1540-1789 Chapter 16 Towards a New Worldview. Major Breakthroughs of the Scientific Revolution Growing humanistic/secular interest in world made people.

1540-1789

Chapter 16 Towards a New Worldview

Major Breakthroughs of the Scientific Revolution Growing humanistic/secular interest in

world made people want to understand the world of “Natural Philosophy” (Science)

Took knowledge and theories from classical age to new levels with direct observations. Believed in power of human reason, reinforced changes in world view from Renaissance and Reformation.

Science and Religion• Universities were still most commonly run by RC

church. Condemnation of Galileo etc… gave perception of church as “anti- science”- but it was really Reformation, if someone questions church doctrine they must be squashed before they cause problems.

• And it did seem against common sense- the earth is moving…..?

• Scientists did not question God’s existence. Science/religion won’t really clash until Darwin. And magic isn’t entirely out of the picture either….

Scientific Thought in 1500 Aristotle (really smart- but often

wrong) was the main expert- not allowed to dispute ideas which had been accepted by the church – like the earth is the center of the universe. Ptolemy “corrected” Aristotle's theory of perfect circles to epicycles to explain movement of stars

4 elements (light: air and fire, Heavy: water and earth) and 4 humors for medicine

Origins of the Scientific Revolution

Medieval universities included “Natural philosophy” (science, math, astronomy, physics) as a branch of study. Fall of Byzantine empire meant many Christian scholars (and their Greek & Islamic books) came to Europe- new info available. Printing press spread that info faster than ever before

Renaissance art had sci/math needs to make things look real.

Navigational issues led to new needs and discoveries (telescope, barometer, thermometer, microscope, air pump) AND there was huge interest in the plants/animals of new world

Astronomy 1st “modern” science- 1st to question and prove

beliefs considered “infallible” wrong. Develop idea of working from empirical

evidence- borrowed start from Muslims (Nasir-al-Din)

Again – not what we would call “pure” science, a major job for these guys was making horoscopes (for life and medicine – taught in colleges) as well as studying “magical” connections within the universe

The Copernican Hypothesis Copernicus was a Polish monk who came to

Italy to study during Renaissance (lived 1473- 1543)commissioned by pope to revise the Julian Calendar (based on work of Ptolemy) which said earth was the center of the universe. But Copernicus’s calculations showed the earth and stars were moving.

Wrote “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres” which described his findings, but didn’t publish until dying, and didn’t LIKE that his work questioned doctrine. Freaked people out- even Luther and Calvin condemned

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric• Geocentric: theory of

Aristotle and Ptolemy (330 bc, 200 ad) – the earth is the center of the universe. Accepted by church- therefore infallible fact. (which was logical to a point- you can watch the sun move…and if God made the world, and gave it his son…..)

• Heliocentric: theory of Copernicus. The Sun and stars don’t move- planets move. Therefore the sun is the center of the universe. (don’t quite get whole universe thing yet) Freaky for people to think of themselves as one piece of an infinite- aren’t we special?

Proving Copernicus Right: Brahe and Kepler• Tycho Brache: Danish (1546-1601) Built a massive

observatory and collected tons of data on universe (Rudolphine Tables). His data backed Copernicus. Irony was that he began collecting data because he didn’t like idea of heliocentric theory

• Johannes Kepler: (Brahe’s asst 1570-1630) Discovered that planets move in ellipses. Published as a young man (1609), got in plenty of hot water. First protestant scientist. Proved Copernicus mathematically, developed 3 laws of planetary motion. (ellipses not constant speed, closer to sun the faster you go)

Galileo • Italian Lived 1564-1642• Invented telescope for astronomy in 1609.

Confirmed Copernicus- and wrote for general audience- not just scientists- made idea widespread (wrote in Italian)

• Used newly developed experimental method to verify his work. Also studied gravity and laws of inertia (object in motion….)

• Forced to recant- his book “the Starry (Sidreal) Messenger” put on Index of Forbidden books

Isaac Newton Incorporated

astronomy/physics of Galileo into one extraordinary theory that explained the order and design of the universe. Reconciled seemingly conflicting discoveries with ideas like gravity.

