,

covers the eastern and south-eastern arid and semi-arid area of the lowlands, which lies between 40-

110 N‘L‘ and 40

0-48

0 E‘L‘. It borders Oromiya, Afar, Djibouti, Kenya and Somalia. The region‘s

landmass encompasses a total area of about 300, 000 km2 is administratively divided into 9 zones and

67 districts. The region has two generalized major climatic zones; hot arid and hot semi-arid. In the

Somali Regional State, agriculture is the most important economic sector. Livestock production is the

dominant sub-sector, and most of the inhabitants obtain their subsistence and other requirements

directly or indirectly from this sector. Nomadism and transhumanism are the main livestock

production systems while agro-pastoralism is also practiced in the nearby highland districts and river

valleys.


Past camel research results published by Somali Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Research Institute

and Haromay University were reviewed. In addition, the camel research strategic plan of the region

was also reviewed.


Past research achievements

The newly established Camel Research Center carried out different camel research activities.

A summary of these are organized and presented hereunder. Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is highly

adapted domestic animal to arid and semi-arid environment. According to the Investment Office of

the Somali National Regional State, the population of camel is estimated to be 2.032 millions.

Information‘s on behavior and plant preference and quality of forage selected by dromedary camels

were also generated in Babile area of the Somali State (Kebebew, 1998; Moges, 2001). On average

browsing/grazing was found to be the dominant daytime activity occupying between 59-69% in both

seasons followed by waking, resting, and ruminating and other activities.

Some herd and individual growth rate of camel‘s data had been generated in Babile district

(Zeleke and Bekele, 2001). The findings indicated that the average annual herd growth and

commercial offtake rate of camels monitored for two years were 10.66% and 4.65%, respectively.

Regarding the individual growth of camels, female immature camels (1-4years old) showed

significantly (P<0.01) higher daily weight gain (59.40±0.61 g/d) than male camels of the same age

(33.24±0.50 g/d). Concerning camel reproduction information have been generated on puberty age,

sign of heat, pregnancy and gestation in Afder zone (Ahmed Sh Mohamed, 2001) in Ogaden area

(Abebe, 1991) in Shinille area (Bekele and Getu, 1998, Tezera and Beley, 2000, Melaku and Feseha,

2001) in Babile (Zeleke and Bekele, 2001). The annual calving percentage, number of services

preconception, open days and abortion rates for the camels herd in Babile (Erer) were 42.7%, 1.4±0.1,

162.8±7.9 days and 12.1%, respectively. Age at puberty, Age at first calving, calving interval, calving

rate, calf mortality for Shinille camel herds were reported to be 4 years, 5 years, 2 years, 50% and

50%, respectively. Similar findings were reported from Afder and Ogaden area of the Somali State.

The milk production performance, the effect of party, season of calving, calf death, and lactation

characteristics of camels has been studied by a number of investigators in the Somali Region (Abebe

1991, Kebebew and Baars, 1998, Baars 2000, Tezera and Hans, 2000, Zeleke and Bekele 2001,

Melaku and Fesaha, 2001, Ahmed Sh Mohamed 2001, Bekele et al., 2002). The milk yields of camels

was 8-10, 7.5, 2.9-5.5, 4.14-6.77, 4-5 kg/day in Ogaden, Errer, Afder, Babile and in Shinille and

Jijiga, respectively. Preliminary information on the meat production, processing and utilization of

371


camel meat in Shinille and Jijiga zone were reported (Tezera and Belay, 2000). The mean live weight

for adult male and female camels was 486±81.3 kg and 427±62.2 kg and 384±80.8 kg and 326±62.9

kg for Jijiga and Shinille, respectively. Information on the epidemiology, pathology, clinical signs and

treatment response of the new camel respiratory disease were responded in Shinille (Bekele, 1999).

Research Gaps and Strategy

The research activities were prioritized as follows: the gaps in breeding, production,

reproduction, husbandry and management, health, nutrition and socioeconomic and processing will be

addressed and the strategy approach likely to contribute to improved research co-ordination and to

enhance research that will be conducted through short-term, medium and long term plan in the future

will be addressed.

Conclusion

There had been attempts to study camel marketing in the region but more studies on camel

and camel product market value chain is required. Different experiment should be conducted to study

the effect of supplementation with protein or energy sources on milk yield in lactating dromedary.

Moreover further camel research should be conducted based on the research thematic area of the

region.

References

Abebe, Wosene. 1991. Traditional husbandry practices and major health problems of camels in the

Ogaden (Ethiopia). Nomadic peoples, 29:21-30

Ahmed, Sh. Mohamed. 2001. Study on practices and problems of camel production in Afder zone of

Somali National Regional State, Ethiopia, MSc dissertation, Alemaya University, pp 150

Bekele, T. and Getu, H. 1998. Current camel health situation analysis and review on camel production in

the Somali National Regional State. Report, Alemaya University, pp 68

Bekele, T. 1999. Studies on the respiratory disease ‗Sonbobe‘ in camels in the eastern lowlands of

Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and production, 31(6), 333-345

Bekele, T., Zeleke, M and Baars, R.M.T 2002. Milk production performance of the one humped

camel (Camelus dromedarius) under pastoral management in semi-arid eastern Ethiopia.

Livestock production sciences, 76(1-2), 37-44

Kebebew T. and Baars, R.M.T. 1998. Milk production performance of pastorally managed camels in

eastern Ethiopia. Proceedings of the 6th annual conference of ESAP, 14-15 May 1998, Addis

Ababa, 184-193

Melaku, T. and Fesaha, G. 2001. A study on the productivity and disease of camels in eastern

Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and production, 31(4), 265-274

Moges, Dereje. 2001. The dromedary camel: Supplementation for higher milk yields and behaviour

and feed preference on range. MSc dissertation, Swedish University of

Tezera, G. and Belay, K. 2000. Camel husbandry practices, household and herd characteristics in

eastern Ethiopia, Proceeding of the 8th annual conference of ESAP, August 2000, Addis

Ababa, 168-179

Tezera, G. and Hans, B. 2000. Camel milk and meat utilization in eastern Ethiopia. Proceeding of the

8th annual conference of ESAP, August 2000, Addis Ababa, 112-122

Zeleke, M. and Bekele, T. 2001. Effect of season on the productivity of camels (Camelus

dromedarius) and the prevalence of their major parasite in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal

Health and production, 33(4), 321-329

372


Meat

and

Products

373


56. Evaluation of Camel Crossbred (Dromedarius and Bactrianus) Carcass Traits

Z. Ebadi1, H.R. Ansari Renani

1, A. Kamalzare

2 and N. Asadzadeh

1


Box: 3146618361 [email protected] 2University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran

Introduction

Food production in arid and semi arid regions is critical. The camel is an animal that has

adapted to live in harsh region and is a good meat producing animal. Iran has wide spread desert

regions, with limited rangeland and low annual rainfall. It is necessary to pay attention to the food

supplies for the growing human population in these regions. Recently, the world consumption of

camel meat has increased. The population of one humped and two humped camels in Iran is 150,100

heads respectively. This study was conducted to characterize the quality of male and female crossbred

camel (Dromedarius and Bactrianus) carcasses (Figure 1). Limited studies have been conducted on

the breeding and crossbreeding of camels. Asadzadeh (2008) compared the fattening performance of

native dromedary and crosses of dromedary and bacterian camels and showed that there was no

significant differences between the two groups for average daily gain, average feed conversion ratio

and average slaughter weight (P>0.05).


Eleven male and female crossbred camels of 20 months of age were evaluated in complete

randomized design experiment. Camels were slaughtered and carcasses kept in the cold storage room

at 40C for 24 hour. Percentages of meat, bone, fat and meat to bone ratio (M/B) in six regions of

body: leg, shoulder, breast, loin, flank and neck were measured. Analysis of variance was performed

using a general linear model (GLM) of SAS package (1995). Differences between means were tested

using Duncan‘s new multiple range test.


There was no significant difference in the carcass traits between male and female crossbred

camel (Table 1). The average percentage of meat, bone, fat and the meat to bone ratio (M/B) in

crossbred camel carcasses were 57.6±1.77, 23.3±1.30, 13.2±1.19 and 2.7±0.16 respectively. Yousif

(1989) indicated that meat, bone and fat percentage were 56, 19 and 13.7 respectively. Leg and flank

had the highest (69.0±1.77) and lowest (38.5±1.77) percentage of meat respectively. The highest bone

percentage was 34.7±1.30 in breast. The highest (46.1±1.19) and lowest (0.8±1.19) percentage of fat

were in flank and neck respectively. The ratio of meat to bone was 3.1±0.16 and 2.8±0.16 in leg and

shoulder respectively.

Figure 1- crossbred camel (Dromedarius and Bactrianus)

374


Table 1: Carcass characteristics of crossbred camels

Factors

Meat

%

Bone

%

Fat

%

M/B

Sex Male 57.5±1.02 23.6±0.75 12.7±0.69 2.7±0.09

Female 57.7±1.02 23.1±0.75 13.8±0.69 2.7±0.69

Cuts Neck 67.4±1.77a 21.8±1.30

b 0.8±1.19

e 3.2±0.16

a

Shoulder 64.9±1.77

a

23.1±1.30b 9.3±1.19

bc 2.8±0.16

a

Loin 51.9±1.77b 26.3±1.30

b 12.7±1.19

b 2.0±0.16

b

Flank 38.5±1.77

c

12.0±1.30c 46.1±1.19

a

3.2±0.16a

Breast 54.0±1.77b 34.7±1.30

a 7.2±1.19

cd 1.7±0.16

b

Leg

69.0±1.77

a

22.1±1.30b 3.3±1.19

de 3.1±0.16

a

Carcass

average

57.6±1.77 23.3±1.30 13.2±1.19 2.7±0.16

* a,b,c,d,e Within columns, mean without a common superscript differ at p<0.05

References

Asadzadeh, N. (2008). Comparison of fattening performance between dromedary and crossbred of

bactrian and dromedary camels. Animal Science Research Institute. Karaj. Iran.

SAS Institute, Inc. (1995). SAS Users Guide Ststistics. SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC. USA.

Yousif, O.Kh. and S.A., Babiker (1989). The desert camel as a meat animal. Meat Science, 26, Pp:

245-254.

375


57. Evaluation of Carcass and Hide Production from Camels

M. Salehi1, N. Taherpour Dari

1, Z. Ebadi

1, A. Babak

2 and S. Shahkarami

2

1 Department of Animal Production Processing, Animal Science Research Institute of Iran, Karaj

2Department of Animal Science, Karaj Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran


Introduction

Different technical reports have shown that camel is an animal that can easily adapt to the

harsh conditions of dry and semi dry regions. Not only it can have good production, but it also plays a

major role in improving peoples conditions (Katemi, 1990). The economical value of hide, leather

products and their by-products appear to be highly valued in addition to meat production (FAO 2010).

Unfortunately, very few studies have been carried on other camel products. The objective of

this study was to evaluate the effect of sex on the hide, carcass and body weight of camel.


In this study, 14 Iranian male and female Dromedary camels were slaughtered at the age of 21

months. The fresh hides were weighed. The salted hides were placed in the shade (15OC and 50 %

humidity for 30 days) for drying. The extra salt was removed through shaking and the dry salted hides

were weighed. During and after tanning processing the crust weight, grain leather weight and leather

size were measured. Data were analyzed statistical using General Linear Model (GLM) (SAS, 2002).


The overall results of this experiment are shown in Table 1. A wide range of live and carcass

weights has been reported for camels in literature, but these traits depend on age, sex, environmental

conditions and general health of the animal (El Amin, 1979). The average live weight of camels was

279 kg at 13 months and 339 kg at 21 months.

Even though yearling weight was affected by sex (P<0.05; Figure 1), previous studies

indicated no marked sex differences on live weight at early ages. At older ages males were

significantly heavier than females (Kadmin et al, 2008).

The data obtained in a study indicated that the males were heavier than females. The growth

rate of males was higher than the females.

The ranges of warm and cold carcass weight were 168.4 – 291.0 and 165.1 – 286.7 kg,

respectively and were influenced by sex (P < 0.05; Figure, 1). The average carcass weight of 187 to

220 kg has been reported for Iranian camels (Khodai, 2001).

Table 1: Summary of unadjusted means and range on measured characteristics of camels

Characteristics Mean ± SE Cv Min Max

Live weight (13 month old) 279.0 ± 11.1 14.9 201.50 347.0

Slaughter weight (21 month old) 339.1 ± 9.8 10.8 286.0 400.0

Warm Carcass (kg) 211.5 ± 8.33 14.7 168.4 291.0

Cold Carcass (kg) 206.1 ± 8.2 14.9 165.1 286.7

Wet hide weight (kg) 30.7 ± 0.9 11.9 23.7 37.5

Dry hide weight (kg) 20.2 ± 1.2 22.7 12.7 27.0

Crust Weight (kg) 13.6 ± 0.3 9.4 11.9 15.7

Leather weight (kg) 3.65 ± 0.09 10.9 2.9 4.2

Leather size (sqft) 25.2 ± 0.8 11.7 20.4 30.3

The skin weight and skin surface area of males and females also increased with age but the

rate of increasing was smaller than that for body weight (Al-Jassim and Al-Saigh, 1999). Although

there were differences in the weight of fresh and dry hides, with respect to sex, but there were

significant differences (P<0.05) in weight. This was not observed in the leather weight of the two

sexes (Figure, 2).

376


There were a positive correlation (r= 0.4 to 0.6) between yearling weight and slaughter and

wet weight of hide. The correlation between slaughter weight with wet and dry weight of hide, and

with leather weight were positive (r= 0.4 to 0.8). The wet weight of hide and dry hide, leather weight

were highly relative (P<0.001). There was small negative correlation between the leather size and

slaughter weight, carcass and skin weight.

Figure 1. Effect of sex on yearling weight (YW, kg); Figure 2. Effect of sex on wet, dry, crust

slaughter weight (SW, kg); warm and cold carcass and leather weight (WH, DH, CRW and

weight (WCW and CCW, kg) of Dromedary camel LW, kg) of Dromedary camel.

References

Al-Jassim, A.F. and Al-Saigh, M.N.R. (1999). Some aspects of post-natal growth of Arabi sheep:

Live weight and body organs. Indian journal of Animal Science. 69:8. 604-8.

El Amin, F.M, (1979). The dromedary camel of the Sudan. In IFS Symposium camels, Sudan, 35-54.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2010). World statistical compendium for

hides, skins, leather and leather footwear.Tropical and Horticultural Products Service,

Commodities and Trade Division (ESC). FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome,

Italy.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchas, R.W. (2008). A review of the growth, and of the carcass and

meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Science.

80. 555-569.

Khatami, K. (1990). Research on camel rising for revival and improve economical production status

in Iran. Livestock Research Institute. Agricultural Research Education and Extension

Organization. Ministry of Agriculture. Iran. 20-25.

Khodai, S.A. (2001). The report on camel production systems in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Deputy

for Livestock Affairs Directorate of Animal Breeding. Iran. Pp: 4-10, 23.

SAS/STAT. (2002). Proprietary Software Version 9.00. Licensed to Suny at Stony Brook, Site

0013402001. by SAS Institute Inc. Cary. NC. USA.

377


58. Comparison of Carcass Yields in Two Algerian Camel Populations:

The Targui and The Sahraoui

A. Adamou

Research Laboratory "Protection of Ecosystemsin Arid and Semi Arid" – University Kasdi Merbah –

Ouargla – Algeria. Tel/Fax : 029712697


Introduction

Algeria has not yet come to evaluate the camel as a source of protein, despite the shortage of

red meat, in particular in the Saharan regions. However, the consumption of camel meat is negligible

at the national level (4.2% of total red meat consumed). It remains important in the Sahara since the

camels contribute 33.02% of all red meat slaughter. Despite many constraints, the Algerian camel

remained closely linked to camel owners inspite of the hard life in rural Sahara. Camels uses for other

aspects (transport, hair, etc.) have fallen sharply with the modernism in the Saharan regions. The

objective of this study was to determine the yield of the carcass in two populations of camels among

the largest camels in Algeria: the Sahraoui and the Targui.


The live weight of camel was calculated using the formula (Boué, 1949) used forcamelsin

Algeria:

P = 53 × CT × CA × HG

P = body weight

CT = chestcircumference (m)

AC = abdominal circumference (m)

HG = height at the withers (m)

Carcass weight was determed in both abattoirs (Ouargla and Tamanrasset) representing five

age groups (3-4 years, 5-6 years, 7-9 years,10-12 years and more than 12 years) consisting of ten male

camels for each group.

To determine the weight of the carcass, we have the addition of the weights of separate parts

forming the frame (9 for cutting Tamanrasset and 7 to that of Ouargla).


The result showed that carcass weight was depending on camel‘s age of 52.14% for the age

group 3-4 years to54.18% in the third age category 7 to 9 years. The range of carcass will be varied

from (Table 1).

Table 1:Performance of the carcass according to age among theTargui

Category Age

(years)

The carcass

yield (%)

01 3 to 4 75.18

02 5 to 6 75.29

03 7 to 9 72.51

04 10 to 12 71.42

05 >12 66.66

As for the Sahraoui dromedary, the results had rates ranging from 75.18% in the first age group (3-4

years) to 75.29% age group of 5 to 6 years. The average yield of the carcass for the five age categories

in Targui was 53.32% while 72.21% for the Sahraoui.

Table 2:Performanceof the carcass according to age among the Sahraoui

Category Age

(years)

The carcass

yield (%)

01 3 to 4 52.14

02 5 to 6 53.33

03 7 to 9 54.18

04 10 to 12 53.69

378


05 >12 53.25

The differences between the yields of carcass in both breeds studied were significant with an

ideal age for slaughter in 7-9 years the Targui and an earlier age in the Sahraoui (5-6 years). In

accordance with the present studies, 53.5% was the average yield of the carcass for animals older than

5 years and 51.4% for Sudan (Wilson, 1978). El-Gasim and El Hag (1992) found that in Saudi Arabia

camel, the carcass yield was 52.1% for Majaheem and 56.1% for Hamra. High feeding camel produce

61.:31 carcass yield in Tunisian camel aged 3 (Kamoun, 1993).

Among the Targui dromedary, there was no much variability in the carcass from one category

to another where the difference between the maximum yield and minimum yield is about 2.04% in

contrast to Sahraoui dromedary, which recorded a difference of 8.63%.

Conclusion

This study concluded that the optimum age for slaughtering camels were 7-9 for the Targui

and 5-6 years for the Sahraoui.

References

Boue A. (1949). Essai de barymétrie chez le dromadaire nord-africain. Revue Elev. Med. Vét. Pays

Trop.3 (1). p.13-16.

Wilson R.T.(1978). Studies on the livestock of Southern Darfur, Sudan 5. Notes on camels.Trop.

Anim. Health Prod. P.10-19.

El Gasim E.A., El Hag G.A., (1992). Carcass characteristics of the arabian camel. In: Camel

Newsletter N°9, juin 1992. Ed: ACSAD. Damas (Syrie). P. 20-24.

Kamoun M. (1993). Reproduction and production of Maghrabi dromedaries kept on pastures of the

Mediterranean type. Etudes et syntheses de l‘IEMVT. P.117-130.

379


59. pH Measurement of Six Muscles of Bactrian Camels (Camelus bactrianus) From

Kazakhstan

G. Raiymbek1, B. Faye

2, G. Konuspayeva

1 and I.T. Kadim

3

1Al-Farabi Kazkh National University, Kazakhstan, Almaty, Al-Farabi -71

[email protected]; 2CIRAD-ES, TA C-Dir/B Campus International de Baillarguet, Cedex, 34398 Montpellier, France

3Department of Animal and Veterinary sciences, college of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan

Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khoud Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

Corresponding author:

Introduction The camel is one of the most fundamental pillars of the national economy and the food

security of arid and semi-arid regions. Camels can provide human with high quality meat.

In Kazakhstan, three types of camels are available (Bactrian, Dromedary and their hybrids),

the Bactrian is predominant (80% of the 148,000 heads) and used for meat and wool productions. The

demand for camel meat appears to be increasing due to health reasons, as they produce carcasses with

less fat as well as having less cholesterol and relatively high polyunsaturated fatty acids than other

meat livestock (Kadim et al., 2008).

The ultimate pH of muscle is regarded as one of the important parameters affecting meat

quality and largely dependent on glycogen content. Meat quality parameters of Bactrian camel

received little attention and marketing system for camel meat requires more information on muscle

pH values of various muscles due to its effect on quality parameters. Identification quality

characteristics of individual camel muscles will increase the demand for their products. The objective

of this study was to determine ultimate pH of infraspinatus, triceps brachii, longissimus thoraces,

biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus muscles.


The infraspinatus, triceps brachii, longissimus thoracis, Biceps femoris, semitendinosus and

semimembranosus muscles were removed from the left and right sides of three year-old Bactrian

camel carcasses within 20 min postmortem. Samples were kept in the chiller (1-3°C) for 48 hrs. The

pH of the six muscles was monitored using a portable pH meter (Hanna waterproof pH meter, Model

Hi 9025, Italy) fitted with a polypropylene spear-type gel electrode (Hanna Hi 1230) and a

temperature adjusting probe. pH measurements were recorded at 40 min, and 2, 4, 8, 24 and 48 hrs

post-mortem. The general liner model, ANOVA procedure within SAS (1993) was used to compare

the six muscles on pH values.


Average pH time curves for six muscles are presented in Figure 1. Small variation in pH

values between six muscles might be due to variation in muscle fiber types, which contributed in

differences in patterns of muscle metabolism (Swatland, 1982), and consequently differences in

ultimate pH value. Changes in glycolysis within time postmortem were monitored by measuring the

rate of pH fall after slaughter, and post-mortem time taken by muscles to reach a pH of 6.0. After a

relatively fast fall within the first two hours, the mean pH values underwent a slow decline until an

ultimate pH at 48 hours post-mortem. These findings are in accordance with those of Kadim et al.,

(2009) a fast decline in pH within the first 3-4 hours in meat from camels. The time needed for muscle

pH values to reach 6.0, is a reflection of rigor onset. In the present study, the time to pH 6.0 ranged

from 2.00 to 2.30 hours (Figure 1). Reduction of the time required for muscles to reach pH 6.0 is of

very practical importance. The ultimate pH values across the selected muscles were ranged from 5.5

to 5.8. The muscle semimembranosus had lowest pH value at 12 hrs postmortem, while Infraspinatus

had the highest value. The difference between the two muscles appeared more obvious. Respectably,

the ultimate pH of semimembranosus was 6.07 after slaughter, in contrary, the muscle

semimembranosus pH was 6.83 this indicated that under the same conditions locations of muscles

effect on the pH value of muscles. Other muscle‘s pH decline was similar.

