1.3.3 CHEM ENVS - Scottish Church College

University of Calcutta Under Graduate Curriculum under Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)

Syllabus forAbility Enhancement Compulsory Course-2 (AECC-2) in Environmental Studies

Semester-2

Total Marks-100(Credit -2) (50 Theory-MCQ type + 30 Project + 10 Internal Assessment + 10 Attendance)

[Marks obtained in this course will be taken to calculate SGPA & CGPA]

Theory Unit 1 Introduction to environmental studies 2 lectures •Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies;

•Scope and importance; Concept of sustainability and sustainable development.

Unit 2 Ecology and Ecosystems 6 lectures •Concept of ecology and ecosystem, Structure and function of ecosystem; Energy flow in

an ecosystem; food chains, food webs; Basic concept of population and community ecology; ecological succession. •Characteristic features of the following:

a) Forest ecosystem b) Grassland ecosystem c) Desert ecosystem d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, wetlands, rivers, oceans, estuaries)

Unit 3 Natural Resources 8 lectures • Concept of Renewable and Non-renewable resources

• Land resources and landuse change; Land degradation, soil erosion and desertification. •Deforestation: Causes, consequences and remedial measures •Water: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground water, floods, droughts, conflicts over water (international & inter-state). •Energy resources: Environmental impacts of energy generation, use of alternative and nonconventional energy sources, growing energy needs.

Unit 4 Biodiversity and Conservation 8 lectures •Levels of biological diversity: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity;

• Biogeographic zones of India; Biodiversity patterns and global biodiversity hot spots •India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Endangered and endemic species of India •Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts, biological invasions; •Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. •Ecosystem and biodiversity services: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and Informational value.

Unit 5 Environmental Pollution 8 lectures • Environmental pollution: concepts and types,

• Air, water, soil, noise and marine pollution- causes, effects and controls • Concept of hazards waste and human health risks • Solid waste management: Control measures of Municipal, biomedical and e-waste.

Unit 6 Environmental Policies and Practices 7 lectures •Climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion, acid rain and their impacts on

human communities and agriculture •Environment Laws: Wildlife Protection Act; Forest Conservation Act. Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act; Environment Protection Act; Biodiversity Act. •International agreements: Montreal Protocol, Kyoto protocol and climate negotiations; Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). •Protected area network, tribal populations and rights, and human wildlife conflicts in Indian context.

Unit 7 Human Communities and the Environment 6 lectures •Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human health and welfare.

•Case studieson Resettlement and rehabilitation. • Environmental Disaster: Natural Disasters-floods, earthquake, cyclones, tsunami and landslides; Manmade Disaster- Bhopal and Chernobyl. •Environmental movements: Bishnois.Chipko, Silent valley,Big dam movements. •Environmental ethics: Role of gender and cultures in environmental conservation. •Environmental education and public awareness

Project/ Field work Equal to 5 lectures

•Visit to an area to document environmental assets: Natural resources/flora/fauna, etc. •Visit to a local polluted site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural. •Study of common plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals and basic principles of identification. •Study of ecosystems-pond, river,wetland, forest,estuary and agro ecosystem.

Total 50 Lectures Suggested Reading: Asthana, D. K. (2006).Text Book of Environmental Studies. S. Chand Publishing.

Basu, M., Xavier, S. (2016). Fundamentals of Environmental Studies, Cambridge University Press, India

Basu, R. N., (Ed.) (2000). Environment. University of Calcutta, Kolkata

Bharucha, E. (2013). Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses. Universities Press.

De, A.K., (2006).Environmental Chemistry, 6th Edition, New Age International, New Delhi.

Mahapatra, R., Jeevan, S.S., Das, S. (Eds) (2017). Environment Reader for Universities, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi.

Masters, G. M., &Ela, W. P. (1991).Introduction to environmental engineering and science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Odum, E. P., Odum, H. T., & Andrews, J. (1971).Fundamentals of ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Sharma, P. D., & Sharma, P. D. (2005).Ecology and environment.Rastogi Publications.

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INDEX:

TOPIC PAGE NO.

• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• PROJECT OUTPUT

➢ ECOSYSTEM

➢ POND ECOSYSTEM

➢ RIVER ECOSYSTEM

➢ DESERT ECOSYSTEM

➢ FOREST ECOSYSTEM

➢ AGROECOSYSTEM

• CONCLUSION

• BIBLIOGRAPHY

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AACCKKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEEMMEENNTT

I would like to thank my subject teachers of AECC ENVS for providing

me with adequate study materials for this topic and encouraging me to

do this project systematically. I would also like to thank my mother and

father, because without their timely help and guidance, it was impossible

for me to opt and work on this project.

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PROJECT OUTPUT

Introduction - An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants,

animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their

environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These

biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient

cycles and energy flows. As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions

among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of

any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces (although some scientists

say that the entire planet is an ecosystem). Energy, water, nitrogen and soil

minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that

flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters

the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the

atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important

role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence

the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead

organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate

nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that

can be readily used by plants and other microbes. Ecosystems are controlled both

by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate, the parent

material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an

ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by

the ecosystem.

Ecology : Study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the flows of

energy and materials between abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems.

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Ecosystem : The living things in a given area, non-living chemical and

physical factors of their environment, linked together through nutrient cycle and

energy flow.

Ecosystem Types –

• Aquatic ecosystem • Marine ecosystem

• Large marine ecosystem • Freshwater ecosystem

• Lake ecosystem • River ecosystem

• Wetland • Terrestrial ecosystem

• Forest • Littoral zone

• Riparian zone • Subsurface litho autotrophic

• Urban ecosystem microbial ecosystem

• Urban ecosystem • Desert

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Pond Ecosystem:

• A pond is a place where living organisms not only live but interact with

biotic & abiotic components.

• Ponds are often exposed to tremendous anthropogenic pressure which

significantly affects the system.

• Lakes are usually big standing freshwater bodies.

• They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone; an open water zone

where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called limnetic zone

and a deep water zone where light penetration is negligible, called

Profoundal zone.

I. Biotic components:

1) Producer Organisms: It includes submerged, free floating and

amphibious macrophytes (like; Hydrilla, Utricularia, Wolfia, Azolla, Typha

etc.) and minute floating and suspended lower phytoplanktons (like;

Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium etc.)

2) Consumer Organisms:

a) Primary consumers: These are zooplanktons (ciliates, flagellates, other

protozoan, small crustaceans) and benthos.

b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like insects and fishes

feeding on herbivores

c) Tertiary consumers: These are the large fishes feeding on small fishes.

3) Decomposers: Micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomyctes.

II. Abiotic component: There are the inorganic as well as organic

substances present in the bottom soil or dissolved in water. In addition, to the

minerals, some dead organic matter is also present.

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Food Chains of the Pond:

The type of food chain is found in pond is ‘Grazing Food Chain’.

Plant Succession: If we look at the pond we will see that some plants live

entirely outside the water and some live entirely in it. Others are partially in the

water. Flowers like forget-me-nots and marsh marigolds live in the wet ground

around the pond. Reeds have there roots in the pond but most of the plant is above

the water. Water lilies float in the pond and are attached to the bottom by long

stems. We will also see Canadian pond weed which is completely submerged

under the water. Each of these plants need special adaptations to survive where

they grow.

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River Ecosystem:

• Rivers are flowing water ecosystems in which all the living forms are

specially adapted to different rates of flow.

• Some plants and animals such as snails and other burrowing animals can

withstand the rapid flow of the hill streams.

• Other species of plants and animals such as water beetles and skaters can

live only in slower moving water.

• Some species of fish, such as Mahseer, go upstream from rivers to hill

streams for breeding. They need crystal clear water to be able to breed.

They lay eggs only in clear water so that their young can grow successfully.

• As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in the streams that once flowed

throughout the year become seasonal. This leads to flash floods in the rains

and a shortage of water once the streams dry up after the monsoon.

• The community of flora and fauna of streams and rivers depends on the

clarity, flow and oxygen content as well as the nature of their beds.

• The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type having

its own species of plants and animals.

• Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered by mangrove forests

and are among the world’s most productive ecosystems in terms of biomass

production. The largest mangrove swamps are in the Sunderbans in the delta

of the Ganges.

I. Biotic components:

a.Bacteria: Bacteria are present in large numbers in liotic water .Free living

forms are associated with decomposing organic material, bio film on the surface of

rocks and vegetation, in between particles that compose the substrate, and

suspended in the water column.

b. Primary producer: Algae, consisting of phytoplankton and periphyton, are

the most significant source of primary production in most streams and rivers.

Algae and plants are important to liotic systems as sources of energy, for forming

microhabitates that shelter other fauna from predators and the current, and as a

food resource.

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c. Insects and other invertebrates: Upto 90% invertebrates in some liotic

systems are insects. Additional invertebrate taxa common to flowing waters

include mollusks such as snail, limpets, clams, mussels, as well as crustaceans like

crayfish and crabs. Invertebrates, especially insects, are important as both

consumers and prey items in lotic systems.

d. Fish and other vertebrates:

▪ Fishes are probably the best known inhabitants of lotic system. These fishes

are dorso-ventrally flattened to reduce flow resistance and often have eyes

on top of their heads to observe that what is happening above them.Some

also have sensory barrels positioned under the head to assist in the testing of

substratum. With the exception of a few species , other vertebrates are not

tied to water as fishes are. Many fish species are important as consumers and

as prey species to the larger vertebrates mentioned below.

▪ Other vertebrate taxa that

inhabit lotic system

includes amphibians(such

as salamanders), reptiles

(snakes, turtles, crocodiles,

alligators), various bird

species ( like kingfisher)

and mammals (e.g. otters,

beavers, hippos, river

dolphins e.t.c. ).

2. Abiotic components:

The inorganic substrates of the lotic system, the water flow of the river, sun light,

the external and inernal temperature, pH balance are the major abiotic components.

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DESERT ECOSYSTEM:

Introduction:

▪ A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation.

▪ Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less

than 250 millimeters per year.

▪ It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface.

▪ Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights.

▪ The deserts of the world are mainly located in the South- western United

States, Mexico, North America, Asia (Thar, Gobi, Tibet) & west Asia.

▪ Deserts are characterized by scanty flora & fauna.

▪ Soils of deserts often have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter.

Sturucture and Functions of Desert Ecosystms:

I. Biotic components

1) Producer Organisms :

▪ In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses & a few

trees.

▪ Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining plants

adapted to arid climate or soil conditions) & hardy grasses.

▪ Besides some lower plants such as lichens & xerophytic mosses are also

present.

2) Consumer Organisms :

These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are capable of living in xeric

conditions-

▪ Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds & some mammalians like camel etc

are also found.

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3) Decomposers:

Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter,

decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem.

▪ The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of which are

thermophillic.

II. Abiotic components:

Due to high temperature & very low rainfall, the organic substances are

poorly present in the soil.

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FOREST ECOSYSTEM

(TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM):

Introduction:

▪ A forest is an area with a high density of trees.

▪ World’s total land area is 13,076 million hectares - (Source: FAO; 1989)

▪ Of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area.

▪ In India, the forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area.

▪ The forest ecosystems are of great concern from the environmental point of

view.

▪ It provides numerous environmental services like;

Nutrient cycling, Maintaining biodiversity, Providing wildlife habitat,

Affecting rainfall patterns, Regulating stream flow, Storing water, Reducing

flooding, Preventing soil erosion, Reclaiming degraded land & many more….

▪ Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems have some traditional

values as well. Examples are:

➢ Fire Wood & Timber

➢ Fruits.

➢ Gums.

➢ Herbs & drugs.

Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem:

I. Biotic components: The various biotic components, representatives from the

three functional groups, of a forest ecosystem are:

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1) Producer Organisms:

• In a forest, the producers are mainly trees.

• Trees are of different kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in

that climate.

• Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground vegetation.

Dominant species of trees in major types of forest ecosystems are: Tectona

grandis, Acer, Betula, Picea, Pine, Cedrus.

2) Consumers: In a forest, consumers are of three main types;

a) Primary Consumers: These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers.

Eg: Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves.

Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots and/or fruits

of trees.

b) Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers.

Eg: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes.

c) Tertiary Consumers : These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary

consumers .

These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger.

3) Decomposers:

• These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like;

➢ Bacteria (Bacillus Sp.,

➢ Clostridium sp.,

➢ pseudomonas.

➢ Fungi (Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium.)

➢ Actinomycetes (Streptomyces).

• They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition

takes place.

• Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse.

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II. Abiotic components:

• These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil &

atmosphere.

• In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests.

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AGROECOSYSTEM:

• Defination: An agroecosystem is a cultivated ecosystem, generaliiy

corresponding to the spatial unit of a farm and whose ecosystem functions

are valued by humans in the form of agricultural goods and services.

It is thus co-produced by nature and humans.

• Agro-ecological zone: An agro-ecological zone is a land resource

mapping umit, defined in terms of climate, landform, and soils, and/or land

cover, and having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use.

An Agro-ecological Cell (AEC) is defined by a unique combination of

landform, soil and climate characteristic.

• Agro-ecological Zones of India:

Based on physiographic features, soil characteristics, bio-climatic types

(rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, soil storage) and length of the

growing period, India is divided into 20 agro-ecological regions.

The agro-ecological zones are,

1. Western Himalayas

2. Western Plain, Kachchh, and part of Kathiwara Peninsula

3. Deccan Plateau

4. Northern Plain and Central Highlands including Aravallis

5. Central Malwa Highlands, Gujarat Plains, and Kathiawar Peninsula

6. Deccan Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion

7. Deccan (Telengana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats

8. Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu Plateau and Deccan (Karnataka)

9. Northern Plain, hot sub-humid (dry) ecoregion

10. Central Highlands (Malwas, Budelkhand, and Eastern Satpura)

11. Eastern Plateau (Chattisgarh), hot sub-humid ecoregion

12. Eastern (Chotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats

13. Eastern Plain

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14. Western Himalayas

15. Bengal and Assam

plains

16. Eastern Himalayas

17. North Eastern Hills

(Purvanchal)

18. Eastern Coastal

Plain

19. Western Ghats and

Coastal Plain

20. Island of Andaman

Nicobar and

Lakshadweep

Utilities of Agroecology :

Agroecology plays an important role in re-balancing tradition and modern food

habits, bringing them together in a harmonious way that promotes healthy food

production and consumption, supporting the right to adequate food. In this

way, agroecology seeks to cultivate a healthy relationship between people and

food.

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AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES CROPS

1. Western Himalayas Vegetables, millets, wheat, fodder, barley,

pulses

2. Western Plain, Kachchh, and part of .

Kathiwara Peninsula

Millets, fodder, pulses

3.. Deccan Plateau Sorghum, safflower, cotton, groundnut,

sunflower, sugar cane

4. Northern Plain and Central Highlands

including Aravallis

Millets, wheat, pulses, maize; irrigated cotton &

sugar cane

5. Central Malwa Highlands, Gujarat Plains,

and Kathiawar Peninsula

Millets, wheat, pulses

6. Deccan Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion Millets, cotton, pulses, sugar cane under

irrigation

7. Deccan (Telengana) Plateau and Eastern

Ghats

Millets, oilseeds, rice, cotton & sugar cane under

irrigation

8. Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu Plateau and

Deccan (Karnataka)

Millets, pulses, oilseeds (groundnut), sugar cane

& rice under irrigation

9. Northern Plain, hot sub-humid (dry)

ecoregion

Rice, wheat, pigeon pea, sugar cane, mustard,

maize

10. Central Highlands Rice, wheat, sorghum, soybean, gram, pigeon

pea

11 Eastern Plateau Rice, millets, wheat, pigeon pea, green gram,

black gram

12. Eastern (Chotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern

Ghats

Rice, pulses, millets

13. Eastern Plain Rice, wheat, sugar cane

14. Western Himalayas Wheat, millets, maize, rice

15. Bengal and Assam plains Rice, jute, plantation crops

16. Eastern Himalayas Rice, millets, potato, maize, sesame, Jhum,

cultivation is common

17. North Eastern Hills Rice, millets, potato, plantation , Jhum,

crops, cultivation is common

18. Eastern Coastal Plain Rice, coconut, black gram, lentil, sunflower,

groundnut

19. Western Ghats and Coastal Plain Rice, tapioca, coconut, spices

20. Island of Andaman Nicobar and

Lakshadweep

Rice, coconut

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CONCLUSION:

We should now understand that:

• Ecology is a scientific approach to the study of the biosphere.

• Ecosystems are created by the interrelationships between living organisms and

the physical environments they inhabit (land, water, air). Ecosystems require a

source of energy to make them work and for most, although not all, this is

light from the sun.

• To study ecosystems we have to start to identify the components involved and

the interrelationships between them. We can list the living organisms by

identifying the species involved.

• Food chains and food webs are a way of mapping one type of interrelationship

between the organisms in an ecosystem.

• Human beings are part of ecosystems, as well as manipulators of ecosystems.

As such we are dependent on, as well as responsible for, the ecological health

of the ecosystems we inhabit.

• An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventional ecosystem. As

the name implies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the human activity

of agriculture. However, an agroecosystem is not restricted to the immediate

site of agricultural activity (e.g. the farm), but rather includes the region that is

impacted by this activity, usually by changes to the complexity of species

assemblages and energy flows, as well as to the net nutrient balance.

Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively, is

characterized as having a simpler species composition and simpler energy and

nutrient flows than "natural" ecosystem.

• So the difference is an ecosystem is natural and an agroecosystem is

manmade.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

• http://www.mystudytimes.com/pond-ecosystem-meaning-characteristics-types-

importance/#:~:text=Pond%20Ecosystem%20refers%20to%20fresh,growing%20of%20p

lants%20down%20there.

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_ecosystem#:~:text=River%20ecosystems%20are%20

flowing%20waters,interactions%20of%20its%20many%20parts.&text=River%20ecosyst

ems%20are%20prime%20examples%20of%20lotic%20ecosystems.

• https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/desert-ecosystem.php

• https://www.toppr.com/guides/science/nature/ecosystem/forest-ecosystem/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroecosystem

• https://www.deshbandhucollege.ac.in/pdf/resources/1587401626_BA(H)-Psc-Eco-Eng-

BA(P)-II-Ecosystem.pdf

ENVS PROJECT

College roll no. : CEMA20F123

CU roll no. : 203223-11-0014

CU registration no. : 223-1211-0262-20

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TABLE OF CONTENT

SL.NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

i. Abstract 1

ii. Introduction 2

iii. Types of Ecosystem 3

V. Forest ecosystem 3-7

VI. Pond and river ecosystem 8

VII. Estuaries and wetland ecosystem 9-10

VIII. Agro ecosystem 11

IX. Conclusion 12

Page 1

STUDY OF ECOSYSTEM :

POND, RIVER ,WETLAND, FOREST, ESTUARY ANDAGRO ECOSSYSTEM

ABSTRACT :

Environment is a life supporting system. In the subject of ecology, the term ecosystemrefers to the environment of life. It is a self-sustaining, structural and functional unit ofbiosphere. Each ecosystem has a set of common features that can be observed in thefield:‘What does the ecosystem look like?’One should be able to describe specific features of the different ecosystems in onesown surroundings. Field observations must be made in both urban and naturalsurroundings.What is its structure? Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an agricultural area, agrazing area, an urban area, an industrial area, etc.? What is the composition of itsplant and animal species?‘How does the ecosystem work’? We shall discuss it all.

Page 2

INTRODUCTION :

Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals are considered as oneinteresting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others.

An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form such asforest, grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem isbased on its geographical features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, lakes,coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled by climatic conditions such as theamount of sunlight, the temperature and the rainfall in the region. Thegeographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non-living (abiotic)component. These features create conditions that support a community of plantsand animals that evolution has produced to live in these specific conditions. Theliving part of the ecosystem is referred to as its biotic component. Ecosystems aredivided into terrestrial or landbased ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems inwater. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s livingorganisms.

The ecosystem functions through several biogeochemical cycles and energytransfer mechanisms. The biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linkedtogether through nutrient cycles and energy flows. As ecosystems are defined bythe network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and theirenvironment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limitedspaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abioticcomponents of an ecosystem.The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. Itgenerally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also capturescarbon from the atmosphere.By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in themovement of matter and energy through the system.They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Bybreaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to theatmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in deadbiomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

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TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM :

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems, and aquaticecosystems in water. Another type is the artificial or man-made ecosystem whichincludes agro ecosystem.

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

Terrestrial ecosystems in their natural state are found in different types of forests,grasslands, semiarid areas, deserts and sea coasts. Where the land is intensivelyused, these have been gradually modified over several thousand years intoagricultural and pastoral regions.

Terrestrial ecosystem includes forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, desertecosystem, etc. Here, we will mainly discuss about forest ecosystem .

____________________________________________________________________

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantly structurallydefined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover.Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a group of planted trees, which arein orderly rows. The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly in ourNational Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Each forest type forms a habitat for aspecific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.

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Forest types in India :

The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soilcharacteristics of a region. Forests in India can be broadly divided into Coniferousforests and Broadleaved forests. They can also be classified according to thenature of their tree species – evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees,mangroves, etc. They can also be classified according to the most abundantspecies of trees such as Sal or Teak forests.

Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayanmountain region, where the temperaturesare low. These forests have tall stately treeswith needlelike leaves and downwardsloping branches so that the snow can slipoff the branches.

FIG: CONIFEROUS FOREST

Evergreen forests grow in the highrainfall areas of the Western Ghats,North Eastern India and the Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Evergreen plantsshed a few of their leaves throughoutthe year. The trees overlap with each otherto form a continuous canopy. The forest isrich in orchids and ferns. The barks of thetrees are covered in moss. The forest aboundsin animal life and is most rich in insect life.

FIG: EVERGREEN FOREST

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Deciduous forests are found in regionswith a moderate amount of seasonalrainfall that lasts for only a fewmonths.Most of the forests in which Teak treesgrow are of this type. The forest frequently has athick undergrowth as light can penetrateeasily onto the forest floor.

FIG: DECIDUOUS FOREST

Thorn forests are found in the semi- aridregions of India. The trees, which aresparsely distributed, are surrounded byopen grassy areas. Thorny plants arecalled xerophytic species and areable to conserve water. Thorn foresttrees have long or fibrous roots toreach water at great depths. Many ofthese plants have thorns, which reducewater loss and protect them from herbivores.

FIG: THORN FOREST

Mangrove forests grow along thecoast especially in the river deltas.These plants are able to grow in amix of saline and fresh water. Theygrow luxuriantly in muddy areascovered with silt that the rivers havebrought down. The mangrove treeshave breathing roots that emerge fromthe mudbanks.

FIG: MANGROVE FOREST

Forest utilisation :

Natural forests provide local people with a variety of products if the forest isused carefully. Natural forest ecosystems play an important rolein controlling local climate and water regimes. It is well-known that under thecanopy of a natural forest, it is cooler than outside the forest.

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Forest products that are collected bypeople include food such as fruit, roots,herbs and medicinal plants. Peopledepend on fuelwood to cook food,collect fodder for domestic animals, cutbuilding material for housing, collectmedicinal plants that have been knownfor generations for several ailments anduse a variety of non timer forest productssuch as fiber, cane, gum, to makehousehold articles.

Forest services include the controlof the flow of water in streamsand rivers. Forest cover reducessurface runoff of rainwater and allowsground water to be stored. Forestsprevent erosion of soil. Once soil islost by erosion, it can take thousandsof years to reform. Forests regulatelocal temperature. It is cooler and moremoist under the shade of the trees in theforest. Most importantly, forestsabsorb carbon dioxide and releaseoxygen that we breathe.

THREATS TO FOREST ECOSYSTEM :

Developmental activities such as rapid population growth together with,urbanisation, industrialisation and the increasing use of consumer goods, leads toover utilisation of forest produce. Forests are shrinking as our need foragricultural land increases. It is estimated that India’s forest cover has decreasedfrom about 33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing use of wood for timber,wood pulp for paper and the extensive use of fuel-wood results in continualforest loss. Forests are also lost by mining and building dams.

Direct uses of forest productsFruits – mango, jamun, awlaRoots – DioscoriaMedicine – Gloriosa, FoxgloveFuelwood – many species of trees andshrubsSmall timber for building huts andhousesWood for farm implementsBamboo and cane for basketsGrass for grazing and stall feedinglivestock

Indirect uses of forest productsBuilding material for construction andfurniture for the urban sectorMedicinal products collected andprocessed into drugsGums and resins processed into avariety of productsRaw material for industrial productsand chemicalsPaper from bamboo and softwoods

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A 2005 study by forest scientists found that widespread fires in the Amazon basin are changingweather patterns by raising temperature and reducing rainfall. This is converting largedeforested areas of tropical forests to tropical grassland (savanna), if the current burning anddeforestation continues, 20- 30% of the amazon will turn into a savanna in the next 50 years.And most of it will become a savanna by 2080.

CONSERVATION OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM

This can be done by using alternate sources of energy instead of fuelwood.There is a need to grow more trees than are cut down from forests every year for timber.Afforestation needs to be done continuously from which fuelwood and timber can bejudiciously used. The natural forests with all their diverse species must be protected asNational Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries where all the plants and animals can be preserved.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments of the seas and thefresh water systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. These ecosystemsprovide human beings with a wealth of natural resources.In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live in water. These species areadapted to live in different types of aquatic habitats. The special abiotic featuresare its physical aspects such as the quality of the water, which includes its clarity,salinity, oxygen content and rate of flow.

____________________________________________________________________

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POND ECOSYSTEM :

As the pond fills in the monsoon a large number of food chains are formed. Algae is eaten bymicroscopic animals, which are in turn eaten by small fish on which larger carnivorous fishdepend. These are in turn eaten by birds such as kingfishers, herons and birds of prey. Aquaticinsects, worms and snails feed on the waste material excreted by animals and the dead ordecaying plant and animal matter. They act on the detritus, which is broken down intonutrients which aquatic plants can absorb, thus completing the nutrient cycle in the pond. Thetemporary ponds begin to dry after the rains and the surrounding grasses and terrestrial plantsspread into the moist mud that is exposed. Animals such as frogs, snails and worms remaindormant in the mud, awaiting the next monsoon.____________________________________________________________________

RIVER ECOSYSTEM :

As deforestation occurs in the hills the water in the streams that once flowed throughout theyear become seasonal. This leads to flash floods in the rains and a shortage of water once thestreams dry up after the monsoon. The community of flora and fauna of streams and riversdepends on the clarity, flow and oxygen content as well as the nature of their beds. The streamor river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type having its own species of plants andanimals.____________________________________________________________________

The pond is the simplest aquaticecosystem to observe.There are differences in a pond that istemporary and has water only in themonsoon, and a larger tank or lake that isan aquatic ecosystem throughout theyear.Most ponds become dry after the rains areover and are covered by terrestrial plantsfor the rest of the year.

Streams and rivers are flowingwater ecosystems in which all theliving forms are specially adaptedto different rates of flow. Someplants and animals such as snailsand other burrowing animals canwithstand the rapid flow of thehill streams. Other species ofplants and animals such as waterbeetles and skaters can live onlyin slower moving water.

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ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM :

Estuaries, or transitional waters, represent the transition between freshwater and marineenvironments and are influenced by both aquatic realms. Salinity levels are indicative of theposition within the mixing zones of an estuary. The upper limit of an estuary is referred to as itshead, while the lower limit is called the mouth of the estuary.