Principa Mathematica 1687- all motion can be measured with the same formulas

Because the “laws” of the universe are constant- no divine power is required to run the natural world (foundation of deism- got made the world and let it go)

Also invented Calculus (gee, thanks Isaac)

Newtonian Synthesis Everything is the universe is governed

by the same set of laws – and the entire universe is united by gravity (all bodies are attracting all other bodies constantly) into one majestic system.

Revolutionary b/c even other scientists had considers heavens and earth two separate things- Newton brought them together

Important Changes in Scientific Thinking

Haven’t defined elements or atoms yet- so that limits them, but still there are significant discoveries made.Gunpowder an important practical improvement (how to store more safely etc…)

Bacon and Descartes and the Scientific Method Both philosophical in approach- asking

questions, and questioning “assumed” knowledge.

Deductive: starts with an accepted truth and moved forward from there using assumptions/facts. Used by Greeks and Scholasticism. But science asked- what if base assumption is wrong?

Inductive (Empiricism) : does not start with assumption of truth- but finds truth after long process of experimentation. Modern Scientific Method

Deductive v. Inductive Deductive: starts with an accepted truth

and moved forward from there using assumptions/facts. Used by Greeks and Scholasticism. But science asked- what if base assumption is wrong?

Inductive: does not start with assumption of truth- but finds truth after long process of experimentation. Modern Scientific Method

Francis Bacon

• 1561-1626 British• Not actually a scientist- Lord Chancellor of Eng. , but

was interested in HOW to acquire knowledge. Wanted to start from scratch, abandon all preconceived ideas, look at world through new eyes.

• Inductive reasoning= empirical method. • Didn’t get math… (not a full time scientist) so

“observations” sometimes faulty• Confident that humans can understand the world,

and when we understand we will be able to control it

Rene Descartes• 1596-1650 French• Deductive: Said you just had to go backwards

“systemic doubt” far enough to find a “truth” - I think therefore I am.

• Separation of mind and matter- Cartesian Dualism- they are 2 different things- detach and analyze. More deduction, with math serving as the starting truth.

• Criticized saying he encouraged atheism• “Discourse on Method”- man should depend on

logic alone. Start with clear (math facts), subdivide problem into as many parts as necessary until you can solve them

Medicine, the Body, and Chemistry

Greek author Galen had been main source of knowledge- you have 4 “humors” (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) and when those are out of balance- you are sick. (Bloodletting)

Andreas Vesalius: Book “Structure of the Human Body” (1543) renewed and modernized the study of anatomy. Found errors in Galen’s knowledge (by dissecting bodies of criminals) and corrected

William Harvey: “on the movement of the heart and blood” – first to suggest circulation and heart/lungs role in it.

Anton Van Leuwenhoek1632-1723Father of microscopy-

developed 1st microscopes. 1st to see and write about bacteria, and see circulation in the capillaries

Empire and Natural History A lot of work in astronomy and medicine

was jumping off work of ancient Greek scholars – but Greeks knew little of Asia (and now Europeans go there) and nothing of the New World’s biology.

Scientific expeditions to gather specimens – collecting them became a popular pastime, and museums (British Museum) founded to display to public

Scientific Societies By 1650 there were “clubs” being founded

for groups of scientists to share/discuss ideas.

England particularly strong in this area. Royal Society of London founded for improvement of natural knowledge 1660, Paris 1666 and Berlin 1700. Nationalism kept countries wanting to be on the cutting edge of knowledge

Women participate indirectly – but science (like so much else) is a man’s domain- though interesting that nature was viewed as a female

Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Improvements to technology Spirit of experimentation that helped lead

to agricultural and Industrial Revolutions Reduces witch hunts and superstition

(eventually) Church reaction moves centers of science

into protestant territories (helps them grow more advanced and powerful)

Leads the way for the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment

What is it? The Enlightenment advocated applying principles

of the Scientific Revolution to understanding all life.