380


Figure 1. Mean changes in pH within infraspinatus (IS), triceps brachii TB), longissimus thoraces

(LT), biceps femoris (BF), semitendinosus (ST), and semimembranosus (SM) muscles in carcass from

Bactrian camel.

In conclusion, muscle locations had a small effect on decline pH. The decline in pH of the

Bactrian camel muscles had similar pattern to those of the dromedary camel.

References

El Khasmi M., Riad F., Safwate A, Tahri E.H., Farh M., El Abbadi N., Coxam V., Faye B., 2011.

Effects of preslaughter stress on meat quality and phosphocalcic metabolism in camels

(Camelus dromedarius). J. Camelid Sci., 3, 33-38

Kadim I. T., Mahgoub O., Purchas R.W., 2008. A review of the growth, and of the carcass and meat

quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat Sci., 80, 555-

569I.

Kadim, I.T., Al-Hosni, Y., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W., Khalaf, S.K., Al-Maqbaly, R.S., Al-

Sinawi, S.S.H. and Al-Amri, I.S. (2009). Effect of low voltage electrical stimulation on

biochemical and quality characteristics of Longissimus thoracic muscle from one-humped

Camel (Camelus dromedaries). Meat science, 82, 77-85.

Swatland, H.J. (1982). The challenges of improving meat quality. Canadian Journal of Animal

Science. 62, 15-24.

381


60. Effect of Feed Intake on Composition of the Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius)

Muscles

A. H. Al-Kharusi, I.T. Kadim, O. Mahgoub and W. Al-Marzooqi

Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan

Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

The one humped camel is found in the semi-arid and arid regions of the world. Camels are

able to survive under harsh environments, due to their unique morphological and physiological

features. Camels can produce high quality food at comparatively low costs under extremely harsh

environments (Yousif and Babiker, 1989). They also play an important role as meat producers in

developing countries due to the versatile role, rather than as a symbol of social prestige which has

declined (Dawood and Alkanhal, 1995). Camels are considered as a good meat source which yields

heavy carcasses (Kadim et al., 2008a). Management systems play a significant role in camel growth

and production. These include environmental conditions, composition and size of the herd and the

way camels are raised either alone or mixed with sheep, goats and cattle (Bakhiet, 1999). Camel

management should consider production patterns on feed availability and production target, such us

increased milk production, prolonged lactation, herd growth, reproduction and meat production

(Hashi et al., 1995). The demand for camel meat appears to be increasing especially in arid regions

(Kadim et al., 2006). The chemical composition and meat quality of camel are influenced by age and

anatomical locations within an animal (Kadim et al., 2006, 2009). The aim of this study was to

evaluate the meat production and performance under intensive management.


Visible fat was removed from the muscle samples and then placed in plastic containers and

dried in an Edward‘s freeze dryer (Modulyo) for five days under 100-mbar pressures at -50°C. They

were ground to a homogenous mass in a grinder for chemical analysis. Dry matter, crude protein, fat

content and ash content were determined according (AOAC, 2000).

The data were analyzed using analysis of variance procedure (SAS, 1993). Significances

between means were assessed using the least significant-difference procedure.


Camel muscle composition varied according to age, type of muscles, and nutrition. In the

present study the mean moisture values was within the range of values reported by Al-Owaimer

(2000), Kadim et al. (2006; 2008b) and Suliman et al. (2011). However, these values were lower than

values (78.3%, 79.6%) reported by Naser at al. (1965) and El-Kadi and Fahmi (1985), respectively.

The Triceps brachii contained (77.7%) moisture similar to that reported by Kamoun (1995 a,b) for the

same muscle but higher than values reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990). We found that the higher

value of semitendinosus muscle moisture was 75.4% which was lower than value reported by Kamoun

(1995 a,b) and same as value reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990). Longissimus thoracis muscle

contain moisture of (73.8%) with in the same range values reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990) and

Kamoun (1995 a,b) but higher than values reported by Kadim et al. (2006; 2008b).These variation

may be because of age differences, pre-slaughter handling, types of feed and management.

In the present study there was a variation in fat content between muscles, and average values

were similar to that reported by other studies (6.0 to 7.9%) which lower than values recorded by

Kadim et al (2006; 2010) (10.5%) and Kamoun (1995 a,b) . Suliman et al (2001) reported a mean fat

value for different breed ranged from 3.5 to 4.8%. Kadim et al. (2006 and 2008b) reported a mean fat

value of 6.4% and 4.4% for longissimus thoracis, respectively; which is lower than 7% reported by

Dawood and Alkanhal (1995). El-Faer et al (1991) and Elgasim and Alkanhal (1992) recorded

slightly higher values, whereas Cristofaneli et al (2004) reported lower values (0.5-1.43%). The lower

values of fat content was reported in triceps brachii, semimembranoses and biceps femoris, 1.93%,

2.49%, 2.51%, respectively. These results were in line with finding by Kamoun (1995 a,b) for triceps

brachii. For the semitendinories muscle these authors reported lower values (2%) than our finding

(6.89%-3.10%). These results and fat content variation indicates that camel deposit more fat when get

382


older. The present results indicated that type of feed has a significant effect on fatting animals and

raising camel under intensive management may deposit more fat than animals moving for long

distances.

In the present study the values of ash ranged between 0.75 to 1.18%, which was lower than

values 4.4% reported by Kamoun (1995 a,b) and the same as values reported by Naser et al., (1965).

Ash content in camel meat ranged between 1.1 to 1.5% (Al-Owaimer, 2000; Kadim et al., 2006, 2010;

Suliman et al., 2011). In the present study the ash values was within the range reported for other

animals. There was no significant difference in ash content between muscles. These finding are in line

with those reported by Dawood (1995) for different cuts (chuck, ribeye and leg).

In the present study the value of protein for longissimus thoracis muscle ranged between

18.78 to 19.09% was similar to values reported by Kadim et al (2008a), but slightly lower than values

reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990), Kadim et al. (2006, 2010) and Elgasim and Alkanhal (1992).

Protein content in camel meat ranged between 19.4 to 24.5% (Al-Owaimer, 2000; Kadim et al., 2006;

2008b; 1986; Suliman et al., 2011). Protein content for the semitendinosus muscle in the present study

was in the same range of values reported by Babiker and Yousif (1990), but for triceps brachii muscle

was higher. There was significant variations in protein content between the six muscles are in line

with finding by Herrman and Fischer (2004). The latter authors found that the shoulder and topside

muscles had higher protein content than longissimus thoracis muscles. The differences might be due

to functions of individual muscle. The locomotive muscles need more than postures (support) muscles

nutrients.

In conclusion, meat moisture, protein, and fat% were significantly (P<0.01) different among

muscles. There were significant differences among muscles in unsaturated, mono-unsaturated, poly-

unsaturated fatty acids and ratio of saturated to total fatty acid. Feeding levels and type of muscles had

significant effect on iodine number. This study indicated that intensive management had a small effect

on meat composition of muscles. Variation among muscles may be due to different functional

properties according to their locations.

References

Al-Owaimer, A. N. (2000). Effect of dietary Halophyte Salicornia bigelovii Torr on carcass

characteristics, minerals, fatty acids and amino acids profile of camel meat. Journal of

Applied Animal Research, 18, 185-192.

AOAC. (2000). Official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists

(AOAC). Ed. W. Horwitz. 17th edition. Association of official analytical chemistry:

Washington D. C.

Babiker, S. A., and Yousif, K. H. (1990). Chemical composition and quality of camel meat. Meat

Science, 27, 283-287.

Bakhiet, S.A.F. (1999). Studies on milk production and composition of camels (Camelus

dromedaries) under nomadic system, Msc. Thesis Khartoum, University of Sudan.

Carrapiso, A.I., Timon, M., Petron, M., Tejeda, J., and Garcia, C. (2000). In situ transesterification of

fatty acids from Iberian pig subcutaneous adipose tissue. Elsevier science, 56 (2), 159-164

383


Cristofaneli, S., Antonini, M., Torres, D., Polidori, P. and Renieri, C. (2004). Meat and carcass quality

from Peruvian llama (lama glama) and alpaca (lama pacos). Meat Science, 66, 589-593.

Dawood, A. (1995). Physical and sensory characteristics of Najdi camel meat. Meat Science, 39, 59-

69.

Dawood, A., and Alkanhal, M.A. (1995). Nutrient composition of Najdi-Camel Meat. Meat Science,

39, 71-78.

El-Faer, M. Z., Rawdah, T. N., Attar, K. M., and Dawson, M. V. (1991). Mineral and proximate

composition of the meat of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries). Food Chemistry,

42, 139-143.

Elgasim. E.A., and Alkanhal, M.A. (1992). Proximate composition, amino acid and inorganic mineral

content of Arabian camel meat: comparative study. Food Chemistry, 45, 1-4.

Hashi, A.M, Kamoun, M., and Cianci, D. (1995). Feed requirements of the camel, Options

Mediterraneennes (CIHEAM), p: 71-80.

Herrman, K., and Fischer, A. (2004). Method of hygienic slaughter of camels. In Z. Farah, A. Fisher

(Eds), Milk and meat from the camel. Handbook on products and processing. (pp. 89-135).

Zurich, Switzer-land: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.

384


61. The Relevance of Camel Meat for Society

C.E.A. Albrecht

Georg August University Goettingen, Germany


Camel meat is a valuable source for human nutrition. Camels can produce meat under

environmental conditions where other species fail to produce anything. The low intra-muscular fat

content of camel meat makes it a valuable part of low cholesterol diets. On the other hand there are

many prejudices against the consumption of camel meat from people who are not used to camels. And

there is a religious taboo against the consumption of camel meat for Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jews,

Copts and Ethiopian Christians. The presentation shows the pros and contras of camel meat

consumption.

385


62. Effect of Storage Time on Physical and Chemical Properties of Burgers Made With

Different Amounts of Camel Meat

I.A. Ghada and I.A. Nour

Upper Nile University, Faculty of Animal Production;

University of Khartoum, Faculty of Animal Production, Department of Meat Production; Sudan


This study was conducted to investigate the effect of using different levels of camel meat and

storage time on properties of burgers. Twenty-five kilograms of meat (12.5 kg camel and 12.5 kg

beef) were used. Five levels of camel meat were used 0% (pure beef, control), 25%, 50%, 75%,

100% and two storage periods 1 and 7 days at -17OC. Chemical composition, cooking loss, water

holding capacity, objective color, ultimate pH, oxidative rancidity and sensory evaluation were

determined.

Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between burgers of various the levels of

camel meat and storage periods except for protein, fat, ash, pH, WHC and color (L). Moisture%

decreased significantly (P<0.05) protein, fat and ash percentage decreased significantly (P<0.05),

while pH, WHC increased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing storage period. Cooking loss and

shrinkage decreased significantly (P<0.01), while the oxidative rancidity (TBA –values) increased

(P<0. 01) with increasing storage time.

Redness decreased significantly (P<0.05) and yellowness increased with increasing storage

time. There was significant (P<0.05) interaction effect between the level of camel meat and the

storage time on lightness. Tenderness and color decreased slightly (P>0.05) but flavor and juiciness

increased slightly with increasing the storage time.

386


63. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy to Dose Zinc in Camel Skin in the South of

Morocco

A. Kamili*, B. Faye, M. Bengoumi, N.S. Tligui, Y. Mbesse and G. Taieb


Introduction

Promoting camel dromedary as livestock animal is a strategic issue for the economic

development of Southern provinces of Morocco. However, this promotion is limited by zootechnical

and socio-economic constraints as well health conditions, particularly, skin diseases that represent

major concern for both veterinary authorities and camel farmers.

Recent studies on the characteristics of mineral metabolism in camels showed that it differs

from other species by a remarkable adaptability to sub-mineral nutrition (Faye et al., 2000). However,

due to prolonged exposure to under-nutrition and years of recurring drought in southern Morocco, the

camel could suffer from deficiencies in essential minerals, some of which may be the cause of skin

sensitivity to diseases. Thus, the present work is part of a study on the relationship between skin

diseases and mineral deficiencies in camels in Morocco.

Context and purpose

Relationship between mineral deficiencies and skin diseases has been widely documented in

many species. Some trace elements are involved in the defense and the integrity of the skin including

zinc and copper (Ramiche, 2001). Zinc has a catalytic role in the migration, proliferation and

maturation of epidermal cells. It has also an important role in the functioning of the immune system

(Mc Dowell, 2003).

Several studies conducted for determination of zinc in camel plasma have concluded that this

animal has lower zinc levels compared to other species, mainly sheep and cattle (Bengoumi et al.

1995; Ghosal and Shekawat, 1992). Ghosal and Shekawat (1992) have explained this low levels by

camel adaptation to extreme thermal conditions and nutritional stresses; stress causes increase in zinc

dependent enzymes requirement so then causing an increase in intestinal absorption and liver uptake

of zinc. A study was conducted in Indian camels to determine normal zinc levels in seminal plasma,

blood serum and hair of camel showed estimated levels of zinc are higher in camel hair (279.6 ± 3.6

μg/100ml) compared to seminal plasma level (126.6± 3.9 g / 100ml) and blood serum level (101±4.1)

(Singh et al., 1994). For this purpose, the present study aims to determine zinc levels in both camel

diseased skin and healthy skin in order to evaluate relationship between occurrence of skin diseases

and skin zinc levels.

Experimentation

Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a quick and simple method to analyze trace

elemental concentration used by Sun et al. (2000) to trace zinc in human skin. There are several

analytical techniques for elemental analysis in skin including particle probes, X-ray micro-analysis,

X-ray fluorescence. These instruments are both very complicated and expensive, or require extensive

sample preparation. However, LIBS is simpler, relatively inexpensive and requires little or no sample

preparation.

LIBS is a technique is based on a significant power density by focusing the radiation coming

from a pulsator laser which operates at fixed wavelength to generate plasma light from the sample.

The plasma composition is representative of the elemental composition and the system consists

among other things, a computer equipped with software for data collection and analysis.

To prepare the analysis system, we conducted the pre-alignment of the laser beam for vertical

focusing of this beam on the sample. Then, we started to optimize the parameters by location of exact

positions of the lines of Zinc observable with a piece of metallic zinc. Lines observed and identified

are those that corresponding to 2138 A°, 3282 A°, 3302.5 A° and 3345.9 A° unresolved and

3345.02A°, 3345.57 A° and 3345.9 A ° are unresolved too. Then we used a sample of camel skin to

see if the same lines indicated above are observable. Thus, the lines that are around 3300 have not

been identified, probably because of the presence of other lines that are very intense in this area but

the line 2138 A ° was well identified, this result corresponded to the line of determination of zinc used

387


by Sun et al., 2000. Samples were used to determine the intensity of the laser beam, the size of the slit

of monochromator, the number of shots, the number of spectra and cumulative length of the line.

Sun et al. study in 2000 for determination of zinc by LIBS has been carried out in an area

corresponding to the average area of the blades studied. The goal of the current study is to dose zinc

in skin samples that have substantial thickness. So then, LIBS will be applied to both deep and

superficial surface of skin samples and results obtained will allow us to see if there is a significant

difference between the two surfaces. Otherwise, the average zinc content of the two surfaces will be

given to the content of each sample. If the difference is significant, it is planned to conduct a study to

check zinc content variation according to different layers of the skin. Skin samples were collected

from different parts of the body in camels at slaughterhouses in three towns in southern Morocco and

preserved in formalin in Eppendorf tubes. Before LIBS analyses, sample was dried in air which makes

handling easier, dimensions (length, width and thickness) of each were taken before and after analysis

to calculate the area.

According to Sun et al., 2000, calibration was performed on the basis of a preparation of

PMMA, which provides a matrix similar to the skin. This product was not available in the laboratory

that‘s why we stuck to qualitative analysis of seven samples to study if there is any difference

between zinc content in outer and inner layers of the skin.

Results and Recommendations

Analysis of variance with two factor srepetition of zinc content with Excel Microsoft shows

that difference is significant between the skin samples analyzed. Furthermore, the difference was not

significant between the innerand the outer surface of the skin.These results should be interpreted with

caution given the small numberof samples analyzed. To this end, further analysis will be put in

placeto confirm, the homogeneity of the zinc content between the different layersof the skin,

including the inner and the outer face. In addition, the acquisition of the PMMA will help to

determine the amount of zinc in the skin by LIBS.

References

Bengoumi M., Faye B., El Kasmi K ET Tressol C, 1995. Facteurs de variations des indicateurs

plasmatiques du statut nutritionnel en oligo-éléments chez le dromadaire au Maroc; Revue

Elev. Méd. Vét. Pays trop., 48 (3) : 271-276.

Faye B., Bengoumi M., 2000. Le dromadaire face à la sous-nutrition minérale : un aspect méconnu de

son adaptabilité aux conditions désertiques. Sécheresse, 11 (3) : 155-161.

Ghosal A.K and Shekawati V.S, 1992. Observations on serum trace elements levels (zinc, copper and

iron) in camel (Camelus dromedaries) in the arid tracts of Thar Desert in India.

Mc Dowell L.R., 2003. Minerals in animal and human nutrition, 2nd edition. Elsevier Science B.V.,

Amsterdam.

Qing Sun, Michael Tran, Benjamin W. Smith Et James D. WINEFORDNER, 2000. Zinc analysis in

human skin by laser induced-breakdown Spectroscopy. Talanta 52 (2000) 293–300.

Ramiche A., 2001. Etude des abcès superficiels chez le dromadaire (Camelus dromedarius) au Sud du

Maroc. Thèse doct. vét., IAV Hassan II, Rabat, Maroc. Faye and al., 2000

Singh A.P, Sharma S.N AND Taneja M, 1994. Status of zinc In camel (Camelus dromdarius) with

reference to blood serum, seminal plasma and hair. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 64 (7) :

750-751.

388


Milk

and

Nutrition

389


64. Pregnant Female Camels Response to Energy Levels in the 9th

and 10th

Months of

Pregnancy

S.M. Shawket1, M.K. Mohsen

2, E.M. Abdel-Raouf

2 and A.M. Rabee

1

1Department of Animal and Poultry Nutrition, Desert Research Center,P.O.Box:11753 El-Mataria

Cairo, Egypt 2Department of Animal Production, Kafrelsheikh University, Faculty of Agriculture.


Introduction

Optimum nutrition is essential for proper reproductive performance of camels; also it has a

profound impact on proper fetal growth, as well as milk production. The energy requirements for

pregnant female animals are well described for most domestic animal. However, there are few

references concerning energy requirements for pregnant female camels. The present study was carried

out to investigate the response of pregnant female camels in the 9th and 10

th months of pregnancy to

varying dietary energy levels.


Twenty-eight female camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the 9th month of pregnancy (491.83 ±

11.87 body weight, with parities 1-3) were used to study the effect of four levels of dietary

metabolizble energy 80, 100,120 and 140 Kcal/kg0.75

for G1,G2,G3and G4 respectively keeping

similar CP about 10% on the performance of pregnant female camels. Experimental animals kept for

60 days. The animal were randomly distributed in to similar groups (7 pregnant female camels in each

group). At the start of the 10th month of pregnancy, four animals from each group were used in a

digestibility trial. Data were statistically analyzed using the method of least squares analysis of

variance using software SPSS for windows (SPSS, 1999).


Dry matter intake (DMI) g/kg0.75

, kg/h was significantly increased by increasing energy level

of energy (Table 1). Hammadi et al., (1998) indicated that the daily dry matter intake were 7.3 kg /h/d

for pregnant female camels. But the values obtained in this study were less than the values reported by

(Wardeh, 2004). Data of metabolizable energy intake for pregnant female camels was significant

(P<0.05) differed between the four groups basd on MEI kcal /kg 0.75

. The present result of MEI value

were less than to those reported by (Wardeh 2004) that pregnant female camels weighed 500-550 kg

need 13.19-14.16 Mcal /h

Table 1: Effect of changing the ration energy level on dry matter intake (DMI), Metabolizable energy

intake (MEI), Nutritive Value and Nitrogen Retention of pregnant female camels (Mean ± SE) Experimental rations

Items G4 G3 G2 G1

6.49±0.23b 6.36±0.193

b 5.82±0.36b 3.76±0.272

a D DMI, kg/h/day

60.80±1.07c 59.24±0.826

c 53.18±0.823b 44.96±0.54

a DMI, g/kg

0.75

138.019±2.429d 124.53±1.735

c 111.046±1.719b 87.95±1.056

a MEI kcal/kg

0.75 2.272±0.046 2.102±0.063 2.088±0.1232 1.956±0.132 Nutritive Value ME Mcal

386.36±55.18 326.45±26.57 362.23±64.02 233.29±33.091 Nitrogen Retention (NR) g/kg0.75

38.12±2.024 33.58±2.75 42.056±6.43 33.64±5.13 Nitrogen Retention NR/NI% G1 = 1.89 Mcal, ME satisfy (100kcal/kg

0.75)


).


)


)

The nutritive values of the experimental rations as ME were not significantly affected by

increasing energy level. Mosaad et al., (2003) showed that high energy diet improved the condition of

female camels which was reflected on the utilization of the nutrients and increasing the the nutritive

value.

390


Nitrogen retention as mg/kg0.75

and nitrogen retention as % of intake (NB/NI %) was not

significantly affected as a result of increasing dietary energy level. Although, there were improvement

in the values with increasing energy level of experimental ration. El-Banna, (1995) found that

increasing dietary energy level increased nitrogen intake and total nitrogen excretion in sheep, goats

and camels.