Estuaries are preferred locations for human settlement, especially due to the naturalconnections they offer between inland and overseas destinations. Residential, recreational andindustrial developments (such as harbours or ports and marinas) are usually located right atthe waterfront with supporting structures (roads, railways) that cut off the connections withthe upper shore habitats. Estuaries are often challenged by land development; landreclamation is particularly detrimental in this respect as it results in a permanent loss of habitat.____________________________________________________________________

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM :

Organisms that live in estuaries must be adapted to thespecific conditions that occur here. The mostconstraining condition is the varying salinity. Mostorganisms are so-called stenohalines: they survive onlyin an environment with a certain more or less constantsalinity, for example in the sea or in rivers. These speciescannot survive in an estuarine environment. Species thatthrive in an estuarine environment must be able to copewith varying osmotic pressures related to varyingsalinity; these species are called euryhalines. When theinternal osmotic pressure of a cell is lower than theexternal pressure, the cell will lose fluid and shrink; inthe opposite case, the cell will swell.

Wetlands are actually biologically diverse andproductive ecosystems. Home to a variety ofplant life, including floating pond lilies, cattails,cypress, tamarack, and blue spruce, wetlandssupport diverse communities of invertebrates,which in turn support a wide variety of birds andother vertebrates. Primary consumers fromcrustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic insect larvaeto muskrats, geese, and deer rely on theabundance of algae, plants, and detritus forfood. Wetlands also support a variety ofcarnivores, including dragonflies, otters,alligators, and osprey. Thus, wetlands of theworld maintain biologically diverse communitiesof ecological and economic value.

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Origin Definition Citation

US Fish andWildlife Service(USFWS)

Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems wherethe water table is usually at or near the surface or the land iscovered by shallow water. Wetlands must have one or more ofthe following three attributes: 1. at least periodically, the landsupports predominately hydrophytes; 2. the substrate ispredominately undrained hydric soil; and 3. the substrate isnonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow waterat some time during the growing season of each year.

Cowardin et al.1979

RamsarConvention onWetlands

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural orartificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static orflowing, fresh, brackish, or salt including areas of marine water,the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters.

Finlayson &Moser 1991

NationalResearchCouncil (NRC)

The minimum essential characteristics of a wetland arerecurrent, sustained inundation or saturation at or near thesurface and the presence of physical, chemical, and biologicalfeatures reflective of recurrent, sustained inundation orsaturation. Common diagnostic features of wetlands are hydricsoils and hydrophytic vegetation.

NRC 1995

Table 1: Excerpts from three wetland definitions distinguishing wetland habitats from other ecosystems

____________________________________________________________________

Threats to aquatic ecosystem andits conservation :

CASE STUDYThreats to wetlands in Assam

Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam areunder threat. A survey conducted by theAssam Remote Sensing Application Center(ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space ResearchCenter, Ahemadabad, has revealed that1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam areunder severe threat due to invasion ofaquatic weeds and several developmentalactivities. The wetlands of Assam form thegreatest potential source of income for theState in terms of fisheries and tourism.Though the wetlands of Assam have thecapacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish perhectare per year, around 20,000 tones offish have to be imported to meet localdemands.This is primarily due to poor wetlandmanagement.

COVSERVATION

For sustainable use of an aquaticecosystem, water pollution must beprevented. It does not make senseto allow water to be polluted andthen try to clean it up.Changing the nature of the aquaticecosystem from a flowing waterecosystem to a static ecosystemdestroys its natural biologicaldiversity. Thus dams across riversdecrease the population of speciesthat require running water, whilefavouring those that need standingwater.

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MAN-MADE ECOSYSTEM

AGRO ECOSYSTEM :

An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study in agroecology, and is somewhat arbitrarily definedas a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agricultural activity, and includes the living andnonliving components involved in that unit as well as their interactions.

An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventional ecosystem. As the nameimplies, at the core of an agroecosystem lies the human activity of agriculture. However, anagroecosystem is not restricted to the immediate site of agricultural activity (e.g. the farm),but rather includes the region that is impacted by this activity, usually by changes to thecomplexity of species assemblages and energy flows, as well as to the net nutrient balance.Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively, is characterized ashaving a simpler species composition and simpler energy and nutrient flows than "natural"ecosystem.

One of the major efforts of disciplines such as agroecology is to promote management stylesthat blur the distinction between agroecosystems and "natural" ecosystems, both bydecreasing the impact of agriculture (increasing the biological and trophic complexity of theagricultural system as well as decreasing the nutrient inputs/outflow) and by increasingawareness that "downstream" effects extend agroecosystems beyond the boundaries of thefarm (e.g. the Corn Belt agroecosystem includes the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico).

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CONCLUSION

Everyone in the world depends completely on Earth's ecosystems and theservices they provide, such food, water, disease management, climateregulation, spiritual fulfillment, and aesthetic enjoyment. Over the past 50years, humans have changed these ecosystems more rapidly andextensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largelyto meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber, andfuel. This transformation of the planet has contributed to substantial netgains in human well-being and economic development. But not all regionsand groups of people have benefited from this process -in fact, many havebeen harmed. Moreover, the full costs associated with these gains are onlynow becoming apparent. So it is better that care for ecosystem should betaken as one of the major responsibility of every individual for sustainableliving of future generations as well.

________________________ _____________________THANKYOU

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CONTENTSTOPICS PAGE NO.

INTRODUCTION 3

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY ECOSYSTEM? 3

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

Terrestrial

Aquatic

4

STRUCTURE OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Biotic components

Abiotic components

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NUTRIENT CYCLING 6

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM 6

IMPORTANT ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Food Chain

Ecological Pyramids

Food Web

7-8

ENVIRONMENT VS COVID-19 9

POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 10-12

NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 13-14

POTENTIAL STRATEGIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINIBILITY

15-16

CONCLUSION 16

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INTRODUCTION

Earth’s ecosystems and its peoples are bound together in a grand and complex symbiosis. We

depend on ecosystems to sustain us, but the continued health of ecosystems depends, in turn,

on our use and care. Ecosystems are the productive engines of the planet, providing us with

everything from the water we drink to the food we eat and the fiber we use for clothing,

paper, or lumber. Yet, nearly every measure we use to assess the health of ecosystems tells us

we are drawing on them more than ever and degrading them, in some cases at an accelerating

pace. Our knowledge of ecosystems has increased dramatically in recent decades, but it has

not kept pace with our ability to alter them. Economic development and human well-being

will depend in large part on our ability to manage ecosystems more sustainably. We must

learn to evaluate our decisions on land and resource use in terms of how they affect the

capacity of ecosystems to sustain life — not only human life, but also the health and

productive potential of plants animals and natural system. Critical step in improving the way

we manage the earth’s ecosystem is to take stock of their extent, their condition, their

capacity to provide the goods and services we will need in years to come.

What do you mean by an ECOSYSTEM? The term "ecosystem" was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur

Tansley. Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of

materials between organisms and their environment.[8] He later refined the term, describing

it as "The whole system.

The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms

interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a

chain of interaction between organisms and their environment.

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Types of Ecosystems An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning

thousands of miles. In the broad scheme of things, the Ecosystem can be classified into two

major categories. The two types of ecosystems are as follows-

1- Terrestrial ecosystem.

2- Aquatic Ecosystem.

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of

terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

a. Forest Ecosystems

b. Grassland Ecosystems

c. Tundra Ecosystems

d. Desert Ecosystem

a. Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in

coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the

temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

b. Grassland Ecosystem

In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate

grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.

c. Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is

scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or

mountain tops is tundra type.

d. Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days

are hot and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided

into two types

a. Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams

and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

b. Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content

and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

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Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic and abiotic

components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the

climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

Biotic Components

Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic components

can be categorized into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they

can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other

organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.

Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.

Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and

tertiary consumers.

o Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for

food.

o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can

either be a carnivore or an omnivore.

o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for

food. Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms'

prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top

of a food chain as they have no natural predators.

Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on

the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem

as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,

soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Ecological relationships are manifested in physiochemical environment. Abiotic component

of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen,

calcium carbonate, phosphate and a variety of organic compounds.

It also includes physical factors such as moisture, wind currents and solar radiation. Radiant

energy of the sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. The amount of

non-living components such as carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. That are present at any

given point is known as standing state or standing quantity.

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Nutrient cycling

Biological nitrogen cycling

Ecosystems continually exchange energy and carbon with the wider environment. Mineral

nutrients, on the other hand, are mostly cycled back and forth between plants, animals,

microbes and the soil. Most nitrogen enters ecosystems through biological nitrogen fixation,

is deposited through precipitation, dust, gases or is applied as fertilizer. Since most terrestrial

ecosystems are nitrogen-limited, nitrogen cycling is an important control on ecosystem

production.

Functions of Ecosystem

a. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and

renders stability.

b. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic

components.

c. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

d. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

e. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that

involves the exchange of energy.

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Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain

A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food

chain.

The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms. Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the

bottom, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is known as a trophic level.

The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy foreverything on the planet.

Producers: The producers in a food chain include all green plants. This is the firststage in a food chain. The producers make up the first level of a food chain. The

producers utilize the energy from the sun to make food. Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make their own food.

Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or otherorganisms for food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all

living organisms. It includes herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which are animals that eat other animals, parasites are those organisms that live on other organisms by harming them and lastly the scavengers, which are animals that

eat dead animals’ carcasses.

Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or wasteorganic material. This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral

part of a food chain, as they convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials like nutrient-rich soil or land.

FOOD CHAIN

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2. Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of

the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to

describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.The biomass, number, and energy

of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer level are represented in the

form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and

secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the

quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

3. Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within

a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food

chains. In a web one organism feeds on another and this continues to another organism which

virtually forms a web.

FOOD WEB

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ENVIRONMENT VS COVID-19

The global disruption caused by the COVID-19 has brought about several effects on the

environment and climate. Due to movement restriction and a significant slowdown of social

and economic activities, air quality has improved in many cities with a reduction in water

pollution in different parts of the world. Besides, increased use of PPE (e.g., face mask, hand

gloves etc.), their haphazard disposal, and generation of a huge amount of hospital waste has

negative impacts on the environment. It has been reported that the level of greenhouse gases

decreased for the first-time during lockdown after World War II. In the industrial cities, there

has been a decrease in air pollution during lockdown period. This pandemic is responsible for

better air and water quality along with several negative waves such as generation of

tremendous volume of hospital and household waste with disturbed solid waste recycling

process. Besides these environmental impacts, COVID-19 pandemic also affected the

sustainable development goals (SDGs). World leaders adopted 2030 agenda for sustainable

development and committed to a shared vision to set the world on sustainable path for people,

planet, partnership, peace and prosperity. Due to COVID-19 pandemic crisis, the 2030

agenda of UNSDGs has been affected.

Positive and negative environmental effects of COVID-19 pandemic.

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Positive environmental effects

Reduction of air pollution and GHGs emission

COVID-19 became the opportunity for the earth to build a clear blue sky and clean the air.

During the period of lockdown across the world, the sight of the blue sky created a sense of

optimism among the people towards a clean and better environment. Before COVID-19, all

over the world are being suffered by a high level of urban air pollution especially in the form

of CO2, SO2, NO2 and particulate matter The major sources of pollution such as transport,

industries, power stations are responsible for the increased output of all these pollutants.

From years back (2001 to 2019) various agencies all over the world announced such as

clean air programs to reduce particulate matter pollution levels.

Comparison between different pollutant present in air before and after lockdown.

PM10 PM2.5 SO2 NO2 CO O3 NH3

Before lockdown 176.07 80.51 16.08 42.59 1.03 34.05 33.93

After lockdown 84.79 37.75 13.19 20.16 0.72 34.32 29.75

Positive effect of pandemic on air pollution

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Reduction of water pollution

Water pollution is a common phenomenon of a developing country like India, and

Bangladesh, where domestic and industrial wastes are dumped into rivers without treatment

During the lockdown period, the major industrial sources of pollution have shrunk or

completely stopped, which helped to reduce the pollution load. For instance, the river Ganga

and Yamuna have reached a significant level of purity due to the absence of industrial

pollution on the days of lockdown in India. It is found that, among the 36 real-time

monitoring stations of river Ganga, water from 27 stations met the permissible limit.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DECREASING POLLUTION IN GANGA

COVID-19 lockdown vs ozone layer

The ozone layer is found in the upper atmosphere called the stratosphere between 10 and 50

km from the earth. After the lockdown began on Jan 23, the particulate matter pollution

decreased by an average of 35% and NO2 decreased by an average of 60%. At the same

period, scientists found the average surface ozone concentration increased by a factor of 1.5–

2.

RECOVERY OF OZONE LAYER DUE TO THE PANDEMIC

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Reduction of noise pollution

Noise pollution is the elevated levels of sound, generated from different human activities

(e.g., machines, vehicles, construction work), which may lead to adverse effects in human

and other living organisms. Usually, noise negatively effects on physiological health, along

with cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, and sleep shortness of human. For instance,

noise level of Delhi the capital of India, is reduced drastically around 40–50% in the recent

lockdown period. Due to reduction of vehicle movement during the lockdown period, the

noise levels of Govind Puri metro station (Delhi) are reduced 50–60 dB, from 100 db.,

according to the Central Pollution Control Board of India (shown in the graph below).

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DECREASE IN NOISE POLLUTION IN DELHI

Ecological restoration and assimilation of tourist spots

Over the past few years, tourism sector has witnessed a remarkable growth because of

technological advancements and transport networks; which contribute significantly to global

gross domestic product (GDP). It is estimated that the tourism industry is responsible for 8%

of global GHGs emission. However, the places of natural beauty are usually attracting the

tourists, and make a huge harsh. Deer, peacocks, monkeys, elephants, penguins (shown in

figure below), dolphins, etc. are the best examples during lockdown who came out in notice

much more frequently and greater in number.

PENGUINS STROLL THE LOCAL STREETS OF CAPE TOWN

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Negative environmental effects

Increase of biomedical waste generation Since the outbreak of COVID-19, medical waste generation is increased globally, which is a

major threat to environment. For sample collection of the suspected COVID-19 patients,

diagnosis, treatment of huge number of patients, and disinfection purpose lots of infectious

and biomedical wastes are generated from hospitals for instance, China produced more than

240 metric tons of medical wastes every day during the time of the outbreak which is almost

190 m Tons higher than the normal time. Waste generated from the hospitals (e.g., needles,

syringes, etc., shown in figure below) should be managed properly, to reduce further

infection and environmental pollution, which is now a matter of concern global.

Safety equipment use and haphazard disposal

To protect from the viral infection, presently peoples are using face mask, hand gloves and

other safety equipment, which increase the amount of healthcare waste. It is reported that,

trash amount has been increasing due to increased PPE use at the domestic level. Since the

outbreak of COVID-19, the production and use of plastic based PPE is increased worldwide.

Due to lack of knowledge about infectious waste management, most people dump these (e.g.,

face mask, hand gloves etc. shown in figure below) Such haphazard dumping of these

trashes creates clogging in water ways and worsens environmental pollution.

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Municipal solid waste generation, and reduction of recycling

Increase of municipal waste (shown in figure below) generation has direct and indirect

effects on environment like air, water and soil pollution. Due to the pandemic, quarantine

policies established in many countries have led to an increase in the demand of online

shopping for home delivery, which ultimately increase the amount of household wastes from

shipped package materials. However, waste recycling is an effective way to prevent

pollution, save energy, and conserve natural resources. But, due to the pandemic many

countries postponed the waste recycling activities to reduce the transmission of viral

infection. Overall, due to disruption of routine municipal waste management, waste recovery

and recycling activities, increasing the landfilling and environmental pollutants worldwide.

Other effects on the environment Recently, huge number of disinfectants is applied into roads, commercial, and residential

areas to exterminate SARS-CoV-2 virus. Such extensive use of disinfectants may kill non-

targeted beneficial species, which may create ecological imbalance. So, additional measures

in wastewater treatment are essential, which is challenging for developing countries like

Bangladesh, where municipal wastewater is drained into nearby aquatic bodies and rivers

without treatment (shown in figure below) China has already strengthened the disinfection

process (increased use of chlorine) to prevent SARS-CoV-2 virus spreading through the

wastewater. But, the excessive use of chlorine in water could generate harmful by product.

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Potential strategies of environmental sustainability

It is assumed that, all of these environmental consequences are short-term. So, it is high time

to make a proper strategy for long-term benefit, as well as sustainable environmental

management. The COVID-19 pandemic has elicited a global response and make us united to

win against the virus. Similarly, to protect this globe, the home of human beings, united effort

of the countries should be imperative. Therefore, some possible strategies are proposed for

global environmental sustainability.

Sustainable industrialization: Industrialization is crucial for economic growth;

however, it's time to think about sustainability. For sustainable industrialization, it is

essential to shift to less energy-intensive industries, use of cleaner fuels and

technologies, and strong energy efficient policies.

Use of green and public transport: To reduce emissions, it is necessary to encourage

people to use public transport, rather private vehicles. Besides, people should

encourage to use bicycle in a short distance, and public bike sharing (PBS) system

(like China) should be available for mass usage, which is not only environment

friendly but also beneficial for health.

Use of renewable energy: Use of renewable energy can lower the demand of fossil

fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, which can play an important role in reducing the

GHGs emissions. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, global energy demand is reduced,

which results in the reduction of emission and increased ambient air quality in many

areas.

Wastewater treatment and reuse: To control the challenges of water pollution, both

industrial and municipal wastewater should be properly treated before discharge.

Besides, reuse of treated wastewater in non-production processes like toilet flushing

and road cleaning can reduce the burden of excess water withdrawal.

Waste recycling and reuse: To reduce the burden of wastes and environmental

pollution, both industrial and municipal wastes should be recycled and reused. Hence,

circular economy or circularity systems should implement in the production process

to minimize the use of raw material and waste generation.

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Ecological restoration and ecotourism: For ecological restoration, tourist spots

should periodically shutdown after a certain period. Moreover, ecotourism practice

should be strengthened to promote sustainable livelihoods, cultural preservation, and

biodiversity conservation.

International cooperation: To meet the sustainable environmental goals and

protection of global environmental resources, such as the global climate and

biological diversity, combined international effort is essential.

Proposed strategies of sustainable environmental management.

CONCLUSION

Directly or indirectly, the pandemic is affecting human life and the global economy, which is

ultimately affecting the environment and climate. It reminds us how we have neglected the

environmental components and enforced human induced climate change. Moreover, the

global response of COVID-19 also teaches us to work together to combat against the threat to

mankind. Though the impacts of COVID-19 on the environment are short-term, united and

proposed time-oriented effort can strengthen environmental sustainability and save the earth

from the effects of global climate change.

In light of this study, it is crystal clear that it is high time for us to realize that the earth

belongs as much to the future generation as it belongs to us.

Thereby, I would like to conclude this project by a famous line by ‘Nani Palkhivala’-

“We have not inherited this Earth from our forefathers, we have borrowed it from our

children”.

ENVS PROJECT CU Roll number : 203223-11-0030

CU Registration number : 223-1211-0302-20

College Roll Number : CEMA20F126

Semester 2

BATCH-2020-23

Topic: Pollution.

27

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Subject Page

Acknowledge 02

Introduction 03

What is Environmental Pollution ? 03

What is Pollutant ? 03

Types of Pollution 04 – 12

Air Pollution 04 – 05

Water Pollution 06 – 07

Soil Pollution 08

Noise Pollution 09 – 11

Marine Pollution 12

Prevention 13

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I would like to thank my subject teachers of AEEC ENVS for providing me with

adequate study materials for this topic and encouraging me to do this project

systematically. I would also like to thank my parents, because without their

timely help and guidance, it was impossible for me to opt and work on this

project.

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What is Environmental Pollution?

• Environment Pollution is the addition of contaminants into the natural

environment that causes detrimental effects to nature, natural resources and

mankind.

• Any unnatural and negative changes in all the dimensions like chemical, physical

and biological characteristics of any component of the ecosystem i.e. air, water or

soil which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life and property is called

environmental pollution.

What is a Pollutant?

• Any substance which causes harmful effects or uneasiness in the organisms, then

that particular substance may be called as the pollutant.

The materials that cause pollution are of two types:

1. Persistent pollutant.

2. Non-Persistent pollutant.

From another perspective, pollutants can be classified as follows:

1. Primary Pollutants.

2. Secondary Pollutants.

According to their existence in nature:

1. Quantitative Pollutants.

2. Qualitative Pollutants.

According to origin:

1. Man-made Pollutants

2. Natural Pollutants.

According to the nature of disposal:

1. Biodegradable Pollutants

2. Non-biodegradable Pollutants

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Air Pollution:

• Air pollution is the presence of one or more disadvantageous content in such quantity and

for such duration, as it is catastrophic, or tend to be catastrophic, to human health and

welfare, animal or plant life.

• It is the contaminants of air by the discharge of detrimental substances.

Some of the air pollutants, their sources and effects:

Name of the Sources Health effects

pollutants

Nitrogen oxides Industries, vehicles and power plants Problems in the

lungs,

respiratory systems

and causes asthma

and bronchitis.

Carbon monoxide Emission and burning of fossil fuels Severe headache,

irritation to mucous

membrane,

unconsciousness

and death.

Suspended particulate matter Vehicular emission and burning of fossil fuels. Lung irritation

reduces

development of

RBC

and pulmonary

malfunctioning.

Smog Industries and vehicular pollution Respiratory and eye

Problems.

Hydrocarbons Burning of fossil fuels Kidney problems,

irritation in eyes,

nose and throat,

asthma,

hypertension and

carcinogenic effects

on lungs.

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Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, emission from jets Depletion of ozone

layer, global

warming

Control measures:

• Policy measures

• Modification of industrial process and selection of suitable fuels and its utilization.

• Collection of pollutants and convert it into less toxic forms by different methods.

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Water Pollution:

• Addition of certain substances such as organic, inorganic, biological and radiological to the

water, which degrades the water quality and makes it unhealthy for use.

• Water pollution is not only confined to surface water but also spread to groundwater, sea

and ocean.

Sources :

Point sources: These are directly pointed towards the water bodies from the source of origin

of pollution and are thus easy to regulate.

Non-point sources: These sources are related to many diffuse sources and are thus difficult

to regulate.

Some of the sources are:

• Industrial and community wastewater: Industries like mining, iron and steel,

pharmaceuticals, food processing, soap and detergent and paper and pulp.

• Agricultural sources, thermal pollution (discharge of hot water by thermal power plants

cause deficiency of dissolved oxygen in water) and underground water pollution.

• Marine pollution: river discharge, manmade pollution and oil spills etc.

Effects :

• An excessive amount of mercury in water can cause Minamata disease in humans and

dropsy in fishes; Lead in large amount can cause dyslexia, Cadmium poisoning causes Itai –

Itai disease etc.

• Polluted water has less amount of Dissolved oxygen (DO) content which is important for

sensitive organisms, thereby eliminates sensitive organisms.

• Excess of nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for infants and human health, excess

fluoride cause neuromuscular disorder and teeth deformity, hardening of bones and painful

joints.

• Biological magnification and eutrophication.

Control measures :

• Usage of water should be minimized by changing the techniques involved.

• Recycling and treatment of water should be used to the maximum extent possible.

• The quantity of discharge of wastewater can be minimized.

• Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers should be avoided.

• Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues as fertilizers.

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Soil Pollution: • Addition of unwanted substances to the soil which negatively affects physical, chemical

and biological properties of soil and reduces its productivity is called soil pollution.

• The factors which disturb the biological balance of the soil and deteriorate the quality,

texture and mineral content are called soil pollutants.

• Use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, dumping of solid waste, deforestation and

pollution due to urbanization and other anthropogenic substances causes soil pollution.

Sources :

• Industrial waste: lead, cadmium, mercury, alkalies, organic substances and chemicals.

• Agricultural waste: fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and manures.

• Discarded materials and radioactive elements and plastic bags.

Effects :

• Agriculture: It reduces soil fertility and thus crop yields; increase soil erosion and salinity.

• Ecological imbalance and imbalance in flora and fauna further increases.

• Problems in urban areas like clogging in drains, release of gases, foul smells and problems

in wastewater management.

• Release of radioactive rays, biomagnification and pollutant gases cause health problems.

Control measures :

• Afforestation, reforestation and use of organic farming.

• Solid waste management and reduction of waste from the construction area.

• Stop the use of plastic bags and use bags of degradable materials like paper and cloth.

• Biomedical waste should be collected and incinerated in incinerators.

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Noise Pollution: Noise is perhaps one of the most undesirable by products of modern

mechanized lifestyle. It may not seem as insidious or harmful as the contamination of drinking water

supplies from hazardous chemicals, but it is a problem that affects human health and well-being and

that can also contribute to the general deterioration of environmental quality. It can affect people at

home, in their community, or at their place of work.

Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner

organs and sending bioelectrical signals to the brain. The human ear can detect sounds in the

frequency range of about 20 to 20,000 Hz, but for most people hearing is best in the range of 200 to

10,000 Hz. A sound of 50 Hz frequency, for example, is perceived to be very low-pitched, and a

15,000 - Hz sound is very high pitched.

Simply defined, noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. It takes

energy to produce sound, so, in a manner of speaking, noise is a form of waste energy. It is not a

substance that can accumulate in the environment, like most other pollutants, but it can be diluted

with distance from a source. All sounds come from a sound source, whether it be a radio, a machine,

a human voice, an airplane, or a musical instrument. Not all sound is noise. What may be considered

music to one person may be nothing but noise to another. To a extent, noise pollution is a matter of

opinion. Noise is measured in terms of Decibel units.

Sources of noise :

Based on the type of noise include :

a) Industrial Noise

b) Transport Noise

C) Neighbourhood Noise

Effects of Noise Pollution :

Auditory effects :

• Auditory fatigue -- Whistling & buzzing in ears( noise level - 90dB)

• Deafness -- Permanent hearing loss ( noise level- 100dB)

Tinnitus :

• Persistent sound in one or both ears.

• Tinnitus is often experienced as a high-pitched hiss, ring, buzz, or roar.

• It is usually continuous, but it may pulsate, and the beats may coincide with the heartbeat.

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Non auditory effects :

• Interference with speech communication - 50dB

• Annoyance, ill temper, bickering

• loss in working efficiency - tiredness, deterioration or complete loss of ability to work

Control of Noise Pollution

Noise definitely affects the quality of life. It is therefore important to ensure the mitigation

or control of noise pollution.

Noise pollution can be controlled

• At source level – Can be done by

i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices in air craft engines, automobiles

industrial machines and home appliances,

ii) ii) By segregating the noisy machines

• During Transmission – can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-proofing to doors, around

industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to maintain a separation between residential areas and

zones of excessive noise. Sound

a) Acoustillite : made up of Compressed wood pulp, wood fibers and is available in the form

of tiles b) Acoustical blanket : Prepared from mineral wool or glass fibres

c) Hair Felt: Consists of wool fibres, Coarse Cotton Fibres.

d) Fibre Glass

e) Cork Carpet: Prepared out of pieces of corks treated with linseed oil and is used for

covering floors.

f) Acoustic Plaster: Mainly consists of gypsum in the form of plaster.

• Protecting the exposed person

• By creating vegetation cover – Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and thus act as

Buffer Zone. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and other places.