Thinkers believed their role was to bring progress to the world through the use of reason. Wanted ideas to reach the public- and have ordinary people apply critical thinking to their own lives (don’t just accept- think)

Emergence of a secular world view for 1st time since ancient Greece- autonomy of intellect (completely separate from Religion) and you USE this knowlegde/reason to make the world a better place

Impact of Science on Enlightenment

Single biggest factor in creating the worldview which would inspire the enlightenment

Spirit of experimentation also led to agricultural improvements and improvements in sanitation etc…

Characterized by…. Reason: Application of methods of Science to other parts of

life. Accept nothing on faith- everything must be examined (even Faith itself)

Laws of science apply to human society, discover the forces that govern human nature (like gravity does for the universe)

Progress: Once you figure out how things work- you can USE that info to create better societies and better people. Progress can be made, social problems solved

Early ThinkersThey set the stage…….

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan 1651. Written just after Eng. Civil War and execution of Charles I. 1st to define the idea of the Social Contract. We

give up our freedom to the gov’t and in return- gov’t keeps us safe. Humans are naturally violent and selfish- and gov’t needs to be strong to protect us from our own nature. Agreed with absolutism, but thought king had obligation to use powers for good of subjects

John Locke “Essay Concerning

Human Understanding” 1690. Explained human psychology in terms of their experience. Tabula Rosa: we are

born “blank slates”- and experience (not nature) determines who we are- so human nature can be modified

We are not born condemned by original sin (or automatically sinful in nature)- but are masters of our fate

Talks about the importance of our environment- therefore education in the key to progress.

Natural Rights Second Treatise on Government 1690. Talked about

the role of gov’t in an individual’s life. In the “state of nature” people are free and equal, but through civilization we have created inequality and chaos.

We are born with natural rights (Life, Liberty and Property) We give up freedom to the gov’t – (per Hobbes) but do NOT abdicate those rights. Gov’t is only legal if it rules with the consent of the governed.

With Locke’s social contract- People have the right to overthrow a gov’t that does not protect their rights

Why France?

First thinkers were English- but the soul of the Enlightenment will be in France- the center of a “Republic of Letters” which transcended national boundaries

What made France the Center?

International Language Most educated people (even in other

countries) spoke French. Cultural center of Europe- richest and

largest population

Government Louis XIV may have been the “poster

child” for absolutism- but didn’t really use his power to interfere with subject’s lives (as was common in Eastern Euro)

And because they WERE absolutist (had no voice) thinkers were interested in rights etc… in a way they might not have been if it was a constitutional gov’t

Support for Reform Looking for REAL change- wanted to

understand how society worked so they could make it better. Wanted recognition for individual freedoms and political rights

Salons This is where the conversations were

happening- bringing together writers, philosophers, artists, scientists etc… all the people with new ideas.

People anxious to debate- affirming the idea that talent/intellect were more important than noble heritage

The Philosophes French word for

enlightenment thinkers. Not “philosophers” (who sought truth) but “lovers of wisdom” – wanted to reform thought, society, and government to promote liberty. Spoke at Salons, wrote pamphlets, newspapers, novels etc..

Not generally professional thinkers (like Locke, or Newton) this was their passion.

Generally really optimistic (perhaps overly)- and in favor of radical change

Voltaire: Francois Marie Arouet 1694-1778 Began as a playwright. Used

a careful balance between creativity and flaunting authority (would get him exiled from France and Prussia in the end) Admired English- found their society open and free.

Candide- famous satire on noble priv.

Probably least optimistic- warned change would take tremendous struggle

Very sarcastic- ridiculed those who disagreed with him (which would earn him powerful enemies)

Challenged RC theology- called for toleration for ALL faiths

Advocated “Enlightened Despotism” in government.

Believed in equality before the law

Denis Diderot 1713-1784 Editor and author of

Encyclopedia: a Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, and Arts and the Crafts (took 25 years to compile) an attempt to classify all knowledge (disliked by church because it questioned doctrine)

Central idea: knowledge is rational- it follows the laws of nature, it can be understood

Compendium of views- some conflicting- helped popularize the ideas of the philosophes- teach people to think critically and objectively

Caesar Beccaria “On Crimes and Punishment” 1764 Sought to humanize criminal law.

Punishment for crime should relate to amount of damage done- not sin. Said it should be more about rehabilitation (what made person commit crime in first place)

Opposed use of death penalty and torture.