The difference in total and daily body weight changes were not significant (P>0.05) during

the whole experiment. The present results were similar to those reported by Shawket Safinaze and

Ahmed, (2001), who indicated that body weight changes of dry female camels were significantly

(P<0.01) improved by increasing the energy level of supplementation. In conclusion, results of this

study indicate that the ration G1providing energy level 80 kcal ME/kg0.75

is sufficient to cover the

energy requirements needs for the pregnant dromedary female camels in 9th and 10

th Months of

Pregnancy.

Table 2: Effect of the ration energy level on total body weight change and average daily body weight

change of pregnant female camels (Mean ± SE)

Experimental groups Parameters

G4 G3 G2 G1

471.78±10.71 484.78±16.99 508.35±33.79 504.16±30.58 Initial B. Wt. (kg)

538.78±20.97 535.14±20.037 536.71±30.11 528.25±32.123 Final B. Wt. (kg)

67±20.069 50.35±23.206 28.35±6.61 24.08±13.066 Total Gain (kg)

1116.7±334.49 838.4±386.95 472.5±110.37 402±217.3 ADG g/d a,b

Means in the same row with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05)

References

El-Banna, H. M. (1995). Effect of dietary energy, protein and their Interaction on nutrient utilization

by sheep., goats and camels. Camel Newsletter, 11: 16.

Hammadi ,M.,Khorchani. T., Khaldi .G., Abdouli. H . , Slimane. N.and Renaville. R. (1998). Effect of

dietary supplementation on productive and reproductive performance of dromedary camels

under arid range conditions. In Third Annual Meeting for Animal Production and Future

Perspectives. Abou-Dhabi.UAE.

Mosaad, G. M., Sayed. A. N. and Ibrahim. D. R. (2003). Relationship between the dietary energy and

the nutrients utilization, blood biochemical changes and follicular dynamics in dromedary

she-camel (Camelus dromedarius). Assiut-Vet. Med. J. 49: 46.

Wardeh, M.F. (2004).the Nutrient Requirements of Dromedary Camel .J. camel science. 1:37.

391


65. Floristic Diversity of the Camel Diet in Northern Algerian Sahara

A. Chehma A1, N. Amira

2, H. Trabelsi

1 and B. Faye

3

1Laboratoire Bio ressources sahariennes, Protection et Valorisation, Université Kasdi Merbah

Ouargla, (Algérie) 2 Département de Biologie, Université Kasdi Merbah Ouargla, (Algérie).

3CIRAD-ES Montpellier (France)


Introduction

Despite the harsh desert conditions, Saharan rangelands are characterized by very valuable

plant diversity (Ozenda, 1981 et Chehma et al, 2005). Moreover, the camel is the only species able

to exploit these vast Saharan areas (Gauthier Pilters, 1977; Chehma et al., 2008). The microscopic

analysis of plant debris contained in feces or esophageal bowls is a method of studying the diet

of grazing animals (Mandret 1989). For this purpose, and to study the plant diversity of the camel

diet in its natural environment, the content of plant fragments in feces were analyzed as indicators

of types of plant species grazed.

Methodology

The samples of faeces were collected in two regions (Touggourt and Ghardaia), representing

the different camels rangelands, over the four seasons of the year (2009/2010). Ground feces are

macerated in water for 2 days and then filtered through fine sieve (0.2 mm) to separate the

liquid residue. Then washed with bleach to destroy the contents of epidermal cell rinsed with tap

water. The epidermis thus obtained were mounted between slide and cover slip in a drop of

glycerin and observed with an optical microscope equipped with a camera. The epidermis are

identified on the basis of the shape of epidermal cells, stomata, veins and the appearance of the edge

of limb (Mandret, 1989)


The harvesting of epidermis found in the faeces of camel allowed identifying102 types

representative of 2567 fragments and identifying 65 types of species during the 4 seasons. The

number of 65 species grazed by camels at the six harvest sites appears very important if compared

with the total number of species listed in six different types of rangeland operated by the dromedary.

As such, Chehma (2006) has inventoried 75 spontaneous plant species in the same rangeland studied.

The time study showed that, despite the seasonal variability of plant diversity of Saharan rangeland,

our results do not reflect a significant seasonal variation with 28%, 27%, 23% and 22% respectively

for spring, summer, fall and winter. Chehma et al. (2005) recorded seasonal variations in plant

diversity in the range 86% in spring, 34% in winter, 14% in fall and 11% in the summer.

This disproportionnality between the seasonal variability of grazed species compared to

available species, shows that the dromedary had a relative stability of its floristic composition diet,

during the year. This confirms the work of Chehma and Faye (2009), who have shown that the

dromedary stabilizes its annual nutrient inputs, despite the very significant seasonal variation.

This could be attributed to the dromedary feeding behavior , that is deemed selective

for species and plant parts grazed (Yagil, 1985), and even if the forage is abundant, this animal is

grazing by walking and generally consuming little of each plant, (Meres, 1959; Gauthier Pilters,

1965).

In terms of spatial distribution, the region of Touggourt represents the highest number,

with 72 species for 64 species in Ghardaia. This distribution varies with different types of rangelands.

In fact soil factors are involved in the development of vegetation, as they characterize the substrates

on which various pastures are growing (Boudet, 1978).

Conclusion

This study indicated that plant diversity of the camel diet is very important, considering the

number of fragments of plant species taken from its faeces. Camel were able to graze more than 86%

of potentially available plant species in its rangeland. Moreover, because of its characteristic feeding

behavior, the dromedary was able to relatively maintain stable annual feed of this diversity, despite

392


the variability of flora richness is very significant with the seasons. This enables it to exploit food

resources less available and thereby make better use of its very poor saharan pastures.

References Boudet G., (1978) : Manuel sur les pâturages tropicaux et les cultures fourragères. IEMVT., Ministère

de la coopération. 258 pages.

Chehma A., (2006) : Catalogue des plantes Spontanées du Sahara Septentrional algérien. Ed Dar el

Houda (Ain Mlila, Algérie) 156p.

Chehma A, Djebar MR, Hadjaiji F et Rouabeh L., (2005): Étude floristique spatiotemporelle des

parcours sahariens du Sud-Est algérien. Sécheresse; 16 (4), 275-85.

Chehma A., Faye B. et Djebbar M.R.(2008).Productivité fourragère et capacité de charge des parcours

camelins du Sahara septentrional algérien.Sécheresse; 19 (2). 115-121.

Chehma A. et Faye B. (2009): Spatial and seasonal variation of chemical composition of desert plant

and camel fæces. Second conference of the ISOCARD. Djerba 12-14 march 09.

Gauthier Pilters H., (1965) : Observation sur l'écologie du dromadaire dans l'ouest du sahara. Bull.

I.F.A.N. Série A (4). pp. 1534 - 1608.

Gauthier Pilters.H, (1977) : Contribution à l'étude de l'écophysiologie du dromadaire en été dans son

milieu naturel. Extrait du bulletin de l'I.F.A.N. série A. n°2.

Mandret (1989):Caractères épidermiques des principales espèces végétales consommées au pâturage .

Revue d'élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux, 42 (2) : 237-243.

Meres R.G., (1959): Introduction to animal husbandry. In tropics. pp 424 - 430.

Yagil R., (1985): The desert camel: Comparative physiological adaptation. Comparative animal

nutrition. Basel (CHE), Karger. 164 pages.

http://publications.cirad.fr/une_notice.php?dk=394827

393


66. Serum Mineral Content of Omani Racing Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Yasmin Elhag Eltahir1*, H. Mohammed Ali

2, M.H. Mansour

3 and O. Mahgoub

1

1Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences; College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Sultan

Qaboos University, 2Al-Adhid Veterinary & Agricultural Services, PO Box 110, Al-Qabil 419,

Sultanate of Oman, 3Dept of Soil, Water and Agricultural Engineering (deceased), College of

Agricultural & Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123,

Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is of great importance to nomadic and rural

communities mainly in the dry tropics of Africa, Middle East and Indian sub-content. It provides high

quality animal protein in the form of milk and meat and as a mean of transportation and work.

Recently the camel has gained popularity and importance as a racing anima in the Arabian

Biochemical values are useful for evaluating health status in animals including camels.

However, published information on these aspects in camel reflects a wide range of values which was

attributed to differences in breed, age, sex and sampling and analytical methods

There are some published reports on biochemical values in camels. These include serum

mineral values of Sudanese, Saudi Arabian, Kuwaiti, Emirati, Iranian, Pakistani, Nigerian, Kenyan

and even European camels. There are also some reports on the serum mineral values in the Bactrian

camel


Blood samples were collected from thirty female, 2-year Omani native camels. The age of

animals was determined by asking owners and dentition.

Serum samples were analyzed in the Camel Breeding Unit of the Diwan Royal Affairs,

Sultanate of Oman for glucose; total protein (TP): albumin; blood urea nitrogen (BUN; creatinine;

uric acid; total globulins (TG; cholesterol; total bilirubin; alkaline phosphatase (ALP); aspartate

aminotransferase (AST); alanine aminotransferase (ALT); Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase (GGT);

lactate dehydrogenase (LD); Creatine kinase (CK); sodium (Na); potassium (K); calcium (Ca);

phosphorus (P); iron (Fe); copper (Cu); chlorine (Cl) by spectrophotometric analysis using a

CX7/CX7 serum chemistry analyzer (Synchron, Beckman).


Range, mean and standard deviation values are listed in Table 1. The standard deviation

indicates the degree of variation in these parameters. Wide variations in metabolic parameters exist in

published literature and were mainly attributed to variability in nutritional regimes, mineral

supplementation, season and presence of disease (Faye et al., 1995). These authors distributed camels

to four groups as follows: 1) class with low protein, high minerals and high GGT; class with low Cu

and cerulplasmin; class with high mineral values and protein indicators; and class with intermediate

values.

Table 1: Means, standard deviations maximum and minimum values of serum biochemistry

parameters in Omani racing female camels Parameter

Number of

samples

Mean Std Dev Minimum Maximum

Glucose ((mg/dL)) 29 92.79 19.227 56.00 158.00

Albumin (g/dL) 28 2.80 0.167 2.50 3.100

TG (mg/dL) 29 32.21 9.933 11.00 66.00

Total protein (g/dL) 29 6.17 0.344 5.50 6.80

Uric acid (mg/dL) 29 0.28 0.041 0.20 0.30

Creatinine (mg/dL) 27 1.64 0.238 1.30 2.20

BUN (mg/dL) 27 15.48 4.492 8.00 26.00

Cholesterol (mg/dL) 29 40.52 13.225 4.00 77.00

394


Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 29 0.34 0.124 0.10 0.60

Enzymes

ALP (IU/L) 29 113.93 29.745 50.00 187.00

AST (IU/L) 29 88.79 70.029 57.00 374.00

ALT (IU/L) 29 13.28 5.970 9.00 37.00

GGT (IU/L) 29 21.34 10.181 13.00 64.00

LD (IU/L) 28 419.89 160.380 303.00 971.00

CK (IU/L) 29 46.28 16.18 29.00 107.00

Minerals

Fe (µg/dl) 29 107.79 25.538 56.00 158.00

Cu (µg/dl) 29 72.52 8.078 54.00 89.00

Ca (mg/dl) 29 9.63 0.428 8.700 10.30

Po4 (mg/dl) 29 9.56 0.759 5.00 8.50

K (mmol/l) 29 4.23 0.420 6.50 5.00

Cl (mmol/l) 29 113.08 4.516 105.40 127.20

Na (mmol/l) 29 144.45 5.800 132.30 160.50

Na/K 29 28.1 2.86 21.2 33.9

Co2(mmol/l) 29 18.34 1.647 13.90 22.30

There was a significant correlation between BUN and creatinine as well as between TP and

albumin. Therefore, either of these parameters may be used to estimate the other. Relation between

TP and protein is obvious as TP equals albumin plus total globulins. There were high correlation

between AST, ALT, GGT and LD. These are liver function enzymes and could be used to estimate

one another to reduce analyses value.

The macro elements Na, Ca, and K had significant correlations. This was similar to reports in

Omani racing camels. Although there are not many reports on this aspect, Kuria et al. (2006) reported

a significant positive correlation between Na and Ca but a negative correlation between Na and P. On

the contrary there were no significant correlations within trace elements but there was a significant

correlation between Cl and Ca, K and Na.

From a practical point of view, correlations between certain elements would reduce the cost

of analyses for these elements as values of some of them may be estimated from other elements using

regression equations.

Findings of the current study provide baseline values that may be used by clinicians for racing

camels in Oman and camels raised under similar conditions. Values recorded for all serum metabolic

profiles, enzymes and minerals were within the ranges reported for racing camels in the Gulf region

and indicated normal health of these animals. There were some significant correlations between some

serum parameters that may be used to estimate their values which will reduce cost by reducing the

number of elements to be analyzed.

References

Al-Busadah KA (2007) Some biochemical and haematological indices in different breeds of camels in

Saudi Arabia. Sci J King Faisal University (Basic and Applied Sciences. 8: 131-142.

Al-Shami SA (2009) Comparative determination of serobiochemical constituents in in-door and free

grazing camels. J Anim Vet Adv 8: 896-898.

Ayoub MA, Saleh AA (1998) A comparative physiological study between camels and goats during

water deprivation. Proc. 3rd

Annual Meeting of Anim. Prod. Under Arid Conditions,

University of United Arab Emirates, Vol. 1:71-87.

Kuria SG, Wahome RG, Wanyoike MM, Gachuri CK (2006) Effect of mineral supplement on plasma

mineral concentration of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Int J Agric Biol 8: 168-

171.

Faye, B, Seboussi, Rabiha, Askar M (2008) Trace elements and heavy metals status in Arabia camel.

In.: Impact of pollution on animal products. B Faye and Y Sinyavskiy (eds) Springer Science

and Business Media B.V.

395


67. Water Intake in Omani Camels Kept on Various Levels of Feed Intake

O. Mahgoub1*

, I.T. Kadim1, W. Al-Marzouqi

1, S.A. Al-Lawatia and A.S. Al-Abri

2

1Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Sciences,

2Agricultural Research Station, College of

Agricultural and Marine Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman


Introduction

Camels are well known to withstand extreme environmental conditions of high temperatures

and lack of drinking water (Wilson, 1989). Camels are capable of keeping their appetite under severe

draught conditions. However, reduced water intake or increasing water salinity in the camel reduces

feed intake (Ayoub, 2006; Hashi et al., 1995). Water requirements of the camel in relation to body

size and normal functions do not greatly differ from that of other farm animals (Wilson, 1989). This

study‘s aim was to measure water intake in general and specifically to study the effect of feed intake

on water intake.


Ten Omani male camels were housed in partially shaded pens and fed a concentrate and

Rhodesgrass hay (RGH) diet. The concentrate and RGH contained 92.5 and 91.5% dry matter (DM);

14.4 and 9.4 crude protein; 1.8 and 1.1 ether extract; 12.1 and 9.6 ash; 19.3 and 30.6 crude fiber, 24.1

and 35.8 ADF; 51.3 and 68.3 NDF as percentage in the DM, respectively. Camels were randomly

allocated into three groups: two, four and four camels received a feed intake equivalent to 1.5, 2.0 and

2.5% of body weight, respectively with 60:40 concentrate:RGH ratio for 5 month. Water meters were

fitted to automatic water troughs. Readings were made on these meters every day in the morning and

water intake was measured. Water intake was adjusted for evaporation using pan system.


The average daily water intake in Omani camels ranged between 17 to 30.4 l/d with a mean

24.1 ± 4.7 l (Table 1). This corresponded to 7.5-14.3% of body weight (mean 10.5 ± 1.8% BWT).

Reports in the literature on camel water intake vary greatly as it is affected by ambient temperature

(season), type of feed and body weight. For instance, Basmaeil et al., (2012) reported a daily water

intake of 11.65 to 12.96 l/d in Saudi camels of mixed breeds ranged in weight between 270-292 kg.

This corresponds to 4.4-5.6% BWT. The season had a significant effect on water intake by camels.

Hermas (1990) reported a daily water intake of 23, 55, 40 and 16 liters/d in spring, summer, autumn

and winter in Libyan camels. These figures are more relevant to those of the current study (mean 24

l/d).

Table 1: Water intake in Omani camels

Measurement Mean SD Median Maximum Minimum

Total water intake over 14 weeks 8084.8 1561.0 8319.6 10184.56 5697.6

Daily water intake (l/d) 24.1 4.7 24.8 30.4 17.0

Daily water intake/body weight (%) 10.7 1.79 10. 3 14.3 7.5

Water intake by the different experimental groups over the study period is given in Figure 1.

There was a trend of increasing water intake with increasing feed intake. However, the lines

representing medium and high feed intakes overlap which indicates no differences between the two

groups. Regressing average daily water intake with camel body weight indicated a significant

relationship (R2=0.73) and generated a polynomial equation to predict water intake from camel body

weight (Figure 2).

396


Figure 1: Water intake in Omani camels Figure 2: Average daily water intake in Omani

fed low, medium and high feed intake camels regressed with body weight

This study provided for the first time data on Omani camel water intake and its relation to

feed intake. This information would be useful for rearing camels under feedlot systems

References

Ayoub, M. 2006. Effect of drinking diluted seawater on the physiological performance of camels and

goats. First Conference of the International Society of Camelids Research and Development

ISOCARD), Al-Ain, UAE. Pp, 39.

Basmaeil, S., El-Waziry, A.M. and Al-Owaimer, A.N. 2011. A comparative study on camel breeds for

growth and digestibility. 3rd

ISOCARD international conference on camels, Jan-Feb 2011,

Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.

Hashi, A.M., Kamoun, M. and Cianci, D. 1995. Feed requirements of the camel. Options

Méditerranéennes – Série Séminaires – nº B -1995: 71-80.

Hermas, S. 1999. Measuring the rate of growth of young Jamahiriya camels. International conference

on the development and development of production camels. 10-13 December, 1990. Tobruk,

Libya, Bulletin Camel Patrol, 7:38.

Wilson, T.R. 1989. The nutritional requirements of camel. Options Méditerranéennes – Série

Séminaires – nº2 -1989: 171-179.

397


68. Separation and Characterization of Major Milk Proteins of Algerian Dromedary

(Camelus dromedarius)

S. Zennia-Si Ahmed1*

, C. Senoussi1, N. Mahboub

2, R. Smail

1, S. Boudjenah

2, O. Siboukeur

2

and A. Mati1

1-Laboratoire de recherche de Biochimie Analytique et Biotechnologies (LABAB). Université M.

Mammeri de Tizi Ouzou, Algérie

2-Laboratoire de Protection des Ecosystèmes en Zones Arides et Semi-arides ; Université K. Merbah

de Ouargla, Algérie


Introduction

The camel is one of the most important domesticated animals in the arid and semiarid zones

of tropical and sub-tropical countries. The present work has been carried out in order to present a

more description of the major milk proteins from Algerain dromedary‘s milk.


Two samples of dromedary milk from Sahraoui breed were collected in Ouargla and

Ghardaia regions. They were defatted by centrifugation 4000g at 4°C for 15 min. Whole casein was

obtained from skimmed milk by isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.3) at 22°C using 1N HCl. The

supernatant, containing the whey proteins was dialyzed against distilled water and then freeze dried

and kept at -20°C until used.

The individual caseins were separated by ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Cellulose

column (26 mm i.d X 26 cm) equilibrated with 10 mM imidazole/HCl buffer, pH 7.0, containing 3.3

mM urea and 10 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, and the bound proteins were eluted from the column with a

linear gradient of 0-1M NaCl.

Fractionation of the whey proteins was performed by gel permeation chromatography on

Sephacryl S200 equilibrated with 0.02M Tris-HCl buffer pH 8.6 at room temperature, at a flow of 0.3

mL/min.

Native PAGE according to Hillier (1976) with a 12% (w/v) polyacrylamide gel in 0.75M

Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.9. Samples (2mg/mL) were solubilised in 75mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.9,

containing 10% (v/v) glycerol, and 0.01% (w/v) bromophenol blue.

Urea-PAGE was performed according to Andrews (1983) with a 8.2% (v/v) polyacrylamide

gel in 75mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.9, in the presence of 4M urea. Samples (2 mg/mL) were

solubilised in 75mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.9, containing 4M urea, 5% (v/v) 2-mercaptoethanol, 10%

(v/v) glycerol, and 0.01% (w/v) bromophenol blue.

SDS-PAGE was performed on a 4.9% (w/v) polyacrylamide in 0.125M Tris-HCl buffer, pH

6.8 stacking gel and a 15.4% (w/v) polyacrylamide in 0.38M Tris- HCl buffer, pH 8.8 containing

0.1% (w/v) SDS separation gel (Laemmli & Favre, 1973). For all electrophoresis, volumes of 20 µL

of samples were loaded in the gel.

In vitro hydrolysis was performed as follows: a) chymotrypsin and trypsin : enzyme/protein

ration 1/200 (wt/wt) in 0.1M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 8) at 40°C; b) pepsin: enzyme/protein

ration 1/250 (wt/wt) in 0.01N HCl (pH 2) at 37°C; c) papain: enzyme/protein ration 1/800 (wt/wt) in

0.5M Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7) at 37°C and the final concentration of caseins was always 10 mg/ml.

The reaction was stopped at different times by diluting the digestion mixture with the same volume of

sample buffer (0.125M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 6.8 containing 0.1% (w/v) SDS, 5% (v/v) 2-

mercaptoethanol, 10% (v/v) glycerol, and 0.01% (w/v) bromophenol blue, and then heating for 10

min at 100°C. Controls containing whole casein but without addition of enzymes, was also sampled.


In order to identify the different whey proteins in camel and bovine milk, native-PAGE

electrophoresis of whey camel samples from the tow regions were compared with bovine whey

proteins. It was possible to observe Ig, BSA, α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin for cow whey and

similar band to BSA and α-lactalbumin for camel whey. This result showed that camel α-lactalbumin

can exist in two forms. β-lactoglobulin appears only in bovine milk, since in the SDS-PAGE

398


electrophoresis no band in the vicinity of 18 kDa was detected in camel whey and four bands of 66.0,

43.0, 29.0 and 14.0 kDa were observed.