• Through law

a) Silence Zones must be created near Schools, hospitals

b) Indiscriminate use of loudspeakers at public places should be banned/restricted by laws

c) Restriction on unnecessary us e of horns and vehicles plying without silencers

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Marine Pollution: “The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy

to the marine environment resulting in deleterious effects such as : hazards to human health,

hindrance to marine activities, impairment of the quality for various uses and reduction to

amenities.” Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from

land sources and is washed or blown into ocean. This pollution results in damage to the

environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

Effects of Ocean Pollution:

Ocean pollution has many consequences that directly and indirectly affect marine life, as well as humans.

Harmful to marine animals:

Sea animals are common victims of ocean pollution. Oil spills, for instance, will ensnare and suffocate marine animals by permeating their gills. When the oil gets into seabird feathers, they may not be able to fly or feed their young. Animals that aren’t killed by crude oil may suffer from cancer, behavioral changes and become unable to reproduce. Marine animals also mistake small plastic debris for food or become entangled in or strangled by plastic bags and discarded fishing nets. Animals most vulnerable to harm from plastic debris in the ocean include dolphins, fish, sharks, turtles, seabirds and crabs.

Solutions to pollution:

1. Correction (costly & time intensive).

2. Prevention (requires attitude changes).

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Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) is a holistic approach aiming

to prevent or minimize the risk of harm to the environment taken as a whole.

The approach recognizes the integrated nature of environment, combining the

effects of substances or activities on all the environment media (air, water and

soil), these media support and the cultural and aesthetic assets. Following a set

of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guiding

principle, the European Union has implemented this approach in the

regulatory context since 1996, through the IPPC Directive, which has been

recently updated and further integrated into the Industrial Emissions Directive

(IED). The IPPC approach is implemented in the regulatory arena through

permit systems based on Best Available Techniques (BAT) concept. BAT are

used for setting emission limit values and other permit conditions designed to

prevent and , where that is not practicable, to reduce emissions and impact on

the environment as a whole.

COLLEGE ROLL NO- CEMA20F129

CU ROLL NO- 203223-11-0038 CU REGISTRATION NO-

223-1211-0317-20

SEMESTER- 2

Envs project

25

1

ENVIRONMENTAL

POLLUTION

2

1. TITLE 1

2.TABLE OF CONTENTS 2

3.INTRODUCTION 3 - 5

4.TYPES OF POLLUTION

a) Air Pollution 6 - 7

b) Water Pollution 8 – 9

c) Soil Pollution 10 -11

5. MAIN CAUSES OF 11-13

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

6.CONCLUSION 14-15

3

What is Environmental Pollution? • Environment Pollution is the addition of

contaminants into the natural environment that

causes detrimental effects to nature, natural

resources and mankind.

• Any unnatural and negative changes in all the

dimensions like chemical, physical and biological

characteristics of any component of the

ecosystem i.e. air, water or soil which can cause

harmful effects on various forms of life and

property is called environmental pollution.

What is a Pollutant?

• Any substance which causes harmful effects or

uneasiness in the organisms, then that particular

substance may be called as the pollutant.

The materials that cause pollution are two

types-

1. Persistent pollutants: Those pollutants which

remain consistent in the environment for a long

period of time without any change in its original

4

form are called persistent pollutants. For example

-pesticides, nuclear wastes, and plastics etc.

2. non-persistent pollutants: These pollutants

are the opposite of persistent pollutant and break

down in the simple form. If this process of

breaking down is done by living organisms, then

such pollutants are referred to as biodegradable

pollutants.

▪ From another perspective, pollutants can be

classified as follows:

1. Primary Pollutants: Primary pollutants are

those which remain in the form in which they

were added to the environment for ex. DDT,

Plastic.

2. Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutants are

formed due to interaction of primary pollutants

amongst themselves viz. PAN by the interaction of

NOx & Hydrocarbons.

▪ According to their existence in nature:

1. Quantitative Pollutants: These substances

are already present in the atmosphere but

5

they become pollutant when their

concentration level reaches to a particular

level which is above a threshold limit.

2. Qualitative Pollutants: These are man-made

pollutants. e.g.- Fungicides, herbicides etc.

▪ According to origin:

1. Man-made Pollutants 2. Natural Pollutants.

▪ According to the nature of disposal:

1. Biodegradable Pollutants

2. Non-biodegradable Pollutant

6

• Air pollution is the presence of one or more

disadvantageous content in such quantity

and for such duration, as it is catastrophic, or

tend to be catastrophic, to human health and

welfare, animal or plant life.

• It is the contaminants of air by the discharge

of detrimental substances.

Some of the air pollutants, their sources, and

effects:

NAME OF THE POLLUTANTS

SOURCES HEALTH EFFECTS

NITROGEN OXIDDES

Industries, vehicles, and

power plants

Problems in the lungs, respiratory

systems and causes asthma

and bronchitis

7

CARBON MONOOXIDE

Emission and burning of fossil

fuels

severe headache, irritation to

mucous membrane,

unconsciousness, and death.

CARBON DIOXIDE

burning of fossil fuels

Vision problem, severe headache,

and heart strain.

SMOG Industries and vehicular

pollution

Respiratory and eye problems

• Other pollutants are cadmium, lead, mercury, silica, coal

dust and particles and radioactive pollutants.

Control measures

• Policy measures

• Modification of industrial process and selection of

suitable fuels and its utilization

. • Collection of pollutants and convert it into less

toxic forms by different methods.

Government initiatives

• National air quality monitoring programme

(NAMP)

• National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS)

8

Water Pollution • Addition of certain substances such as organic, inorganic,

biological and radiological to the water, which degrades the water

quality and makes it unhealthy for use.

• Water pollution is not only confined to surface water but also

spread to groundwater, sea, and ocean

Point sources: These are directly pointed towards the water

bodies from the source of origin of pollution and are thus easy to

regulate

Non-point sources: These sources are related to many diffuse

sources and are thus difficult to regulate.

Some of the sources are:

• Industrial and community wastewater: Industries like mining,

iron and steel, pharmaceuticals, food processing, soap and detergent

and paper and pulp.

• Agricultural sources, thermal pollution (discharge of hot

water by thermal power plants cause deficiency of dissolved oxygen

in water) and underground water pollution.

• Marine pollution: river discharge, manmade pollution, and oil spills

etc.

• An excessive amount of mercury in water can cause Minamatadisease in humans and dropsy in fishes; Lead in large amount can cause dyslexia, Cadmium poisoning causes Itai – Itai disease etc.

• Polluted water has less amount of Dissolved oxygen (DO) contentwhich is important for sensitive organisms, thereby eliminates sensitive organisms.

9

• Excess of nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for infants andhuman health, excess fluoride causes neuromuscular disorder and teeth deformity, hardening of bones and painful joints

. • Biological magnification and eutrophication

River pollution

• Usage of water should be minimized by changing the techniques

involved.

• Recycling and treatment of water should be used to the maximum

extent possible.

• The quantity of discharge of wastewater can be minimized

. • Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers should be avoided.

• Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues as fertilizers.

10

• Addition of unwanted substances to the soil which negatively affects

physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and reduces its productivity

is called soil pollution.

• The factors which disturb the biological balance of the soil and deteriorate

the quality, texture and mineral content are called soil pollutants.

• Use of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, dumping of solid waste,

deforestation, and pollution due to urbanization and other anthropogenic

substances causes soil pollution

• Industrial waste: lead, cadmium, mercury, alkalises, organic

substances and chemicals

. • Agricultural waste: fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and

manures.

• Discarded materials and radioactive elements and plastic bags.

• Agriculture: It reduces soil fertility and thus crop yields; increase soil erosion

and salinity.

• Ecological imbalance and imbalance in flora and fauna further increase.

• Problems in urban areas like clogging in drains, release of gases, foul smells

and problems in wastewater management.

• Release of radioactive rays, biomagnification, and pollutant gases cause

health

11

• Afforestation, reforestation and use of organic farming.

• Solid waste management and reduction of waste from the

construction area

. • Stop the use of plastic bags and use bags of degradable

materials like paper and cloth.

• Biomedical waste should be collected and incinerated in

incinerators.

The problem of environmental pollution, we face today, is a complex

consequence of forces connected with various interrelating factors. There are

clearly a few divergent and conflicting views of what the basic factors could be

underlying the environmental crisis. No single cause can be considered as the

root cause of environmental impairment. However, the following causes could

be pointed out as the generally underlying factors though each of these too

could be operating simultaneously and their balance may vary from place to

place and through time.

Modern thinkers consider that growth of population is the root

cause for many human problems. This observation also applies to

environmental degradation. Increase in the population will have a

multiplier effect requiring proportionate increase in all requirements

necessary for the existence of human beings. Population growth

requires abnormal exploitation of natural resources to provide day-

to-day essential requirements of life. It results in migration of people

and growth of urban areas, thereby inviting new problems of health,

ecology, and human sustenance.

12

Deforestation gives birth to several problems encompassing

environmental degradation through accelerated rate of soil erosion,

increase in the sediment load of the rivers, siltation or reservoirs and

river beds, increase in the frequency and dimension of Hoods and

droughts, changes in the pattern of distribution of precipitation,

intensification of greenhouse effects increase in the destructive force

of the atmospheric storms etc. economic loss through damages of

agricultural crops due to increased incidence of floods and draughts,

decrease in agricultural production of loss of fertile top soils,

decrease in the supply of raw materials to the industries and building

matters etc. Thus, deforestation cause a chain effects which

adversely affect the natural environment

Increasing industrial expansion is responsible for the release of

enormous quantities of pollutants (e.g.) ions of chlorine, sulphate,

bicarbonate, nitrate, sodium, magnesium, phosphate, through

sewage effluents into the rivers and the lakes and thus for

contaminating the water. Release of several gases, smokes, ashes,

and other aerosols from the chimneys of the factories adversely

affects the environment in a number of ways. The burning of

hydrocarbon fuels (coal and petroleum) has increased the

concentration of C02 in the atmosphere and thus has changed the

natural gaseous composition of the atmosphere. The increase in the

construction of C02 content of the atmosphere may change global

radiation and heat balance by increasing the level of sensible heat in

the atmosphere because C02 intensifies the greenhouse effects of

the atmosphere as C02 allows the solar radiation to pass through the

atmosphere and reach the earth's surface but stops the outgoing

long wave terrestrial radiation from escaping to the space release of

chloroform carbon in the atmosphere causes depletion of ozone

layer. Depletion in ozone layer means less absorption of ultraviolet

solar rays and thus substantial increase in the temperature at the

13

earth surface. Thus, changed in the global radiation and heat balance

caused due to increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere and depletion of ozone layer may cause changes in

weather and climatic conditions at global and regional levels may

cause severe damages to plant and animal lives and thus may cause

ecological imbalance. It may cause dangerous diseases like skin

cancer etc. Release of toxic gases through advertent and inadvertent

actions of man causes environmental hazards which destroy all types

of life forms in the affected areas. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy

(December 3-4, 1984, India) is an example of disastrous effects of

modern industrialization. Acid rains, urban smog, nuclear holocaust,

etc., are the other forms of environment hazards emanating from

industrialization.

14

Our natural environment makes human life possible, and

our cultural environment helps define who we are. It is

therefore essential that our population and economic growth

are environmentally sustainable. The most positive outlook

for our environment is one in which we get the balance right

between:

• continuing to support and implement effective policies,

programs, and resources (e.g., community engagement

and volunteering programs, IMOS, Australia’s

Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010–2030, the

Great Barrier Reef Science Strategy, the Reef 2050

Sustainability Plan, NESP, the Terrestrial Ecosystem

Research Network, the Australian Heritage Strategy, the

National Reserve System, the National Representative

System of Marine Protected Areas, Indigenous

Protected Area programs)

• further developing, testing and, as appropriate,

implementing innovative approaches and initiatives that

are currently being developed (e.g., policies,

technologies and management that are decoupling the

economy from environmental harm, environmental–

economic accounting and valuation, initiatives to reduce

plastic pollution in coastal and marine environments,

initiatives to reduce air pollutants in urban areas)

15

• developing and implementing new policies, processes,

programs, and tools in the medium to longer term,

including the further integration of policies and

management approaches across jurisdictions and

sectors (e.g., green, or blue economy approaches,

development of a sophisticated impact investment

market, regulatory reform to provide for rapid response

to new incursions of potentially harmful invasive species

and disease).

-Internet, Books &Newspaper articles

25

C O L L E G E R O L L N O . C E M A 2 0 F 1 3 6

J U L Y 2 0 2 1

B I O D I V E R S I T Y A N D C O N S E R V A T I O N

C U R E G I S T R A T I O N N O . 2 2 3 - 1 2 1 1 - 0 3 5 0 - 2 0C U R O L L N O . 2 0 3 2 2 3 - 1 1 - 0 0 4 9

PG NO. 1

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THE BIGCATS

BIODIVERSITY ANDCONSERVATION

PROTECT OURWILDLIFE BEFORETHEY ARE EXTINCT ! ! !

PG NO. 2

TABLE OFCONTENTS

04 BIODIVERSITY

GLOBAL

BIODIVERSITY

PATTERNSOF

BIODIVERSITY

SPECIES AREA

RELATIONSHIP

LOSSOF

BIODIVERSITY

IMPORTANT

EXAMPLESOF

THREATENED

SPECIES IN INDIA

CAUSESOF

BIODIVERSITY

LOSS

BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION

HOW DOWE

CONSERVE

BIODIVERSITY

05

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

The more the variety, the better the society !!

PG NO. 3

15 CONCLUSION

BIODIVERSITYIn our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity)exists not only at the species level but at all levels ofbiological organisation ranging from macromoleculeswithin cells to biomes. Biodiversity is the termpopularised by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson todescribe the combined diversity at all the levels ofbiological organisation.

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

The most important of them are– (i) Genetic diversity: A single species might showhigh diversity at the genetic level over itsdistributional range. The genetic variation shown bythe medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing indifferent Himalayan ranges might be in terms of thepotency and concentration of the active chemical(reserpine) that the plant produces. India has morethan 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and1,000 varieties of mango.

(ii) Species diversity: The diversity at the species level.For example, the Western Ghats have a greateramphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.

(iii) Ecological diversity: At the ecosystem level, India,for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves,coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has agreater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian countrylike Norway.

PG NO. 4

GLOBAL SPECIES DIVERSITY

Since there are published records of all the species discovered and named, weknow how many species in all have been recorded so far, but it is not easy toanswer the question of how many species there are on earth. According tothe IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described sofar is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no clear idea of how manyspecies are yet to be discovered and described. Estimates vary widely andmany of them are only educated guesses. For many taxonomic groups, speciesinventories are more complete in temperate than in tropical countries.Considering that an overwhelmingly large proportion of the species waitingto be discovered are in the tropics, biologists make a statistical comparison ofthe temperate-tropical species richness of an exhaustively studied group ofinsects and extrapolate this ratio to other groups of animals and plants tocome up with a gross estimate of the total number of species on earth. Someextreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative andscientifically sound estimate made by Robert May places the global speciesdiversity at about 7 million.

More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, whileplants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and

angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total.Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic

group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total. That means,out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects. Again, how dowe explain this enormous diversification of insects? The number offungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the

species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. In Figurebelow, biodiversity is depicted showing species number of major

taxa.

PG NO. 5

These estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes. Biologists are not

sure about how many prokaryotic species there might be.

Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share of the

global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent. That is what makes our

country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. Nearly 45,000

species of plants and twice as many of animals have been recorded from

India. How many living species are actually there waiting to be discovered

and named? If we accept May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent of the total

species have been recorded so far. Applying this proportion to India’s

diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably more than 1,00,000

plant species and more than 3,00, 000 animal species yet to be discovered

and described. Would we ever be able to complete the inventory of the

biological wealth of our country? Consider the immense trained manpower

(taxonomists) and the time required to complete the job. The situation

appears more hopeless when we realise that a large fraction of these species

faces the threat of becoming extinct even before we discover them. PG NO. 6

PROPORTIONATE NUMBER OF SPECIES OF MAJOR TAXA OF INVERTEBRATES, VERTEBRATES AND PLANTS

(i) Latitudinal gradients : The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the world but

shows a rather uneven distribution. For many group of animals or plants,

there are interesting patterns in diversity, the most well- known being the

latitudinal gradient in diversity. In general, species diversity decreases as we

move away from the equator towards the poles. With very few exceptions,

tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour more species than

temperate or polar areas. Colombia located near the equator has nearly 1,400

species of birds while New York at 41° N has 105 species and Greenland at 71°

N only 56 species. India, with much of its land area in the tropical latitudes,

has more than 1,200 species of birds. A forest in a tropical region like

Equador has up to 10 times as many species of vascular plants as a forest of

equal area in a temperate region like the Midwest of the USA. The largely

tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity

on earth- it is home to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of fishes,

1,300 of birds, 427 of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of

more than 1,25,000 invertebrates. Scientists estimate that in these rain forests

there might be at least two million insect species waiting to be discovered and

named. What is so special about tropics that might account for their greater

biological diversity? Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have proposed

various hypotheses; some important ones are (a) Speciation is generally a

function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations

in the past, tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for

millions of years and thus, had a long evolutionary time for species

diversification, (b) Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less

seasonal, relatively more constant and predictable. Such constant

environments promote niche specialisation and lead to a greater species

diversity and (c) There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which

contributes to higher productivity; this in turn might contribute indirectly to

greater diversity.

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY

PG NO. 7

(ii) Species-Area relationships: During his pioneering and extensive explorations in the wilderness ofSouth American jungles, the great German naturalist and geographerAlexander von Humboldt observed that within a region speciesrichness increased with increasing explored area, but only up to alimit. In fact, the relation between species richness and area for a widevariety of taxa (angiosperm plants, birds, bats, freshwater fishes) turnsout to be a rectangular hyperbola. On a logarithmic scale, therelationship is a straight line described by the equation log S = log C +Z log A where S= Species richness A= Area Z = slope of the line(regression coefficient) C = Y-intercept Ecologists have discovered thatthe value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2, regardless of thetaxonomic group or the region (whether it is the plants in Britain,birds in California or molluscs in New York state, the slopes of theregression line are amazingly similar). But, if you analyse the species-area relationships among very large areas like the entire continents,you will find that the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z values inthe range of 0.6 to 1.2). For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating)birds and mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, theslope is found to be 1.15.

SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIP

SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIP

PG NO. 8

The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly andthe accusing finger is clearly pointing to human activities. Thecolonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by humans is said to have ledto the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds. TheIUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species(including 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in thelast 500 years. Some examples of recent extinctions include the dodo(Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow(Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.The lasttwenty years alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species.Careful analysis of records shows that extinctions across taxa are notrandom; some groups like amphibians appear to be more vulnerableto extinction. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the factthat more than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the threat ofextinction. Presently, 12 per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of allmammal species, 32 per cent of all amphibian species and 31per centof all gymnosperm species in the world face the threat of extinction. During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin anddiversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinctionof species. In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in plant production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought (c) increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plantproductivity, water use, and pest and disease cycles.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

PG NO. 9

1) CRITICALLY ENDAGERED

Barberis nilghiriensis

Bentinckia nicobarica

Cupressus cashmeriana

2) Endangered

Antelope Cervicapra

Sus salvanius

Ailurus fulgens

3) Vulnerable

IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OFTHREATENED SPECIES IN INDIA

PG NO. 10

(ii) Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature forfood and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to over -exploitation of naturalresources. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passengerpigeon) were due to overexploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish populationsaround the world are over harvested, endangering the continued existence of somecommercially important species.

(iii) Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose,some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. TheNile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction ofan ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. Environmental damage caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive weedspecies like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia). Therecent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculturepurposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

(iv) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in anobligatory way also become extinct. When a host fish species becomes extinct, its uniqueassemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. Another example is the case of acoevolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction of one invariably leads to theextinction of the other.

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSES

The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now are largely dueto human activities. There are four major causes (‘ The Evil Quartet’ is the sobriquet usedto describe them).

(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The mostdramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once covering morethan 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now cover no more than 6per cent. They are being destroyed fast. The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it iscalled the ‘lungs of the planet’) harbouring probably millions of species is being cut andcleared for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens thesurvival of many species. When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due tovarious human activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certainanimals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines.

PG NO. 11

BIODIVERSITYCONSERVATION

W H Y S H O U L D W E C O N S E R V E

B I O D I V E R S I T Y ?

N A R R O W L Y U T I L I T A R I A N The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity areobvious; humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature-food(cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre, construction material,industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes ) andproducts of medicinal importance. More than 25 per cent of the drugscurrently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by nativepeoples around the world. Nobody knows how many more medicinallyuseful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be explored.With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular,genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic importance),nations endowed with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormousbenefits.

B R O A D L Y U T I L I T A R I A N

The fastdwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, throughphotosynthesis, 20 per cent of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere.

The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays amajor role in many ecosystem services that nature provides.

Pollination (without which plants cannot give us fruits or seeds) is another service, ecosystems provide through pollinators layer – bees, bumblebees, birds andbats. There are other intangible benefits – that we derive from nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking through thick woods, watching spring flowers in full bloomor waking up to a bulbul’s song in the morning.

E T H I C A L A R G U M E N TThe ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what weowe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we sharethis planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that everyspecies has an intrinsic value, even if it may not be of current or anyeconomic value to us. We have a moral duty to care for their well-beingand pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations.

PG NO. 12

HOW DO WE CONSERVEBIODIVERSITY?

Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably,the number of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservationresources available. On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminentconservationists. They identified for maximum protection certain‘BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS’ regions with very high levels of species richness and highdegree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region and not found anywhere else).Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have beenadded to the list,bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34.Thesehotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three ofthese hotspots – Western Ghatsand Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma andHimalaya – cover our country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions.Although all thebiodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 percent of the earth’s land area, thenumber of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of thesehotspots could reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.

In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected asbiosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. India now has 14 biosphere reserves,90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries. India has also a history of religiousand cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature. In many cultures, tracts offorest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and given totalprotection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya,Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions ofKarnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of MadhyaPradesh. In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rareand threatened plants.

IN SITU CONSERVATION

PG NO. 13

EX SITU CONSERVATION

In this approach, threatened animals and plantsare taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special settingwhere they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks,botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There aremany animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to bemaintained in zoological parks. In recent years ex situ conservation hasadvanced beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. Now gametes ofthreatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for longperiods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in vitro, andplants can be propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds of differentgenetic strains of commercially important plants can be keptfor long periodsin seed banks.

KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK (ASSAM) SUNDARBANS (WEST BENGAL)

IN SITU CONSERVATIONS

KEOLADO BHARATPUR BIRD SANCTUARY(RAJASTHAN)

EX SITU CONSERVATIONS

ZOOLOGICAL PARKS BOTANICAL GARDENS WILDLIFE SAFARI PARKSPG NO. 14

Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and itsconservation is therefore a collective responsibility of allnations. The historic Convention on Biological Diversity(‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,

called upon all nations to take appropriate measures forconservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of

its benefits. In a follow-up, the World Summit onSustainable Development held in 2002 in

Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries pledgedtheir commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant

reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global,regional and local levels.

Biodiversity conservation protects plant, animal, microbialand genetic resources for food production, agriculture, and

ecosystem functions such as fertilizing the soil, recyclingnutrients, regulating pests and disease, controlling erosion, andpollinating crops and trees. It is vital for economic growth andpoverty reduction. A majority of the world’s poor live in ruralareas and depend upon forests, water, wetlands, fields and

pastures for their livelihoods.It can help address the effects ofclimate change. So as responsible citizens it is our duty to

protect and conserve biodiversity because "More the variety, better the society"

CONCLUSION

PG NO. 15

PROJECT TITLE: STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM

SUBMITTED BY:

COLLEGE ROLL NO.: CEMA20F143

CU ROLL NO.: 203223-11-0055

CU REG. NO.: 223-1211-0378-20

COURSE- B.Sc. (HONS.) CHEMISTRY (2020-2021)

SEM-II

27

1

Contents

Page

Introduction 2

Function of Forest Ecosystem 2

Protective, productive and social function

Factors of Forest Ecosystem 3

Abiotic and biotic factors

Human activities that affect on Forest Ecosystem 7

Deforestation, bush burning, Farming, Urbanization and Industrialization, Poaching

Conclusion 9

Acknowledgement 10

STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM 2

Introduction

A forest ecosystem is terrestrial unit of living organisms (plants, animals

and microorganisms) interacting among themselves and with the environment

(soil, climate, water and light) in which they live. The forest is one of the main

resources in our world. Nearly it occupies 40% of world’s land area. In India 19%

of the land is occupied by the forest.

Function of Forest Ecosystem

The forest performs a great number of functions both as natural formation and as

a product of skilful human activity. The forest has three major functions:

1. Protective function: The forest has a stabilizing effect on the natural

environment (water circulation, precipitation, air circulation, temperature,

global and micro-climate, soil erosion prevention etc) It creates the

conditions sustaining biodiversity and enhances of agricultural production.

2. Productive function: Timber is obviously a basic raw material coming from

the forest should be sourced carefully not to threaten its existence.

Currently, timber has more than 30000 applications worldwide. Other

products that people harvest in the forest are: forest fruit, mushrooms,

many species of herbs used in medicine and the meat of game animals.

3. Social function: The forest creates the environment favorable to the health

and recreation of society, enhances the labor market, strengthens national

defenses, and improves environmental awareness and culture of society. It

is extremely difficult to measure the economic value of the non-productive

functions of the forest, which is reflected by major discrepancies between

different estimates. However it is generally agreed that their aggregate

value considerable exceeds the value of the productive function

Flow Chart I: Function of Forest Ecosystem 3

Factors of Forest Ecosystem

Table1: Factors of Forest Ecosystem

Abiotic

Factors

Sun Light

Biotic Factors

Producers Auto tropes make own food e.g. Green Trees, Grasses etc

Water

Consumers

Primary e.g. insects, rabbit, deer etc

Secondary; e.g. foxes, fishes, spiders, snakes etc

Air

Temperature Tertiary e.g. Owls, bears, hawks and large snakes etc

Nutrient Decomposers Fungi, Bacteria etc

4

Abiotic Factors Sunlight This is the most important abiotic component need for all living organisms, because it is the source of all energy. It also provides heat for plants and animals.

Water Water is the medium in which living cells and tissues work. Water is also a living environment for many plants and animals.

Air Air contains several gases, but the two most important gases are Oxygen and carbon dioxide. Without oxygen animals and plants will die and without carbon dioxide plants cannot survive.

Temperature Habitats could not survive in too hot or too cold temperature. Every living organism need ideal temperature to survive. Nutrients

Living things need energy for function. Energy is needed to grow, reproduce, and move and to work. Food materials are produced from different nutrients oxidized during metabolic process in the living systems and produced energy which is used

for the above purposes. Major nutrients with their sources are given bellow in the Table 2.

5

Table 2: Major nutrients with sources

Biotic Factors

Producers

Producers are called energy transducers. They convert solar energy into chemical energy; with the help of organic and inorganic substances i.e they are capable of synthesizing food from non-living inorganic compounds. They are largely represented by green plants on forest (tree, grasses etc) trough photosynthesis.