Baron de Montesquieu 1689-1755 A noble, but against absolutism and noble

privilege. “Persian Letters”- 2 despots come to France, and ridicule it as backwards.

“Spirit of the Laws” 1748- applied scientific principles to gov’t, advocated separation of powers and checks and balances.

Shaped evolution of liberal democracy

Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 Greatest German philosophe. Said

science and morality are separate- science can only describe nature, not evaluate it as right/wrong.

Believe in a Moral Imperative- that is something is wrong it is ALWAYS wrong, no gray areas

Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778. A reluctant philosophe- he

said they were part of the problem.

His big issue was freedom (said society was destructive to the individual) said people should return to simpler times- characterized by exercise, self reliance and independent thought. (state of nature)

“Emilie”- education to allow free expression- create a “Noble Savage”

General Will: (from the “social contract” 1762)- the consensus of the majority should rule the nation. (Democracy- like ancient Athens, but even then all Athenians couldn’t vote)

Actually closer to ideas of Romanticism (founding father of it) than Enlightenment

David Hume Scottish 1711-1776 A Scientist as well as philosophe, and a

strong skeptic. Wanted to understand human nature. Afraid we were ruled by desire rather than reason.

Said human beings can only understand things they have experienced

Also introduced ideal of “Utility” (he was 1st to use the word) focus on how USEFUL any idea/action/theory is.

Adam Smith

Scottish. Wrote about economic rather than social issues (this was another type of enlightenment thinker- called Physiocrat)

1776 published The Wealth of Nations- in which he defined free market capitalism- where “Invisible Hand” manages supply/demand. “Laissez Faire”- gov’t control interferes with natural laws of the marketplace.

Assumes econ is cyclical- will regulate its own ups and downs

Francois Quesnay French Physiocrat- wanted

to reform agrarian system with Laissez Faire policy (end tariffs and price supports) Said gov’t/noble ownership of land was bad- peasants work it, they know it best, but can’t produce in own best interest.

Enlightenment And…

Religion Many philosophes were against est. religious doctrine- saying it

hampered scientific discovery and caused tension

David Hume: said faith is based in superstition rather than reason

Philosophes discounted the concept of original sin (which said humans were born evil)and predestination (which was against free will) argued that organized religion not necessary for a good society

Deism Combination of

religion and reason (Voltaire a big fan)

God created the world- and let it go- it operates through natural laws rather than divine intervention

Existence of God rationalized- accepted that there still WERE some things beyond human understanding

God a divine clockmaker (the highest tech of the day)

Toleration Pierre Bayle: Critical and Historical

Dictionary 1697 Condemned Christian church for persecution and fanaticism- trying to force all people into thinking the same way. Advocated complete tolerance (echoed by Voltaire)

Edict of Toleration: Austria 1781. Issued by Joseph II- 1st time gov’t recognized rights of non-christians. (although only RC allowed to worship publically)

Women Women’s role in

society also debated for the first time- but most philosophes did not advocate equal rights. Said the “natural, biological” differences made them inferior- both physically and intellectually.

Salons Irony is that women hosted the Salons

where all these ideas were being discussed…. (though the hostess herself might be the only woman there)

Madame de Geoffrin Madame de Stael Louise de Warens

Mary Wollstonecraft

Often viewed as founder of feminism. Wrote Vindication of Rights of Women in 1792 (takeoff on Declaration of the Rights of Man 1791)

Two main points If kings are not to be automatically

obeyed- why must men? If all men are born free- why are all

women born slaves?

Politics: Liberalism Enlightenment inspired movements for

political action. Liberty of Individual and Equality before law (most not so interested in democracy- yet)

Natural rights and the social contract key features in American and French Revolutions

The idea is that people are interested in change (that is what Liberalism is)- try an new idea rather than stick with tradition (which is what Conservatism is)

Impact of the Enlightenment Dominance of Secular world view (which

has been growing since Renaissance) The reform- actual change- in this

period was modest: some religious toleration, streamlining of legal code, access to education, reduction of torture

But the ideas here will all come to fulfillment- it just takes time to get there.