Camel whey proteins were separated into 3 fractions on Sephacryl S200 permeation

chromatography. As observed by native-PAGE, serum albumin was eluted in fraction 1, the two

forms of α-lactalbumin were eluted in fraction 2 and the third peak contained no identified proteins

which could correspond to heterogeneous camel milk whey proteins.

The urea-PAGE and the electrophoretic patterns show two sharp and distinguishable main

bands in camel milk. According to their increasing electrophoretic mobility, in comparison with cow

milk casein, the two bands can be regarded as a possible homologue to bovine. Compared with cow

milk caseins, camel‘s casein presented a lower mobility, than that of their bovine counterparts.

Neither a band corresponding to κ–casein could be detected. Molecular masses of the camel casein

bands estimated on SDS-PAGE from calibration curve, are 32 000 and 35 500. This is considerably

higher than the possible homologous bovine caseins which are estimated at 24 000 for β-casein and 22

000 to 27 000 for αs-casein.

Whole casein from dromedary milk were separated by anion-exchange chromatography on

DEAE-cellulose column into four fraction eluted at 0.08, 0.16, 0.23 and 0.26 mol/L NaCl

respectively. The elctrophoretic pattern suggest that peak 1 contained β-, peak 2 and 3 contained αs1-

and peak 4 contained αs2-casein which was co-eluted with αs1-caseins.

In order to study the degree of hydrolysis of camel milk caseins, the enzyme-treated and

untreated protein samples of whole CNs were analyzed by SDS-PAGE for pepsin, trypsin,

chymotrypsin and papain assays. The αS1-CN was almost fully degraded by both enzymes after 10

min of incubation ; it appears like sharp and diffuse band; whereas hydrolysis of β-CN was complete

after 5 min of hydrolysis by pepsin, 30 min by trypsin and papain and 48h by chymotrypsin. β-CN

from camel milk were more resistant to trypsin, chymotrypsin and papain digestion, it‘s very quickly

hydrolyzed by pepsin. After 5 min of hydrolysis of camel CNs by chymotrypsin, trypsin and papain,

some peptide fragments were still detected on SDS-PAGE, which were stable up to 4h of incubation,

but whith pepsin, peptide fragments were disspeared completely after 60 min of incubation. Similar

peptide fragments were not obtained when CNs were treated with different proteases.

Conclusion

Results of this study performed on Algerian dromedary‘s milk proteins showed heterogeneity

between samples under both quantitative and qualitative aspects.

399


69. FAR-M®: New Support For Camel Cheese Production

R. Saltini

Chr. Hansen A/S, Hørsholm, Denmark


Camel milk is one of the main economical values of camels and represents one of the primary

sources of income for farmers in Africa, Middle East and Central Asia. (Hussen, et al., 2008) In

Kenya, which has the fifth largest camel herd in the world, only 12% of camel milk produced is sold

commercially and only a small percentage of this milk reaches urban consumers. (Musinga, et al.,

2008) Due to its very short shelf life, a lack of infrastructure and processing technologies, handling

raw camel milk becomes a very challenging process. This results in camel milk sales price in

developing countries higher than processed bovines‘ milk in Western countries (e.g. 1.5-2 EUR/L in

Ethiopia versus 0.6-1.2 EUR/L in EU) (Personal communication).

Transforming camel milk into cheese would significantly prolong the shelf life of the product,

allowing periodic collection and transportation of camel cheese from in rural areas to urban centres.

The resulting development and growth of a camel dairy industry would also stimulate the national

economy of countries having the major camel herds.

Currently, most attempts to make cheese from camel milk have revealed major difficulties.

Rennetting with bovine chymosin leads to slow curd formation and a weak coagulum. Extensive

research at ETH Zürich led by Dr. Farah, allowed the development of fermentation-produced camel

chymosin, obtained from the stomach of a young camel. The process has been patented and the

product launched on the market in September 2011 by Chr. Hansen A/S under the trademark FAR-

M®. During the first field- trials, the product demonstrated high clotting efficiency on camel milk and

good yields in producing camel cheese. An extensive programme of trials is on-going with the aim of

increasing the knowledge of camel cheese and defining the optimal conditions for the most effective

production. Together with Dr. Farah, Chr. Hansen plans to initiate a programme to support the

development of a camel cheese industry in developing countries. One of the challenges will be finding

the right distribution channels to reach small cheese-producing entities and to transport the product to

urban areas for commercialization.

Chr. Hansen (www.chr-hansen.com) is a global biotechnology company that provides natural

ingredients to the food, dairy, human health and nutrition, and animal health industries. The company

is a leading supplier of food cultures, probiotics, enzymes, colors, and functional blends, which are

applied in foods and beverages, dietary supplements, and agricultural products.

References Hussen, K.; Kurtu, M. Y.; Tegegne, A.; Gebremedhin, B.; 2008. Traditional cow and camel milk

production and marketing in agro-pastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems: The case of

Mieso District, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market

Success) of Ethiopian Farmers Project Working Paper 13. ILRI (International Livestock

Research Institute). Nairobi, Kenya. 56 pp.

Musinga, M.; Kimenye, D. & Kivolinzi, P.; 2008. The camel milk industry in Kenya. Results of a

study commissioned by SNV to explore the potential of Camel Milk from Isiolo District to

access sustainable formal markets. Resource Mobilization Center. SVN. Nanyuki. Kenya.

Field study/personal communication. Haramaya University. Alemaya, Ethiopia.

400


70. Detection Of The Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Milk Adulteration With

Bovine Milk Using A PCR Assay

M.H. Yahyaoui and T. Khorchani

Laboratory of livestock and wildlife

Arid Land Institute, Medenine, Tunisia


Introduction

Milk and dairy products (fermented milk, cheese, yoghurt, etc.) from non-bovine animal

species (sheep, goat, buffalo, and dromedary camel) are traditionally produced and consumed in

various countries in the world. The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) is of a significant socio-

economic importance in several arid and semi-arid regions of north-eastern Africa, Middle East, and

Indian subcontinent, and its milk constitutes an important component of human diets in these regions.

The health-promoting properties of the dromedary camel milk, in particular for diabetes prevention

and control (Argawal et al., 2005; Mohammad et al., 2009; Sboui et al., 2010) and as protein source

for allergic children to bovine milk proteins (Restani et al., 1999; El-Agamy et al., 2009) constitute a

strong boost for sales and market demand and, in certain regions such as the North of Africa and

Middle East, they are the driver for intensification of dromedary camel dairying. In this context,

issues of adulteration arise due to the seasonal production and the higher price of dromedary camel

milk (3 to 4-fold of that of bovine milk in Tunisia for example), generally by the admixture of bovine

milk because it is widely available and cheaper to produce. Thus, rapid and reliable methods for

detection of milk and dairy products adulteration are indispensable for consumer protection and

product quality control. Several analytical approaches, either protein- or DNA–based have been

applied for species identification in milk and dairy products during the past two decades (Mayer,

2005; Preira et al., 2008,; Bai et al., 2009), however, none of them concerned dromedary camel

species. The purpose of the present work was to develop a rapid and sensitive protocol for the

detection of bovine milk in dromedary camel milk based on mitochondrial DNA.


Dromedary camel (raw) and bovine (raw and sterilized) milk samples were purchased from

different dairy retail markets. Camel raw milk samples were also obtained from healthy lactating

camels by machine milking at the Experimental Station of the Arid Land Institute of Medenine

(Tunisia). Sterilized milk samples were prepared from raw milk in the laboratory (121°C, 20 min).

Mixtures of dromedary camel milk with increasing quantities of bovine milk in proportions of 0.5, 1,

5, 10, 50 and 100% (v/v) were prepared. DNA extraction from milk was performed using silica

protocol (Boom et al. 1990). Common forward and specie-specific reverse primers were designed

over the cytochrome b gene. PCR reactions were performed in a final volume of 25 µl containing 100

ng of template DNA, 2.5 µl of 10X PCR buffer, 1.5 µl of MgCl2 (25 mM), 1 µl of the four dNTPs (5

mM), 1.0 µl of each primer (10 µM) and 0.5 U of Taq polymerase (Fermentas). Amplification was

carried out as follows: an initial denaturation step at 95 °C for 1.5 min followed by 35 cycles of 30 s at

95 °C, 30 s at 60 °C, and 45 s at 72 °C with a final extension step at 72 °C for 5 min. The PCR

products were resolved by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide.


A common forward primer and two specie-specific reverse primers were designed over the

mitochondrial cytochrome b gene to amplify a fragment of 545 (bovine) and 412 pb (dromedary

camel). Primers were designed with similar melting temperatures (Tm: 60°C) in order to obtain

efficient PCR amplifications in the multiplex reactions. Specificity of the primers was initially tested

in singleplex and therefore in multiplex reactions using DNA from dromedary camel (Camelus

dromedaris), cow (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus) and llama (Lama glama). Nno

cross-reactivity or additional unspecific bands were observed. To determine the limit of detection

(LOD) of the assay, PCR amplification was performed on samples of dromedary camel milk

comprising different percentages of bovine milk and the obtained products were detected by agarose

gel electrophoresis. PCR products of expected size were obtained from the samples containing 1% of

401


bovine milk whereas no bands were observed under this limit (0.5%). Thus, the LOD of the assay is

1%. On the other hand, the amplification patterns and detection limits were similar among raw and

sterilized milks; indicating that the assay developed also applies to DNA from heat-treated milk and

milk products.

The use of PCR greatly improved and facilitated the detection of animal origin of ingredients

in food and feedstuff due its simplicity, species specificity and sensitivity. Although several PCR-

based methods dealing with species identification in order to detect adulteration of milk from several

livestock species (sheep, goat, cow, and water buffalo) have been reported in the literature, none of

them concerned dromedary camel species. The assay developed in this study is benefit for the

development and protection of the camel dairy industry and is useful for food quality control and

fraud detection.

References

Agrawal et al. (2005). Camel milk as an adjunct to insulin therapy improves long-term glycemic

control and reduction in doses of insulin in patients with type-1 diabetes. A 1 year

randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 68: 176-177.

Bai et al. (2009). Rapid detection of bovine milk in yak milk using a polymerase chain reaction

technique. Journal of Dairy Sciencee 92: 1354-1360.

Boom et al. (1990). Rapid and simple methods for purification of nucleic acids. Journal of Clinical

Microbiology 28: 495-503.

El-Agamy et al. (2009). Are camel milk proteins convenient to the nutrition of cow milk allergic

children? Small Ruminant Research 82: 1-6.

Mayer, H.K. (2005). Milk species identification in cheese varieties using electrophoretic,

chromatographic and PCR techniques. International Dairy Journal 15: 595–604.

Mohammad et al. (2009). Camel milk as an adjuvant therapy for the treatment of type 1 diabetes:

verification of a traditional ethnomedical practice. Journal of Medicinal Food 12: 461-465.

Pereira et al. (2008). Identification of Species with DNA-Based Technology: Current Progress and

Challenges. Recent Patents on DNA & Gene Sequences 2: 187-200.

Restani et al. (1999). Cross-reactivity between milk proteins from different animal species. Clinical

and Experimental Allergy 29: 997-1004.

Sboui et al. (2009). Anti-diabetic effect of camel milk in alloxan-induced diabetic dogs: a dose–

response experiment. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 194(4): 540-546.

402


71. Comparative Study of Milk Clotting Activity of Crude Gastric Enzymes Extracted

From Camels’ Abomasa at Different Ages and Commercial Enzymes (Rennet and

Pepsin) on Bovine and Camel Milk

Saliha Boudjenah-Haroun1, L.C. Louis

2*, Farida Moulti-Mati

3, Saliha Si Ahmed

3, M.Nasma

1,

S.O. Elkhir1 and M. Abderrahmane

3

1Laboratoire de Protection des Ecosystèmes en Zones Arides et Semi Arides. Faculté des Sciences,

Département de Biologie. Université K. Merbah de Ouargla. Algérie. 2 Faculty of Food and Agriculture, Department of Food Science, United Arab Emirates University.

3 Laboratoire de biochimie appliquée et de biotechnologie (LABAB), Université M. Mammeri de Tizi

Ouzou, Algérie.

Corresponding author email: Laleye C. Louis: [email protected]

Introduction

Most attempts to make cheese from camel milk have revealed major difficulties in getting the

milk to coagulate. With the same amount of calf rennet, the coagulation time of camel milk is twice or

three times longer than that of cow‘s milk. The action of rennet on camel milk leads to coagulation in

the form of flocks, with no firm coagulum (Mohamed, 1990) Due to the technical difficulties of camel

milk coagulation, several researchers are now focusing on the functional properties of the camel milk

proteins (Laleye et al. 2008), coagulation properties of camel milk proteins (Farah and Bachmann,

1987; El-Agamy, 2000a; El-Agamy, 2000b) fragile and weak coagulum and poor yield of camel milk

cheese (El-Zubeir and Jabreel, 2008). However, a few limited studies reported that gastric enzymes

extracted from camel have the potentiality to coagulate camel milk (El-Agamy, 2000a; Siboukeur et

al., 2005; Wangoh et al., 1993). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to optimize the extraction

conditions of the gastric enzyme from the abomasums of camel at different ages and to determine and

optimize the flocculation time based on the pH and clotting temperatures.


The camel abomasal tissues were obtained from camel slaughterhouse of Ouargla, Algeria.

The abomasumswere obtained from camels of different ages (1, 3 and 9 years).

The method of crude gastric enzymes extraction from bovine abomasal tissue as described by

Valles and Furet (1977) was used with minor modifications.

The method of Bergere and Lenoir (1997) for the proteolytic activity of GECs was used. In addition

the clotting activity was optimized by using the method of Shamet et al. (1992).

Coagulation of camel milk by GECs

Camel and bovine milk coagulation was carried out by using the method of Ramet (1997).

However, the flocculation time was measured visually by the method of Lenoir et al. (1997) at

different pHs and temperatures.


The clotting activity was the highest for the GEC 9 (older camels) at 0.360 RU compared to

the GEC 3 at 0.285 RU and GEC 1 at 0.235 RU; In addition, the commercial bovine rennet had higher

clotting activity at 0.184 RU compared to the commercial bovine pepsin at 0.163 RU; however the

clotting activity for all gastric enzyme extracts from camels at different ages and the two commercial

enzymes, rennet bovine and pepsin bovine, were significantly different at P≤0.05 (Table 1). There

was a correlation between the clotting activity and the clotting strength of Soxhlet. The higher clotting

activity was correlated with a higher clotting strength (Table not shown). Obviously the clotting

strength for all enzymes was significantly different (P≤0.05).

The crude gastric enzyme preparations from camels (GEC) obtained from the older camels

showed better coagulation activityin both camel and bovine milks. Flocculation time datashowed that

the GECs and bovine pepsin had good specificity towards bovine casein and camel casein. Ramet

(1994) reported that the use of bovine pepsin provided a rapid flocculation time in camel milk

compared to bovine milk. Therefore, this suggested that the content of pepsin was higher in the older

camels (GEC 9), as previously reported by Wangoh et al. (1993). This finding was in contrast with

the case of bovine chymosin which is extracted in younger calves. It can be concluded that the pepsin

403


content in older camels (GEC 9) has more coagulating activity than proteolytic activity in camel milk

due to the molecular difference in camel proteins and bovine proteins, such as the distribution and size

of the casein micelles, various fractions of the casein, sites of the potential cleavage and denaturation,

etc. (Kappeler et al. 1998).

In addition, the short flocculation time obtained for GEC 9 (older camels) at an optimum temperature

of 42°C and a pH of 5.8 thusencouraging the fact that older camels are more available for slaughter in

Algeria.

Therefore the production of GEC from older camels could be an excellent substitute for the

commercial chymosin for cheese making using either bovine or camel milk. This study focused

primarily on the coagulation step on making cheese curd that represents a key step in cheese making.

It is recommended that additional research be conducted to purify the extract, to characterize the

extract using electrophoreses and finally for the production of various types of cheeses from camel

milk.

Table 1:Changeinclotting activity (rennet unit: RU) and the clotting strength of Soxhelt (F) according

tothenatureof theenzymatic preparations.

Enzymatic preparations Clotting activity

(RU)

Strength of Soxhelt (F)

GEC 1 0,235a ±0.002 51.47±0.13

GEC 3 0,285b ±0.001 63.73±0.26

GEC 9 0,360 c ±0.02 76.61±0.25

Pepsin bovine (Pb) 0,1630d

±0.002 35.56 ±0.11

Rennet bovine (Rb) 0,184e

±0.002 40.7±0.15

Figure 1: Effect of the enzymatic

preparations on the flocculation

time of bovine and camel milk

-GEC 1: Gastric enzyme extract

of 1 year old camel;


of 3 years old camel;


of 9 years old camel;

-Pb: Pepsin bovine;

-Rb: Rennet bovine

References

Farah, Z. and M. R. Bachmann. 1987. Rennet coagulation properties of camel milk.

Milchwissenschaft. 42:689-692.

Laleye, L. C., B. Jobe and A. A. H. Wasesa. 2008. Comparative Study on Heat Stability and

Functionality of Camel and Cow's Milk Whey Proteins. J. Dairy Sci. 91:4527-4534

Siboukeur, O., A. Mati and B. Hessas. 2005. Amélioration de l‘aptitude à la coagulation du lait

camelin (Camelus dromedarius): utilisation d‘extraits enzymatiques coagulants gastriques de

dromadaires. Cahiers agricultures. 5:473-478.

Wangoh, J., Z. Farah and Z. Puhan. 1993.Extraction of rennet and its comparison with calf rennet

extract. Milchwissenchaf. 48:322-325.

Flo

ccu

lati

on

tim

e (

sec)

Enzymatic preparations

Bovine milk

404


72. Could the Total Mixed Ration Increase the Yield of Camel Milk?

A.A. Hassabo1 and A. Abdelgader

1

Alneelain University Khartoum Sudan


Introduction Camels are promising dairy animal (Bakhiet et al) which are capable of utilizing low quality

grasses and convert then into high quality protein and recycling the ammonia (Hassabo 2010).

Pastoral camels are usually giving 1.5 – 2kg of milk /day due to crossing long distances in harsh areas

environment. Camel milk can treat many diseases as well as its urine (Maggid and Ali 2011). Camel

nowadays suffer more from desertification and social conflicts therefore it is necessary to change its

management system and to keep it as dairy animal (Bakhiet, 2006).


Ten lactating camels recently calved were divided into two groups and kept in two fenced

areas.

A basic ration was given to group A as total mixed ration (TMR) and a ration of concentrate

and roughages were fed separately for group B and the intake was daily calculate

The animals were milked twice a day in the morning and evening

Comparison between the two groups was carried out to determine the average daily milk yield

and feed intake.

Statistical analysis was carried out for significance test.


The feed intake in group B (92.5) was less than group A (100%). Group B animals refused

some of sorghum straw which was unpalatable when eaten separately because of its high fiber

content. The milk yield was higher in group A (25% increase) than group B. This may be due to

difference in feed intake and feed conversion rate (FCR). The ingredients used were very cheap and

available.

Table 1: percentage of the ingredients of the experimental diet

Ingredients Percentage % CPgm/kg ME Mj/kg

Ground nut cake 10.0 45.68 1.2

Dura

(Sorghum grain)

15.0 21.00 2.0

Molasses 15.0 7.12 1.7

Ground nut straw 57.0 46.17 4.4

Ca 2.0 - -

Nacl 1.0 - -

Total 100.0 119.97 9.0

Table 2: average intake and milk yield

Group A B

Offered ration/kg 10 10

Refused/kg zero 0.75

Intake % 100% 92.5%

Milk yield 8 5

It was concluded that total mix ration increased the milk yield and minimized the production

cost due to decreased the wastes. This study recommended to adopt the TMR and to carry out further

research using different ingredients.

References

405


Hassabo A.A (2010) Effect of feeding system on the milk of camel kept in urban areas. Journal of

Animal and Veterinary Science. (Accepted)

Bakhiet S A;Maggid A.A (2006) Seasonality and panty effect on milk yield of camels raised under

pastoral system in north kordofan cow frense Algasim Saudi Arabia

Maggid A.A and MS Ali (2011) Some husbandry aspects of camels in the butane area eastern Sudan

conference university of kordofan Sudan

Shafig A and Froog (2009) Camel raising in the desert of Pakistan continuing education article

406


73. Compositional Analysis and In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Camel Colostrum and

Mature Milk

M. O‘haj1, A.A. Mohamedani

2, H.K. Obied

3*, S. Agboola

4 and A. Rehman

5

1Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medical Laboratory Sciences,

University of Gezira; Sudan. 2 Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gezira, Sudan.

3School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University; Wagga Wagga;

NSW Australia. 4School of Agriculture and Wine Sciences, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University; Wagga

Wagga – NSW Australia. 5Industry and Investment NSW, Wagga Wagga Agricultural institute, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia

* Correspondence made to Dr. Obied, H. School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Science; Charles

Strut University; Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia. Tel. (+61-269332161) Fax: (+61-269332587);


Traditionally, the milk of the Arabian one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) has been

used medicinally for centuries in different parts of North-Eastern Africa, Middle East and Central

Asia. Studies indicated that ingestion of camel milk is beneficial in infectious diseases, control of

blood glucose, and has antiviral and anticancer activities. The present study aims to investigate the

chemical composition and antioxidant activity of camel colostrum and mature milk. Colostrum,

within 72 hours, and mature milk, after 7 days postpartum; were collected from camels grazing on

natural habitat in Butana area, Central Sudan. Samples were freeze-dried and complete chemical

analysis and antioxidant activity were conducted on reconstituted samples. Four in vitro model

systems: ABTS•+

scavenging, DPPH• scavenging, ferric reducing power and iron chelating assays.

Analysis data will be presented and results will be discussed.