Elements Uptake by the tree Major sources for tree uptake

Carbon Atmosphere Atmosphere

Oxygen Atmosphere Atmosphere

Hydrogen Atmosphere Atmosphere

Nitrogen Soluble NO3- and NH4

+

salts for nitrogen fixing species

Soil organic matter, Atmospheric N2 for nitrogen fixing species

Phosphorous Soluble phosphate salts Soil organic matter, absorbed phosphates and mineral phosphorous

Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium

Soluble K+/ Soluble Ca2+/ Soluble Mg2+ salts

Soil organic matter, exchange complex and minerals

6

Figure 1: Image of different biotic factors

Consumers

Consumers are unable to make their own food like plants do, so they must eat other organisms. There are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers in the deciduous forest. The primary consumers are the large herbivores like deer as well as insects, rabbits and rodents. These creatures eat mostly plants, seeds, berries and grasses. Secondary consumers are the carnivorous animals that eat only herbivores. These consumers include smaller predators like foxes, but ants, fish, spiders, snakes and rates are secondary consumers too. Higher up in the forest food web are tertiary consumers, the carnivores and omnivores that eat the animals on the secondary consumer level. An example of these animals would be owls. Above the tertiary consumers are apex predators. These animals eat

7

carnivores and omnivores but have no natural predators. Examples in the deciduous forest food web are bears, hawks and large snakes like anaconda.

Decomposers

Decomposers like earthworms, bacteria, fungi and insects take care of the dead plants and animals in the deciduous forest. They break them down into smaller and smaller parts which ultimately create new spoil. The food web continues as plants in the producer level feed on the nutrients.

Human activities that affect on Forest Ecosystem

Various human activities affect forest ecosystem. These activities are:-

(i) Deforestation: This is the process of indiscriminating the felling of trees in the forest. This occurs when trees are fell without any replacement. Tree felling is an important factor in the global loss of forest cover, which often causes degradation.

(ii) Bush Burning: This is the act of setting forest on fire during the dry season. Bush burning leads to the exposure of land to direct sunlight, rain and wind storm which causes soil erosion and degradation of soil structures.

(iii)Farming Activities: With the ever-increasing number of the world population, there is similarly a soaring demand for sufficient food. This is the major cause of forest destruction; cutting of the forest trees during land clearing by man for the cultivation of crops and grazing of livestock is a major cause of forest destruction.

(iv)Urbanization and Industrialization: The activities of humans in building urban houses and various locations of industries, affect most of the forest and forest resources. The exploitation of wildlife in most areas and an increase in wildlife population sizes also reduces the forest resources.

(v) Poaching is another severe threat for wildlife to forest ecosystem.

8

Figure2: Image of different human activities

9

Conclusion

It is very important to proper maintain of forest ecosystem for our living planet. One of the biggest challenges towards the outlook of forest in the recent times has been concerns about ‘sustainability’ of our resources. It has emerged as one of the main concerns of recent policy advocacy.

The national forest commission has recommended creating an enabling environment to facilitate assessment, monitoring and reporting on national level criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management.

Some of the steps we can take to conserve our forest ecosystem are as follows:

Regulated and planned cutting of trees. Encourage people to buy used wooden furniture.

Control over forest fire. Teach the people who live near the forest that how dangerous the forest fire for the ecosystem.

Reforestation and afforestation; restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have been cut down.

Check over forest clearance for agriculture and habitation purposes. Protection of forest; Encourage people to live in a way that doesn’t hurt the environment. Make law and order by government so that all people should abide by the beneficiary on the forest.

Establish parks to protect rainforests and wildlife. Support companies that operate in way that minimize damage to

environment.

10

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher

respected madam Mrs. SUSMITA KAR, who gave me the golden opportunity

to do this wonderful project of Environmental Studies on “Forest

Ecosystem”.

I would like to extent my gratitude to Principle Mam’m for providing

me all the facilities that was required.

I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a

lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

BHAWANA PRADHAN.

COLLEGE ROLL NO- CEMA20F149

CU ROLL NO-203223 11 0073

CU REG NO- 223 1211 0441 20

29

1 | P a g e

1. Introduction. 2

2. Study of flora diversity in

Kalimpong. 3 - 8

3. Study of fauna diversity in

Kalimpong. 9 - 14

4. Conclusion. 15

2 | P a g e

FLORA – “Flora” simply refers to the plant life present in a particular area. The population of

plant life, the natural vegetation including algae, fungi, and indigenous plants in a particular

geographical region is referred to as flora.

FAUNA – “Fauna” refers to the animal life indigenous to a region. These are the naturally

occurring animals present in a particular region.

The following report is a study of the diverse flora and fauna present at Kalimpong, a small town

in the Indian state of West Bengal. The area around Kalimpong lies in the Eastern Himalayas,

which is classified as an ecological hotspot, one of only three among the eco regions of India.

Kalimpong is a precious part of the Eastern Himalayas and boasts a rich biodiversity. It is located

at an average elevation of 1,250 meters (4,101ft). The Neora National Valley Park (88sq. km) on

the northeastern face of the district with its dense subtropical and impenetrable temperate forest

is regarded to be a national asset.

About 300 species of orchids have been reported in this part of the Himalayas. Many plants found

in this region have medicinal values and also have important ecological contribution to the

environment as a whole. Eg- Cinchona, which has been proven effective against the treatment of

malaria. Acacia is the most commonly found species at lower altitudes whereas cinnamon, ficus,

cardamon and bamboo are found at the hillside of Kalimpong. Pine tree, rhododendron and other

evergreen alpine vegetation are found at relatively higher altitude.The faunal diversity of this

region is yet another interesting asset. There is a record of about 130 mammals, 550 birds, 125

freshwater fish, 51 reptiles, 25 amphibians. 43 moths and 25 butterflies in the district of

Kalimpong. The wildlife of Kalimpong is enriched by the presence of several endangered species

like red panda, clouded leopard, pangolin etc. Flora and fauna are very essential for human

existence. The flora liberates oxygen that is consumed by the fauna for respiratory activities.

Fauna, in return liberates carbon dioxide consumed by the flora for photosynthesis. Flora and

fauna greatly benefit mankind through its medicinal and food offerings. Therefore, the following

report reflects the diverse account of flora and fauna present in Kalimpong.

3 | P a g e

Kalimpong, being an essential part of the Eastern Himalayas has a rich biodiversity. There are

in total, six natural subtropical forests beginning at different zones.

From the present study, it has been discovered that the Kalimpong district areas are rich in wild

plants. These plants have immense potential for human consumption thus, contributing

positively to the livelihood and economy of the various communities. A total of 86 wild edible

plant species belonging to 47 families and 71 genera has been identified and enumerated till

date. Diversity in the flora was recorded as 39 species of trees, 29 species of herbs, 11 species

of climbers and 7 species of shrubs respectively. Family Moraceae occupies the dominant

position with 6 species followed by Yam family or Dioscoreaceae and Rosaceae (5 species

each), Fabaceae, Lauraceae and Rutaceae(4 species each), Amaranthaceae, Anacardeaceae,

Fagaceae, Solanaceae, Urticaceae(3 species each) and the rest represent 1 to 2 species. From

the study, it was also found that 93% of total plants recorded have medicinal values and are

mostly used as ailments for treatment of stomach disorder, controlling sugar level and high

blood pressure.

At the foot of Kalimpong, along the river banks of Relli and Teesta, the rain forests can be

observed containing the species Acacia(Khair), Meliosma Pinnata (Dabdabe), Albizia(Siris),

and Dalbergia(Sissoo). The subtropical forests, mostly deciduous, extending to an altitude of

1800 m, are home to a diverse flora. The popular biodiversity and typical Himalayan flora is

exhibited by the evergreen temperate forests. Floristically, this climatic border is marked by

the presence of certain species like Leucoceptrum canum (Ghurpis), Rapidophora, Agapetes

etc. There are about seven species of Rhododendrons in the Neora Valley.The evergreen

patches of Pinus and Cryptomeria are also found here. Some of the common trees of this

temperate forest are Quercus lamellose (Oak), Betula alnoides (Birch), Acer spp. (Maple) etc.

300 species of orchids has been reported from this part of the Himalayas.The only medicinal

plant garden of the nation that cultivates the precious Cinchona has a major stretch of

cultivation in Kalimpong.

4 | P a g e

Given below are some of the most essential plants found in this region along with their

scientific classification and their medicinal or ecological importance.

Botanical name – Cinchona officalis.

Family –Cinchonaceae.

Local name – Cinchona

Cinchona bark contains quinine, which is a medicine used to treat malaria. It also contains

quinidine which is a medicine used to treat heart palpitations. Cinchona plantation is widely

found in Munsong, which is a small village located in Kalimpong.

Rhododendron is found at an altitude of 2,100 to 3,000 m in the district of Kalimpong. Apart

from being a treat to look at during its blooming season it has many medicinal values which

ultimately aids in the ecological well being of people. Its flower petals have been proven to

cure diseases like dysentery, tonsilitis and mouth sores. Its petals are also used to make

traditional wine. Rhododendron also controls canopy species composition through

suppression of seed germination, growth, and tree recruitment to higher size plants.

Botanical name – Rhododendron arboretum.

Family – Ericaceae.

Local name – Lali Guras.

5 | P a g e

Begonia is a genus of perennial flowering plants in the family Begoniaceae. The genus

contains more than 2,000 different plant species. The Begonias are native to moist subtropical

and tropical climates. Some species are commonly grown indoors as ornamental houseplants

in cooler climates. The cool climate of Kalimpong supports and enhances the growth of

Begonias abundantly. The rhizomatous root of Begonia is cut into small pieces and

administered orally as a treatment for dysentery.

Botanical name – Begonia hatacoa.

Family – Begoniaceae.

Local name – Mangar kanje.

6 | P a g e

Kalimpong reports to have about 300 species of orchids. Some of the common orchids found

in this region are Paphiopedilium, Pleone, Orchis, Herminium, Oberonia, Liparis, Coelogyne,

Dendrobium, Cymbidium along with common ground orchids like Habenaria, Satyrium etc.

Various species of orchids are found in this region, to establish all the species in a report would

almost be impossible. There are various nurseries that exhibit its extravagant beauty and

splendor.

Family – Orchidaceae.

Local name – Orchids.

Gladiolus is a genus of the perennial cormous flowering plants in the Iris family. It is

sometimes called “sword lily” but is mostly referred to by its generic name. These flowers are

a treat to look at during its blooming season. It is spotted in most parts of this small town,

Kalimpong.

7 | P a g e

Botanical name – Gladiolus; L.

Family – Iridaceae.

Local name – Gladiolus.

A Cactus is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising of 127 genera.

Considered as one of the finest cactus nurseries in Asia, Kalimpong is a must visit for plant

lovers. It is fascinating to see almost 2000 varieties of cacti, ranging from the simplest to the

most exotic one.

Botanical name – Cactaceae.

Family –Cactaceae.

Local name –Cactus.

Cinnamon tree is a small evergreen tree belonging to the family Lauraceae. The dried bark of

this tree is edible and used as a condiment. It is very useful in controlling blood sugar level

and cholesterol level.

Botanical name – Cinnamomum verum.

8 | P a g e

Family – Lauraceae.

Local name –Sinkauli

A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus of the family Pinaceae. These are evergreen,

coniferous tall trees. These are mostly found in the higher altitudes of Kalimpong. These trees

form a dense or thick forest in various parts of Kalimpong eg: Lava forest in Kalimpong.

Botanical name – Pinus.

Family –Pinaceae.

Local name –Dhuppi.

Bougainvillea is a genus of the thorny ornamental vines, bushes and trees belonging to the

four o’clock family. The inflorescence consists of large colourful sepak like bracts which

surround three simple waxy flowers. This flower is widely spotted in the region of Kalimpong.

It looks very beautiful during its blooming season. The climate of Kalimpong is apt for this

flower.

Botanical name – Bougainvillea; comm.

Family – Nyctaginaceae.

Local name – Bougainvillea.

9 | P a g e

The wildlife or fauna of Kalimpong is enriched by the presence of endangered species like

Red Panda, Munal pheasant, Himalayan black bear, Clouded leopard tiger, Himalayan tahr,

Gaur and Pangolin at widely different altitudes. Avifauna of this region includes the

Himalayan Griffon vulture, Hornbills, Black Baza, Sparrowhawks and the Kalij pheasant.

The faunal diversity of Kalimpong is one of its essential asset. There is a record of about

130 mammals, 550 birds, 125 freshwater fish, 51 reptiles, 25 amphibians, 43 moths and 24

butterflies in the district of Kalimpong. This reflects upon how diverse the fauna of this

region is.

Given below are some of the essential wildlife of Kalimpong which includes mammals,

amphibians, birds and various other organisms.

Scientific name – Ailurus fulgens.

Kalimpong is home to one of the most endangered species, Red Panda. They usually sleep

on bamboo grooves during the day and set out to look for food only after sunset. Neora

Valley National Park has conserved this organism very well. “Padmaja Naidu Himalayan

Zoological Park” in Darjeeling has also conserved Red Pandas and we can easily spot them

here. The forests are so dense that its difficult for sunlight to reach the park making it

impossible to spot this species.

10 | P a g e

Scientific name – Moschus.

Musk deer can refer to any one, or all seven, of the species that make up Moschus. Despite

being called deer, they are not true deer belonging to the family Cervidae. The musk deer

family differs from cervids, or true deer, by lacking antlers and facial glands and by

possessing only a single pair of teats, a gallbladder, a caudal gland and a pair of tusk like

teeth. Musk deer is also one of the components of the fauna of Kalimpong.

Scientific name – Ursus thibetanus.

The Himalayan Black Bear is a subspecies of the Asian black bear found in the Himalayas

of India. They are omnivorous creatures and their diet consists of acorns, nuts, fruits,

honey, roots and various insects such as termites and beetle larvae. If food is scarce, they

may turn to eating livestock such as sheep, goats and cattle. Himalayan black bear is also

one of the endangered species in India. It is found in the dense forest area of Kalimpong

and also is properly conserved in the Neora Valley National Park, Kalimpong.

11 | P a g e

Scientific name – Bucerotidae.

Hornbills are a family of bird found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia, and Melanesia.

They are characterized by a long, down curved bill which is frequently brightly coloured

and sometimes has a casque on the upper mandible. Hornbills are one of the major

components of the avifauna of Kalimpong. They are mostly spotted during the spring

season in the town of Kalimpong.

Scientific name – Pholidota.

Pangolins, sometimes known as scaly anteaters, are mammals of the order Pholidota. They

are sometimes mistaken as reptiles, but they are actually scaly skinned mammals.

Pangolins eat ants, termites and larvae thus, they are referred to as “scaly anteater”.

Pangolins also contribute towards the diverse fauna of Kalimpong.

Scientific name –Neofelis nebulosa.

12 | P a g e

The Clouded leopard is mainly a nocturnal animal. In 1982, a clouded leopard was recorded

from Mowchowki (East Nar). But now, it is very rare and restricted to a few areas. It was

recently seen at NVNP (NEORA VALLEY NATIONAL PARK) during the current

survey. The animal was mostly found in the lower Neora valley and often outside the park

near the degraded zone near the villages.

Scientific name – Sus scrofa.

The wild boar is commonly known as the wild swine or wild pig. The species is now one

of the widest ranging mammals in the world, as well as the most widespread suiform. The

wild boar is found in plenty in the study area. It is both nocturnal and diurnal in their

activities. Soil excavations of this animal were also seen.

13 | P a g e

Scientific name – Muntiacus.

Muntjacs, also known as barking deer or rib faced deer are small deer of the genus

Muntiacus. They have soft, short, brownish or greyish hair, sometimes with creamy

markings. It is among the smallest deer species. It is an omnivore and eats grass, fruit,

shoots, seeds, bird eggs, and small animals, and occasionally scavenges on carrion. Its calls

sound like barking, often when frightened by a predator, hence the common name “barking

deer”. This species is usually found on the outskirts of this small town, Kalimpong.

Scientific name – Axis axis.

The Terai region was the habitat of the spotted deer in the study area. There are no current

sighting records of this species. However, small population of this species is foind in

pockets in the adjoining Baikunthapur forest, Kalimpong.

14 | P a g e

Scientific name – Panthera tigris.

The tiger was recorded from both the plains and higher altitude of Kalimpong. Being a

plateau, Kalimpong is usually cool around the year. As such, during the hot season in the

plains, female tigers usually come up to this region. Royal Bengal tiger is also one of the

rarest and endangered species. It is found in the dense forest of Kalimpong. Padmaja Naidu

Zoological Park Darjeeling also has successfully conserved many animals of this species.

Scientific name – Herpestes edwardsii.

This diurnal species is found in the foothills. It lives in the open area, scrublands, in and

around the cultivated areas. One voucher specimen from the Teesta riverbed is kept at

Bengal Natural History Museum (BNHM), Darjeeling. Two individuals were reportedly

seen at Suntalekhola, Kalimpong.

15 | P a g e

The above study or report reflects upon the diverse flora and fauna of Kalimpong.

Kalimpong has a very cool and temperate climate apt for the growth of several plant life

ranging from herbs, shrubs to tall, evergreen trees.

Majority of the plants found in this region have medicinal values and aid to the treatment

of several diseases. Many wild plants found in this region are also edible. With the

increasing population pressure, people have to depend upon wild edible plant resources as

an alternative source against the conventional ones in near future. Thus, the plant resources

play a vital role to sort out problems related to shelter, food and medicine.

The fauna or wildlife of Kalimpong is also an interesting asset. It has many endangered

species like the red panda, Himalayan black bear etc. We should try to conserve the rare

species before they become extinct. Thus, the report or study sums up the local study of

diverse flora and fauna of Kalimpong.

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ENVS PROJECT

CU ROLL NUMBER : 203223-11-0082

CU REGISTRATION NUMBER :223-1211-0467-20

COLLEGE ROLL NUMBER : CEMA20F133

27

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CU REGISTRATION NO:- 223-1211-0467-20

TOPIC

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1. INTRODUCTION 4 2.CAUSES OFAGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

5 TO 7

3.EFFECTS OFAGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

8 TO 10

4.SOLUTION TO THEAGRICULTURAL POLLUTION PROBLEM

10 TO 11

5. CONCLUSION 12 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT 13

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1) INTRODUCTION: Agricultural pollution is contamination of the environment

and related surroundings as a result of using the natural and chemical products for

farming. This contamination is actually injurious to all living organisms that depend on

the food on cultivation.Pollution by agricultural practices has come up ever since the

demand for food has increased, proportional to the increase in population. To increase

the yield of farms and fields the farmers have had to resort to additional chemical

fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides, hormonal treatments for the animals, nutrient laden

feed and many such practices which changed the way farming was done traditionally.

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2) CAUSES OF AGRICUTURAL POLLUTION: There are also many

other sources of agricultural pollution.

a) Excessive use of pesticides and herbicides :The excessive use of pesticides and herbicides in order to optimize yields has become a

big problem for the environment. Pesticides and herbicides contain many chemicals that

can impact the ecological system in an adverse manner.

The crops contaminated with these

chemicals are eaten by us which

can cause health issues for

sensible people. Moreover, the

chemicals are washed through the

soil in the groundwater and thus

contaminate it. In addition, animals

will eat part of the crops and plants

and are harmed by the chemicals

as well.

b) Use of large

amounts of fertilizer: A similar problem occurs from the use of fertilizers. An excessive fertilizer use leads to contamination of rivers and lakes with nitrates and phosphates which causes algae contamination and thus harms the water environment. Using large amounts of fertilizer can also contaminate the groundwater and thus harms the whole ecosystem, including humans, plants and animals.

c) Contaminated water :The use of contaminated water for agricultural purposes is a significant issue. While most of the water in developed countries is relatively clean, this can be quite different in developing countries. The water can be contaminated due to the disposal of industrial, agricultural or private waste into rivers, lakes or other water systems.

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CU REGISTRATION NO:- 223-1211-0467-20 This can cause the crops being contaminated with chemicals and harmful elements like lead or even mercury. In turn, these crops are used by humans as well as to feed animals and thus can harm both in a severe way.

d) Heavy metals:The use of fertiliser and organic waste like manure can also

lead to an accumulation of heavy metals in the soil. Some

farming techniques like irrigation can lead to an accumulation

of selenium.

The accumulation of heavy metals can lead to the

contamination of the groundwater and may thus harm animals,

plants and even humans on later stages.

e) Soil erosion :Soil erosion and sedimentation can be regarded

as a natural form of agricultural pollution,

however, it can also be harmful to the

environment. Farmers are often not aware of soil

erosion and sedimentation and do not protect

their fields against this issue. Through wind and

rain, part of the soil is carried in rivers and thus

impacting the natural water movement. This in

turn hurts water animals and plants.

f) Animal management :The agricultural pollution caused by wrong animal management is a problem of nowadays society. Many years ago, farmers were just holding as many animals as their land could support. Today, there are so many big farms that coop up animals in a perverse way. This form of animal treatment can lead to serious diseases. In order to fight the disease problem, farmers have to use excessive amounts of antibiotics. This in turn also harms humans since they eat this antibiotic contaminated meat.

g) Manure management:Due to our excessive meat consumption preferences, there is also quite a lot of manure that has to be dealt with in the meat production process. If the manure is not treated in a proper and environmentally-friendly fashion, it can lead to agricultural pollution and also to water pollution since it

can also reach the groundwater.

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h) Introduced species :Through the increased globalization of agriculture, new invasive species have been established which can impact the population of native species in an adverse way. These invasive species can carry pests and diseases which can harm the local ecosystem. Moreover, biodiversity may be reduced since the local species are not able to deal with some of the pests.

i) Genetically modified organisms:The use of genetically modified organisms in the form of crops can result in the genetic contamination of local native plants. This could

lead to the extinction of native species.

j) Land management:Profound land management can be crucial for keeping agricultural pollution to a minimum level. Bad land management also leads to an irreversible decline in fertility. It is therefore rucial that farmers have good knowledge of how their actions can impact the environment.

k) Greenhouse gases from fecal waste:The excessive demand for meat has to be met with higher numbers of farm animals. However, this causes an increase in the production of greenhouse gases which in turn contributes to an increase in the speed of global warming.

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3) Effects of Agricultural Pollution:

a) Effects on human health :There are severe effects of agricultural pollution on human health. Through an excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides, harmful chemicals can reach our groundwater. Thus, in higher amounts and in contaminated regions, drinking tap water can lead to serious health conditions. Infants drinking water with high levels of nitrates get affected by the blue baby syndrome which is often fatal. Symptoms are shortness of breath and blue tinted skin. Moreover, agricultural pollutions can also cause the contamination of rivers and lakes. Taking a bath in a contaminated lake can also cause health problems. swimming in water with dangerous levels of algal bloom causes rashes, stomach and liver problems, respiratory illnesses and neurological effects.

b) Eutrophication :Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides leads to the eutrophication of rivers and lakes, meaning that the production of algae is supported. This can lead to a change in the environmental conditions for animals and plants which may affect the aquatic system in an adverse manner. This affects the photosynthesis in plants and does not allow the restoration of oxygen levels by this process. Ultimately the water becomes unfit to support any form of life. Certain toxins are also released by the algae themselves which travel up

the food chain and affect the higher life forms adversely.

c) Decrease in crop yields:Through excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, farmers are able to produce large crop yields. However, the positive effect of these substances only lasts for a certain time since the soil is likely to suffer from excessive use of these elements. In the long run, crop yields are likely to be reduced due to the fact that the soil will no longer have optimal characteristics for crop production due to agricultural pollution.

d) Soil pollution : Some chemicals which are

part of pesticides can cause long-lasting damage to the soil. This can lead to a decrease in fertility of the soil. Thus, many areas of land that are currently used for farming purposes may not be suitable for it in the future anymore. Therefore, agricultural pollution can also lead to soil pollution.

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e) Air pollution :Agricultural pollution also leads to air pollution. Many machines used for agricultural purposes emit harmful greenhouse gases like CO2 which in turn can lead to global warming. Moreover, farm animals emit large amounts of methane which is considered one of the most harmful greenhouse gases.

f) Destruction of biodiversity :The use of pesticides in agriculture can kill many insects and other small animals which in turn can lead to a reduction in biodiversity. An ecosystem is a quite sensitive organism. Only small changes in the natural ecosystem can cause big effects. For example, if some insects vanish from the ecosystem, plants will be adversely affected since these insects had been responsible for the fertilization of crops. In turn, animals who rely on these plants as a food source are also affected since their food sources had been reduced. Thus, agricultural pollution can also lead to a loss of biodiversity.

g) Water pollution :Water pollution is another big problem which is caused by agricultural pollution. Through the excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, many harmful substances will reach our lakes, rivers and eventually also the groundwater. This will lead to adverse effects on plants, animals and also on humans since we need clean drinking water to survive and to stay healthy.

h) Effects on aquatic life :There is also an adverse effect on the aquatic system from agricultural pollution. Since the excessive use of fertilizer can contaminate rivers with an excessive supply of nitrates and phosphates, the production of algae can be enhanced. Thus, the oxygen levels are likely to decline which can cause the death of fishes and other water animals.

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i) Effects on plants :Agricultural pollution can become a problem for parts of the local plants since invasive species could impact the population of native species in an adverse way which in turn can change the dynamics of the whole ecosystem.

j) Effects on animals :There are also adverse effects on animals from agricultural pollution. Since animals consume part of the crop yield or other parts of plants, they are heavily affected by pesticides and can even die from the consumption of contaminated crops.

4) Solutions to the Agricultural PollutionProblem: a) Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides :Farmers should try to improve nutrition management so that fertilizer and pesticides are not used in excessive amounts in order to mitigate the agricultural pollution problem. This means to determine in a scientific way how much pesticides and fertilizer are necessary to get a reasonable crop yield. Many farmers could reduce the use of fertilizers and pesticides significantly and still get decent crop harvests.

b) Avoid soil erosion by planting all over the year:Cover crops can be used when the actual harvest is over in order to prevent bare ground which can lead to soil erosion and therefore to a loss of waterways.

c) Plant trees or grasses along the edges of fields:Planting grasses and trees along the edges of a field is important when the field lies on the borders of water bodies. Through this planted buffers, nutrient losses can be avoided by filtering out nutrients before reaching the groundwater.

d) Adjust the intensity of the tillage of a field:Farmers should consider the reduction in the tillage of their fields in order to reduce runoffs, soil compaction and erosion. Thus, a more sustainable path towards farming and a reduction in agricultural pollution could be accomplished.

e) Improve manure management:Animal waste is a big cause of agricultural pollution. Thus, it is crucial to set up and improve processes concerning the management of these pollutants. There are several manure treatment processes that aim to reduce the adverse impact of manure on the environmental system. These processes have to be developed further in order to improve the situation.

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f) Prevent excess nutrients from reaching the water :Farmers can build fences around water bodies in order to prevent access for animals and thus excessive amounts of nutrients enter the water. Although this is just a small measure in order to reduce agricultural pollution, it still is a small step in order to reach our goal of less pollution.

g) Raise the awareness of farmers on the topic of

agricultural pollution Farmers have to be convinced and educated of the negative effects they may (often unknowingly) cause to the environmental system. They should be taught that the excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides has a huge adverse impact on the whole ecosystem. Thus, by increasing the farmers’ knowledge, agricultural pollution can be mitigated to a certain degree.

h) Government Regulations : Keeping agricultural pollution in check is

much harder than it seems. For the farms to become clean once again, levels of water,

soil, and industrial pollution have to be kept in check. Over the last decade or so,

governments have become stricter about enforcing regulations.

i) Change our consumption behaviour :Part of this problem lies in the fact that most of us consume an excessive amount of meat. In order to meet this demand, farmers have to use large amounts of fertilizer to grow enough animal feed to be able to meet the meat demand. Changing our consumption behavior to less meat consumption can mitigate the problem of agricultural pollution to a certain degree.