407


74. Milk Potencial of the Maghreby Negga (Camelus dromedarius) in Tunisia

K. Mounir1*

, J. Borni1 and Z. Kamel

1

1 : Département des productions animales Ecole Supérieure d’Agriculture 7030 Mateur Tunisia

Corresponding author email:[email protected]

Introduction

Studies conducted by the Higher School of Agriculture, Mateur, north of Tunisia were used to

estimate milk potential of the Maghreby Negga (Camelus dromedarius) and to identify key factors

that can influence the quantity and quality of produced milk (Kamoun 1995, 1998a) and the practical

approach to determine energy requirements, nitrogen and water lactating female camels (Kamoun

1998b). These studies demonstrated that increased milk production is possible and that intensification

can be done with Maghreby Negga. This breed has relatively high potential for milk production. The

collection and processing of milk Negga still faces the problem of scattered farms. Milk production

during a lactation period of 270 days (Kamoun, 1998b) is subject to variation. Sources of variation

are the breed, environment, feed or water shortage, or different management practices. Various

mathematical functions were used to describe lactation curves (Wood, 1967).


The study was conducted in the experimental Farm of Higher School of Agriculture, Mateur,

Tunesia. Throughout the lactation, Negga camels were milked three times a day. Milking was

conducted in two districts (one posterior and one anterior). The other two were reserved for the calf

and the volume collected was doubled. Dairy controls were made every two weeks. The daily milk

yield was recorded and milk samples were used to determine, the physico-chemical parameters (pH,

titratable acidity and density), the chemical composition (solid not fat, fat, protein, lactose, ash) and

the protein fractions (casein, whey protein, non-protein N). A total of 713 records were used in the

analysis. The Gauss-Newton algorithm was used to fit lactation curve (SAS 2009). Daily milk was

presented as: Yt = a tb e

-ct. Where: Yt is the observed milk yield at day t; a is linked to milk yield at the

beginning of lactation, b to the ascending phase before peak yield, and c to the decreasing phase after

peak yield. Persistency, peak yield, and DIM at peak yield (DIMP), were calculated as: -(b+1) Ln (c),

a(b/c)b e

-b, and (b/c), respectively: The effect of calving year, calving season, lactation stage and

lactation order in the day. Yijk= µ + CYi + NLj + RTk + eijk ; Where; Yijk= a lactation curve trait based

on observation n, CYi : calving year, CSl: calving season, µ: overall mean, NLj: lactation stage + RTk:

lactation ordre in the day + eijk: residual error.


Milking practice affects the amount of milk. Generally, the calf is allowed to suckle for few

seconds before hand milking. Milking must be done by a person who is well known to the camel. In

the present study when the regular milker was changed, significant milk retention was often observed.

It also appears that milking frequency influences daily milk yield. In presence of his calf, milking

duration can be more than 3 min. Quantities of produced milk increased with milking rank and

changed with lactation number. Quality of produced milk was varied according to the milking order in

the day and the lactation stage.

The Monitoring start from the second week after birth and may continue until a late stage.

Lactation stage were between 12 and 404 days with an average value of 171 ± 90. So daily production

going from 0.56 to 14.5 L with an average of 6.72 ± 2.46 liter differed among individuals. Milk

production peaked approximately 3rd to 4th months postpartum and then decreased. This result was

similar to that of Kamoun (1998b). For fresh camel milk, pH ranging from 6.17 to 6.95 with a mean

value of 6.32±0.20, titratable acidity ranged from 13 to 18°D with a mean value of 16.95±1.52 and

density going from 1019 to 1032 with an average of 1025±3. These values are lower than those of

cow‘s milk. The gross chemical composition and protein fraction of camel milk are presented in Table

1. The differences among the values of data undoubtedly reflect differences in breed and stage of

lactation. Milk was low in cheesy components such as casein and fat.

408


Table 1. Daily camel milk production and milk quality (mixture of three milkings)

Variable Nb Means Sd deviation Minimum Maximum

Gross compostion (g/liter)

Total solids (g/liter) 181 116.76 11.32 92.00 145.00

Solid not fat (g/liter) 181 80.31 10.96 60.00 94.00

Fat (g/liter) 181 35.67 7.61 20.00 55.00

Lactose (g/liter) 161 43.82 5.68 28.00 57.00

Ash (g/liter) 181 8.21 0.64 5.00 11.00

Total Protein (g/liter) 161 29.45 3.29 20.90 35.9

Protein fraction (g/liter)

Casein 128 23.37 2.60 17.9 29.2

Whey protein 161 5.10 1.17 2.60 9.60

Non Protein N 161 0.47 0.23 0.20 1.50

Daily milking order affected milk yield and composition (P < 0.05). Stage of lactation affected fat (P

< 0.001), protein, and protein: fat ratio (P < 0.001). These constituents became concentrated as

lactation proceeded, and protein was substituted by fat. Calving date had a similar concentrating effect

on fat (P < 0.001) whereas it reduced protein. Low correlation was show between milk quantity and

lactation stage. An important recovery period was found (283 +/- 93 day). Correlation coefficient

between persistency indices and total day milk yield indicated a good persistency value calculated for

this breed. The high disparity between these various sets of data can probably be explained by

differences in genetic potential, climate, feeding conditions and sampling techniques. The result

finding that intensification can be a real way to improve camel milk production. In addition, genetic

selection using adequate methods (molecular marker) can be a short way to assist this objective.

Conclusion

This study showed that among the population of camels in Tunisia, Maghriby Negga had high

potential for milk production. The milk composition changed due to the stage of lactation.

Improvement of environment and management of camel can contribute to productive process, as well

as providing benefits to agriculture. Genetic selection can be used to identify animal with a high

genetic potential.

References Kamoun, M. 1995. Le lait de dromadaire: production, aspects qualitatifs et aptitude à la

transformation. Options méditerranéennes, Séries séminaires, 13: 81-103.

Kamoun, M. 1998 a. Evolution de la composition du lait de dromadaire durant la lactation:

conséquences technologiques. Dans Dromadaires et chameaux, animaux laitiers: Collection

Colloques, CIRAD, Montpellier, France, 167-171

Kamoun, M. 1998 b. Approche pratique des besoins énergétiques, azotés et hydriques des Negga

(Camelus dromedarius) en lactation. Dans Dromadaires et chameaux, animaux laitiers,

Collection Colloques, CIRAD, Montpeellier, France, 47-54.

409


75. The Most Important Findings in Camel Milk for Its Export

U. Wernery1, P. Nagy and J. Juhasz

2

1Central Veterinary Research Laboratory,P.O. Box 597, Dubai, U.A.E.

2.Emirates Industry for Camel Milk and Products, P.O. Box 294236, Dubai, U.A.E


Introduction

The camel is a multi-purpose animal with a huge productive potential. In many parts of the

world, prejudices and misconception against the camel still exists, but fortunately on the other hand

nowadays many people realize that the camel is the most suitable domestic animal for use in climatic

extremes. In time of global warming, growing deserts and increasing scarcity of food and water, the

camel can be part of a solution to these problems. It is now widely acknowledged that mobile animal

husbandry is the only form of land use that can provide long term survival and secure income. Camels

are especially suited for this lifestyle. They survive without water for long periods and still provide

milk almost all year round in bigger quantities than any other domesticated animal in hot arid zones.

Living conditions of the nomadic herdsman and his family can be dramatically improved by selling

surplus camel milk even abroad. For this purpose, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL)

has embarked on several research projects, the results of which are presented during the oral

presentation. They include:

Results

1. Evaluation of test kits used in ruminants for the serological diagnosis of infectious diseases in

dairy camels. In total more than 1000 sera from dairy camels were tested for 17 infectious

diseases using mainly cELISAs, but when it comes to indirect ELISAs, proper evaluation of these

ELISAs is recommended when used for camels. The results are presented here (Wernery et al.,

2007; Wernery et al., 2008).

2. Foot-and-mouth disease in OWCs. Several experimental infection trials have been conducted with

FMD virus serotypes O and A in dromedaries and Bactrians. From these investigations, it is now

obvious that dromedaries are resistant to FMD and Bactrians are not (Wernery, 2007; Larska et

al., 2008).

3. The most important mastitis pathogens in dromedaries have been investigated. They are the same

as cultured from raw cow milk like: Streptococcus agalactiae, coagulase negative staphylococcus

sp. (CNS), Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus bovis (Wernery et al., 2008).

4. Microbiological standards of camel milk have been evaluated and it has been shown that camel

milk can meet the international standards applied for cow milk. Camel milk samples with a CMT

score of + had SCC values between 40,000 – 250,000 cells/ml, whereas CMT scores of ++ to +++

revealed SCCs between 350,000 to 1,500,000 cells/ml. Raw camel tank milk samples from the

camel dairy farm in Dubai revealed a mean SCC of 350,000 cells/ml which meets the EU

regulation No 853/2004 for cow milk with less than 400,000 cells/ml. The total plate count (TPC)

also met the EU regulation with less than 100,000 cfu/ml.

5. Lactoperoxidase (LPO) is the ideal enzyme for evaluation if camel milk has been properly

pasteurized or not. The enzyme activity in raw camel milk is high and the respective value in

pasteurized milk is below the detection limit (Lorenzen et al., 2011).

6. As the demand for camel milk increases and its excellent health benefits become more

documented, an adulteration with bovine and caprine milk can be expected. Therefore, we

developed an analytical method to differentiate between pure and mixed camel milk and its

products. Two microsatellites (CVRL 07) for camel milk and INRA 23 for cow and goat milk

clearly identified pure camel, cow and goat milk as well as the mixture (Hassan et al., 2008).

References

Hassan F.A., A.I. Al-Jaru, U.Wernery and K.A.Khazanehdari (2008). Authentication of camel milk

using microsatellite markers. J. Camel Pract. and Res. 15(1), 39-41

Larska M., U.Wernery, J.Kinne, R.Schuster, G. Alexandersen and S.Alexandersen (2008).

Differences in the susceptibility of dromedary and Bactrian camels to foot-and-mouth disease

virus. Epidemiol. 137, 549-554

410


Lorenzen P.Chr., R. Wernery, B.Johnson, Sh. Jose and U.Wernery (2011). Evaluation of indigenous

enzyme activities in raw and pasteurised camel milk. Small Ruminant Res. 97, 79-92

Wernery U. (2007). Dromedaries have a low susceptibility to Foot-and-Mouth disease – results of 3

infection trials. Proc. Fnt. Camel Conf., Bikaner, Rajasthan, India 16.-17.2., pp. 19-22, ed.

T.K. Gahlot

Wernery U. (2010). Evaluation of camel milk parameters in mammary health. Proc. Camel Science

and Development for sustainable livelihoods, Garissa, Kenya 7. – 11. 6. 2010, p. 11

Wernery U., R. Thomas, G. Syriac, R. Raghavan and S. Kletzka (2007). Seroepidemiological studies

for the detection of antibodies against 9 infectious diseases in dairy dromedaries (Part – I). J.

Camel Pract. and Research 14(2), 85-90

Wernery U., R. Thomas, R. Raghavan, G. Syriac, S. Joseph and N. Georgy (2008).

Seroepidemiological studies for the detection of antibodies against 8 infectious diseases in

dairy dromedaries using modern laboratory techniques – Part II. J. Camel Pract. and Res.

15(2), 139-145

411


76. Consumption of Camel Milk in Khartoum State

R.H. Zayed1 and O.E. Yassin

2

1Department of Milk Production Science and Technology,College of Animal Production Science and

Technology, Sudan University of Science and Technology 2Department of Animal Production Science and Technology,College of Animal Production Science

and Technology, Sudan University of Science and Technology


Introduction

The Sudan has the second largest number of camels of the world after Somalia with about

(3.9) million heads (Ministry Of Animal Resource And Fisheries, 2006). At times of global warming,

growing deserts and increasing scarcity of food and water, the camel can be part of a solution to these

problems (Wernery, 2007). In traditional pastoral and nomadic systems, camel milk is mainly used for

feeding calves and for human consumption. Two quarters of the udder are usually selected for milking

for human consumption and the other two quarters are left for maintaining the calf (Ramet, 1987 and

Ramet, 1994a). Milk for human consumption is usually consumed raw immediately after milking or

consumed as fermented milk (Yagil, 1982).


A questionnaire was distributed to 13 camel owners and some specialized camel farms in

Omdorman and Khartoum North Sudan. Random samples of 30 persons were selected from

Khartoum State and were subjected to sensory tests for fresh and fermented camel milk (Gariss) by a

questionnaire. Data tabulation by frequency tables and simple percentage method of analysis was

followed


The study showed that 77% of the families consumed 2-5 liters/day and 23% consumed more

than 5 liters/day depending on the family and herd sizes. About 76.9% of she camel calves consumed

half of the milk produced,this agrees with (Ramet, 1987, Ramet, 1994a), 23.1% consumed quarter of

the she camel milk produced.

The study showed that 56.7% of the consumers who had drunk camel milk were mostly from

Omdurman and Khartoum North and all of them or the majority were from western and eastern

Sudan. Most of these people originate from camel herding regions.

For the general characters of camel milk, 60% knew them and 40% had no knowledge about

them. This suggests more need for extension information on camel milk and products consumption.

The study noted full agreement of the consumers for the possibility of using camel milk for human

consumption, marketing camel milk and its products at 100% level which suggests more economic

and social space for camel milk and products. This agrees with Abeiderrahmane (2007) who indicated

that the present wide spread interest in camel milk opens a broad avenue for both developing modern

camel dairies and more interest in funding and supporting camel research.

The study reflects the importance and the prospective future of camel milk production and

consumption in the Sudan.

References

Abeiderrahman, N (2007). The impact of camel diary. Camel conf-Book. International Camel

Conference. Bikaner, India.

Ministry Of Animal Resource And Fisheries (2006).

Ramet, J.P. (1987). Roduction de formages a partir de lait de chamelle en Tunsie Mission Report.

Rome, FAO.

Ramet, J.P. (1994a). Les aspects scientifiques et technologiques particuliers de la fabrication des

fromages an lait de dromedaire comm.ColL Dromadaires et chameaux: animaux laitiers.

Nouakchott, Momtania.

Wernery, V(2007). Camel milk new observations. Camel conf-Book. International Camel Conference.

Bikaner, India.

Yagil, R. (1982). Camels and camel milk. Animal Production and Health. 26, FAO, Rome.

412


77. In-Vivo Evaluation for Antidiabetic Activity of Kucchi Camel Milk in Wistar

Rats

K.N.Wadhwani*, D.K. Barot, S.K. Bhavsar, S. Kumar, K.A.Vihol and Y.D. Padheriya

Department of Livestock Production, Veterinary College, AAU, Anand – 388 110, India


Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic, widely spread human disease and is characterized by

metabolism disorders and abnormally high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) resulting from a low level of

the hormone insulin with or without abnormal resistance to insulin effects (Rogers, 1989). In this

connection we have heard of many folkloric stories which describe the use of camel milk in the

treatment of type-1 diabetes mellitus. There is also an account in memories of Emperor Jahangir

(1579-1627 AD) referring to the usefulness and acceptability of camel milk (Beg, 1986). One of the

camel milk proteins has been reported to have similar characteristics to insulin (Khitam, 2003).


Thirty wistar rats, 8 weeks old, weighing 140-160gm were used for a study. They were

acclimatized under laboratory conditions for two weeks by keeping them on standard rodent diet

(Amrut feeds, Vadodara). Water was provided ad libitum. The animals were deprived of food

overnight and their fasting blood sugar levels were estimated. The rats were divided into five groups

(Group I, Group II, Group III, Group IV and Group V) of 6 rats each. Diabetes was induced in rats of

Group I, Group II, Group III and Group IV by intra-peritoneal administration of Streptozotocin (55

mg/kg body weight). Rats were fasted for 12hr before diabetes was induced using STZ. STZ was

freshly dissolved in 0.05M citrate buffer, pH 4.5. For the intraperitoneal injection, the rat was held in

one hand in dorsal position, the injection site was swabbed using povidon- iodine solution and the

designated amount of STZ was injected in the caudal abdominal cavity using sterile 25g-needle. The

rats in Group IV were kept as untreated controls. Whereas, rats in Group V were kept as un-induced

control. Fasting blood glucose levels of all these animals were estimated after three days of treatment.

For the determination of blood glucose using Glucocheck (Onetouch), whole blood was collected

from the tail vein from all the rats. The Group I animals were given 2 ml of raw camel milk orally

using oral gavage needle, twice daily for 21 day. Group II animals were given 2 ml of raw goat milk

through oral gavage needle twice daily for 21 days. The rats in Group III were given Metformin (100

mg/kg) orally using oral gavage needle once daily for three consecutive weeks. The Group IV was

kept as control group and Group V served as un-induced control. Throughout the study period, all the

rats were fed with standard rodent chow and water ad libitum. The blood glucose levels of all these

rats were estimated at weekly intervals for three consecutive weeks. Blood samples were drawn from

tail vein from overnight fasted rats.


Initial mean fasting blood glucose level of all the 30 animals (Group I – V) was 82.17 + 1.12

mg/dl prior to induction of diabetes. On third day following streptozotocin administration by

intraperitoneal route, the mean fasting blood glucose levels were 195.33 + 4.33, 194.50 + 2.87, 191.17

+ 6.76 and 200.33 + 4.07 mg/dl for Group I, Group II, Group III and Group IV, respectively.

Whereas, fasting mean blood glucose level for Group V (uninduced control) was 80.33 + 1.52 mg/dl.

In camel milk treated rats (Group I) after 1st, 2

nd and 3

rd week, mean blood glucose levels markedly

dropped to 176 + 3.12, 136.50 + 2.67 and 110.17 + 1.25 mg/dl, where as in goat milk traeted rats

(Group II), the mean glucose level dropped at a lower rate from 184.67 + 2.03, 157.83 + 1.78 and

128.17 + 4.08 mg/dl. The drop in mean glucose level in Metformin treated rats (Group III) was

maximum and it dropped to 130 + 5.4, 94.67 + 2.96 and 82.67 + 1.58 mg/dl after 1st, 2

nd and 3

rd week,

respectively. The drop in dibaetes induced untreated rats (group IV) was the slowest 194.83 + 3.44,

170.33 + 2.17 and 140 + 1.21 mg/dl, on 1st, 2

nd and 3

rd week, respectively. Whereas, mean fasting

glucose level in Group V was consistent as 81.83 + 1.99, 82.67 + 1.02 and 86.67 + 2.69 mg/dl .

Overall, there was a highly significant decrease in mean blood glucose level of rats receiving camel

milk as compared to rats receiving raw goat milk through oral Gavage twice daily for three

consecutive weeks. However, metformin treated rats showed maximum reduction in blood glucose

413


levels compared to camel and goat milk treated rats. Streptozotocin has been widely used to induce

type 1 diabetes in animal models especially rats and mice (Gabel, et al.,1985). The significant

increase in blood glucose levels observed in the present study following STZ administration (55

mg/kg) compared to un-induced group is clear indicative of induction of diabetes in rats. It has been

reported that a dose ranging from 25 to 100 mg/kg STZ injected intravenously was successful in

inducing a dose dependent hyperglycemia (Agrawal et al., 2003). The significant decrease in blood

glucose levels following oral administration of camel milk for three consecutive weeks in

streptozotocin induced diabetic rats is comparable to values of 98.0 + 3.37 , 89.0 + 5.23 and 86.28

+12.77 mg/dl after 1st, 2

nd and 3

rd weeks reported by other researchers (Singh, 2001). The positive

effects may be because of high concentrations of an insulin like protein found in camel milk. A 30-35

percent reduction in doses of insulin in patients of type I diabetes getting raw camel milk (Agrawal et

al., 2002). Camel milk contains approx 52 units/litre insulin (Agrawal et al., 2003). Oral insulin has

been known since many years but the critical drawback is its coagulum formation in acidic media in

stomach, which neutralizes its potency. One property of camel milk is that it does not form the

coagulum in the stomach or the acidic media; thereby it prevents degradation of insulin in the

stomach. It was found that amino acid sequence of some of the camel milk protein is rich in half

cystine, which has superficial similarity with insulin family of peptides (Hull, 2004). The lack of

coagulum formation allows the camel milk to pass rapidly through the stomach together with the

specific insulin like protein/insulin and remains available for absorption in intestine. Radio

immunoassay of insulin in camel milk has revealed high concentration i.e. 52 units/liter (Agrawal et

al., 2003). The milk of the camel has traditionally been used to treat diabetes (Shalash, 1979). Since

blood glucose level is controlled by endocrine, paracrine and autocrine interactions, there might be

some other active principle in camel milk compared to cow milk (Baumrucker et al; 2000). Further

studies are warranted to fractionate the active principle and to find out its exact mode of action.

In conclusion, the study indicated a significant hypoglycemic effect of camel milk in

streptozotocin induced rats. In future, the evaluation of composition of camel milk in detail and

further studies on antidiabetic activity testing of camel milk in healthy and diabetic patients may lead

to valuable evidence that camel milk could be used as alternative therapy in the treatment of diabetes.

References

Agrawal R.P., Swami S.C., Beniwal R., Kochar D.K., Kothari R.P. Effect of camel milk on glycemic

control, risk factors and diabetes quality of life in type 1 diabetes: A randomized prospective

controlled study. International Journal of Diabetes in Developing Countries 2002;22:70-4.

Agrawal R.P., Swami S.C., Beniwal R., Kochar D.K., Sahani M.S., Tuteja F.C., Ghouri S.K. Effect of

camel milk on glycemic control, lipid profile and diabetes quality of life in type-1 diabetes: A

randomized prospective controlled cross over study. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences

2003;73(10):1105-10

Baumrucker C.R., Erondu N.E. Insulin like growth factor (IGF) system in the bovine mammary gland

and milk. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia. 2000;5:53-64.

Beg O.U., Von Bahr, Lindrom H, Zaidid Z.H., Jornvall H. A camel milk protein rich in half cystine.

Primary structure assessment of variations, internal repeat patterns and relationship with

neurophysin and other active polypeptides. European Journal of Biochemistry 1986;15:195-

201.

Gabel H., Bitter-Suermann H., Henriksson C., Sav-Soderbergh J., Lundholm K., Brynger H.

Streptozotocin diabetes in juvenile pigs. Evaluation of an experimental model. Horm Metab

Res 1985;17:275-280.

Hull S.J.Camel's milk to treat Diabetes.htm Alternative Medicine, Diabetes 2004

Khitam Al Amir, Camel milk plasma may help produce anti-microbial vaccine Gulf News Al Nisr

Publishing LLC 2003

Rogers, A. Memories of Jahangir. Allantic Publishers and Distributor, New Delhi. 1989; 315.

shalash M.R.Utilization of camel meat and milk in human nourishment. In: Camels. IFS Symposium,

Sudan. 1979;285–306

414


78. Technology for Obtaining Probiotic Products From Camel Milk

A.D. Serikbayeva1*

, S.N. Sarimbekova1, G.S. Konuspayeva

2, M.H. Narmuratova

2

and A.A. Meldebekova2

1The Kazakh National Agrarian University

2The National University named after Al-Farabi


Introduction

Many developed countries implemented national programs to improve the health of the

population through the development and organization of food components and correcting the

biochemical composition of food products of mass consumption.

This paper deals with the creation of technology, research, manufacturing variability and

increase the range of different products based on camel's milk, with functional properties, due to the

presence in their composition useful natural ingredients, dietary fiber, antioxidant vitamins, fatty

acids, probiotics and minerals.


The material used for the research were: camel's milk from the farm "Daulet-Becket", pure

cultures of Bifidobacterium Bifidobacterium adolescentis, strain MS-42 and Bifidobacterium

bifidum,strain 791; concentrateBifidobacterium longum or Bifidobacterium bifidum and lactic acid

bacteria Lactococcus lactis subsp. diacetilactis, Streptoccocus salivarius subsp. thermophilus;

concentrate of lactic acid bacteria Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp.

diacetilactis and Lactococcus lactis subsp. сremoris of (Kazakhstan), whey concentrate with

oligosaccharides derived from cheese whey by β- galactosidase, protein obogaditel derived from

cheese whey by heat denaturation, fruit purees: of dried apricots, blackcurrant, vegetable puree of

pumpkin and carrots on current regulatory documents; stabilizing systems "Palsgaard 5958", "Stabisol

JTL" and "Stabisin 3", can be administered to bodies of Sanitary Inspection.

Physico-chemical and biochemical, and microbiological parameters of raw milk and finished

products were determined in accordance with the regulations.


The lactoglobulin in camel milk was virtually absent. This suggests that camel milk does not

contain allergenic properties. It is established that under the action of β-galactosidase synthesis of

oligosaccharides maximum recorded at 30°C, the concentration of enzyme in 1 ml 20E serum

concentrations of lactose, 40% and the duration of fermentation within 2 hours. Isolated and identified

oligosaccharides, which represented 54% of disaccharides, including content allolactose was 34%.

Whey concentrate containing oligosaccharides, when adding in a camel's milk in an amount of 5-6%

stimulates the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli as a result of induction of synthesis in cultures

of β-galactosidase own. Investigation of the process of fermentation of camel's milk with pure

cultures of bifidobacteria B. adolescentis MC-42 strain, B. bifidum strain 791, and the Association of

cultures B. longum, B. bifidum and lactic acid bacteria Lact. lactis subsp. diacetilactis, Str. salivarius

subsp. thermophilus using growth promoters (protein dresser, whey concentrate, oligosaccharides,

lactulose), showed that the effective growth promoting bifidobacteria are whey concentrate with

oligosaccharides or lactulose. Chosen flavor and vitamin and carbohydrate supplements for fermented

combination product: puree of dried apricots, pumpkin, carrot and blackcurrant purée in an amount of

3.6% of the total weight of components. Defined biological, nutritional and energy value of new dairy

products combined with camel's milk, "Improved shubat" and "Bioshubat" which contains all the

essential amino acids, vitamins A, E, D, C, B1, B2, B6, B12, PP, pantothenic acid and minerals Na,

K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, I, Mn, Cu and Zn. Energy value of foods is 84,4-92,4 calories, depending on the

type of plant component. Based on the results of mathematical modeling identified stabilizing systems

"Stabisol JTL" at 0.8%, or "Stabisin 3" in an amount of 0.6% by weight of components for decreasing

the shelf life of new dairy products combined functional food based on camel milk. Set period of

guaranteed storage (15 days) at temperature 4 - 6°C. Developed regulatory documentation for the new

fermented milk product made from camel milk, "Improved shubat" and "Bioshubat."

415


References

Tulemisova KA, Bondarenko VM, Savitskaya IS, Chuprinin RP, Gracheva NM, Zhubanov AA -

Probiotic preparations and their mechanism of action. Biotechnology Theory and Practice,. -

2004 .- № 2 .- p.124-128.

Konuspayeva G., Faye B.., Serikbayeva A. Les produits laitiers traditionnels a base de lait de chamell

en Asie Centrale / / Alelier international sur le lait de chamelle en Afrigue. (Niger), 2003.-

R.137-147.

Serikbayeva A., Konuspayeva G., Loiseau G., Narmuratova M., Faye B., Probiotic properties of a

sour-milk product shubat from the camel milk / / Proc. ° F. Intern. Workshop, ―Desertification

combat and food safety: the added value of camel producers‖ .- NATO Sciences Series,

Ashkabad, 2004.-R.187-191.

Serikbayev AD Study translikoziruyuschego of ß-galactosidase activity in serum / / Bulletin of

Science KazGATU them. Seyfullin. , Astana, 2009. - № 2 (53) - P.45-51.

416


79. Utilization of Kachchhi Camel Milk for Manufacturing of Medium Fat Ice Cream

J.P. Prajapati1, S.V. Pinto

1, K.N. Wadhwani

2* and A.B. Patel

2

1Department of Dairy technology, SMC College of Dairy Science, AAU, Anand-388 110

2Department of Livestock Production, Veterinary College, AAU, Anand – 388 110


Introduction Camel milk contains little fat (2%) which mainly consists of polyunsaturated fatty acids that

are completely homogenized and gives the milk a smooth white appearance. Lactose is present in

concentrations of 4.8%, and is easily metabolized by persons suffering from lactose intolerance

(Hanna, 2001). Camel milk is also known for its medicinal properties which are widely exploited for

human health (Mal et al., 2006). Most camel milk is consumed raw, boiled or for preparation of tea.

Now a days low-fat dairy products are preferred over full-fat products in several markets. This trend

has been particularly visible for ice cream over the last few years. Camel milk, as well as being low in

fat also contains Vitamin B, iron and unsaturated fatty acids. Camel ice cream is safe for consumers

with lactose intolerance and contains 3 times more vitamin C than cows milk (Chris, 2006). Ice cream

and frozen desserts were successfully produced from camel milk (Pathak and Bhagat, 2010).


Cream was separated from the milk at 40oC and was used for standardization of ice cream

mix. SagarTM

brand skim milk powder (SMP) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) were used.

Alginate-S4, Glycerol Mono Stearate (GMS), vanilla, strawberry and pineapple essence were used

and brand pineapple and strawberry colour were used as colouring agent for pineapple and strawberry

ice cream respectively.The ice cream mix was prepared and freezed in direct expansion type batch ice

cream freezer.

Analyses of Ingredients

The fat content of milk and cream were estimated by Gerber method (ISI 1977). The total

solids of milk was determined by the standard procedure using a Mojonnier Milk Tester (Model D,

Mojonnier Brothers Co., Chicago, USA) (Laboratory Manual, 1959). The titratable acidity of milk

was determined by standard method (ISI 1961). The total solids content of ice cream mixes were

determined by standard method using 2 g of sample (ISI Handbook of Food Analysis 1989). The fat

content of ice cream mix determined by the standard method using 5 g of mix (ISI Handbook of Food

Analysis 1989). The protein content of the ice cream mixes was determined by Kjeldahl method

(AOAC 1980). Overrun in ice cream was determined as per the method given by Marshall and others

(2003). The method given by Loewenstein and Haddad (1972) was employed for evaluating the

melting characteristics of ice cream. The hardened ice creams were tempered to –12 + 10C for 1-2 h in

retail cabinet before serving. All the samples were coded with a 3 digit random number and samples

were served randomly. The ice cream was subjected to sensory evaluation using a 9 point hedonic

scale. Fresh samples of ice cream 100 ml cups after 24 h of hardening at -18 ± 20C in hardening room

were tempered to -12 ± 20C for 1-2 h in a retail cabinet for sensory evaluation.


The average fat content of camel milk was 3.2 + 0.2 % and the MSNF content was 8.5 + 0.1.

The average acidity of camels milk was 0.125% lactic acid.Since the fat content of the camel milk

was low, it was decided to prepare medium fat ice cream. Reduced calorie products usually have a

low content of total solids compared to standard products (about 30 to 35 % TS as against of 38 to 40

%), which means that they also make considerable demands on the functional ingredients (e.g. fat

replacers, bulking agents, stabilizers and emulsifiers) that they contain.To select the optimum level of

fat in the tentative formulation which would not have much adverse effect on sensory properties of the

frozen product, preliminary screenings were undertaken. It was decided to use milk fat at a level of

6% was in the formulation while the MSNF content 11.5 % (w/w) and WPC 1.5% respectively. Whey

protein concentrate (WPC) has been included in ice cream mix formulations for its contribution to

favourable sensory and textural qualities (Tirumalesha and Jayaprakasha, 1998). Therefore it was

decided to incorporate WPC in the mix. The tentative levels of fat as well as MSNF were based on the

417


preliminary investigations and reported literature (Marshall et al, 2003). The formulation was chosen

and used for preparation of medium fat camel milk ice cream. The camel milk had a sharp taste

(mineral like) and predominant grassy flavour, with a slightly salty taste. It also had a pronounced fat

aftertaste. Therefore, with a view to improve the acceptability of camel milk ice cream, three flavours

were used to ascertain which flavour is most acceptable for preparation of camel milk ice cream.

Camel milk medium fat ice cream was prepared using three different types of flavouring i.e Vanilla

(V), Strawberry (S), and Pineapple (P). All the three experimental ice creams were compared to

control, i.e. C. The composition of control ice cream mix was 10.0% milk fat, 11.0% MSNF, 15%

sugar, 0.15% stabilizer and 0.2% emulsifier. All the flavouring ingredients, i.e. Vanilla, strawberry

and pineapple essence were added at the rate of 3 ml/kg mix. The freshly hardened control (C) and

experimental samples viz. V,S and P of ice cream were analysed for their chemical composition. The

protein content of all the experimental samples were higher than control.This is quite obvious as WPC

was rich in protein content (i.e. 71.09% on dry matter basis).The fat content and total solid content of

experimental camel milk ice cream were significantly lower as compared to Control. This is due to the

lower fat of experimental samples which leads to reduction in total solids of ice cream mixes. No data

is available in literature for camel milk ice cream for comparison.Viscosity has been considered an

important property of ice cream mixes and up to a certain extent it seems essential for proper

whipping and retention of air cells. The viscosity of mix is also affected by the composition,

especially, fat, protein and stabilizer and the quality of ingredients used. Hence, the aged mixes were

subjected to viscosity test. The overrun of a frozen dessert is an important property since it directly

has relation with the yield and profit. It also affects the body, texture and palatability of the final

product. The major physical characteristics of frozen desserts that concerns regulatory agencies is

weight per unit volume of the product, and this is affected by the overrun developed in the product.

Ice cream should melt down to a liquid of smooth consistency, suggestive of a rich cream. Meltdown

is an important property of ice cream affecting its sensory quality. It is important from at least two

main points of view – eye appeal and mouth feel – which may differ according to the type of ice

cream (Flack, 1988). It is also important that the ice cream is not too hard or should not melt quickly.

Deviation in the melting property from ideal condition either extremes can make the ice cream

defective (Sommer, 1951). Hence, the melting resistance of control as well as experimental samples

were monitored. The camel milk ice cream mixes viz. V, S an P had significantly lower viscosity. The

experimental icecreams had higher overrun as revealed from the wt/volume data. Incorporation of

WPC in the all the experimental ice creams was found to improve the overrun significantly (P ≤

0.05). From the pertaining statistical analysis it can be seen that all the experimental samples had

significantly (P ≤ 0.05) lower melting resistance compared to control. The experimental samples in

spite of decreased melting resistance values, were statistically at par with each other (P > 0.05). No

data is available in literature for comparison of the above physical properties of medium fat camel

milk ice cream with regular ice cream.The fate of any food product has always rested on the

acceptance of the product by the consumers. The quality of the ice cream judged by consumers rests

on its sensory characteristics, viz. flavour, colour and appearance, body and texture and overall

acceptability. Keeping in view these aspects, the sensory quality of the ice cream samples were

adjudged by a panel of 6 judges using 9-point hedonic scale scorecard. The flavour score of control

and P were at par (P>0.05) with each other, whereas samples V and S had significantly lower flavour

scores compared to control. The colour and appearance scores of camel milk vanilla ice cream, i.e. V

was significantly lower than all the other experimental samples. This was due to the dull /less

attractive colour as criticized by the judges. The body and texture scores of all the experimental

samples were significantly lower than control (P<0.05). This could be attributed to the lower total

solids and fat content and faster meltdown in the experimental samples. However, the overall

acceptability of sample P was at par with control. Pineapple flavour reduced the negative impact of

the flavour characteristics of camel milk. This could be due to the masking effect of pineapple

flavour. The use of pineapple flavour appears to be the most advantageous from all the flavors used

which helped in enhancing the acceptability of medium fat camel milk ice cream compared to the

other two flavors studied viz. strawberry and vanilla.

References

AOAC (1980) Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC),

Washington, DC-20044. 272-274 p.

418


Chris, M. (2006). One hump or two? Camel milk ice cream is here. www.novisgroup.com/science-

nutrition

Flack, E. (1988). Factors which influence the melting properties of ice cream. Ice cream and frozen

confectionery, 39: 232-234.

Hanna J. (2001). Over the hump. In: Jack Hanna‘s Animal Adventures. TV series (USA) season;

#2190. www.animaladventures.com.

ISI Handbook of food analysis (1989). SP: 18 (Part XI – Dairy Products). Bureau of Indian Standards,

Manak Bhavan, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi, India

Lowenstein, M. and Haddad, G.S. (1992). High temperature pasteurization of ice cream. Part I. The

effect of various heat treatments on the solubility of the components. Amer. Dairy Rev. 34:

82.

Mal G, Suchitra Sena D and Sahani MS (2006). Milk production potential and keeping quality of

camel milk. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 13(2): 175-178.

Marshall, R.T.; Goff, H.D. and Hartel, R.W. (2003). Ice cream. 6th Edn. Kluwer Acad/ Plenum Pub.

New York, pp. 11-50.

Pathak KML and Bhagat C (2010). New dimension for camel rearing. ICAR News. Vol. 17, Jan-Mar

2010. 16-17 p.

Sommer HH. (1951). Theory and practice of ice cream making. Sixth Ed. Olsen Publishing Co.,

Milwaukee, USA.

Tirumalesha, A. and Jayaprakasha, H.M. (1998). Effect of admixture of spray dried whey protein

concentrate and buttermilk powder on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of ice

cream. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 51(1): 13-19.

419


80. Fatty Acid Profile of Sudanese Fermented Camel’s (Camelus dromedarius) Milk

Gariss

A.I. Ahmed1, B.E. Mohamed

2, N.M. Elkhatim

2, B. Faye

3, G. Loiseau

4 and D. Montet

4

1Department of Biochemistry and Food Science, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental

Studies, University of Kordofan, Elobeid, Sudan, P.O. Box .160. 2Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum,

Shambat, Sudan. 3Centre De Coopération Internationale En Recherche Agronomique Pour Le Développement CIRAD,

Montpellier, France. 4UMR Qualisud, CIRAD, TA B-95/16, 73 rue J.-F. Breton, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.


Introduction

Milk fatty acid composition is one of the aspects related to the health effects of camel‘s milk

and its products; however, the fatty acid composition of camel‘s milk is not well documented

(Ulbricht and Southgate, 1991; Farah, 1993).

Human milk fat contains a higher content of unsaturated fatty acids compared with bovine but

camel‘s milk seems to be very different from other mammalian milks in terms of unsaturated fatty

acid composition and in its low content of short-chain fatty acids (Bracco et al, 1971; Konuspayeva et

al., 2008). It has been reported (Konuspayeva et al., 2008) that the percentage of saturated acids is

higher in bovine milk fat (69.9%) than in camel milk fat (67.7%).


Fermented camel milk (gariss) samples were obtained from three areas of North Kordofan

and three areas from Khartoum state, Sudan; the samples were collected from nomads moved around

Elobeid (North Kordofan State) and from Khartoum state retailers in February 2010.

From the extracted lipid stored at 4◦C according to the method described by Konuspayeva et

al (2008) was used to prepare methylation and quantify fatty acids.

The study indicated that the fatty acids profile of fermented camel milk (gariss) obtained from

Kordofan and Khartoum locations were not different in short, medium and long chains quantity, and

while in the individual locations were different in most of them.


The objective of the present study was to determine the fatty acid profile of fermented camel

milk (gariss) obtained from six different locations in Kordofan and Khartoum States in Sudan. The

mean values of fatty acids obtained from Khartoum were significantly (P≥ 0.05) higher than that from

Kordofan in C16:1, C18:1 and C18:2, while all others fatty acids investigated in this work of

Kordofan and Khartoum were not significantly (P≥ 0.05) different.

In all samples investigated in this work there was only one location in Kordofan region with

content of butyric acid (C4:0) of 5.5% were in Khartoum State locations. There were no values of

butyric acids detected.

Location KRD1 (from Kordofan area) has no content of Caproic acid (C6:0), while location

KRD2 has the highest value followed by KHT3 and KRD3 (those three locations were not

significantly P≥ 0.05 different) and significantly higher than locations KHT1 and KHT2.

The analyses of the short, medium and long chains fatty acids in Kordofan, Khartoum and

individuals of the locations indicated no significant differences between regions.

References

Farah, Z (1993). Composition and characteristics of camel milk. Review article, J. Dairy Res. 60:

603–626.

Konuspayeva, G., Lemarie, E., Faye, B., Loiseau, G., and Montet, D. (2008). Fatty acid and

cholesterol composition of camel's (Camelus bactrianus, Camelus dromedarius and hybrids)

milk in Kazakhstan. Dairy Science and Technology, 88, 327-340.

Ulbricht, T.L.V and Southgate, D.A.T (1991).Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors, Lancet

338: 985–992.

420


81. Protection Against Lead Contamination by Strains of Lactic Acid Bacteria From

Fermented Camel Milk

S. Akhmetsadykova1,2,3

, G. Konuspayeva1, G. Loiseau

3, A. Baubekova

1, S. Kanayat

1,

N. Akhmetsadykov4 and B. Faye

2

1Al Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 av. Al Farabi, 050040 Almaty, Kazakhstan

2CIRAD - Département Environnements et Sociétés, Campus International de Baillarguet, TA C-DIR /

B 34398 Montpellier, Cedex, France, [email protected] 3UMR Qualisud, CIRAD, TA B-95/16, 73, rue J.-F. Breton, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France

4Kazakh National Agrarian University, 8 av. Abai 050013 Almaty, Kazakhstan


Introduction

Heavy metals are widely responsible for environmental contamination (3). The pollution of

some areas by lead (Pb) is a health hazard for consumers of dairy products because this metal is

concentrated throughout the food chain. One of the most frequently described problems in lead

toxicity is saturnism, cancer and anemia. Camel milk and fermented shubat, its derivative product

could be contaminated (4, 7, 8). The lactic fermentation of shubat could reduce the availability of lead

in the digestive tract of consumers because lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are able to absorb this metal

which is then excreted in the faeces (1, 2, 5, 6). Therefore, the present study was carried out to

determine in vivo the effectiveness of the fermented milk for decreasing the absorption of Lead

Nitrate (PB2(NO3)).


Female cavies (250-300 g) were housed in standard metal cages (10 cavies/cage). They were

divided into four treatment groups: (1) cavies not receiving lead and used as control group, (2) treated

group with 2 mL of solution containing Lead Nitrate (0.5 ppm) and named Lead Nitrate treated

cavies, (3) cavies treated with 2 mL of milk product fermented by 4 different LAB strains having

proved capacity to absorb Pb (9, 10, 11, 12), (4) cavies treated with 2 mL of milk product fermented

by 4 different LAB strain in which the same concentration of Lead Nitrate than group 2 was

dissolved. Cavies were orally administered their respective doses every day for 21 days. Water and

food were provided ad libitum. Heart, lungs, liver, kidney, spleen and blood were collected and

analyzed for lead quantity. Faeces were collected every 7 days and also analyzed for lead quantity.

Results

Levels of 0.32, 0.12, 0.32 and 0.1 ppm of lead concentration were found in milk, water fodder

and HNO3 respectively. There was no difference between control group (1) and group (2) for the Pb

content in the faeces of cavies, except for 4th week where higher concentration (1.57 ppm) was

observed. These results need to be confirmed (Figure 1). The lead concentration in faeces is higher in

the groups 3 and 4 compared to control group (Figure 2). However, in the 3rd

group which was not

treated by lead, the quantity of this metal is also higher than in control group. The highest quantity of

Pb was in 4th group, but the fecal content of lead in those groups ichanged during the study.

In the different cavies‘ organs of group 2 (receiving enriched Pb solution in water), the higher

concentration of heavy metal was observed in spleen (1.04), heart (0.65), kidneys (0.58), blood (0.46)

Figure 1. Lead concentration in feces of control and lead nitrate groups Figure 2. Lead concentration in feces of control, 3rd

and 4th groups

421


to be compared to 0.82, 0.2, 0.58 and 0.31 respectively in control group (Figure 3). In groups treated

with fermented milk without and with Pb, the lead concentration decreased in targets organs (spleen,

kidneys, liver and lungs). The Pb concentration in blood and heart was similar in control, 3rd

and 4th

groups (Figure 4) in spite of the lead treatment in the 4th group.

Discussion and Conclusion

The lead concentrations in feces of control group and lead nitrate treated group were almost

the same. The fecal lead concentration increased in groups treated by milk fermented by strains of

LAB. However, the fecal excretion of Pb was not constant. Although the 3rd

group wasn‘t treated, the

quantity of fecal Pb was higher than in control group. It‘s quite possible that Pb formerly existing in

organism was eliminated due to the absorbing effect of LAB strains. Lead was concentrated mostly in

spleen, blood, heart and kidneys. In groups treated with fermented milk the Pb concentration

decreased in organs. Even if cavies were treated, the Pb concentration in heart and blood remain

similar to control group.