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5) Conclusion :Agricultural pollution can be seen as a serious problem to the environmental system. It affects humans, animals, plants and also our water cycle in an adverse way. There are many factors that cause agricultural pollution. The main factor that contributes heavily to agricultural pollution is the excessive industrial use of fertilizer and pesticides. But also, our consumption behavior contributes to agricultural pollution. Thus, these pollution sources can be mitigated in an effective way if the awareness on this topic is increased in our society. If we all stick together, we can help to reduce agricultural pollution even through our consumption behavior in our daily life. If you want to get even more information regarding agricultural pollution, check out agricultural pollution stats and facts.

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6) Acknowledgment :

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my subject teachers who gave

me golden opportunity to do this wonderful project and also helped me to completing this

project systematically . I am enable to know very new things on this topic that are very

much helpful for future study . Various books on environmental studies provide many

information to do this project properly.

1

-PROJECT BY-

COLLEGE ROLL NO: CEMA20F155

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 203223-11-0087

UNIVERSITY REGISTRATION NO: 223-1211-0481-20

SAVE OUR MOTHER NATURE…

26

2

S T U D Y o f

ECoSYSTEMS

POND ECOSYSTEM

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

AGRO ECOSYSTEM

3

CoNTENTS

CHAPTER NAME PAGE NUMBER

1. INTRODUCTION 4 2. ECOSYSTEM-DEFINITION 5 3. ECOSYSTEM- TYPES 6 4. STUDY OF POND ECOSYSTEM 7 5. STUDY OF RIVER ECOSYSTEM 8 6. STUDY OF WETLAND

ECOSYSTEM

9

7. STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM 10 8. STUDY OF ESTUARINE

ECOSYSTEM

11

9. STUDY OF AGRO ECOSYSTEM 12 10. CONCLUSION 13

Polluted versus unpolluted

INTroDUCTIoN

The birth of a plant from

Ecosystem in a picture

INTroDUCTIoN

of a plant from a seed

picture

THE TERM ECOSYSTEM WASCOINED BY BRITISHECOLOGIST ARTHURTANSLEY IN THE YEAR 1935.IT WAS COINED TOEMPHASIZE ON THEIMPORTANCE OF TRANSFEROF MATERIALS BETWEENORGANISMS AND THEIRENVIRONMENT.DESCRIBED THE TERM AS‘THE WHOLE SYSTEM,INCLUDING NOT ONLY THEORGANISM COMPLEX,BUTALSO THE WHOLE COMPLEXOF PHYSICAL FACTORSFORMING WHAT WE CALLTHE ENVIRONMENT

ECOSYSTEM IS THESTRUCTURAL ANDFUNCTIONAL UNIT OFECOLOGY WHERE LIVINGORGANISMS INTERACTWITH EACH OTHER

FOR AN EXAMPLE, THETROPICAL RAIN FORESTWITH IT’S TREES, ANIMALSETC MAKE UP THEECOSYSTEM.

4

THE TERM ECOSYSTEM WAS COINED BY BRITISH

ARTHUR IN THE YEAR 1935.

IT WAS COINED TO EMPHASIZE ON THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT. HE DESCRIBED THE TERM AS

SYSTEM, INCLUDING NOT ONLY THE ORGANISM COMPLEX,BUT ALSO THE WHOLE COMPLEX OF PHYSICAL FACTORS FORMING WHAT WE CALL THE ENVIRONMENT’.

ECOSYSTEM IS THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF ECOLOGY WHERE LIVING ORGANISMS INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER

PLE, THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

TH IT’S TREES, ANIMALS MAKE UP THE

ECoSYSTEM

AN ECOSYSTEM IS A GEOGRAPHICAL AREA WHERE PLANTS, ANIMALSAND OTHER ORGANISMS, ASWELL AS WEATHER AND LANDSCAPE , WORK TOGETHER TO FORM A BUBBLE OF LIFE.ECOSYSTEMCONSISTS OF LIVING ORGANISMS AND INORGANIC COMPONENTSIN A RELATIVELY STABLEEQUILIBRIUM. AS PER E P ODUM, ECOSYSTEM IS THEBASIC FUNCTIONAL UNITOF ORGANISMS AND THEIRENVIRONMENT INTERACTING WITH EACHOTHER. ECOSYSTEM CONTAINS BIOTIC,OR LIVING PARTS, AND ABIOTIC FACTORS, OR NONLIVING PARTS. ECOSYSTEMSCAN BE VERY LARGE OR VERYSMALL. THE WHOLE SURFACE OF EARTH IS A SERIES OF CONNECTED ECOSYSTEMS. ECOSYSTEMSARE CONNECTED IN A LARGER BIOME.

ECoSYSTEM- DEfINITIoN

Community of living organisms

Animals around a river in the forest

WHERE PLANTS, ANIMALS AND OTHER ORGANISMS, AS

ECOSYSTEM

INORGANIC COMPONENTS IN A RELATIVELY STABLE EQUILIBRIUM. AS PER E P

ECOSYSTEM IS THE BASIC FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF ORGANISMS AND THEIR

INTERACTING WITH EACH

FACTORS, OR NON ECOSYSTEMS

CAN BE VERY LARGE OR VERY

ECOSYSTEMS

5

organisms

Animals around a river in the forest

ECoSYSTEM

Ecosystem can be of various types

Living organisms dwelling

ECoSYSTEM-TYPES

Ecosystem can be of various types

dwelling under water

ECOSYSTEM CAN BE OFDIFFERENT TYPES,BASED ON DIFFERENT,CLIMATE, HABITAT ORLIFE FORMS. ECOSYSTEM CAN BEWIDELY DIVIDED INTOTWO TYPES- NATURALECOSYSTEMS ANDARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEMSECOSYSTEM WORKUNDER NATURALCONDITIONS ANDARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEMS AREMAINTAINEDARTIFICIALLY BYHUMAN BEINGS( CROPLAND ECOSYSTEM).NATURAL ECOSYSTEMSCAN AGAIN BE DIVIDEDINTO TERRESTRIAL(FOREST,DESERT) AND AQECOSYSTEMS(POND,RIVER,SEA). GIVENBELOW ARE THESTUDIES OF SOMESPECIFIC ECOSYSTEMS.

6

ECOSYSTEM CAN BE OF DIFFERENT TYPES, BASED ON DIFFERENT, CLIMATE, HABITAT OR

ECOSYSTEM CAN BE WIDELY DIVIDED INTO

NATURAL SYSTEMS AND

ECOSYSTEMS. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM WORK UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS AND

ECOSYSTEMS ARE MAINTAINED ARTIFICIALLY BY HUMAN BEINGS( CROP LAND ECOSYSTEM). NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS CAN AGAIN BE DIVIDED

TERRESTRIAL(FOREST, DESERT) AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS(POND,

GIVEN BELOW ARE THE STUDIES OF SOME

ECOSYSTEMS.

STUDY of DIffErENT ECoSYSTEMS

POND ECOSYSTEM

A PICTURE OF A POND IN THE

POND ECOSYSTEM IS CLASSIFIEDIN FIVE TYPES- SALT PONDS,GARDEN PONDS, FRESHWATERPOND, VERNAL POND ANDUNDERGROUND POND. PONDECOSYSTEM FALLS IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM WHICH ISFURTHER DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTSLITTORAL ZONE, OPEN WATERZONE AND DEEP WATER ZONE.POND ECOSYSTEM HAS A GREATSIGNIFICANCE IN NATURE ANDPROVIDE INHABITATION TOSCARCE SPECIES.

STUDY of DIffErENT ECoSYSTEMS

POND ECOSYSTEM

THE LAP OF NATURE

DIAGRAM SHOWING

POND ECOSYSTEM REFERSTO THE FRESH WATERECOSYSTEMS ON WHICHDIFFERENT ORGANISMSDWELL AND THEY DEPENDON THE POND FOR THEIRSURVIVAL AND TOFULFILL THEIR BASICNUTRITIONAL NEEDS.PONDS CAN BE ARTIFICIAL OR NATURALBODY OF WATER.

POND ECOSYSTEM IS CLASSIFIED SALT PONDS,

GARDEN PONDS, FRESHWATER POND, VERNAL POND AND UNDERGROUND POND. POND

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM WHICH IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS- LITTORAL ZONE, OPEN WATER ZONE AND DEEP WATER ZONE. POND ECOSYSTEM HAS A GREAT SIGNIFICANCE IN NATURE AND PROVIDE INHABITATION TO

7

STUDY of DIffErENT ECoSYSTEMS :

SHOWING A POND

POND ECOSYSTEM REFERS TO THE FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEMS ON WHICH DIFFERENT ORGANISMS DWELL AND THEY DEPEND ON THE POND FOR THEIR SURVIVAL AND TO FULFILL THEIR BASIC

NEEDS.

ARTIFICIAL OR NATURAL

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

A RIVER FLOWING THROUGH

THE STRENGTH AND SPEED OFWATER FLOW VARIES FROMRAPIDS TO BACKWATERS. LIGHTPROVIDES ENERGY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHICHPRODUCES THE PRIMARY FOODSOURCE . THE TEMPERATURE OFWATER ALSO VARIES WITH THEENVIRONMENT. THE MOSTIMPORTANT CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF WATER IS THEOXYGEN FOR SURVIVAL.RIVERSARE ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANTFOR THE SOCIETY AND PROVIDES AWIDE VARIETY OF ECOLOGICALHABITAT IN THEIR COURSE.

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

FLOWING THROUGH THE MOUNTAINS

DIAGRAM SHOWING A

RIVER ECOSYSTEMREFERS TO UNIDIRECTIONALFLOWING WATERSWHICH INCLUDE INTERACTIONS AMONGPLANTS AND ANIMALSAND MICRO ORGANISMSAND MANY ABIOTICFACTORS. IT IS DEFINEDAS A LOTIC ECOSYSTEM,WHICH MEANS FLOWINGWATER.

THE STRENGTH AND SPEED OF ATER FLOW VARIES FROM

BACKWATERS. LIGHT PROVIDES ENERGY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS WHICH

RIMARY FOOD . THE TEMPERATURE OF

WATER ALSO VARIES WITH THE ENVIRONMENT. THE MOST

STITUENT OF WATER IS THE

SURVIVAL.RIVERS ARE ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT FOR THE SOCIETY AND PROVIDES A WIDE VARIETY OF ECOLOGICAL HABITAT IN THEIR COURSE.

8

SHOWING A RIVER

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOWING WATERS WHICH INCLUDE INTERACTIONS AMONG PLANTS AND ANIMALS AND MICRO ORGANISMS AND MANY ABIOTIC FACTORS. IT IS DEFINED AS A LOTIC ECOSYSTEM, WHICH MEANS FLOWING

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM

WETLANDS ARE NATURE’S

THE SOIL OF THE WETLAND ISWATERY IN NATURE AND THEPLANTS LIVING THERE ARETYPICALLY ADAPTED TO THISHYDRIC SOIL AND ARE CALLEDHYDROPHYTES. DRY WETLANDCONTAINS TREES AND OTHERSTURDY VEGETATION AND FLOODEDWETLANDS CONTAIN MOSSES ORGRASSES AS THEIR DOMINANTHYDROPHYTES.WETLANDS PLAY ACRITICAL ROLE IN MAINTAININGMANY NATURAL CYCLES AND THEYSUPPORT A WIDE RANGE OFBIODIVERSITY .

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM

NATURE’S KIDNEYS

DIAGRAM SHOWING A WETLAND

THE SOIL OF THE WETLAND IS WATERY IN NATURE AND THE PLANTS LIVING THERE ARE TYPICALLY ADAPTED TO THIS HYDRIC SOIL AND ARE CALLED HYDROPHYTES. DRY WETLAND

TREES AND OTHER STURDY VEGETATION AND FLOODED WETLANDS CONTAIN MOSSES OR GRASSES AS THEIR DOMINANT HYDROPHYTES.WETLANDS PLAY A CRITICAL ROLE IN MAINTAINING MANY NATURAL CYCLES AND THEY SUPPORT A WIDE RANGE OF

WETLAND IS AN AREA OFLAND COVERED BY WATER.THE WATER IS GENERALLY GROUNDWATER, SEEPING UP FROMAQUIFER OR SPRING. AWETLAND’S WATER CANALSO COME FROM ANEARBY RIVER OR LAKE.SEAWATER CAN ALSOCREATE WETLANDS.THEYARE NEITHER TOTALLYDRY NOR TOTALLYPRESENT UNDER WATER.

9

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM

DIAGRAM SHOWING A WETLAND

WETLAND IS AN AREA OF LAND COVERED BY WATER.

ALLY GROUND WATER, SEEPING UP FROM AQUIFER OR SPRING. A WETLAND’S WATER CAN ALSO COME FROM A NEARBY RIVER OR LAKE. SEAWATER CAN ALSO CREATE WETLANDS.THEY ARE NEITHER TOTALLY DRY NOR TOTALLY PRESENT UNDER WATER.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Picture of a deer amongst

A FOREST ECOSYSTEM IS QUITEDIVERSE IN CHARACTERISTICS.THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM OF APARTICULAR REGION DEPENDS ONTHE SEASONAL VARIATION OF THECOUNTRY IN WHICH THE FORESTFALLS. A FOREST ECOSYSTEMMAYBE DECIDUOUS OR EVERGREENOR MAYBE A MIX OF BOTH. THECANOPY LAYER IS ONE OF THEMOST DISTINGUISHINGCHARACTERISTICS OF A FORESTECOSYSTEM. THE FORESTPROVIDES THE MOST FAVOURABLECONDITIONS TO VARIOUS SPECIESOF BIRDS AND INSECTS.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

amongst the trees

DIAGRAM OF FOREST

A FOREST IS A UNIQUEECOLOGY COVERED WITHTREES MAKING VARIOUSCANOPY LAYERS ANDINCLUDING A VERY NICECOMMUNITY OF FLORAAND FAUNA. THE FORESTECOSYSTEM CAN BECLASSIFIED INTO THREEMAJOR TYPES- TROPICALFOREST, TEMPERATEFOREST AND BOREAL ANDSAVANNA ECOSYSTEM.

A FOREST ECOSYSTEM IS QUITE DIVERSE IN CHARACTERISTICS. THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM OF A PARTICULAR REGION DEPENDS ON THE SEASONAL VARIATION OF THE COUNTRY IN WHICH THE FOREST

FOREST ECOSYSTEM MAYBE DECIDUOUS OR EVERGREEN OR MAYBE A MIX OF BOTH. THE CANOPY LAYER IS ONE OF THE MOST DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOREST ECOSYSTEM. THE FOREST PROVIDES THE MOST FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS TO VARIOUS SPECIES OF BIRDS AND INSECTS.

10

FOREST FOOD WEB

A FOREST IS A UNIQUE ECOLOGY COVERED WITH TREES MAKING VARIOUS CANOPY LAYERS AND INCLUDING A VERY NICE COMMUNITY OF FLORA AND FAUNA. THE FOREST ECOSYSTEM CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO THREE

TROPICAL FOREST, TEMPERATE FOREST AND BOREAL AND

COSYSTEM.

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

AN ESTUARY-WHERE A RIVER MEETS THE SEA

ORGANISMS THAT LIVE INESTUARIES MUST BE ADAPTEDTO THE SPECIFIC CONDITIONSTHAT OCCUR HERE. THE MOSTCONSTRAINING CONDITION ISTHE VARYING SALINITY.SPECIES THAT THRIVE IN ANESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTMUST BE ABLE TO COPE WITHVARYING OSMOTIC PRESSUREAND ALSO WITH THE VARYINGSALINITY. THESE SPECIES ARECALLED EURYHALINES. THEYARE VERY IMPORTANT FORENVIRONMENTAL BALANCE.

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

WHERE A RIVER MEETS THE SEA

LIFE IN AN ESTUARY

ESTUARIES ARE FORMEDWHERE THE RIVERS DISCHARGE INTO THE SEA.THEY ARE SEMI ENCLOSEDBODIES OF WATER, CONNECTED TO THE OPENSEA, BUT WHERE THE SEAWATER IS DILUTED BY FRESHWATER FROM THE LAND. BOTHLAND AND SEA AFFECTSESTUARIES AND THEIRINFLUENCE VARIES THROUGHOUT THE DAY ANDSEASONALLY.

ORGANISMS THAT LIVE IN ESTUARIES MUST BE ADAPTED TO THE SPECIFIC CONDITIONS

THE MOST CONSTRAINING CONDITION IS THE VARYING SALINITY.

E IN AN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT MUST BE ABLE TO COPE WITH VARYING OSMOTIC PRESSURE AND ALSO WITH THE VARYING SALINITY. THESE SPECIES ARE CALLED EURYHALINES. THEY

VERY IMPORTANT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BALANCE.

11

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

ESTUARY

ESTUARIES ARE FORMED

DISCHARGE INTO THE SEA. THEY ARE SEMI ENCLOSED

CONNECTED TO THE OPEN SEA, BUT WHERE THE SEA WATER IS DILUTED BY FRESH WATER FROM THE LAND. BOTH LAND AND SEA AFFECTS ESTUARIES AND THEIR

THROUGHOUT THE DAY AND

AGRO ECOSYSTEM

A farmer practising agriculture

AGRO ECOSYSTEM SERVICESAND BIODIVERSITY FOR FOODAND AGRICULTURE, UNDERPINOUR FOOD SYSTEMS, REGULOUR CLIMATE, AND ENABLE USTO MANAGE AND MITIGATE THEIMPACT OF HEALTH ANDCLIMATE SHOCKS AND CRISES.INTEGRATED AND SUSTAINABLYMANAGED LANDSCAPES HAVE ANIMPORTANT ROLE TO PLAY INADDRESSING THE IMPACTS OFCLIMATE CHANGE AND INSUPPORTING LONGER TERHUMAN WELL-BEING.

AGRO ECOSYSTEM

agriculture

Benefits of agro ecosystem

AGRO ECOSYSTEMS ARENATURAL ECOSYSTEMSTHAT HAVE BEEN MODIFIEDFOR THE PRODUCTION OFFOOD AND FIBER.WHILETHEY RETAIN MANY OF THECHARACTERISTICS OFNATURAL ECOSYSTEMS,THEY ARE CHARACTERIZEDBY THE FREQUENT PRESENCEOF AGROCHEMICALS LIKETHE PESTICIDES ANDFERTILIZERS.

AGRO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES AND BIODIVERSITY FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE, UNDERPIN OUR FOOD SYSTEMS, REGULATE OUR CLIMATE, AND ENABLE US TO MANAGE AND MITIGATE THE IMPACT OF HEALTH AND CLIMATE SHOCKS AND CRISES. INTEGRATED AND SUSTAINABLY MANAGED LANDSCAPES HAVE AN IMPORTANT ROLE TO PLAY IN ADDRESSING THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND IN SUPPORTING LONGER TERM

12

ecosystem

AGRO ECOSYSTEMS ARE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS THAT HAVE BEEN MODIFIED FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FOOD AND FIBER.WHILE THEY RETAIN MANY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

ECOSYSTEMS, THEY ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE FREQUENT PRESENCE OF AGROCHEMICALS LIKE THE PESTICIDES AND

CoNCLUSIoN

SAVE THE NATURE SO THAT

DESTROYING THE NATURE IS A SERIOUS

CoNCLUSIoN

SO THAT IT SAVES YOU

IS A SERIOUS THREAT TO US

NATURE IS AN INTEGRALPART OF THE HUMANEXISTENCE. NATURE ISSOMETIMES ANAFTERTHOUGHT INTODAY’S ECONOMYBENEFITS THAT NATUREPROVIDES TO US IS OFHIGH MONETARYIMPORTANCE ANDENVIRONMENTALECONOMISTS AREWORKING HARD ON THISFIELD.

CONSERVING THEECOSYSTEMS GUARANTEES THE VERYEXISTENCE OF EVERYANIMAL AND PLANTSPECIES ON EARTHMAIN FUNCTION OFECOSYSTEM CONSERVATION ISPROTECTING ORRESTORING THESTRUCTURE, FUNCTIONAND SPECIES COMPILATION WITHINTHE SYSTEM.

13

NATURE IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE HUMAN

NATURE IS SOMETIMES AN AFTERTHOUGHT IN TODAY’S ECONOMY. THE BENEFITS THAT NATURE PROVIDES TO US IS OF HIGH MONETARY IMPORTANCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMISTS ARE WORKING HARD ON THIS

CONSERVING THE ECOSYSTEMS GUARANTEES THE VERY EXISTENCE OF EVERY ANIMAL AND PLANT SPECIES ON EARTH. THE MAIN FUNCTION OF

CONSERVATION IS PROTECTING OR RESTORING THE

RE, FUNCTION AND SPECIES COMPILATION WITHIN THE SYSTEM.

: ENVS PROJECT

CV 1-010 gCV 223 LV 12-OO IL- 2 D

COLLEGIE : CEMA20F128

SEMESTER : 2

T0TAL No. PAGIES WRITTEhU :

26

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POLLUTION

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STUDY OF BIRDS, INSECTS

AND PLANTS

Environmental Studies

College Roll No.: CEMA20F136CU Reg. No.: 223-1212-0351-20

CU Roll No.: 203223-11-0112Subject: AECC-2 (ENVS)

1

25

Sl No. Content Page No.

1. Introduction● Birds● Insects● Plants

3333

2. Area of studies 4

3. Observation● Birds

○ House Crow○ Common Myna○ House Sparrow

● Insects○ Mosquitoes○ Indian Meal Moth○ Earwigs

● Plants○ Margosa Tree○ Perwinkle○ Golden Shower Tree

4-134-6

456

7-9789

10-131011

12-13

4. Conclusion● Birds● Insects● Plants

13-141313

13-14

2

INTRODUCTION

A. BIRDSBirds are prepared guests that visit regularly from one spot to another, even continent tocontinent. A decent number of birds visit various locales because of the progress of climateespecially for their feed and reproduction from one spot to other. A genuine model is birdsof the migratory kind. In West Bengal, Storks and Siberian Cranes are normal. Indeed, evenin Lake Chilka of Odisha, an enormous number of Pelicans and Flamingos are strikinginstances of that sort. They come to flourish there for a brief period to bring forth andconvey a decent number of offspring during their back journey.

B. INSECTSInsects are a class in the phylum Arthropoda. They are small invertebrates that have a hardskeleton. Insects are the biggest gathering of creatures on earth by a long shot: around926,400 unique species have been depicted. They might be more than 90% of animaspecies on Earth. New types of insects are consistently being found. Appraisals of theabsolute number of species range from 2 million to 30 million. Insects have six legs, andmost have wings. Insects were the first animals capable of flight. As they hatch from eggs,insects go through metamorphosis. Insects live everywhere in the world: practically all areearthly (live on land). Some insects live in the seas or in freezing places, like Antarctica.Most species live in tropical regions.

C. PLANTSPlants are basic to other life on this planet since they are the basis of food webs. Mostplants are autotrophic, making their own food utilizing water, carbon dioxide, and lightthrough an interaction called photosynthesis. Probably the earliest fossils found have beenaged at 3.8 billion years. These fossil stores show proof of photosynthesis, so plants, or theplant-like precursors of plants, have lived on this planet longer than most differentgatherings of creatures. At one time, anything that was green and that was certifiably not acreature was viewed as a plant. Presently, what were once considered "plants" are isolatedinto a few realms: Protista, Fungi, and Plantae? Most oceanic plants happen in the realmsPlantae and Protista.

3

AREA OF STUDIES

The area is the whole of Kolkata, south 24 Parganas districts of West Bengal in India.

OBSERVATION

A. BIRDS

1. House Crow:-● Common English Name- House Crow● Bengali Name- Patikak● Scientific Name- Corvus splendens

Fig 1: House Crow

● Diet- House crows feed generally on reject around human homes, smallreptiles and mammals, and different creatures like bugs and other smallinvertebrates, eggs, little birds, grain and fruits.

● Nesting- Basically a few trees in the neighbourhood climate appear to beimportant for effective reproducing although house crows occasionally neston telephone towers.

● Roosting- House crows roost commonly close to human localities and oftenover busy roads. An examination in Singapore tracked down that thefavoured roost destinations were in bright regions with a ton of humanaction, near food sources and in tall trees with thick crowns that wereisolated from other trees.

4

2. Common Myna:-● Common English Name- Common myna or Indian myna● Bengali Name- Shalik Pakhi● Scientific Name- Acridotheres tristis

Fig 2: Common Myna

● Diet- Like most starlings, the comonl myna is omnivorous. It eatsbugs,arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain and fruitsand discarded waste from human locality. It scavenges on the ground amonggrass for insects, and particularly for grasshoppers, from which it gets theconventional name Acridotheres, "grasshopper hunter".

● Nesting- The normal myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it homes andbreeds in ensured hollows discovered either normally in trees or artificiallyon structures (for instance, recessed window ledges or low overhang).

● Roosting- Normal mynas roost mutually consistently, either in unadulteratedor blended runs in with wilderness mynas, ruddy starlings, house crows,wilderness crows, dairy cattle egrets and rose-ringed parakeets and differentbirds. The roost populace can go from short of what one hundred tothousands. The hour of appearance of mynas at the perch begins before andcloses soon after nightfall. The mynas withdraw before dawn.

5

3. House Sparrow:-● Common English Name- House sparrow● Bengali Name- Chorai Pakhi● Scientific Name- Passer domesticus

Fig 3: House Sparrow

● Diet- As a grown-up, the house sparrow generally eats from the seeds ofgrains and weeds, yet it is crafty and versatile and eats whatever foodsources are accessible. In towns and urban areas, it regularly searches forfood in trash bins and assembles outside in cafés and other eatingfoundations to benefit from extra food and scraps. It can perform complexassignments to acquire food, like opening programmed ways to entergeneral stores, sticking to inn dividers to watch travellers on their balconies,and nectar burglarizing kowhai blossoms.

● Nesting- The species for the most part settles in openings and cleft ofman-made designs and nest-box(Summers-Smith 1988). House sparrowsutilize an expansive scope of materials for home structure, includingfeathers, grass inflorescences, stalks and underlying foundations of plants,barks, strings, strings, and bits of paper and wool.

● Roosting- House sparrows lay down with the bill tucked under the scapularquills. Outside of the breeding season, they regularly roost commonly intrees or bushes. Much mutual peeping happens prior and then afterwardsthe birds get comfortable with the roost in the evening, just as before thebirds leave the roost in the first part of the day.

6

B. INSECTS

1. Mosquitoes:-There are around 170 various types of mosquitoes in North America alone. Thesepests are part of the same family as houseflies and fruit flies since they all have twoclear, veined wings. Most popular as a late spring pest, Mosquitoes can create fromegg to grown-up in 10 to 14 days.

● Size: 1/4" to 3/8"● Shape: Narrow, oval● Colour: Pale brown with whitish stripes across the abdomen.● Legs: 6● Wings: Yes● Antenna: Yes● Common Name: Mosquito● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Arthropoda● Class: Insecta● Order: Diptera● Family: Culicidae Fig 4: Mosquito● Species: Varies● Diet: We generally say, "I have been bitten by a mosquito", however, this

isn't totally evident. Mosquitoes don't bite. Female mosquitoes feed on plantnectar and blood. They need the protein for breeding. To get to the blood,they penetrate our skin with their "proboscis" and suck our blood. Malemosquitoes feed only on plant nectars. Mosquitoes are most active aroundevening time and will fly up to 14 miles for a blood meal. They chase for foodby recognizing body warmth and Carbon Dioxide, the gas we inhale out.