References

Al-Hashem F. 2009 Camel's Milk Protects against Aluminum Chloride-Induced Toxicity in the Liver

and Kidney of White Albino Rats, American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology 5

(3): 98-109, 2009

Dallak M. 2009 Camel's Milk Protects Against Cadmium Chloride-Induced Hypocromic Microcytic

Anemia and Oxidative Stress in Red Blood Cells of White Albino Rats, American Journal of

Pharmacology and Toxicology 4 (4): 134-141

Kenesariyev U., Bekmagambetova Zh., Zhakashov N., SultanaliyevY.,Amrin M. 2008. Assessing the

Hazards of Radiological and Environmental Factors for the Public Health in the Western

Kazakhstan Impact of Pollution on Animal ProductsNATO Science for Peace and Security

Series C: Environmental Security, 2008, I, 47-51

Konuspayeva G., Faye B., Loiseau G., Diacono E., Akhmetsadykova Sh. 2008 Pollution of camel

milk by heavy metals in Kazakhstan. In: ―Proceeding of the IDF/INRA 1st International

Symposium on Minerals and Dairy Products‖. P.3. 2008

Akhmetsadykova Sh., Loiseau G., Faye B., Le Guillou M., Konuspayeva G. 2010 Pollution index and

potential detoxification of fermented camel milk face to heavy metals. Proc. Intl Camel

Symp. Camel Science & Development for Sustainable Livelihoods, Garissa (Kenya), KARI

Ed., 10-15th June 2010, poster n°26.

Loiseau G., Faye B., Konuspayeva G.,Akhmetsadykova Sh. 2009 Interaction of lead and cadmium

with lactic bacteria isolated from camel milk and shubat from Kazakhstan Proceeding 2nd

International Conference ISOCARD, 11 – 14 March 2009

Konuspayeva G., Faye B., Loiseau G., E. Diacono, Akhmetsadykova Sh. 2009 Pollution of camel

milk by heavy metals in Kazakhstan. The Open Environmental Pollution & Toxicology

Journal, 2009, 1, p. 112-118.

G.Konuspayeva, S.Jurjanz, G.Loiseau, V.Barci, Sh.Akhmetsadykova, A.Meldebekova, B.Faye 2011

Contamination of Camel Milk (Heavy Metals, Organic Pollutants and Radionuclides) in

Kazakhstan. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 90-96 .

Boyaval P. 1989 Lactic acid bacteria and metal ions. Lait(1989) 69 (2) 87-113

Figure 3. Lead concentration in organs of control and lead nitrate

groups

Figure 4. Lead concentration in organs of control, 3rd

and 4th

groups

422


K. Vijayaraghavan, Yeoung-Sang Yun 2008 Bacterial biosorbents and biosorption Biotechnology

Advances 26 (2008) 266–291

H.Teemu, S.Seppo, M.Jussi, T.Raija, L.Kalle 2008 Reversible surface binding of cadmium and lead

by lactic acid and bifidobacteria International Journal of Food Microbiology 125 (2008) 170–

175

T. Halttunen, S.Salminen, R.Tahvonen 2007 Rapid removal of lead and cadmium from water by

specific lactic acid bacteria International Journal of Food Microbiology 114 (2007) 30–35

423


82. Milk Components Relationship and Energy Corrected Milk Standardization for

Dairy Camels

R.S. Aljumaah1, M.Ayadi

1, M.A. Alshaikh

1, R. Casals

2 and G. Caja

1,2*

1Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University

(KSU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, P. O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451. 2Ruminant Research Group (G2R), Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Universitat Autònoma

de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.


Introduction

The energy content of milk varies largely according to species, breed, individual and stage of

lactation, making necessary its standardization in practice (i.e. rationing, breeding evaluation). Milk

energy content can be estimated with a high degree of accuracy from the standard caloric values of its

components (fat, 9.5; protein, 5.7; and lactose, 4.0 cal/g), as stated by Perrin (1958). Fat correlates

highly with milk energy due to its caloric value and the accuracy of fat analysis. So, milk is usually

standardized for a fixed energy content (i.e., 750 kcal/kg) or an equivalent milk fat percentage (i.e.,

4% fat) as in the known Overman and Gaines‘ equation (y = 0.15 x + 0.4).

The purpose of this work was to study the correlations between the major components of

camel‘s milk and to determine its energy value with the aim of proposing the appropriate energy- and

fat-corrected milk equations for dairy camels.


One-hundred and eighty lactating she-camels (Camelus dromedarius L.) of 4 indigenous

breeds (Majahim, 58; Maghatir, 49; Shu'l, 39; Sufer, 34) from different dairy herds at the Riyadh

region (Saudi Arabia), were used through lactation (29 to 372 days in milk). Hand-milking was done

twice daily and milk samples collected (n = 720) by udder quarter at the morning milking. Only

samples from apparently healthy udders (no visible lesions or changes in milk appearance) were used.

Prior to sampling, teats were washed, dried, foremilk stripped and first milk jets discarded. Samples

were collected in sterile bottles (100 mL), without preservative, and immediately transported in ice to

laboratory. Milk fat, protein, lactose and total solids (TS) contents were measured using a Lacto Star

milk scanner (Funke-Gerber, Labortechnik GmbH, Berlin, Germany) calibrated for camel milk.

Mineral content was analyzed from milk white ashes (550◦C) by atomic absorption spectrometry

(Analyst Spectrophotometer 300, Perkin-Elmer Inc, Shelton, Connecticut, USA). A subset of 225

samples (40 mL each), carefully chosen according composition, were freeze dried (–45ºC and 0.1

mbar) and 2 g milk powder used for gross energy determination using an adiabatic calorimeter (IKA

calorimeter, Janke & Hunkel, Heitersheim, Germany). Energy values were corrected for sample dry

matter. All analyses were made in duplicate. Data were analyzed for simple and multiple linear

regressions by the REG procedure of SAS (SAS version 9.1, SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC).


Milk composition widely varied across the samples collected (Table 1) but, on average 79%

milk samples showed inverted fat and protein contents (fat < protein). This may have been a

consequence of an incomplete milk letdown (i.e. milk without stimulatory calf suckling), the milk

sampled mainly corresponding to available cisternal milk. Nevertheless, the incidence of fat

depression syndrome (consequence of a low proportion of forage in the diet) should not be discarded

and would need further research.

Table 1. Milk composition of dairy camels in Saudi Arabia.

Milk

component

Overall (n = 720) Selected subset (n = 225)

Mean ± SE Range Mean ± SE Range

Fat, % 2.94 ± 0.03 1.35 – 5.85 2.88 ± 0.05 1.39 – 5.63

Protein, % 3.45 ± 0.01 2.45 – 4.40 3.44 ± 0.02 2.72 – 4.31

Lactose, % 4.98 ± 0.02 3.56 – 5.99 4.99 ± 0.02 3.93 – 5.97

Total solids, % 12.1 ± 0.1 9.0 – 15.6 12.1 ± 0.1 9.6 – 15.6

424


y = 126.59x + 261.97 R² = 0.73

y = 108.67x + 355.52 R² = 0.89

Ener

gy, k

cal/

kg

Milk fat, %

1According to Perrin (1958): Energy (kcal/kg) = 95 × Fat (%) + 53 × Protein (%) + 40 × Lactose (%).

Correlations between milk components were low for the overall data (fat vs. protein, r = 0.21;

lactose vs. Na, r = – 0.34; Na vs. K, r = 0.62; fat vs. TS, r = 0.69; protein vs. TS, r = 0.84) but

improved in the selected subset (fat vs. protein, r = 0.39; lactose vs. Na, r = – 0.18; Na vs. K, r = 0.61;

fat vs. TS, r = 0.82; protein vs. ST, r = 0.84) agreeing on their adequacy. Milk K:Na ratio were 2.53 ±

0.02 and 2.68 ± 0.04 in the overall and selected samples, respectively, indicating that a displaced

equilibrium (with a greater Na content) is usually present in the camel‘s milk when compared to

cow‘s milk (K:Na ~3), as also shown by Ayadi et al. (2009). This may be also related to the high

reactivity of camel‘s milk to the CMT test reported by Aljumaah et al. (2011).

Equations for milk energy obtained by regression analysis from the measured (calorimeter; R2

= 0.73) and the estimated (Perrin; R2 = 0.89) data showed divergence at the intercept (Figure 1) which

will need further research. The proposed fat-corrected milk (FCM at 3% fat) equation for milk

standardization (1 kg FCM3% = 642 kcal or 153 kJ) in dairy camels from our data differed from that of

Overman and Gaines and was: FCM3% = 0.197 × Fat (%) + 0.408.

Figure 1. Energy content of camel‘s milk (…

○…

, estimated; measured, –●–) according to milk fat.

References

Aljumaah R. S., Almutairi F. F., Ayadi M., Alshaikh M. A., Aljumaah A. M., and Hussein M. F.

(2011). Factors influencing the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in lactating dromedary

camels in Riyadh Region, Saudi Arabia. Tropical Animal Health Production 43:1605–1610.

Ayadi M., Hammadi M., Khorchani T., Barmat A., Atigui M., and Caja G. 2009. Effects of milking

interval and cisternal udder evaluation in Tunisian Maghrebi dairy dromedaries (Camelus

dromedarius L.). Journal of Dairy Science 91:1452–1459.

Perrin, D. R. 1958. The calorific value of milk of different species. Journal of Dairy Research 25:215–

220.

Ash, % 0.74 ± 0.01 0.59 – 0.95 0.74 ± 0.01 0.61 – 0.88

Ca, mg/L 9.03 ± 0.07 5.01 – 13.03 9.25 ± 0.13 5.06 – 13.00

Na, mg/L 3.57 ± 0.04 1.08 – 8.01 3.73 ± 0.09 1.07 – 8.02

K, mg/L 8.72 ± 0.11 3.06 – 19.41 9.55 ± 0.21 3.33 – 19.41

Energy, kcal/kg

Measured - - 626 ± 6 403 – 890

Estimated1 655 ± 3 447 – 928 667 ± 5 458 – 942

425


83. Place Bacteriocins (Nisin Type), In The System Self-Purification of Camel Milk

A. Siboukeur* and O. Siboukeur

Laboratory "Protection of Ecosystems in Arid and Semi-Arid"

Faculty of Natural Sciences and Life Sciences and Earth and the Universe

University Kasdi Merbeh Ouargla, Algeria


Introduction Camel milk is characterized by a relatively powerful protector system compared to milk of

other species (RAMET, 2003). The latter is related to the existence of inappreciable quantities of

protective proteins contained in whey (lysozyme, immunoglobulins, LSPsystem, lactoferrin, hydrogen

peroxide and the component 3 of proteose-peptones)

This study shows that this natural system is reinforced by the action of nisin produced by the

species Lactococcus lactissubsplactis. This bacteriocin is particularly effective against one species

may accidentally contaminate the milk: Staphylococcus aureus, which have developed a resistance to

antibiotics according to many authors.

The propagation of bacteria, their resistanceto antibiotics and the demand for more products

containing the least of chemicals substance, is responsible for finding new alternatives to reduce the

misuse of therapeutic antibiotics. In this context, bacteriocins, nisin in this caseare shown to prevent

the growth of undesirable bacteriainfood products, cosmetics.

Materialsa Methods

Four samples of camel milk as mixtures from camels living in extensive in the region of

Ouargla are used. They are transported to the microbiology laboratory in a cooler. They were used

forisolation, identification and purification of strains of interest.

For the culture of the strain of Lactococcus lactis sub sp lactis, producer of nisin, we used the

M17 medium (KELLY et al.,1998; KERAMANE, 2009). Seeding is carried on the surface because

the strain isaerotolerant (DELLAGLIO, 1994). The strain targeted belongs to the species

Staphylococcus aureus isolated from mastitis milk on Chapman medium. Given its halotolerant, it is

susceptible to be part of the flora of camel milk contamination due to its salinity more or less

pronounced.

After incubation for 18 hours, the culture of nisin-producing strain, followed by

centrifugation at 8000trs /minfor 10 minutesat 4 °C, the supernatant may contain the desired

bacteriocin (nisin) is recovered. It is then neutralized to pH 6.5 with 5 N NaOH to raise the

antibacterial activity may be exerted by organic acids (NYKANEN et al., 2000). The diffusion test in

agar by the disc method was used to search for the antibacterial activity of nisin produced by

Lactococcus lactis sub sp lactis against strain of Staphylococcus aureus.

Results and Discussion The diffusion test in agar by the disc method allowed, to demonstrate the presence of

antagonism. The appearance of ZI variable diameter between 6 and 8 mm, indicates that there is an

antibacterial effect against the strain of Staphylococcus aureus isolated, inhibition due to the

production by lactic acid bacteria of organic acids and H2O2 has been waived by the neutralization of

the supernatant and catalase + property of target strain. Since the system self-purification of camel

milk is due to whey protein role in antibacterial, reported by many authors, the results can be

explained the part of bacteriocins (nisin type) produced by Lactococcus lactis subsp lactis on a

species halotolerant susceptible tocontaminate milk camels due to its salinity caused by grazed plants,

mostly halophytes. This is especially important given that clinical cases of mastitis in the camel are

infrequent (KANE et al., 2003).

References

Dellaglio F. ; De Roissart H. ; Torriani S. ; Curk M.C. ; Janssens D. ,(1994). Caracteristiques générale

des bacteries lactiques in Bacterie lactique, de Roissard et Luquet, Tech.Doc., Lavoisier,

Paris.

426


Kane Y. , Alambedji-Bada R., M. AHMED O., DIOP A., DIALLO B.C., KABORET Y. , ABIOLA

F.A., (2003). Dépistage de mammites subcliniques chez la chamelle en lactation à Nouakchott

(Mauritanie). Actes de l‘Atelier International sur : Lait de chamelle en Afrique. 4-5

novembre,Niamey, Niger.

Kelly W. J. , Davey G.P., Ward L.J.H.,(1998). Characterization of lactococci isolated from minimally

processed fresh fruit and vegetables. Ed Elsevier International Journal of Food Microbiology

45 p 85–92.

Keramane B., (2009). Effets antimicrobiens des lactocoques à l‘égard de staphylococcus aureus multi-

résistant. Mémoire de magister en microbiologie appliquéé. Université de Béjaia

Nykänen A.; Lapvetäinen A.; Hietanen R.M.; Kallio H. (2000). Bibliomer 11. Thème :2 –

Transformation. Sous-thème : 2 - 2 Procédés de transformation. Applicability of lactic acid

and nisin to improve the microbiological quality of cold-smoked rainbow trout.

Ramet J. P. ,(2003). Aptitude à la conservation et à la transformation fromagère du lait de chamelle.

Actes de l‘Atelier international sur : Lait de chemelle pour l‘Afrique, 5-8 Novombre,

Niamey , Niger.

427


84. Milk Fat Content of Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) In Dairy Camels Fed Different

Levels of Sunflower Oil

S.N. Al-Dobaib and H. Kamel

Qassim University, Buriedah-51452, P.O. Box 6622, Saudi Arabia


Three experiments were carried out to study the effect of sunflower oil (SFO)

supplementation on nutrients digestibility (Exp.1), in vitro degradation kinetics of organic matter and

fiber fractions (Exp. 2); and milk composition and fatty acids profile in milk fat of dairy camels

(Exp.3). Chemical composition of the basal diet was 92.3%, 14.1%, 29.1%, 12.9% and 2.1%; of

organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF)

and ether extract (EE), respectively. The SFO was added at the level of 0, 2 and 4% of DM for basal

diet. Experimental diets were basal diet (SF-0) and basal diet with 2% SFO (SF-2) and basal diet with

4% SFO (SF-4). In digestibility trial (Exp.1), dry matter intake (DMI) and digestibility of NDF, ADF

and N were significantly decreased (P < 0.05) by diet SF-4, but not with SF-2. Adding SFO at the

level of 4% of DM negatively affected the ruminally degradable fraction and degradation rate of OM,

NDF and ADF. Milk yield was significantly decreased (P < 0.05) when dairy camels were fed SF-4,

however, no significant differences were detected on DMI and milk composition for either SF-2 or

SF-4 (Exp.3). The principal aim of this study was to study the effect of different levels of SFO on the

concentration of cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 in milk of dairy camels. The provision of FS-2 and SF-4 to

dairy camel had no significant effect on the concentrations of capric acid (C10:0) and lauric acid

(C12:0) of milk fat. Myristic (C14:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) contents of milk fat of animals fed

added-oil diets (i.e., SF-2 and SF-4) were decreased (P < 0.05) compared with SF-0. The

concentrations of total short and medium chain FA (i.e. C10:0 to C16:0) were reduced by 38% and

48% with SF-2 and SF-4 than SF-0. A positive response was observed for cis-9, trans-11 conjugated

linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk fat, which significantly increased (P < 0.05) by about 5 folds in

animals fed SF-2 compared to SF-0. However, no significant difference was found between SF-0 and

SF-4 in this respect. Total CLA isomers of milk fat were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in FS-2 than

in other treatments, since the values were 0.94, 3.80 and 0.60 g/100 g fat for, SF-0, SF-2 and SF-4

respectively. Therefore, CLA content of dairy camels milk could be increased by the addition of SFO

at the level of 2% of DM of the diet with no adherent effect on nutrients digestibility and daily milk

production.

428


85. Antiulcerogenic Effect of Camel Milk Against Ethanol– and Aspirin–Induced

Gastric Ulcers in Rats

N.A. Al Wabel1, A.H. Atta

1, 2*, H.I. Abass

1,2 and H.M. Mousa

3

1Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim

University, Buraidah 51452, KSA, P.O.Box 6622.


Introduction

Camel milk contains many useful components such as: minerals (sodium, potassium, iron,

copper, zinc and magnesium), vitamins (C, B2, A and E), low protein, low cholesterol, low sugar, and

high concentrations of insulin (Rao, et al 1970). It has been used therapeutically against dropsy,

jaundice, problems of the spleen, tuberculosis, asthma, anemia, piles and diabetes (Agrawal et al

2002; Mohamad et al, 2009), gastric ulcer (Sharmanov et al, 1982) and renal and hepatic dysfunction

(Saltanat H et al, 2009).

The aim of this work: is to investigate the effect of camel milk on ethanol- and aspirin -induced

gastric dammage in rats.


Ethanol induced gastric ulceration

Gastric ulcers were induced on three groups of Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g/BW);

control, saline- treated, camel milk- treated and rantidine (100mg/kg) -treated. Two doses were given

at the first day and a third dose was given in the second day 90 min before ulcer induction using

alcohol 80% (10ml/kg orally) (Glavin et al 1976). The following parameters were used to evaluate the

antiulcerogenic effect of camel milk: Number of long ulcers, length of ulcer (mm), ulcer index,

curative ratio (%), volume of gastric juice (ml/100g), pH of gastric juice and total protein in the

gastric juice (g/L).

Aspirin induced ulceration:

Fifteen male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g/BW) were kept under standard conditions

before their use. Rats were randomly allocated into 3 equal groups. The modified method of (7) was

used for the production of experimental gastric ulceration in three groups of male Sprague-Dawley

rats difference. Two doses of distilled water, camel milk (5 ml/kg) and rantidine (100 mg/kg) with 6

hours in between them were given daily to control, camel milk and rantidine-treated groups

respectively. Three hours after the first dose, carboxymethylcellulose 1% was given to control group

and aspirin (200 mg/kg) was given to the 2nd and 3rd group. The volume of gastric juice, the number

of ulcers was counted and the total length was measured. The curative ratio was calculated as

mentioned before. Total protein (g/dl) in the gastric juice was determined by the Biuret Reagents.

Statistical analysis: Difference between groups was tested for significance using ANOVA followed by Duncan‘s

multiple range test.


The effect of oral administration of camel milk against ethanol – induced and aspirin-induced

gastric damage in rats is recorded in Tables 1 and 2 and show in Fig. 1.

Table 1: Antiulcerogenic effect of camel milk (5ml/kg) against ethanol – induced gastric damage in

rats (Mean ± SD, n = 5)

Number of

long ulcers

Length of

ulcer (mm)

Ulcer Index Curative

ratio (%)

Volume of

gastric juice

(ml/100g)

pH Total

protein

g/L

Control 4.50±1.11b 4.24±0.88

b 1.02±0.4

b -- 1.61±0.25

b 7.40±0.55

a 14.67±4.27

ab

Milk 1.8 ±0.27a 1.26±0.59

a 0.32±0.2

a 70.70 1.15±0.27

a 6.60±0.55

a 17.80±4.6

a

Rantidine 4.60±1.14b 5.26±0.27

b 1.36±0.4

b 45.12 1.89±0.39

b 7.0±0.71

a 11.97±2.83

a

Means with different letters in the same column are significant at P<0.05

429


Table 2: Effect of camel milk on aspirin–induced gastric ulcer in rats (Mean ± SD, n = 5)

Total Protein

g/L

pH

Volume of

gastric juice

Ml/100 g

Curative

ratio (%) Ulcer index

Number

of ulcer

5.64±1.43a 5.75±0.96

a 2.24 ±0.33

b -- 3.43±0.67

c 4.4 ±1.14

b Control

104.27±2.94b 5.6±1.34

a 1.87 ±0.27

a 65.03 1.2 ±0.51

a 0.6 ±0.55a Milk

11.29±3.36b 6.8 ±1.10

a 2.04±0.11

ab 34.03 2.26±0.49

b 1.8 ±0.34

a Rantidine

Means with different letters in the same column are significant at P<0.05

Figure 1: Stomach of rat treated with salicylic acid alone (A), salicylic

acid + camel milk (B) and salicylic acid + rantidine (C).

The antiulcerogenic effect of camel milk is attributed to its content of vitamins C, A, B2 and E

as well as to its content of magnesium and Zinc which have an antioxidant effects reducing the

oxidative stress.