● Habitat: Mosquitoes breed in delicate, clammy soil or stagnant watersources, for example, storm channels, old tires, kids' swimming pools andwater basins.

● Impact: Mosquitoes spread diseases such as West Nile Virus, malaria anddengue fever.

● Prevention: Replace all stagnant water at least once a week. Remove trashfrom around any standing water. When sleeping outdoors or in areas wheremosquito populations are heavy, surround your bed with "mosquito" netting.

7

2. Indian Meal Moth:-The Indian meal moth was given its name as an insect researcher discovered itbenefiting from cornmeal, otherwise called Indian meal. They regularly live for twoto a half years.

● Size: 5/8"● Shape: Elongated, oval● Colour: Copper reddish● Legs: 6● Wings: Yes● Antenna: Yes● Common Name: Indian meal moth● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Arthropoda● Class: Insecta● Order: Lepidoptera● Family: Pyralidae Fig 5: Indian Meal Moth● Scientific Name: Plodia interpuctella● Diet: Indian meal moths feed on dried fruits, grains, seeds, nuts, chocolate,

candies, birdseed, dog food, powdered milk, dried red peppers and candy.● Habitat: Attracted to the light, these bugs are found in bright places where

food is stored like restaurants and grocery stores.● Impact: Moths infest foods and can contaminate food products by leaving

skin and waste behind.● Prevention: Store food in fixed holders. Dispose of plagued food sources in

outside garbage cans. Clean plagued pantries completely with a vacuum andcleanser and water.

8

3. Earwigs:-Earwigs get their name from the fantasy that they slither into resting individuals'ears and passage into the brain. They don't actually do that! There are 22 kinds ofEarwigs in the United States and there are more than 1,000 distinct specieseverywhere in the world.

● Size: 1"● Shape: Long, narrow● Colour: Dark brown● Legs: 6● Wings: No● Antenna: Yes● Common Name: Earwig● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Arthropoda● Class: Insecta● Order: Dermaptera● Family: Forficulidae● Scientific Name: Forficula Auricularia

Fig 6: Earwig

● Diet: Earwigs feed on leaves, flowers, fruits, mould and insects.● Habitat: Earwigs stow away during the day and live outside in huge

numbers. They can be found under heaps of grass clippings, manure or intree openings. They enter structures through breaks in the dividers.

● Impact: They do not spread disease, but they can be scary to look at.● Prevention: Remove leaf piles, compost piles or other vegetation from

around your home. Seal cracks and crevices in the walls of your house.

9

C. PLANTS

1. Margosa Tree:-● Scientific name:Azadirachta indica● Vernacular Name: Neem, Kadu-limb● Source- The leaves, bark, flowers, fruits and seeds are used as a drug

Fig 7: Margosa Tree

● Family & Distribution- Meliaceae, is a local of Burma yet developed all overIndia. In Sangola taluka neem is found in huge scope in rustic andmetropolitan spots. Some significant spots like Narale, Sangola, Spinningplant, Hatid, Walegaon, Andhalgaon, Wasteland of Sangola, it is recorded inthe nursery, School and Colleges, Akola and Mangewadi and so forth

● Chemical composition- The alkaloids are the main active principles. Theyare nimbin, nimbinin, nimbidin, nimbosterine and nimbectin etc. fatty acidspresent in the plant and seed contain 40 to 45 % fixed oil.

● Uses- The leaves are carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic, diuretic andinsecticidal properties. New leaf juice with salt given for intestinal worms,jaundice, skin illness and malarial fever. The leaves are applied for bubbles,constant ulcers, expanding and wounds. The bark is utilized for livergrievances, eliminating roundworms. Gum is an energizer, demulcent tonicand utilized in weakness.

10

2. Periwinkle:-● Scientific Name: Catharanthus roseus● Vernacular Name: Sadaphuli, sadabahar● Source: The dried leaves and roots of this plant used as a drug

Fig 8: Periwinkle

● Family & distribution: Apocynaceae, the plant is most likely native toMadagascar. It is developed in South Africa, West Indies, Srilanka, India,U.S.A., Europe and Australia as a fancy plant. It is likewise developed for itstherapeutic properties, in the nursery. In India, it is filled in Nilgiri,Kanyakumari and Kottayam and so forth.

● Chemical composition: Catharanthus mainly consists of glycosides andalkaloids. The alkaloids are present in the entire plant but they are found inmore proportion in leaves and roots. Some important alkaloids arevinblastine, vincristine, other alkaloids present in the plant are ajmalicine,serpentine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, vindoline, vindoline andcatharanthine.

● Uses: It is utilized in hypotensive, antidiabetic activity, other dimerindole-indoline utilized for restoring the anticancer action. The alkaloidsvincristine is profoundly dynamic in the treatment of youth leukaemia.Vincristine is effective in breast cancer and the leaves are utilized in diabetes.

11

3. Golden Shower Tree:-● Scientific Name:Cassia fistula● Vernacular Name: Bahwa, Amaltas.● Source: Pod and bark of this plant used as a drug.

Fig 9: Golden Shower Tree

● Family & Distribution: Caesalpiniaceae, is an ornamental tree with yellowflowers found throughout India. It grows in valleys up to 1200 m in theHimalayas.

● Chemical composition: 1-8 dihydroxyanthraquinone, Tryptamines,Fistucacidin(3,4,7,8,4,pentahydroxyflavan Oxyanthraquinone, Epincatechin,Procyanidin B2, Bioflavonoids, Rhenin, Physcion, Kaempferol, Chrysophanol,Fistula, Fistulic acid.

● Uses: The sweet blackish mash of the seedpod is utilized as a mild purgative.The wood is hard and hefty and is used for cabinet and decorating work.Roots are astringent, cooling, laxative, febrifuge and tonic. It is helpful in skininfections, consuming sensations and syphilis. Bark is purgative,anthelmintic, emetic, febrifuge, diuretic and depurative. It is valuable inbubbles, sickness, ringworms fondness, colic, dyspepsia, obstruction,diabetes, strangury and heart issues. Leaves are purgative, antiperiodic anddepurative. It is helpful in skin infections, consuming sensation, dry hack andbronchitis. Organic products are sweet, cooling, laxative, carminative,mitigating, diuretic and ophthalmic. It is utilized in tooting, colic, looseness ofthe bowels, aggravations and irregular fever. It is additionally utilized in

12

cardiovascular issues, strangury, ophthalmopathy and general weakness.Mash from natural products called 'Casia mash' is a notable purgative. Thebark of the tree is wealthy in tannins. Blossoms are harsh, bitter, cooling,emollient, and laxative and are helpful in vitiated states of pitta, consumingsensation, uncleanliness, and skin infections. It is additionally valuable inheart issues, discontinuous fever and general weakness.

CONCLUSION

A. BIRDS:-We presume that species spatial disseminations are straightforwardly influenced by globalwarming and hence environmental change. In everyday terms, it has been expressed byestablished researchers that the circulation of species has been moving in a polewardpattern. Inside the domain of our investigation, we tracked down no convincing proof todemonstrate or discredit this assertion. The proof that we did discover and referred todrives us to the end that the dispersion of species is truth be told being modified byclimatic change, however, we couldn't decide precisely what that change was. This projectfocused on bird species (as we discovered they were ideal markers of species movesbecause of the way that their examples of development are as of now bigger and morequick than different creatures. This and the way that bird developments and movementsare very much reported are the explanation we decided to concentrate on our study onbirds).

B. INSECTS:-Insects assume numerous significant parts in nature. They help microorganisms, parasites,and different living beings in the disintegration of natural matter and in soil development.The rot of remains, for instance, achieved primarily by microorganisms, is sped up by themaggots of tissue flies and blowflies. The exercises of these larvae, which convey anddevour microorganisms, are trailed by those of moths and beetles, which separate hair andfeathers. Insects and flowers have developed together.

C. PLANTS:-Each plant is portrayed by one of the three life chronicles: haploid (1n), diploid (2n), or themost widely recognized haploid-diploid. Inside every one of these three kinds, there are

13

likewise varieties. There are also other algae and fungi that are characterized by diploid lifecycles. In conclusion, plants with a haploid-diploid life history go through a variety of ages,either comparative or unique. In these life cycles, abiogenetic multiplication may happen,yet it is a sexual generation that is liable for hereditary variety. Because of varietiesemerging independently and at various rates, the advancement of land plants didn't followa straight grouping. Before land plants, alga with generally haploid life cycles existed,however, land plants later began From a haploid-diploid precursor.

14

COLLEGE ROLL NUMBER:

CEMA20F140

CU REGISTRATION NUMBER:

223-1212-0363-20

CU ROLL NUMBER:

203-223-11-0113

26

ENVS PROJECT

TOPIC:

STUDY OF ECOSYSTEM

(POND, RIVER, WETLAND, FOREST, ESTUARY

AND AGRO SYSTEM)

TABLE OF CONTENT:

SL NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 01

2 INTRODUCTION OF ECOSYSTEM

02

3 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS 03

4 FOREST ECOSYSTEM 04

5 POND AND RIVER ECOSYSTEM

07

6 ESTUARIES AND WETLAND ECOSYSTEM

08

7 AGRO ECOSYSTEM 09

8 CONCLUSION 11

9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 12

P a g e | 1

INTRODUCTION:

• Project work is work which focuses on completing a

task. Project work normally involves a lot of resources - time,

people and materials - and learners practise a range of skills and

language systems. It allows a child to demonstrate his or her

capabilities while working independently. It shows the child's

ability to apply desired skills such as doing research. It develops

the child's ability to work with his or her peers, building

teamwork and group skills.

• Environmental project is a process that allows individuals to

explore environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and

take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals

develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and

have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions.

P a g e | 2

INTRODUCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:

The meaning of the word ecology was given by German Biologist

Haeckel in 1869.

The word ecology is derived from Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning

house, habitat or place of living and ‘Logos’ meaning to study.

Ecology is defined as the study of interrelationship of different

organisms with each other and with their environment. It is concerned

with the general principles that apply to both animals and plants.

• An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in

conjunction with the non-living components of their

environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic

components are linked together through nutrient cycles and

energy flows.

• It is important for humanity to understand its environment

because we have the ability to modify the environment through

the use of technology and through over exploitation of natural

resources as a result of greed or sheer pressure of numbers.

Therefore, ecology is more than just the understanding of the

interrelationships between organisms and their environment; it

also has social, political, economic and technological

dimensions.

• It also is a study of evolutionary development of organisms, the

biological productivity and energy flow in the natural system.

• To develop mathematical models to relate interaction of

parameters and to predict the effects.

P a g e | 3

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS:

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water. Another type is the artificial or man-made ecosystem which includes agro-ecosystem.

NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:

These operate under natural conditions without any major interference

by man.

• TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM:

a) Forest ecosystem

b) Grassland ecosystem

c) Desert ecosystem

FOREST

ECOSYSTEM DESERT ECOSYSTEM

• AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

a. Fresh water: Lotic (Running water like

spring, stream, or rivers) and Lentic

(Standing water as lake, ponds, pools etc.)

b. Marine water: Such as deep bodies as

ocean

or shallow ones as sea or an estuary.

ARTIFICIAL (MAN MADE ) ECOSYSTEM:

These are maintained artificially by man where by addition

of energy and planned manipulation, natural balance is

disturbed regularly. eg.: Cropland Ecosystem.

P a g e | 4

• FOREST ECOSYSTEM:

A forest ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism

communities and their abiotic environment interacting as a functional unit,

where trees are a key component of the system. Humans, with their cultural,

economic and environmental needs, are an integral part of many forest

ecosystems.

Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem

The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:

1. Species composition: It refers to the identification and enumeration of

the plant and animal species of a forest ecosystem.

2. Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of different species

which occupy different levels in the forest ecosystem. Every organism

occupies a place in an ecosystem on the basis of source of nutrition. For

example, in a forest ecosystem, trees occupy the top level, shrubs occupy

the second and the herbs and grasses occupy the bottom level.

THE THREE MAJOR FOREST ECOSYSTEMS ARE:

a. The tropical forest ecosystem:

• Tropical forests, also known as tropical rainforest, receives almost 100

inches of rain every year. The tropical forest

has a wide variety of species among all other

types of forest ecosystems.

• Tropical forests are usually found in latitude

between 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees

South. The temperature recorded in tropical

forests is between 68 degrees and 77 degrees

Fahrenheit.

• The tropical forest ecosystem is again divided into different categories

and types. These are –

• Evergreen forest: The evergreen forest receives heavy year-round

rainfall with no dry season.

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• Seasonal forest: Seasonal Forest host evergreen flora with a short-

time

Dry forest: As the name suggests, dry forests experience a long-period

of the dry season.

Montane forest: Montane forests received most of the precipitation in

the form of fog, hence also known as cloud forests.

Sub-tropical forest: The sub-tropical forest is found in North &

South regions of tropical forests. The flora of this region is adapted to

survive in the adverse conditions of summer drought.

b. The temperate forest ecosystem:

• Temperate forests are usually found in North America, Eurasia, Japan, etc.

Temperate forest receives less rainfall as compared to tropical forests

approximately 30-60 inches every year.

• Unlike tropical forests, temperate forests

experience all the four seasons with

variation in temperature. The winters in the

temperate forest quite often experience

temperature below freezing point, and in

summers, the temperature becomes very

high with a high level of humidity.

• The soil of temperate forest is rich in organic matter that allows a huge

variety of vegetation to grow in the temperate forest.

• The temperate forest provides natural habitat to many animals such as

squirrels, deer, black bears, raccoons, coyotes, various birds like warblers,

owls, woodpeckers, hawks, etc.

• The temperate forest ecosystem is further divided into two parts –

Temperate Deciduous Forest and Temperate Coniferous Forest.

c. The boreal or taiga forest ecosystem:• The boreal forest is also known as Taiga forests are generally found in

Siberia, Northern Asia, Canada, and Scandinavia. One of the main

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characteristics of the boreal forest is that it

experiences short summers and very long winter

seasons. Boreal forests receive approximately

15-40 inches precipitation every year (mostly

receives in the form of snowfall).

• The trees found in boreal forests are the

evergreen type, such as pine, fir, spruce, etc.

The boreal forest has a dense canopy that hardly allows the sun to reach the

forest surface. This is why the vegetation is quite less in the forest floor.

• The animals found in the boreal forest ecosystem are usually covered with

thick fur to protect them from a long period of cold winters. Some

examples of animals that lived in boreal forests are – elk, caribou, lynxes,

wolverines, deer, snowshoe hare, moose, wolves, etc.

• Savanna Forest Ecosystem:

• Savanna ecosystem is generally found in

South America, Australia, and Africa.

Savanna forests are quite vulnerable to

forest fires; on the other hand, it has

characterized by the ability to re-grow

much faster.

• The landscapes of the Savanna Forest

ecosystem are covered with large areas

of green lands, bushes & clusters of

feeble trees.

Components of a Forest Ecosystem

The components of a forest ecosystem are as follows:

1.Productivity

2. Decomposition

3. Energy flow

4. Nutrient cycling

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AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:

Pond Ecosystem:

It refers to fresh water ecosystem on which different organisms depend

for their survival and to fulfil their nutritional needs as well.

The ponds are the water bodies which are usually of 12-15 feet deep in

which the sun rays can

reach which results into

growing of plants down

there. Pond Ecosystem

are the balance of fish,

bacterias and plants

which together support

each other. Pond Ecosystem works on ponds which are shallow enough

for the sunlight to pass through it. It is a living ecosystem itself. Ponds are

wet and are surrounded by artificial and natural banks. The ponds provide

inhabitation to wetland plant and animals. Pond works with a

combination of three food webs at a time. There exists a type of pond

where no trace of fishes is to be seen. This type of ponds are known as

vernal ponds. These types of ponds inhabitant rare and endangered plant

species.

RIVER ECOSYSTEM:

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and

include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-

organisms, as well as abiotic (non-

living) physical and chemical

interactions of its many parts. River

ecosystems are prime examples of

lotic ecosystems. Streams and rivers are

flowing water ecosystems in which all

the living forms are specially adapted to

different rates of flow. Some plants and

animals can with stand the rapid flow of the hill streams. Other species of

plants and animals such as water beetles can live only in slower moving

water.

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ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM:

Estuarine ecosystems are thus characterised by relatively low species diversity

compared to freshwater or full salinity conditions. ... Even though estuarine

ecosystems are usually species-poor, they maintain a high productive

throughput of invertebrate fauna.

Organisms that live in estuaries must be adapted to the specific conditions that

occur here. The most constraining condition is the varying salinity. Most

organisms are so-called stenohaline: they survive only in an environment with

a certain more or less constant salinity, for

example in the sea or in rivers. These

species cannot survive in an estuarine

environment.

Apart from the permanent dwellers,

estuaries are host to a number of visitors.

Some of them have to travel through estuaries on their migratory route, being

either anadromous (spawn in freshwater and feed and grow at sea) or

catadromous (spawn at sea and feed and grow in freshwater). Estuarine

ecosystems are usually dominated by stress-tolerant organism, able to withstand

a wide range of environmental conditions. However, they also have to face

serious threats from anthropogenic activities.

WETLAND ECOSYSTEM:

A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is

flooded by water, either permanently or

seasonally, where oxygen-free processes

prevail. Wetlands are also considered the

most biologically diverse of all ecosystems,

serving as home to a wide range of plant and

animal life. The most important factor

producing wetlands is flooding. The duration of flooding or prolonged soil

saturation of ground water determines whether the resulting wetland has

aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation. Other important factors include fertility,

natural disturbance, competition, herbivory, burial and salinity Wetlands vary

widely due to local and regional differences

in topography, hydrology, vegetation.

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MAN MADE ECOSYSTEM:

AGRO ECOSYSTEM:

An agro-ecosystem is the basic unit of study

in agroecology and is somewhat arbitrarily defined

as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of

agricultural activity, and includes the living and non-

living components involved in that unit as well as

their interactions.

An agro ecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a

conventional ecosystem. As the name implies, at the core of an agro ecosystem

lies the human activity of agriculture. However, an agro ecosystem is not

restricted to the immediate site of agricultural activity (e.g., the farm), but rather

includes the region that is impacted by this activity, usually by changes to the

complete of species and energy flows, as well as to the net nutrient balance.

Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively is

characterized as having a simpler species composition and simpler energy and

nutrient flows than "natural" ecosystem. Likewise, agro ecosystems are often

associated with elevated nutrient input, much of which exits the farm leading

to eutrophication of connected ecosystems not directly engaged in agriculture.

Utilization:

Forest garden probably the world's oldest and

most resilient agro ecosystem. components of

agro-ecosystems include temperature, soil,

water, relative humidity, light, and wind. Biotic

factors include parasitic and herbivorous pests,

competition between crops and other plants, and

favourable (symbiotic) relationships among

organisms, such as belowground organisms and

polli- nators. These services include soil structure

and fertility enhancement, nutrient cycling, water provision, erosion control,

pollination, and pest control, among others.

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THREATS AND COSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEMS:

Threats to Ecosystems

• Habitat Destruction. Economic activities such as logging, mining,

farming and construction often involve clearing out places with natural

vegetative cover. ...

1.Pollution. 2. Eutrophication. ...

3.Invasive species. ...4.Overharvesting. ..5.UV Radiation.

CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

The main function of ecosystem conservation is protecting or restoring the

structure, function and species compilation within the system. This can get hard

quickly, because everything in an ecosystem affects everything else. ... The best

way to conserve an ecosystem is to approach it from a large-scale view.

• 4 TYPES OF CONSERVATION ARE:

• Environmental Conservation.

• Animal conservation.

• Marine Conservation.

• Human Conservation.

WAYS TO PROTECT THE ECOSYSTEM:

• Government legislation. •Nature preserves.

• Reducing invasive species. •Habitat restoration.

• Captive breeding and seed banks.

• Research. •Reduce climate change.

• Purchase sustainable products.

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CONCLUSION:

Earth's ecosystems and the services they provide, such food, water,

disease management, climate regulation, spiritual fulfilment, and

aesthetic enjoyment. Over the past 50 years, humans have changed

these ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any

comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly

growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fibre, and fuel. This

transformation of the planet has contributed to substantial net gains in

human well-being and economic development. But not all regions and

groups of people have benefited from this process -in fact, many have

been harmed. Moreover, the full costs associated with these gains are

only now becoming apparent. So it is better that care for ecosystem

should be taken as one of the major responsibility of every individual

for sustainable living of future generations as well.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to

my teacher as well as our principal who gave me the

golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the

topic, which also helped me in doing a lot of Research

and I came to know about so many new things. They

helped me in a lot of ways like gathering information

about the project or how to present my project properly.

I am really thankful to them. I consider myself lucky

enough to work under them.

THANK YOU.

26

25

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATIONPG-1

25

COLLEGE ROLL: CEMA20M117

UNIVERSITY of CALCUTTA ROLL NO: 203223210008

UNIVERSITY of CALCUTTA REGISTRATION NO: 2231111022420

PG-2

INTRODUCTION…

If an alien from a distant galaxy were to visit our planet Earth, the first thing that would amaze and baffle him would most probably be the enormous diversity of life that he would encounter.

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have been trying to understand the significance of such diversity by asking important questions– Why are there so many species? Did such great diversity exist throughout earth’s history? How did this diversification come about? How and why is this diversity important to the biosphere?

PG-3

TYPES of BIODIVERSITY:In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level but at all levels of biological organization ranging from macromolecules within cells to biomes.

Three different levels:

I) SPECIES DIVERSITY

II) GENETIC DIVERSITY

III) ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

PG-4

BIODIVERSITY PATTERNS AND GLOBAL HOTSPOTS

Biogeographic distribution of India is division of India according to their biogeographical diversity. India has a rich heritage of natural diversity and ranks tenth in world amongst the top 17 mega diverse countries. India is divided into ten major Biogeographical zones due to its rich diversity in flora and fauna..

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT:

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened with

destruction. Norman Meyers introduced the concept at first.

PG-5

BIODIVERSITY PATTERNS:

I) LATITUDINAL GRADIENTS:

The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the world but shows a rather uneven distribution. For many group of animals or plants, there are interesting patterns in diversity, the most well- known being the latitudinal gradient in diversity. species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles. tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbor more species than temperate or polar areas.

II) SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIP:

German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt observed that within a region species richness increased with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit. In fact, the relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa turns out to be a rectangular hyperbola.

log S = log C + Z log A [ where S= Species richness A= Area

Z= Slope of line or REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

C= Intercept ]

PG-6

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES

ENDEMIC SPECIES:

A species being native to a single defined geographic location such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone or organisms that are indigenous to a place and are not found elsewhere.

ENDANGERED SPECIES: A species that is very likely to become extinct in near future either worldwide or in a particular jurisdiction, due to factors such as: habitat loss, poaching and invasive species.

PG-7

PG-8

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

There are four major causes, ‘ The Evil Quartet’ is the sobriquet used to describe them.

I) HABITAT LOSS AND FRAGMENTATION:

This is the most important cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent.Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines

PG-9

II) OVER EXPLOITATION:

over -exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due to overexploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the continued existence of some commercially important species.

PG-10

III) ALIEN SPECIES INVASION:

When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake. You must be familiar with the environmental damage caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia). The recent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

PG-11

IV) POACHING :

Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing, and often killing of wild animals. It has been done for a number of reasons, including claiming the land for human use, but recently, the illegal act is being done for other ridiculous motives, especially the desire for rare animal products such as ivory, fur, organs, skin, bones, or teeth. Since the 1980s, the term "poaching" has also been used to refer to the illegal harvesting of wild plant species.

PG-12

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

EX-SITU PROCESS:In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological parks.

PG-13

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected - we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ (on site) conservation.

PG-14

ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY SERVICESPG-15

THANK YOU. .. …

PG-16

DEPT. : CHEMISTRY

ENVS PROJECT

TOPIC

STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH, BIRDS, MAMMALS

AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION

27

CU ROLL NO. – 203223-21-0009

CU REG. NO. – 223-1111-0225-20

COLLEGE ROLL NO. –CEMA20M118

ENVS PROJECT

STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH, BIRDS, MAMMALS

AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION

Satyaki Koley

Signature

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CU Roll No. – 203223-21-0018

CU Regd. No. – 223-1111-0240-20

SemeSteR- 2

College Roll No- CemA20m119

HoNoURS SUbjeCt – CHemiStRy

SUbjeCt foR tUtoRiAl- AeCC eNVS

tUtoRiAl topiC – StUdy of CommoN plANtS, iNSeCtS,

fiSH, biRdS, mAmmAlS ANd bASiC pRiNCipleS of

ideNtifiCAtioN

bAtCH- 2020-23

26

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ACKNoWledgmeNt

I would like to thank my subject teachers of AECC ENVS for providing me with adequate study materials for this topic and encouraging me to do this project systematically. I would

also like to thank my mother and brother, because without their timely help and guidance, it was impossible for me to opt and work on this project.

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iNdeX

TOPIC PG NO.

INTRODUCTION 4 AREA OF STUDY 5 METHOD OF STUDY 5 PROJECT OBSERVATION 5-14

1. STUDY ON FOUR COMMON PLANTS 5-7 2. STUDY ON THREE COMMON INSECTS 8-10 3. STUDY ON THREE COMMON FISHS 10-11 4. STUDY ON THREE COMMON BIRDS 11-13 5. STUDY ON TWO COMMON MAMMALS 13-14

CONCLUSION 15 BIBLIOGRAPHY 15

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iNtRodUCtioN

Wildlife is a precious gift of God to this planet. The term ‘wildlife’ not only caters to wild animals but also takes into account all undomesticated lifeforms including birds, insects,

plants, mammals etc. For maintaining a healthy ecological balance on this earth, animals, plants and marine species are as important as humans. Each organism on this earth has a

unique place in food chain that helps contribute to the ecosystem in its own special way. But, sadly today, many of the animals and birds are getting endangered. The natural habitats of

animals and plants are being destroyed for land development and farming by humans. Poaching and hunting of animals for fur, jewellery, meat and leather are other great factors

contributing to wildlife extinction. If soon, no stringent steps are taken to save wildlife, it would not be long when they will find a place only on the list of extinct species. And that

would not be all! The extinction of wildlife species will certainly have a fatal impact on human race as well. So, for us as humans, it becomes a great responsibility to save the wildlife, our

planet and most importantly, our own selves.

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AReA of StUdy The area is whole Kolkata, howrah districts of west Bengal in india

metHod of StUdy Making this project we use internet collect information about plants, fish, birds, insects and mammals.

Date JUNE, 2021 TIME 2 DAYS 6 HOURS INSTRUMENTS INTERNET, LAPTOP, MS WORD-2013

obSeRVAtioN

A.PLANTS FOUR COMMON PLANTS

1)TULSI PLANT

Scientific Name: Ocimum tenuiflorum

Vernacular Name: Tulasi or Vrinda

GENERAL FEATURES- In any Indian family, a Tulsi plant is easily found and it is a practice that has been followed religiously by generations. The ancestors knew about the healing properties of Tulsi and thus made it mandatory (back then) to plant a Tulsi at home. Since ages Tulsi has been a powerful agent in reducing high blood pressure and high cholesterol, treating asthma, headache, cold, cough, indigestion, sinusitis, gastric disorder, cramps, ulcers, etc. It is also believed to treat arthritis and diabetes

Uses- Tulsi is called the wonder herb orsometimes the holy herb because of its medicinal properties. There are many diseases that can affect people again after it has left the person. But with the consumption of Tulsi, you can be sure that these

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diseases cannot affect you. Here are some of the ways in which tulsi can sort out various medical problems.

Tulsi can help cure fever. Tulsi leaves are used to treat skin problems like acne, blackheads and

premature ageing. Tulsi is used to treat insect bites. Tulsi is also used to treat heart disease and fever. Tulsi is also used to treat respiratory problems. Tulsi is used to cure fever, common cold and sore throat, headaches and kidney

stones. Tulsi helps in treating Astma

2)ALOE VERA

Scientific Name: Aloe vera

Vernacular Name: Korphad, Gritakumari

Aloe Vera is perhaps the oldest known medicinal plant in the world. Many people use it at home both to beautify the space and to use the gel. Some prefer to consume Aloe Vera juice while some apply the gel on skin and hair for youthful skin and mane. In cosmetics and medicine industry too, this plant is hugely used. The extract of Aloe Vera is a brilliant skin healer. The Aloe Vera gel helps to soothe skin injuries, burning, skin irritations, cuts, and insect bites. It also reduces skin swellings.

Uses: Two substances from Aloe vera – a clear gel and its yellow latex – are used to manufacture commercial products. Aloe gel typically is used to make topical medications for skin conditions, such as burns, wounds, frostbite, rashes, psoriasis, cold sores, or dry skin. Aloe latex is used individually or manufactured as a product with other ingredients to be ingested for relief of constipation. Aloe latex may be obtained in a dried form called resin or as "aloe dried juice".

3)CURRY LEAVES

Scientific Name: Murraya koenigii Curry leaf is another Indian spice. To temper, various side dishes and main dishes curry leaves are used since ages. It helps in weight loss, treats dysentery & constipation, good for

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diabetes patients, heals wounds and cuts, provides good eyesight, relieves nausea, and even improves memory.

Uses: Commonly used as seasoning, this leaf adds a special flavour to every dish. But there is more to the humble curry leaf than simply flavour. Packed with carbohydrates, fiber, calcium, phosphorous, irons and vitamins like vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin E, curry leaves help your heart function better, fights infections and can enliven your hair and skin with vitality. Here are few health benefits of kadi patta

Helps keep anaemia at bay Fights diabetes Improves digestion Lowers cholesterol Prevents greying of hair

4)MINT

Scientific Name: Mentha spicata, Mentha cordifolia, Mentha longifolia etc

Vernacular Name: Mentha, Paper mint, Super mint etc.

Mint plants love moist soil, warm temperature, and bright to partially bright sunlight. Mint plants are widely known for the cooling sensation they divulge. In fresh or dried conditions both – they are used as a garnishing in food items. Mint Chutney is quite famous among Indians. Mint is a great source of Vitamin A, manganese, folate, and iron. It improves irritable bowel system, improves brain function, aids in digestion, also improves cold symptoms, and is the easiest cure for bad breath.

Uses: Mint is a commonly used domestic herbal remedy. A tea made from the leaves has traditionally been used in the treatment of fevers, headaches, digestive disorders and various minor ailments. The herb is antiemetic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, restorative, stimulant and stomachic. The leaves should be harvested when the plant is just coming into flower, and can be dried for later use. The stems are macerated and used as a poultice on bruises. The essential oil in the leaves is antiseptic, though it is toxic in large doses. Both the essential oil and the stems are used in folk remedies for cancer. A poultice prepared from the leaves is said to remedy tumours.

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B.INSECTS THREE COMMON INSECTS

1)HONEY BEEScientific Names of Various Species of Honey Bee:

Western/ European Honey bee – Apis mellifera

Asiatic/ Asian honey bee – Apis cerana

Red dwarf honey bee – Apis florea

Black dwarf honey bee – Apis andreniformis

FEATURES Honey bees are flying insects of the Apidae family. These are insects that showcase the highest level of organisation, often forming large colonies with complex hierarchies (queens, reproductive males, workers etc) and division of labour (foraging, feeding large, building new cells etc).

Honey bees are native to Eurasia, and are also introduced to the other continents by humans. Contrary to popular belief, not all species of bees produce honey – with the most prolific honey producer being the Apis mellifera, or the Wester/ European honey bee.

Bees also come in a variety of colours, besides the stereotypical black and yellow. For instance, the Agapostemon splendens (North American Sweat Bee) is blue and green.

Honey bees also have an interesting form of communication – they “dance”. The honey bee performs a deliberate set of movements across its honeycomb – which conveys the location of nectar and pollen to other worker bees.

2)EARTHWORMAn earthworm is a terrestrial invertebrate that belongs to the phylum Annelida. They exhibit a tube-within-a-tube body plan, are externally segmented with corresponding internal segmentation, and usually have setae on all segments. They occur worldwide where soil, water, and temperature allow.

Scientific Name:The earthworm scientific name is Lumbricina.

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There are more than 1,800 species of the Oligochaeta class of terrestrial worms. Members of the Lumbricus genus, in particular. The most common species of an earthworm is Lumbricus terrestris.

Few of the common earthworm species are listed below. The name in the bracket is an earthworm scientific name.

Redhead Worm (Lumbricus rubellus)

Common Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris)

IMPORTANCE

Earthworms allow the amount of air and water that gets into the soil to increase. They break down organic matter into products that can be used by plants, including leaves and grass. They leave behind castings while feeding, which are a very useful form of fertilizer. Earthworms are like free aid to the farm.

3)GRASSHOPPER

Scientific Name:

American grasshopper – Schistocerca americana

Leaf grasshopper – Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai

Horsehead grasshopper – Pseudoproscopia scabra

Desert locust – Schistocerca gregaria

Grasshoppers are herbivorous insects of the suborder Caelifera in the order Orthoptera. To distinguish them from bush crickets or katydids, they are sometimes referred to as short-horned grasshoppers. Species that change colour and behaviour at high population densities are called locusts.

GRASSHOPPER BEHAVIOUR

Grasshoppers are most active during the day, but also feed at night. They do not have nests or territories and some species go on long migrations to find new supplies of food. Most species are solitary and only come together to mate, but the migratory species sometimes gather in huge groups of millions or even billions of individuals

GRASSHOPPER PREDATORS

The grasshoppers greatest enemies include various kinds of flies that lay their eggs in or near grasshopper eggs. After the fly eggs hatch, the newborn flies eat the grasshopper eggs. Some flies will even lay their eggs on the grasshoppers body, even while the

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grasshopper is flying. The newborn flies then eat the grasshopper. Other enemies of grasshoppers include beetles, birds, mice, snakes and spiders.

C.FISHS THREE COMMON FISHS

1)ROHU

Scientific Name: Labeo rohita

HABITAT In its early life stages rohu prefer zooplankton, mainly composed of rotifers and cladocerans, with phytoplankton forming the emergency food. In the fingerling stage, there is a strong positive selection for all the zooplanktonic organisms and for some smaller phytoplankters like desmids, phytoflagellates and algal spores. On the other hand, adults show a strong positive selection for most of the phytoplankton. The nibbling type of mouth with soft fringed lips, sharp cutting edges and absence of teeth in the bucco-pharyngeal region helps the fish to feed on soft aquatic vegetation which do not require seizure and crushing.

BIOLOGICAL FEATURES Body bilaterally symmetrical, moderately elongate, its dorsal profile more arched than the ventral profile; body with cycloid scales, head without scale; snout fairly depressed, projecting beyond mouth, without lateral lobe; eyes dorsolateral in position, not visible from outside of head; mouth small and inferior; lips thick and fringed with a distinct inner fold to each lip, lobate or entire; a pair of small maxillary barbels concealed in lateral groove; no teeth on jaws; pharyngeal teeth in three rows; upper jaw not extending to front edge of eye; simple (unbranched) dorsal fin rays three or four, branched dorsal fin rays 12 to 14; dorsal fin inserted midway between snout tip and base of caudal fin; pectoral and pelvic fins laterally inserted; pectoral fin devoid of an osseous spine; caudal fin deeply forked; lower lip usually joined to isthmus by a narrow or broad bridge; pre-dorsal scale 12-16; lateral line distinct, complete and running along median line of the caudal peduncle; lateral line scales 40 to 44; lateral transverse scale-rows six or six and a half between lateral line and pelvic fin base; snout not truncate, without any lateral lobe; colour bluish on back, silvery on flanks and belly.

2)MRIGAL

Scientific Name: Cirrhinus cirrhosus

The mrigal carp, also known as the white carp, is a species of ray-finned fish in the carp family. Native to streams and rivers in India, the only surviving wild population is in the Cauvery River, leading to its IUCN rating as vulnerable.

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HABITAT

Mrigal is the benthopelagic and potamodromous plankton feeder. It inhabits fast flowing streams and rivers, but can tolerate high levels of salinity. Spawning occurs in marginal areas of the water bodies with a depth of 50 to 100 centimetres over a sand or clay substrate. A 6-kilogram female can lay a million eggs. This fish has a rapid growth rate; by the age of two individuals can reach a length of 60 centimetres and can weigh as much as 2 kilograms.

3)CATLA

Scientific Name: Catla catla

Catla, also known as the major South Asian carp, is an economically important South Asian freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It is native to rivers and lakes in northern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, but has also been introduced elsewhere in South Asia and is commonly farmed.

HABITAT- It is native to rivers and lakes innorthern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan, but has also been introduced elsewhere in South Asia and is commonly farmed. In Nepal and neighbouring regions of India, up to Odisha, it is called Bhakura.

AQUACULTURE-It is one of the mostimportant aquacultured freshwater species in South Asia. It is grown in polyculture ponds with other carp-like fish, particularly with the roho labeo (Labeo rohita) and mrigal carp. The reported production numbers have increased sharply during the 2000s, and were in 2012 about 2.8 million tonnes per year.

D.BIRDS THREE COMMON FISHS

1)COMMON BULBUL

Common English Name- Common Bulbul

Bengali Name- Bulbul

Scientific Name- Pycnonotus cafer

12 | P a g e

DISTRIBUTION In all parts of plain and even in low altitude of hilly area

CHARACTERS Clever and very intelligent

FEEDING This species eats fruit, nectar, seeds and insects.

2)INDIAN RING-NECKED PARROT

Common English Name- Indian Parrot

Bengali Name- Tiya

Scientific Name- Psittacula kramerii manillensis

DISTRIBUTION Indian Sub-continent. All parts of plain.

CHARACTERS Very punctual about them

FEEDING

In the wild, rose-ringed parakeets usually feed on buds, fruits, vegetables, nuts, berries, and seeds. Wild flocks also fly several miles to forage in farmlands and orchards, causing extensive damage. Feral parakeets will regularly visit gardens and other locations near human habitation, taking food from bird feeders.

In India, they feed on cereal grains, and during winter also on pigeon peas. In Egypt during the spring, they feed on mulberry and in summer they feed on dates and nest inside palm trees and eat from sunflower and corn fields.

3)ROCK DOVE

Common English Name- Rock Dove

Bengali Name- Payra

Scientific Name- Columba livia

13 | P a g e

DISTRIBUTION Indian Sub-continent. All parts of plain.

CHARACTERS Can be used as pets.

FEEDING

Rock doves are omnivorous, but prefer plant matter: chiefly fruits and grains. In rice field and in fallow land. Plants with seeds of Chrozophoraplicata, Brassica nigra, secale etc. are common for the birds like rock dove and common dove.

E.MAMMALS TWO COMMON MAMMALS

1)CAT

Common English Name- Cat

Scientific Name- Felis catus

The cat is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is often referred to as the domestic cat to distinguish it from the wild members of the family.

Impact On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a cat's diet. In nearly all cases, however, the cat cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds, and in some instances, eradication of cats has caused a "mesopredator release" effect; where the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their shared prey. Domestic cats are, however, known to be a contributing factor to the decline of many species, a factor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction. The South Island piopio, Chatham rail, and the New Zealand merganser are a few from a long list, with the most extreme case being the flightless Lyall's wren, which was driven to extinction only a few years after its discovery. One feral cat in New Zealand killed 102 New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats in seven days. In the US, feral and free-ranging domestic cats kill an estimated 6.3 – 22.3 billion mammals annually.

In Australia, the impact of cats on mammal populations is even greater than the impact of habitat loss. More than one million reptiles are killed by feral cats each day, representing 258 species. Cats have contributed to the extinction of the Navassa curly-tailed lizard and Chioninia coctei.

14 | P a g e

2)DOG

Common English Name- Dog

Scientific Name- Canis lupus familiaris

The domestic dog is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. The dog derived from an ancient, extinct wolf, and the modern grey wolf is the dog's nearest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated, by hunter–gatherers over 15,000 years ago, before the development of agriculture.

Behavior Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and external stimuli. As the oldest domesticated species, dogs' minds inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans more than any other species and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, but rather parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.

15 | P a g e

CoNClUSioNThe value of using domestic and wild animals to identify and monitor a wide variety of environmental hazards to human health and ecosystems has been discussed throughout this report. This report has described epidemiologic and experimental approaches to the use of animals as environmental sentinels to detect hazards before they would be discovered with more traditional methods—human epidemiologic studies or laboratory-animal experiments. The committee noted that many current animal-monitoring systems could, with relatively minor modifications, be made suitable for use during the process of risk assessment of many environmental contaminants. These would complement traditional rodent models by adding species diversity and a method to evaluate natural and often complex exposures.

Despite the wealth of studies of and scientists' and regulators' interest in the use of animals as sentinels for environmental health hazards, the committee notes that this approach has not gained widespread acceptance. One reason might be the institutional inertia that accompanies integration of new scientific methods into the risk-assessment process and use of the results for risk management. Many government agencies do not recognize the importance of animals sentinels or agree on how to compare the findings obtained with them and the findings obtained with more traditional methods. In addition, research on and development of animals sentinels have generally not had high priority in funding agencies, although they probably will with increasing attention to animal welfare and the search for humane alternatives to laboratory-animal experimentation. The committee feels that potential users of animal-sentinel data generally are not aware of possible applications of these alternative methods and that traditional rodent models for toxicity testing are perceived as superior to such alternative methods.

bibliogRApHy

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234954/

https://axaj.blogspot.com/2016/07/describe-mainobjectives-of-project.html?=1

https://www.iloveindia.com/wildlife/indian-wild-animals/bengal-tiger/project-tiger.html.

https://www.google.co.in/amp/s/blog.ipleaders.in/conservation-wildlife-protection-

act/amp/

https://www.notesonzoology.com/india/project-tiger/project-tiger-objectives-

conservation-and-tragedy/4180

https://www.google.co.in/amp/s/www.timesowners.com/amp/mirror-now/in-

focus/article/all-about-indias-wild-life-protection-act-1972-and-the-animals-protected-

under-thecompassionate-law/713664

https://www.insideindianjungles.com/project-

/#:~:text=conclusion%3A,landmark%20achievement%20of20the%project

25

1

Collegeroll--> CEMA20M134

number.

Universityroll-->203223-21-0067

number.

Universityregistration-->223-1111-0346-20

number.

26

2

Content Pageno.

>Studyofsomecommonplants

•Neem 5

•Teak 6

•Rose 7

•Venusflytraps 8

>Studyofsomecommonmammals

•Cow 9

•Dog 10

•Cat 11

•Deer 12

>Studyofsomecommoninsects

•Ant 13

•Mosquito 14

3

>Studyofsomecommonfish

•Rohu 15

•Catla 16

•Pomfret 17

>Studyofsomecommonbirds

•Housesparrow 18

•Barnowl 19

•Myna 20

4

Studyofsomecommon

plants,animals,birds,

insectsandmammals.

5

Studyofsomecommonplants:

Neem

Scientificname-Azadhirachtaindica

Pointsofidentification:

•Neem treescanreach15–30metres(49–98feet)

inheight.

•Theyhaveattractiveroundedcrownsandthick

furrowedbark.

•Thecompoundleaveshavetoothedleafletsand

aretypicallyevergreenbutdodropduringperiodsof

extremedrought.

ImagesofNeem tree

6

Teaktree

Scientificname-Tectonagrandis

Pointsofindentification:

•Teakisalargedeciduoustreeupto40m (131ft)

tall.

•Ithasgreytogreyish-brownbranches.

•Theleavesareovate-elliptictoovate,andareheld

onrobustpetioles.

•Teakisknownforit'shighqualitywood.

ImagesofTeaktree

7

Roseplant

Scientificname-Rosa

Pointsofindentification:

•Roseplantsrangeinsizefrom compact,miniature

roses,toclimbersthatcanreachsevenmetersin

height.

•Roseshavebeautifulattractiveflowers.

•Roseshavethornsspreadallovertheplantto

protectitselffrom preys.

ImagesofRoseplant

8

Venusflytrap

Scientificname-Dionaeamuscipula

Pointsofindentification:

•Aflytrapisadarkredcarnivorousplant.

•Thetrapsareoddlycuppedatthetip,andthetrap

spinesarecoiledlongerinthedevelopmentprocess.

•Thetrapspinesaremodifiedintoshort,toothlike

triangles.

•Whenanyinsectssitsinbetweenthetwoleaves,

theleavesclosesandtheinsectdieinsidethetrap.

ImagesofVenusflytraps

9

Studyofsomecommonmammals:

Cow

Scientificname-Bostaurus

Pointsofidentification:

•Cowsareanimalshavingheightform 1.6to1.8

meterswithfourlegsandatail.

•Ithasapairofhornanditisoneamongthemost

usefulanimalasitproducesmilkwhichisfurther

processedformakingdifferentdairyproductsand

themanureisusedasorganicfertilizerinorganic

farming.

Imagesofcow

10

Dog

Scientificname-Canislupusfamiliaris

Pointsofindentification:

•Dogsareanimalshavingheightfrom 15to110cm ,

with4legsandatail.

•Dogsareofdifferentbreedsandtheircharacter

dependsupontheirbreeds.

Imagesofdogs

11

Cat

Scientificname-Feliscatus

Pointsofindentification:

•Catsaremammals,heightrangingform

23to25cm.

•Ithasfourlegsandatail.

•Catsaregenerallykeptaspetbutithasa

highchancetocausezoonoticdiseases.

Imagesofcats

12

Deer

Scientificname-Cervidae

Pointsofindentification:

•Deeraregentlemammals,recognizedbytheir

fluffywhitetailsandbigantlers.

•Deerhaveheightrangingfrom 85cm to150cm.

•Deeraregenerallyherbivoresandfeedsonfruits,

nutsandtwigs.

Imagesofdeer

13

Studyofsomecommoninsects:

Ant

Scientificname-Formicidae

Pointsofidentification:

•Antsareverycommoninsectandrangeinsize

from 0.75to52millimeters.

•Antshavethreedistinctbodyregions:head,thorax

andabdomen,aswellasantennae.

•Antshavesharpteethswhichhelpsthem tocut

throughtoughmaterialslikewood,soil,etc..

Imagesofants

14

Mosquito

Scientificname-Culicidae

Pointsofidentification:

•Mosquitoesarerelativelysmallinsectsthatranges

from 0.15–0.4incheslong.

•Mosquitoeshavesmallheadswithlargeeyes,a

thorax,abdomen,twowingsandsixveryslender

legs.

•Theyhavescalesalongtheveinsoftheirwingsand

longbeak-like,sharpsuckingmouthpartcalleda

proboscis.

Imageofmosquito

15

Studyofsomecommonfish:

Rohu

Scientificname-Labeorohita

Pointsofidentification:

•TheRohufishhasaspindle-shapedbody

measuringupto1m inlengthandweighingabout

20-25.kg.

•Thedorsalsideofthebodyisblackishincolour

andtheventro-lateralsidesaresilvery.

•Rohufishesaretypicallycyprinidshape.

ImageofRohufish

16

Catla

Scientificname-Catlacatla

Pointsofindentification:

•Catlaisafishwithlargeandbroadhead,alarge

protrudinglowerjaw,andupturnedmouth.

•Ithaslarge,greyishscalesonitsdorsalsideand

whitishonitsbelly.

•Ithasabodylengthupto182cm andweightupto

38.6kg.

ImageofCatla

17

SilverPomfret

Scientificname-Bramidae

Pointsofindentification:

•Silverpomfretfisheshavesingledorsalfin,

extendingthelengthofthebodyinsomespecies.

•Mostspeciesaredeep-bodiedandhavedeeply

forkedtails.

Imageofpomfret

18

Studyofsomecommonbirds

Housesparrow

Scientificname-Passerdomesticus

Pointsofidentification:

•Sparrowsaresmallbirdsthathasatypical

lengthof16cm andamassof24–39.5g.

•Femalesandyoungbirdsarecoloured

palebrownandgrey,andmaleshave

brighterblack,white,andbrownmarkings.

ImageofSparrow

19

Barnowl

Scientificname-Tytoalba

Pointsofindentification

•BarnOwlsarepaleoverallwithdarkeyes.They

haveamixofbuffandgrayonthehead,back,and

upperwings,andarewhiteontheface,body,and

underwings.

•Theycanappearallwhitewhenseeninnight.

•BarnOwlsnestandroostincavities,abandoned

barnsandotherbuildings,anddensetrees.

Imageofbarnowl

20

Myna

Scientificname-Acridotherestristis

Pointsofindentification:

•Mynabirdhasbrownbody,blackhoodedheadand

thebareyellowpatchbehindtheeye.

•Thebillandlegsarebrightyellow.Thereisawhite

patchontheouterprimariesandthewingliningon

theundersideiswhite.

ImageofMyna

NIH• loullll Du - Roik• CIIMa131

CU IIILL:•13223210870 cu •. :•223·1111-0313·1

25

page-1 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Developmental activities such as construction, transportation

and manufacturing not only deplete the natural resources but also produce large amount

of wastes that leads to pollution

of air, water, soil, and oceans; global warming and acid rains.

Untreated or improperly treated waste is a major cause

of pollution of rivers and environmental degradation

causing ill health and loss of crop

productivity. In this lesson you will study about the major

causes of pollution, their effects on our

environment and the various measures that can be taken to

control such pollutions.

page-2

TYPES OF POLLUTION

Pollution may be of the following types:

• Air pollution • Noise pollution • Water pollution • Soil pollution

• Thermal pollution • Radiation pollution

page-3

AIR POLLUTION Air pollution is a result of industrial

and certain domestic activity. An aver increasing use of

fossil fuels in po1Nar plants, industries, transportation, mining,

construction of buildings, stone quarries had led to air

pollution. Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous

substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the

atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly and indirectly

injurious to humans or other living organisms, plants,

property or interferes 1Nith the normal environmental

processes. Air pollutants are of t1No types (1) suspended particulate

matter, and (2) gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2

), NOx etc

Page-4

page-5

NOISE POLLUTION Noise is one of the most pervasive pollutant. A musical clock may be

nice to listen during the day, but may be an irritant during sleep at night. Noise by

definition is ''sound without value" or "any noise that is

unwanted by the recipient''· Noise in industries such as stone

cutting and crushing, steel forgings , loudspeakers, shouting by

hawkers selling their wares, movement of heavy transport

vehicles, railways and airports leads to irritation and an

increased blood pressure, loss of temper, decrease in work efficiency, loss of hearing

which may be first temporary but can become permanent in the noise

stress continues. It is therefore of utmost importance that excessive noise is controlled. Noise

level is measured in terms of decibels (dB). VV.H.O. (1Norld Health Organization) has

prescribed optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB

is hazardous.

-.z-,

1 ' . . : . .. I• --= . ... I ► I "

Page-6

\ \

•

I

page-6

WATER POLLUTION Addition or presence of undesirable substances in water is called water

pollution. Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems. Water pollution

is caused by a variety of human activities

such as industrial, agricultural and domestic.

Agricultural run off laden with excess fertilizers and pesticides, industrial

effluents with toxic substances and sewage water with

human and animal wastes pollute our water

thoroughly. Natural sources of pollution of water are soil erosion, leaching of

minerals from rocks and decaying of organic matter. Rivers, lakes, seas, oceans,

estuaries and ground water sources may be polluted by

point or non-point sources.

page-7

page-8

SOIL POLLUTION Addition of substances which adversely affect the quality of soil or its fertility is known as

soil pollution. Generally polluted water also pollute

soil. Solid waste is a mixture of plastics,

cloth, glass, metal and organic matter, sewage, sewage sludge, building debris,

generated from households, commercial and industries establishments add to soil pollution. Fly ash, iron and steal slag, medical

and industrial wastes disposed on land are important sources

of soil pollution. In addition, fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural use which reach

soil as run-off and land filling by municipal waste are growing cause of soil pollution. Acid

rain and dry deposition of

pollutants on land surface also contribute to soil pollution.

page-9

page-10

RADIATION POLLUTION: SOURCES AND HAZARDS

Radiation pollution is the increase in over the natural background

radiation. There are many sources of radiation pollution

such as nuclear wastes from nuclear power plants,

mining and processing of nuclear material etc. The worse case of

nuclear pollution was the cherndoyl disaster in Russia occured

in 1988 but the effects still longer today.

page-11

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (ENVS) PROJECT

Name : Snehashis Das

College Roll No. : CEMA20M156

University Roll No. : 203223-21-0073

University Reg. No. : 223-1111-0356-20

Dept. : Chemistry

28

INDEX

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1 Introduction 1

2 Aim 2

3 Study Area 4

4 Methods 7

5 Observations 9

6 Result 10

7 Inferences 11

8 References 12

INTRODUCTION

ith the development of civilization and a gradual

increase in the world population, the demand for

quality drinking water has risen to a high level. Since, humans

are facing scarcity of water in many areas, around the world the

need of rainwater harvesting has come to light.

Here, we will discuss about rainwater harvesting and why do we

need to practise this culture in water-deficient regions. We will

cite the case of Amba Township, Gandhinagar, Gujarat where

people have been successful in inculcating this method into

practice have received quite satisfactory results.

W

PAGE-1

Aim:- Case studies of rainwater harvesting in India.

What is rainwater harvesting?

Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. It is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for households, and residential & household-scale

projects usually financed by the user.

Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit, aquifer, or a

reservoir with percolation. Rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as the runoff is collected from roofs, rather than creeks, drains, roads, or any other land surfaces. Its uses include

watering gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic heating. The

harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater recharge.

As the world population increases, the demand increases for quality drinking water. Surface and groundwater resources are being utilized faster than they can be recharged. Hence rainwater harvesting,

which is an old practice is now being adopted by many nations as a viable decentralized water source.

According to Kim et al. (2005), rainwater harvesting may be one of the best methods available to recovering the natural hydrologic cycle and enabling urban development to become sustainable. The

harvesting of rainwater has the potential to assist in alleviating pressures on current water supplies and

storm water drainage systems. Rainwater collection has the potential to impact many people in the world.

Demand for water is growing in most cities as every urban citizen requires almost double the amount of water that a rural citizen requires. Moreover, India is rapidly urbanizing. Urban population in India has

PAGE-2

grown almost five times in five decades from 1951 to 2011. Not long ago, most of our cities were self-

sufficient in meeting their water needs from the extensive urban water bodies to supply water to citizens. Today these water bodies have completely disappeared. Rainwater harvesting is practical only when the

volume and frequency of rainfall and size of the catchment surface can generate sufficient water for the

intended purpose.

Need of Rainwater Harvesting:-

As water is becoming scarce, it is the need of the day to attain self-sufficiency to fulfill the water

needs.

As urban water supply system is under tremendous pressure for supplying water to everincreasing population.

Groundwater is getting depleted and polluted.

Soil erosion resulting from the unchecked runoff. Health hazards due to consumption of polluted water.