References Rao, MB, RC Gupta and NN Dastur, 1970; Indian J Dairy Sci, 23: 71-78

Agrawal, RP, SC Swami, R Beniwal, DK Kochar and RP Kothari. Int. J. Diabetes Develop. Counties.

2002; 22: 70-74.

Mohamad, RH, Zekry ZK, Al-Mehdar HA, Salama O, El-Shaieb SE, El-Basmy AA, Al-said MG,

Sharawy SM. J Med Food 2009 Apr;12(2):461-5

Sharmanov TSh, Zhangabylov AK, Zhaksylykova RD. Vopr Pitan 1982 Jan-Feb;(1):17-23.

Saltanat H, Li H, Xu Y, Wang J, Liu F, Geng XH. Xi Bao Yu Fen Zi Mian Yi Xue Za Zhi 2009

May;25(5):431-3.

Glavin G B and Mikhaeil A A, Physiol Bhav, 1976, 16, 135-139

Goel R K, Chakrabarti, A, Sanyal A K, Planta Med, 1985, 2, 85-88.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Sharmanov%20TSh%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Zhangabylov%20AK%22%5BAuthor%5D

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Zhaksylykova%20RD%22%5BAuthor%5D

430


86. Effects of Season on Haematological Parameters in Omani Camels

(Camelus dromedarius)

R.H Al-Nasri1, O.A. Al-Rasheid

1 and A. Rivzi

2

1Division of Laboratories, Laboratories and Animal Research Center,

Directorate General of Veterinary Services, Royal Court Affairs, PO Box 64, PC 111, Muscat,

Sultanate of Oman. 2Sultan Qaboos University, School of Medicine, Sultanate of Oman.

Introduction

Normal haematological parameters in healthy camels have been reported from different

geographic zones of the world. These haematological values differ due to the method of analysis,

season, age, sex and nutritional status. The haematological and biochemical values obtained in one

geographical zone cannot be taken as a standard reference value in an other zone due to varying

climatic conditions. Hence this study was carried out to examine the effect of season (winter vs.

summer) on haematological values in apparently healthy Omani dromedary camels.


This study was carried out on forty healthy, 2 to 12 years old dromedary camels. These

animal were kept in pens of the Royal Camel Corps, Royal Court Affairs, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

(latitude 23° 36' N: longitude 58° 37' E). They were fed fresh green grass/dry fodder and had free

access to water and mineral salt lick blocks. Blood samples were collected in the morning before

feeding from the jugular vein into vacutainer tubes containing EDTA during winter (October to

February) and summer (April to August). Haematological values were measured using automated

blood analyzer (Cell Dye 3700, Abbott Co. Illinois, U.S.A) specially set for camel blood. These

included total leukocyte count (WBC), differential leukocyte, erythrocyte count (RBC), hemoglobin

(Hb), hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and

platelets. All statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 15.0 software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL,

USA). Student‘s t test was used to test significance between the groups.


The mean (± SD) haematological values of Omani camels during winter and summer are

presented in Table 1. The season did not affect the WBC, RBC, Hb, haematocrit, MCV, MCH and

platelets count in the present study. However, in differential leukocytes, (the lymphocytes) count was

higher in summer than winter (27.4 ± 8.2 versus 23.7 ± 5.4). Similar findings were reported in racing

dromedary camels (Salman and Afzal, 2004). Heat stress is one of the most important stressors

especially in hot regions of the world. Higher lymphocytes in the present study during summer might

be attributed to heat stress. The haematological values reported in the present study were similar to

those reported in earlier studies (Abdelgadir et al., 1984; Higgins and kock, 1986). In conclusion, the

season did not affect the haematological parameters other than lymphocytes. The haematological

values obtained in this study are useful for the diagnosis of diseases in Omani camels. Effect of heat

stress on lymphocytes even in the dromedary which is known to be a heat-tolerant species is of

interest for future research.

References

Abdelgadir,S.E., A.G.A. Wahbi and O.F.Idris.1984a.Some blood and plasma constituents of the

camel. In The Camelid an All-Purpose Animal,Vol.1. W.R. Cockrill, (ed). Scandinavian

Insititute of African Studies,Uppsalla,pp 438-443.

Higgins,A.J. and R.A.Kock 1986.A guide to the clinical examination,chemical restraint and

medication of the camel. In: The Camel in Health and Diseases.Ed.A.Higgins.Billiere

Tindall,London,pp21-40.

Salman R. and M.Afzal.2004.Seasonal Variations in Hematological and Serum Biochemical

Parameters in Racing Camels. Journal of Camel Science.1:63-65.

431


Table 1: Mean (± SD) values of haematological parameters of Omani camels during winter and

summer.

Parameter

Winter

Summer

P value

WBC (103/µL) 8.2 ± 2.2 (4.5 – 15.6) 8.0 ± 2.4 (3.6 – 12.8) 0.68

Neutrophils (%) 64.6 ± 8.9 (23.3 – 74.4) 60.9 ± 7.6 (40.5 – 72.0) 0.06

Lymphocytes (%) 23.7 ± 5.4 (16.5 – 44.4) 27.4 ± 8.2 (4.2 – 47.8) 0.01

Monocytes (%) 1.5 ± 1.5 (0.2 – 5.8) 2.1 ± 1.7 (0.3 – 7.3) 0.10

Eosinophils (%) 9.0 ± 3.9 (0.1 – 18.8) 9.2 ± 3.5 (2.8 - 16.8) 0.82

Basophils (%) 0.4 ± 0.3 (0.0 – 1.4) 0.4 ± 0.4 (0.0 – 1.4) 0.84

RBC (106/µL) 9.1 ± 1.0 (6.8 – 11.8) 8.9 ± 0.9 (6.7 – 11.2) 0.42

Hemoglobin

(g/dL)

13.0 ± 1.2 (10.7 – 17.2) 12.7 ± 1.2 (9.3 – 15.7) 0.37

HCT (%) 24.8 ± 2.0 (20.3 – 30.5) 24.7 ± 2.2 (18.7 – 30.7) 0.96

MCV (fL) 27.1 ± 1.8 (23.9 – 33.6) 27.7 ± 1.7 (25.0 – 32.5) 0.13

MCH (pg) 14.2 ± 0.8 (12.5 – 16.5) 14.3 ± 0.9 (12.9 – 16.6) 0.63

Platelets (103/µL) 297.5 ± 128.1 (58.8 –

640.0)

280.2 ± 156.0 (55.1 –

729.0)

0.58

P- Value represents the comparison between winter and summer.

432


THE AUTHORS INDEX×

Abass, H.I., 428

Abdalatif, Y.M. 21

Abdalla, M.A.D. 131

Abdallah, H.R. 34

Abdel Gadir, A.E. 323

Abdel Rahim, S.E.A. 294

Abdel-Aal, E. 156

Abdelaati, Khadiga 280,285

Abdelatif, A.M. 288

Abdel-Aziz, B.E. 259

Abdelgader, A. 404

Abdelhadi, O.M.A. 196

Abdelhakim, S. 180

Abdelrahman, A.O. 58, 105

Abdelrahman, M. 71

Abdelrahman, S.H. 273

Abdel-Raouf, E.M. 389

Abdel-Raouf, E.S.M. 253

Abderrahmane, M. 402

Abdoun, K.A. 275, 288

Abdushakur, F. 93

Abdussamad, A.M 174

Abidi, F. 93

Abo-Amo, F. 156

Abouhafs, R. 198

Aboul-Naga, A. 156

Abu Damer, H. 98

Abubakar, M.S. 337

Abubakr, M.I. 58, 105

Abu-Nikheila, A.M. 170, 256

Abuobida, S.A 58

Achaaban, M.R. 134

Adam, M.A. 98

Adamou, A. 377

Adiya, Y. 32

Afshari-Moghadam, A. 308

Agboola, S. 406

Ahhmed, A. M. 204

Ahmad, S. 158

Ahmed, A. I. 419

Ahmed, A.T. 58

Ahmed, M.O. 357

Ahmed, M-K. A. 23

Ahmed, Saliha Si 402

Akhmetsadykov. N. 420

Akhmetsadykova, S. 420

Akinlosotu, O. 318

Al Bulushi, S. 109

Al Jassim, R. 240, 242

Al Mubarak, A. 143

Al Saiady, M.Y. 294

Al Wabel, N. A. 428

Al-Abri, A.S. 202,321,395

Al-Alawi, A. 236

Al-Assad, A. 46

Albrecht, C.E.A. 384

Al-Bulushi, S. 330,332

Al-Busaidi, M.H. 321

Al-Busaidi, R.M. 102

Al-Daker, M.B. 46

Al-Dobaib, S.N. 427

Arfaoui, Z. 200

Alhadrami, G. 73

Al-Haidary, A. 234,275

Al-Hamani, H. 236

Ali, F., 30

Ali, H.M. 335

Al-Jaru, A., 30

Al-Juboori, A. 127

Aljumaah, R.S. 71, 234

Alkali, H.A. 56

AlKanzee, A.G. 325

Al-Karousi, A. 191, 381

Al-Kitani, Fadya 84,87

Al-Lamki, K. 77

Al-Lawatia, S. 202,321,395

Al-Maawali, M. 77,79

Al-Maqbali, R. 191

Al-Marhubi, I. 236

Al-Marzooqi, W. 202,381,395

Almathen, F.S. 40

Al-Mkhaldi, S. 77

Al-Nasri, R.H 430

Al-Owaimer , A.N. 36

Al-rasheid, O.A. 430

Al-Rawahi, A. 77,84,87

Al-Rawahi, Q. 79,84

Al-Riyami, S. A. 102

Alshaikh, M.A. 234

Alsharif, S.H.M. 280

Al-Shorepy, S.A. 261, 263

Alwasila, B. 244

Aly, M.A. 263

Al-Yahyai, Sabra 84

Amara, A. 152

Amin, Alia S.A. 288

Amira, N. 391

Ansari-Renani,H.R. 210,212,

208,373

Antoine-Moussiaux, N. 19

Aradaib, I. 323

Arroum, S. 266

Asadzadeh, N. 373

Atigui, M. 113

Atta, A.H. , 428

Ayadi, M. 71,165,234

Babak, A. 208, 375

Babekir, R.M.E 230

Babiker, Marwa A.M. 147

Babiker, S.A. 196

Baghershah, H. R. 212

Baiss, M. 134

Baker, M. M. 127

Bakheit, S.A. 170,220,256

Bakhiet, A.O. 325

Bakiyev, F.A. 314

Balani, J.K. 298

Banabazi, M. 32

Barhoumi, K. 349

Barmat, A. 44,251

Barot, D.K. 412

Barry, Y. 95

Basmaeil, S. 36

Baubekova, A. 218, 420

Baumann, M.P.O. 182

Bedhiaf, S. 357

Belhamra, M. 163

Bello, A. 118

Bello, M.B. 174

Benaissa, M.H. 145,163

BenBelgacem, S. 113

Bengoumi, M. 282,386

Bergaâ, R. 198

Besher, A.M. 328

Bessalah, S. 270

Bhakat, C. 362

Bhavsar, S.K. 412

Bobade, P.A. 102

Borni, J. 129,200,407

Bornstein, S. 89

Bouaouda, H. 134

Boudjenah, S. 397

Boudjenah-Haroun, Saliha 402

Brehm, W. 143

Burger, P.A. 32

Caja, G. 165, 234

Caveliers, V. 64

Charruau, P. 32

Chaudhary, J.L. 228

Chehma, A. 344, 391

Dahiya, S.S. 305

Danmaigoro, A. 115, 118

de Verdier, K. 89,317, 358

433


Devoogdt, N. 64

Dhouib, S. 153

Dia, M.L. 95

Dioli, M. 160

Diop, M.Y. 95

Djazouli Alim, F.Z. 145

Dowelmadina, I.M.M. 340

Eades, D. 172

Ebadi, Z. 210,373,375

Eckersley, A.M. 62

Eisa, A.M.A. 170,356

Eisa, M.O. 21,23,346

El Abbadi, N. 198

El Allali, K. 134

El Andalousi, R.B. 291

El Imam Abdalla, A. 300

El Khasmi, M. 198

El Zubeir, 167

El Zubeir, I.E.M. 230,232

Elbagir, M.N. 131

El-Bahrawy, K.A. 123,125

Elbashir, M.H.M. 244,259

El-Hassanein, E.E. 123,125

Elkhair, N.M. 49

Elkhatim, N.M. 419

Elkhir, S.O. 402

Elmalik, K.H. 277,323

Elmamy, B.O. 359

Elnour, A.A.H.M. 220

Elrayah, H. 279

El-Sayed, H. 165

El-Shafei, M.H. 165

El-Shafey, A. 150

Eltahir, Yasmin Elhag 393

El-Waziry, A.M. 36

Enkhbileg, D. 32

Farh, M. 198

Fatihu, M.Y. 337

Faye, A.M. 170

Faye, B. 34,73,196,198,218,

256,282,344,379,386,391,419,

420

Frisk, Karin Lindqvist 317

Gahlot, M. 136

Gahlot, T.K.136, 138, 140

Galakatu, S.S. 298

Gauly, M. 174

Gbati, O.B. 95

Gebru, G. 368

Georgy, N. 268

Gerlach, K. 143

Ghada, I.A. 385

Glücks, 182

Goreish, I.A. 365

Habib, H. 228

Hagag, U. 143

Hago, B.E. 111

Hajar, I.E. 296

Hakimuddin, F. 93

Halima, E.H. 222,266

Hamad, B. 163

Hammadi, M. 44,113,153,206

251,270

Hamza, M. 299

Hanotte, O. 40

Harizi, T. 153,206

Haroun, E. 280,285

Harrison, R.A. 268

Hartmann, H. 49

Hassabo, A.A. 404

Hassan, A.B. 325

Hassan, T. 277

Hena, S.A. 115

Herwig, R. 268

Heyne, H. 102

Hocquette, J. F. 196

Holmström, Andrea 317

Holtz, W. 174

Hussain, M. H. 77,79,84,87

Ibrahem, A.H. 215

Ibtisam, E.M. 167

Imed, S. 222

Iqbal, A. 121, 158

Isabelle, A. 266

Isako, Tura 177

Ishag, I.A. 23, 259

Ishmael, O.N. 98

Ismael, A.A. 365, 273

Israa, M.M. 273

Ivanov, N.A. 314,316

Jaffer, O. 93

Jianlin, H. 32

Johnson, E.H. 52,81,321,319

Joseph, S. 268

Joshi, D.V. 298

Jrad, Z. 222,266

Juhasz, J. 26, 69,409

Kaboret, Y. 95

Kadim, I.T. 191, 202,379, 381,

395

Kadja, M.C. 95

Kagunyu, 189

Kalla, D.J.U. 56

Kamal, H. 228

Kamalzare, A. 210, 373

Kamel, H. 427

Kamel, Z. 407

Kamili, A. 282,386

Kanayat, S. 420

Kane, Y. 95

Karruvantevida, N. 30

Keisler, D.H. 46

Kerbal, I. 134

Khalaf, S.K. 191

Khan, B.B. 121

Khazanehdari, K. 30,38,64,93

Khogali, M.E.S. 131

Khoory, H. 38

Khorchani, T. 44,113,153,206,

222,251,266,270,302,400

Khudaidad, 354

Khudaidad, A. 299

Kihumba, J.N. 177

Kinne, J. 62, 89,100,312

Kithome, Janet 177

Konuspayeva, G. 218,379,414,

420

Kozhaev, A.N. 314,316

Kumar, S. 412

Kuria, S.G. 247

Kwari, H.D. 115,318

Lacalandra, G.M. 123,125

Lahoutte, T. 64

Laleye, L.C. 228

Lamia, G. 222

Lamine, D.M. 351

Lasaad, T. 200

Latif, A. 102

Learamo, I. 255

Lebaili N. 145

Lefebvre, H. 282

Leroy, P. 19

Loiseau, G. 419,420,218

Louis, L.C. 402

M‘Naouer, D. 357

Madboly, M. 156

Magdub, A.B. 328

Magid, A.M. 365

Mahboub, N. 397

Mahesh, R. 298

Mahgoub, O. 191,202,321,381

393,395

Mahrous, A. 290

Mahy, N. 145

Majed, A. 346

Majid, A.M.A 256

Majid, C. 170

Maliakkal, H. 30

Manal, Y.I. 193

Manjunatha, B.M. 109,111,

330,332

Manoly, R., 30

434


Mansoor, M.K. 84,87

Mansour, M.H. 393

Mathan Kumar, S. 52,81,319

Mati, A. 397

Matiri, Lengarite 189

Mayouf, R. 163

Mbaga, M.D. 185

Mbesse, Y. 386

Meena, A.140

Mehari, Y. 368

Mehdaoui, A. 163

Mekuriyaw, Z. 368

Meldebekova, A.A. 414

Mirabdolbaghi, J. 208

Mirghani, E.F. 58, 105

Miriti , J.M. 177

Mohamed, B. E. 419

Mohamed, H.K.193

Mohamed, I.M.A. 232

Mohamedani, A.A. 406

Mohammed Ali, H. 393

Mohammed, A.A. 244

Mohammed, G.E. 325

Mohsen, M. K. 253,389

Monaco, D. 123,125

Montet, D. 419

Moradi, S. 212

Moslah, M. 153,206

Moulti-Mati, Farida 402

Mounir, K. 129,200,407

Mousa, H.M., 428

Msahli, S. 153

Muhammad, B.F. 56

Musa, M.M. 196

Musa, M.Z. 346

Musembi, F.J. 177

Mustafa, A.B. 280,285

Mustapha, B.R. 200

Muyldermans, S. 64

Mwacharo, J. 40

Nadia, O. 266

Nagarajan, G. 305

Nageeb, A. 321

Nagy, P. 26, 69,409

Nahas, A. El 143

Narmuratova, M.H. 414

Nasma, M. 402

Nayel, M.N. 58

Ngeiywa, K.J. 355

Njoroge, G.W.J. 55

Nooh, A. 46

Nour, I.A. 385

O‘haj, M. 406

Obied, H.K. 406

Okab, A.B. 275

Olopade, J.O. 318

Omar, R. 143

Onu, J.E. 118

Onyeanusi, B.I. 115

Osman, M. 156

Osman, Nur El Huda I.E.D. 67

Ouassat, M. 134

Oukessou, M. 134,282

Ouologuem, B., 19

Oyelowo, F.O. 118

Padheriya, Y.D. 17,412

Parikh, R.C. 17

Pascal, D. 266

Patel, A.B.416

Patel, B.J. 298

Patel, N.A. 17

Patil, N.V. 305,362

Pinto, S.V. 416

Prajapati, P. 416

Pratap, N. 109,111,330,332

Rabee, A.M. 253,389

Rahman, A.H.A. 365

Rahman, M.S. 236

Raiymbek, G. 379

Ranjbar-Bahadori, S. 308

Rank, D.N. 17

Rateb, S. 123,125

Raziq, A. 299,354,358

Rehman, A. 406

Rehman, Zia ur 354

Rejeb, A. 152

Rekik, B. 357

Rekik, M. 152

Rezeigui, H. 152

Riad, F. 198

Ridha, B. 200

Rischkowsky, B. 156

Rivzi, A. 430

Robertson, I. 79

Saber, A.S. 360

Saeed, A. 358

Saeed, K.M. 323

Safwate, A. 198

Saidi, M. 163

Sakli, F. 153

Salama, A.A.K. 165

Salama, O. 123, 125

Salama, O.H. 165

Saleem, S. 30, 38

Salehi, M. 208,210,212,375

Salem, F.B. 357

Salem, F.F. 84,87

Salhab, S.A. 46

Salhi, I. 44,270

Saltini, R. 399

Salwa, M.E.K 273

Samara, E. M. 234,275

Samsudin, A. A. 242,240

Sandros, B. 89

Saqib, M., 77,79,84

Sarimbekova, S.N., 414

Sawad, A.A. 335

Sayed-Ahmed, A. 150

Schultka, W. 255

Schuster, R.K. 312

Schwartz, H.J. 255

Seboussi, R. 73

Seddik, M.M. 302

Senoussi, A. 344

Senoussi, C. 397

Serikbayeva, A.D., 414

Shahkarami, S. 208,375

Shawket, S. M. 215,253, 389

Shehu, S.A 115,118

Shuiep, E.S. 167,230

Siboukeur, A. 425

Siboukeur, O 397,425

Singh, R. 298

Sivakumar, G.305

Smail, R. 397

Smith, M.F. 46

Somar, M. 77,79

Sonfada, M.L. 115,118

Souilem, O. 349

Suleiman, M.S. 174

Swami, S.K. 305

Tageldin, M.H. 81, 98, 319,321

Taha, A.A.M.147

Taherpour Dari, N. 375

Tahri, E.H 198

Taieb, G. 386

Tanimomo, B.K. 337

Tay, G.K. 38

Tessema, T.S. 182

Tilahun, S. 370

Tligui, N. 134, 386

Trabelsi, H. 344,391

Traore, B., 19

Tura, I.A. 247

Tuteja, F.C.305

Ul Haq, A., 30

Umar, A.A. 115,118

Van Gassen, N 64

Vaneycken, I. 64

Varghese, P. 268

Vihol, K.A.412

Vincke, C. 64

von Hieber, M.D. 310

435


Vounba, P. 95

Wadhwani, K.N. 17,412,416

Wako, D.D. 182

Walaga, H.K. 247

Walzer , C. 32

Wani, N.A. 28

Wasesa, A. 228

Watson, Janet 172

Wernery, R. 64, 225,268

Wernery, U. 62, 64,91,93,100,

268,310,409

Wiam, I.M. 115

Wright, A.D.G. 240,242

Xavier , C. 64

Yagil, R. 225

Yagoub, S.O.325

Yahaya, A. 318

Yahyaoui, M.H. 400

Yaqoob, M. 158

Yassin, O.E. 411

Yetim, H. 204

Youcef, B. 180

Younan, M. 121,177,182

Yousef, A.M. 261, 263

Youssif, F.M. 277

Yuan, L. 32

Zamri-Saad, M. 337

Zayed, R.H. 411

Zennia-Si Ahmed, S. 397

2012 Proceedings of 3rd ISOCARD Conference

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