Methods of Rainwater Harvesting:-

Roof-top Rainwater harvesting:- Rooftop rain water harvesting is the technique through which

rain water is captured from the roof catchments and stored in sub-surface ground water reservoir.The main objective of rooftop rain water harvesting is to make water available for future use.

Capturing and storing rain water for use is particularly important in dry-land, hilly, urban and

coastal areas.

Surface Rainwater harvesting:- The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional technique and

structures used are small dams (check dams), ponds, tanks, etc. Check dams are constructed in

natural channels to impound the runoff water up to certain depth in the channel the excess wateris allowed to flow over the dam. The impounded water slowly infiltrates into the soil and

recharges the ground water aquifer. Storage reservoirs for rainwater harvesting are surface or

above ground tanks and sub-surface or underground tanks.

PAGE-3

Artificially recharge the wells(Groundwater recharge):- Recharge to ground water is a new

concept of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are: pits, trenches, dug wells,

hand pumps, recharge shafts, lateral shaft with bore wells, spreading techniques, underground

reservoirs.

Study Area:- Amba Township, Gandhinagar, Gujarat

Amba Township is located at distance of 10kms from Gandhinagar, state-Gujarat (India).It lies between

latitude 23°11’17” N and longitude 72° 34’32” E. Amba Township is just on the outskirts of

Gandhinagar. The population of township is around 1000. Entire Amba Township contains 100 acres.

Entire Township is divided in five sector. But, currently we are study only sector-3 (A, B). This sector

holds various types of buildings 1RK, 1BHK, 2BHK, 3BHK, gym, library etc.

Fig-1 Location of study area

PAGE-4

Fig- 2 (a) Plan of Amba Township Fig-2 (b) Plan of Sector-3

Total Terrace Area of Sector-3(A, B) = 22011 Sq.m

Total Road Area of Sector-3(A, B) = 8000 Sq.m

Total Landscape Area of Sector-3(A, B) = 14011Sq.m _________________________________________________

Total Area of Sector-3(A, B) = 44022 Sq.m

The total area of roof top of all buildings in Amba Township is 22011 Sq.m and average annual

Rainfall in Gandhinagar is 740.3mm. Amba Township is 10kms away from the Gandhinagar, so there is

no water supply from Municipal of Gandhinagar. There is no any reliable source of water in Amba

Township. So there is need to dug a private bore wells in Amba Township. But day by day buildings are constructed and population of city are increasing as faster way. Due to this, water demand also

increase.

Population:-

So, in last 5 year the population of Amba Township is increase in this manner:-

Table-1: Population Data

Sr. No Year Population

1 2009 150

2 2010 250

3 2011 450

4 2012 700

5 2013 1000

So, in future the city will face a various water problems. Because ground water is depleted too much due to increase in water demand. So, to solve this problem Rain Water Harvesting is an only low cost

harvesting technique to solve this problem.

PAGE-5

Rainfall and Climate:-

Gandhinagar has a tropical wet and dry climate with three main season: summer, monsoon, winter. The

climate is generally dry and hot outside of the monsoon season. The weather is hot to severely hot

from March to June when maximum temperature is 45°c and minimum temperature is 10°c. The rain fall data of last 5 years is:-

Table-2: Monthly Average Rainfall data of Gandhinagar

Fig-3 Average annual rainfall data

Total average annual rainfall of Gandhinagar = 740.3mm

Sr.

No.

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1 2009 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 381.8 115.6 3.3 8.6 0 0

2 2010 0 0 0 0 0 81.8 341.6 307.5 168.8 0 20.9 0.6

3 2011 0 0 0 0 0 9.3 217 346 52.7 0 0 0

4 2012 1 0 0 0.4 0 40.5 65.4 233.1 257 0 0 0

5 2013 0 5.7 0 0.9 0 93.8 412.4 252.3 206.1 75.6 0.8 0

PAGE-6

Water Demand:-

As per IS Specification (IS 1172: 1993), Total water demand for one person = 135 lit/day

Total water demand = 135×1000

Annually total water demand = 365×135×1000

Annually total water demand = 4, 92, 75, 000 lit

Methods used for Rainwater Harvesting:-

1. Catchment area- It is the surface on which the rainwater falls. In this study all building’s roof and

all roads are taken as catchment area. This water can be used for recharging ground aquifers afterproper filtration.

2. Coarse mesh / leaf screen- It is used to prevent the entry of leaves and other debris in the system.

PAGE-7

3. Conduits- It can be of any material like PVC, GI or cast iron. In every building pipe network is

such that, all the water from roof of buildings can collect and flow on road surface as a drainageway. In Amba Township all roads levels are maintained such that water can flow by gravity from

higher elevation to lower elevation.

4. Drainage Network (Road network)- It is the network of road which can permit the easy flow of

rain water.

5. Percolation well- It is the well which collect rain water and store it as ground water. Percolation

tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with adequatepermeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground water. These can be built in

big campuses where land is available and topography is suitable.

Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in the tank

percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored water can be used directly forgardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in gardens, open spaces and roadside

green belts of urban area.

PAGE-8

In Amba Township in sector-3 (A, B) there are presently 4 Percolation well. Which collect all surface water and store it into ground water. There are total 5 sector in Amba Township which also collect

rainwater through road network so all the water are flow into direction towards main percolation well. So

that’s way ultimately main percolation well should be recharge.

Obsevations:-

In Amba Township in sector-3 (A, B) there are presently 4 Percolation well. Which collect all surface

water and store it into ground water. There are total 5 sector in Amba Township which also collect rain

water through road network so all the water are flow into direction towards main percolation well. So that’s way ultimately main percolation well should be recharge.

Area Description Runoff coefficient (K) Area description Runoff coefficient ( K )

Residential:- Industrial:-

Single-Family 0.30-0.50 Light 0.50-0.80

Multiunit, detached 0.40-0.60 Heavy 0.60-0.90

Multiunit, attached 0.60-0.75 Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25

Residential (suburban) 0.25-0.40 Play grounds 0.20-0.35

Apartment 0.50-0.70 Railroad yard 0.20-0.35

Pavement:- Lawns, sandy soil:-

Asphaltic and concrete 0.70-0.95 Flat, 2 percent 0.05-0.10

Brick 0.70-0.85 Average, 2-7 percent 0.10-0.15

Roofs 0.75-0.95 Steep, 7 percent 0.15-0.20

Rain water Harvesting by Terrace:-

Total Terrace Area of Sector-3 (A, B) A = 22011 Sq.m

Average Annual Rainfall in mm R = 740.3 mm = 0.740 m

Runoff co-efficient for a flat terrace C = 0.60

Annual water harvesting potential through total terrace = A × R × C = 22011 × 0.740 × 0.60

= 9772.884 cubic meter

= 97, 72,884 lit

PAGE-9

Rain water Harvesting by Surface Drainage:-

Total Road Area of Sector-3(A, B) A = 8000 Sq.m Average Annual Rainfall in mm R = 740.3 mm = 0.740 m

Runoff coefficient for a R.C.C road C = 0.82

Annual water harvesting through total Surface drainage = A × R × C

= 8000 × 0.740 × 0.82 = 4854.4 cubic meter

= 48, 54,400 lit

Annually Total Rain water Harvesting:-

Annually Total Rain water Harvesting

= (Total Rain water harvesting by roof-top) + (Total Rain Water harvesting by surface drainage) = (97, 72,884) + (48, 54,400)

Annually Total Rain water Harvesting = 1, 46, 27, 284 lit

Result:-

Here we have studied only for sector-3 (A, B), which collect annually 1, 46, 27, 284 lit water and this much amount of water can be absorbed by 4 percolations well and if there is high intensity of rainfall then

excess amount of runoff can be flown towards the main percolation well through the road network as

shown in figure-5 (A, B). So this way we can harvest the rain water and increase the ground water. We can harvest annually 1, 46, 27, 284 lit water which is 29.68% of total water demand. So by using

rainwater harvesting methods we can harvest and store the rain water into ground aquifer or into

percolation well.

Benefits of rain water harvesting by recharging well:-

This is an ideal solution of water problems where there is inadequate ground water supply or surface

resources are either lacking or insignificant.

To utilize the rainfall runoff, which is going to sewer or storm drains.

Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft in nature.

It will help in reducing the flood hazard.

PAGE-10

INFERENCES

We can see that, we can obtain 1, 46, 27, 284 lit of water annually. One of the most

logical steps towards this goal would be acknowledging the importance of

rainwater harvesting. This should not only encompass rooftop rainwater harvesting

but also storm water harvesting systems. Hence, an equal and positive thrust is

needed in developing and encouraging the water harvesting systems. We have to

catch water in every possible way and every possible place it falls. It can be

concluded from above findings that rainwater, if conserved and utilized using the

rainwater harvesting technology, can be an effective tool of replenishing ground

water resources. We can harvest total annually 1,46,27,284 lit water which is

29.68% of total water demand. So by using Rain water harvesting methods we can

harvest and store the rain water into ground aquifer or into percolation well.

PAGE-11

REFERENCES

www.google.com

www.quora.com

http://www.ambatownship.com

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhinagar

http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org

PAGE-12

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COLLEGE ROLL NO. : CEMA20M141

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO. : 203223210080

UNIVERSITY

REGISTRATION NO. : 2231111036920

PROJECT : ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

YEAR : 2021

27

(2)

Acknowledgement

I would like to earnestly acknowledge the sincere efforts and the valuable time given

by my professor Dr. Susmita Kar. Her valuable guidance and feedback have helped

me in completing this project.

Also, I would like to mention the support system and consideration of my parents

and friends who have always been there I my life. Without them, I would have never

had completed this task.

Thanks a lot.

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Table of Contents

Topic Page No.

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Holy Basil …………………………………………………………………………………………….……… 5

Neem ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

Housefly …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Mosquito …………………………………………………………………………………………….………. 8

Rohu .…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9

Hilsa ......……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10

House Sparrow ......…………………………………………………………………………………………. 11

Common Myna .....………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Cow ......………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Dog ……………………………………………………………………………………………….…….. 14

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15

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INTRODUCTION

Environmental Studies (E.V.S) has been an integral component of school education in one form

or the other for more than four decades. At present the concept, issues, and problems related

to environment are either integrated with different disciplines or introduced as a subject.

The aim of E.V.S. is to develop a world population that is aware of and

concerned about the environment and its associated problems and which has the knowledge,

skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively towards

solutions of current problems and prevention of new ones.

Probably the best way to understand this subject is by indulging oneself with its surroundings,

The more one studies the nature - the essential components related to it, the more one

becomes enriched with practical information and consequently gain awareness.

“Topic-III: Study of common plants, insects, fish, birds, mammals and basic principles of

identification” is the one I have chosen to go with as my following project.

Here,

The common plants chosen are – Holy Basil and Neem

The common insects chosen are – Housefly and Mosquito

The common fishes chosen are – Rohu and Hilsa

The common birds chosen are – House Sparrow and Common Myna

The common mammals chosen are – Cow and Dog

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Holy Basil

Scientific Name – Ocimum tenuiflorum

Local Name – Holy Basil or Tulsi

About the plant – It is an aromatic perennial plant in the family Lamiaceae. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and widespread as a cultivated plant throughout the Southeast Asian tropics. The stems are hairy and bear simple toothed or entire leaves

oppositely along the stem. The fragrant leaves are green or

purple, depending on the variety. The small purple or white

tubular flowers have green or purple sepals and are borne in

terminal spikes. The fruits are nutlets and produce numerous seeds.

Origin – A group of researchers from Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, have found that

this plant originates from North-Central India.

Uses – Tulsi is called the queen of all herbs, it is used widely in Ayurvedic and naturopathic

medicines which helps in the healing of the human body in a natural manner. Not only do Tulsi

leaves benefit people, but their flowers too. Some of the uses are as follows:

• Tulsi can help cure fever, common cold and sore throat,headaches etc.

• Tulsi leaves are used to treat skin problems like acne,blackheads and premature ageing.

• Tulsi is used to treat insect bites.

• Tulsi is also used to treat heart disease and respiratoryproblems like Asthma.

• Tulsi is effective in cure of kidney stones too.

Lifespan – With proper care and management it can survive more

than 4 years.

Basic Principles of Identification – Holy basil is an erect, many-branched subshrub, 30–60 cm

(12–24 in) tall with hairy stems. Leaves are green or purple; they are simple, petioled, with an

ovate, up to 5 cm (2.0 in)-long blade which usually has a slightly toothed margin; they are

strongly scented and have a decussate phyllotaxy.

Fig.1

Fig.2

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Neem

Scientific Name – Azadirachta indica

Local Name – Neem

About the plant – Neem is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta and is native to the Indian subcontinent and most of the countries in Africa. Neem trees can reach 15–30 metres (49–98 feet) in height and have attractive rounded crowns and thick furrowed bark. The compound leaves have toothed leaflets and are typically evergreen but do drop during periods of extreme drought. The small fragrant white flowers are bisexual or staminate (male) and are borne in clusters in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a smooth yellow-green drupe and has a sweet-flavoured pulp.

Origin – Neem is thought to have originated in Assam and Burma (where it is common

throughout the central dry zone and the Siwalik hills)

Uses – Nearly all parts of the neem tree are useful, and many of its medicinal and cosmetic uses

are based on its antibacterial and antifungal properties. Some of them are given below:

• Neem is commonly used in shampoos for treating dandruff and in

soaps or creams for skin conditions such as acne, psoriasis, and

athlete’s foot.

• It is also a component in some toothpastes and mouthwashes;

young twigs are used directly as crude toothbrushes in rural areas.

• Neem leaves have long been used as a traditional treatment for

diabetes, and there is some clinical evidence suggesting that it

may help control blood sugar levels.

• Neem oil and neem bark and leaves are unsafe for consumption

by pregnant women and can cause miscarriage.

• Neem leaf is used for leprosy, eye disorders, bloody nose,

intestinal worms etc.

Lifespan – Neem trees can live for up to 200 years.

Basic Principles of Identification – The vibrant green leaves are smooth and glossy with sharp,

serrated edges. Neem leaves grow on the branches of neem trees in groups of two, and each

branch produces around eight groupings. Neem leaves are extremely bitter and have a grassy

taste and aroma when torn. Neem trees also grow white, fragrant flowers and yellow, olive-like

fruit that has a bittersweet pulp.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

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Housefly

Scientific Name – Musca domestica

About the insect – The housefly is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It is believed to have evolved in the Cenozoic Era, possibly in the Middle East, and has spread all over the world as a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. The females tend to be larger winged than males, while males have relatively longer legs. The head is strongly convex in front and flat and slightly conical behind. The pair of large compound eyes almost touch in the male, but are more widely separated in the female. They have three simple eyes (ocelli) and

a pair of short antennae. Houseflies process visual information around seven times more quickly than

humans, enabling them to identify and avoid attempts to catch or swat them, since they effectively see the human's movements in slow motion with their higher flicker fusion rate.

Significance in nature – Houseflies play an important ecological role in breaking down and

recycling organic matter. Adults are mainly carnivorous; their primary food is animal matter,

carrion, and feces, but they also consume milk, sugary substances, and rotting fruit and

vegetables.

Diseases it spreads – The housefly's brief life cycle allows them to multiply quickly if left uncontrolled. Houseflies are known to carry over 100 diseases, including tuberculosis and cholera. Houseflies can fly for several kilometers from their breeding places, carrying a wide variety of organisms on their hairs, mouthparts, vomitus, and feces. Houseflies do not serve as a secondary host or act as a reservoir of any bacteria of medical or veterinary importance, but they do serve as mechanical vectors to over 100 pathogens, such as those causing typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, bacillary dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax, ophthalmia, and pyogenic cocci, making them especially problematic in hospitals and during outbreaks of certain diseases.

Lifespan – The life expectancy of a housefly is generally 15 to 30 days and depends upon

temperature and living conditions. Flies dwelling in warm homes and laboratories develop faster

and live longer than their counterparts in the wild.

Basic Principles of Identification – The adult house fly’s appearance makes them fairly easy to

identify; they have a dull gray body and four black vertical lines on the top of their bodies; along

with having one velvety gold stripe and one velvety silver stripe on their face. They have

specialized sponging mouthparts and large reddish-colored eyes.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

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Mosquito

Scientific Name – Culicidae

About the insect – Mosquitoes are members of a group of

about 3,500 species of small flies within the family Culicidae

(from the Latin culex meaning "gnat"). The word "mosquito"

(formed by mosca and diminutive -ito) is Spanish for "little

fly". Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of

wings, one pair of halteres, three pairs of long hair-like legs,

and elongated mouthparts.

Significance in nature – It is often said that mosquitoes serve no purpose other than to annoy humans. This is easy to believe as you are swatting away these bothersome insects while trying to enjoy the outdoors, but it is of course not true. Mosquitoes play an ecological role, serving as pollinators and as a food source for other wildlife.

Diseases it spreads – Viral diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever, and chikungunya, transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever is the most common cause of fever in travelers returning from the Caribbean, Central and South America, and South Central Asia.

• The parasitic diseases collectively called malaria, caused by various species ofPlasmodium, carried by female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles.

• Tularemia, a bacterial disease caused by Francisella tularensis, is variously transmitted,including by biting flies. Culex and Culiseta are vectors of tularemia, as

well as arbovirus infections such as West Nile virus.

• Zika, recently notorious, though rarely deadly. It causesfever, joint pain, rashes and conjunctivitis.

• St. Louis Encephalitis, a mosquito-borne disease that ischaracterized by fever and headaches upon initial onset of

infection, arises from mosquitos who feed on birds who are infected with the illness, and can result in death. The most common vector of this disease is Culex pipiens, also known as the

common house mosquito.

Lifespan – Male mosquitoes will live only 6 or 7 days on average, feeding primarily on plant

nectar, and do not take blood meals. Females with an adequate food supply can live up to 5

months or longer, with the average female life span being about 6 weeks.

Basic Principles of Identification – Adult mosquitoes (family Culicidae) are slender, fragile, long-legged insects. An adult mosquito has all of the following three characteristics:

• a long proboscis (biting organ) protruding from the head and this proboscis is severaltimes longer than the head itself;

• one pair of wings; and

• scales present on the veins of the wings and a fringe of scales on the hind edge(magnification will be required to see these veins and the scales).

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

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Rohu

Scientific Name – Labeo rohita

Local Name – Rohu; Rui

About the fish – It is a species of fish of the carp family,

found in rivers in South Asia. It is a large omnivore and

extensively used in aquaculture.

The rohu is a large, silver-colored fish of

typical cyprinid shape, with a conspicuously arched head.

Adults can reach a maximum weight of 45 kg (99 lb) and

maximum length of 2 m (6.6 ft), but average

around 1⁄2 m (1.6 ft).

Habitat – The rohu occurs in rivers throughout much of

northern and central and eastern India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Nepal and

Myanmar, and has been introduced into some of the rivers of Peninsular India and Sri Lanka.

Ecology – The species is an omnivore with specific food preferences at different life stages.

During the early stages of its lifecycle, it eats mainly zooplankton, but as it grows, it eats

more and more phytoplankton, and as a juvenile or adult is an herbivorous column feeder,

eating mainly phytoplankton and submerged vegetation. It has modified, thin hair-like gill

rakers, suggesting that it feeds by sieving the water.

They generally spawn during the monsoon season, keeping to the middle of flooded rivers

above tidal reach. The spawning season of rohu generally coincides with the southwest

monsoon. Spawn may be collected from rivers and reared in tanks and lakes.

Lifespan – Rohu fish lives on average between 8 years to 10 years.

Basic Principles of Identification – Mouth, eye and fin colour were found to be the most

promising characters in identification. Mouth gap or

opening of rohu is square or somewhat circular and

small. Lower lip of rohu showed fringed character in

addition to inner fold. It might be noted that the fringed

lower lip was found only in rohu and it is the most typical

character of rohu.

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

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Hilsa

Scientific Name – Tenualosa ilisha

Local Name – Ilish; Hilsa etc.

About the fish – It is a species of fish

related to the herring, in the family

Clupeidae. It is a very popular and sought-

after food fish in the Indian Subcontinent.

The most famous hilsa fish comes from

Chandpur District, Bangladesh. It is the

national fish of Bangladesh and the state

fish of West Bengal. The fish contributes

about 12% of the total fish production and about 1.15% of GDP in Bangladesh. About

450,000 people are directly involved in the catching of the fish as a large part of their

livelihood; around four to five million people are indirectly involved with the trade.

Habitat – It inhabits freshwater rivers, estuaries and marine environments. The hilsa is a

unique commercial fish in the Indo-Pacific region, especially in Bangladesh, India and

Myanmar. It is an important migratory species in the Bay of Bengal, Persian Gulf, red Sea,

Arabian Sea, Vietnam Sea and China Sea. Its riverine habitats include the Satil Arab; the

Tigris and Euphrates of Iran and Iraq; the Indus of Pakistan; the Irrawaddy of Myanmar; the

Ganga, Bhagirathi, Hooghly, Rupnarayan, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Narmada, Tapti and other

coastal rivers of India; and the Padma, Jamuna (Brahmaputra), Meghna, Tetulia, Karnafuly

Andhermanik, Bashkhali, Baleshor, and other coastal rivers of Bangladesh.

Ecology – Hilsa mainly migrate through the largest water body – the Padma-Meghna river

system, for breeding and feeding purposes. They spend their different life stages in different

habitats, therefore food and feeding strategies may vary in different ecosystems. The

species filter feeds on plankton and by grubbing muddy bottoms. The fish schools in coastal

waters and ascends up the rivers (anadromous) for around 50 – 100 km to spawn during the

southwest monsoons (June to September) and also in January to April.

Lifespan – Hilsa normally has a life expectancy of four to five years if not fished out.

Basic Principles of Identification – It has a

metallic silver-coloured body covered with

regularly arranged medium-sized scales. It has a

large-fat belly in which the mid-section is wider.

The nape area is also wide and the tail is narrow

and pointed. Eyes are generally white, sometimes

red in color, but clear. There is an undertone for

the fish which can be pink, red or yellow in color.

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

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House Sparrow

Scientific Name – Passer domesticus

About the bird – The house sparrow is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. It is a small bird that has a typical length of 16 cm (6.3 in) and a mass of 24–39.5 g. Females and young birds are colored pale brown and grey, and males have brighter black, white, and brown markings. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the house sparrow is native to most of Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, and a large part of Asia.

Habitat – The house sparrow originated in the Middle East and spread, along with agriculture, to most of Eurasia and parts of North Africa Its intentional or accidental introductions to many regions, including parts of Australasia, Africa, and the Americas, make it the most widely distributed wild bird. The only terrestrial habitats that the house sparrow does not inhabit are dense forest and tundra. Well adapted to living around humans, it frequently lives and even breeds indoors, especially in factories, warehouses, and zoos.

Effects on Ecosystem – House sparrows are abundant near human habitations. In these areas they serve as an important prey base for birds of prey and they may have an impact on plant communities because they consume large quantities of seeds. House sparrows seriously impact populations of native birds, such as bluebirds, chickadees, cliff swallows, and some woodpeckers. House sparrows take over the nesting cavities of native birds, including expelling adults and nestlings by force.

Lifespan – House Sparrow survives for about 3 years in the wild, and for about 13 years if taken

care of.

Basic Principles of Identification – The house sparrow can be confused with a number of other

seed-eating birds, especially its relatives in the

genus Passer. But for proper identification,

one must remember that the House Sparrow

is a stout, stocky sparrow, with shorter legs

and a thicker bill than indigenous American

sparrows. Members of both sexes are brown

backed with black streaks throughout this

area. Its underside is pale buff. Males have

white cheeks and a black bib, while females

do not. The tail is usually three-quarters the

length of the wing. Wing length is 76 mm

and average mass is 28.5 grams.

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

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Common Myna

Scientific Name – Acridotheres tristis

About the bird – The common myna or Indian myna is a member of the family Sturnidae native

to Asia. They range in body length from 23 to 26 cm,

weigh anywhere from 82 to 143 grams, and have a

wingspan of 120 to 142 mm. The female and the

male are monomorphic for the most part – the male

is only slightly larger, with a greater body mass and

wingspan.

An omnivorous open woodland bird with a strong

territorial instinct, the common myna has adapted

extremely well to urban environments.

Habitat – Common mynas occupy a wide range of

habitats in warm areas with access to water. In their

native range, common mynas inhabit open

agricultural areas such as farmlands as well as cities. They are often found on the outskirts of

towns and also outlying homesteads in desert or forest. They tend to avoid dense vegetation.

They are most common in dry woodlands and partly open forests. On the Hawaiian Islands, they

have been reported from elevations of sea level to 3000 meters. Common mynas prefer to roost

in isolated stands of tall trees with dense canopies.

Effects on Ecosystem – Common mynas are important pollination or seed-dispersal agents for

many plants and trees. On the Hawaiian Islands they disperse the seeds of Lantana camara.

They also help control cutworms (Spodoptera mauritia) on the Hawaiian Islands. Common

mynas also act as hosts for various parasites such as nematodes, tapeworms, trematode flukes,

arthropods, and bird mites. In areas where they have been introduced they negatively impact

native bird and seabird species by preying on eggs and nestlings.

Lifespan – The life expectancy of common mynas are roughly around 4 years in wild.

Basic Principles of Identification – The common

myna is readily identified by the brown body, black

hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the

eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. There is a

white patch on the outer primaries and the wing

lining on the underside is white.

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

(13)

Cow

Scientific Name – Bos taurus

About the mammal – Cow, in common parlance, a domestic bovine, regardless of sex and age, usually of the species Bos taurus. In precise usage, the name is given to mature females who has offspring. Domestic cows are one of the most common farm animals around the world. The size and weight of a cow is highly dependent on the breed. Both males and females have horns, and although these may be short in many breeds, they can grow to be spectacularly large. Cows are well adapted for grazing, with a wide mouth and specialized teeth for eating tough vegetation. Adults have 32 teeth but lack upper incisors and canines—they have a gummy pad instead that is used to help rip up grass. They are also known as ruminants; meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the use of poorly digestible plants as food.

Uses – They benefit the humans and the environment in many ways that we fail to recognize or

appreciate.

• They give us milk and meat which is necessary for growth in our body

• Cow dung is used in planting and makes our plants grow with more nutrients.

• The give us horns which are used for musical instruments.

• They are beasts of burden, for people who don't have mechanical farming machines can

use cows to plough their fields.

Inhuman torture – In spite of being so helpful, cows are tortured, for the mere cruel need of humans, in such a horrible way one can ever imagine. Just after a day when their calves are born, mother cows are taken away, and antibiotics and hormones are pumped into their body forcefully to make them produce more milk. They are slaughtered enormously for exporting huge quantity of meat, for need of skin to make leather etc. They are also beaten harshly during ploughing the field and also when serving as a medium of

transport especially in the villages.

Lifespan – The average expectancy of cows is between

18 years to 22 years.

Basic Principles of Identification – A cow can be

identified easily as it is four-footed and has a large body.

It has two horns, two eyes plus two ears and one nose

and a mouth. They have homodont teeth and are

herbivorous in nature. Moreover, they have a stomach

consisting of 4 chambers and they regurgitate.

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

(14)

Dog

Scientific Name – Canis lupus familiaris

About the mammal – The domestic dog is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. The dog

evolved from the gray wolf into more than

400 distinct breeds. Although details about

the evolution of dogs are uncertain, the first

dogs were hunters with keen senses of sight

and smell. Humans developed these

instincts and created new breeds as need or

desire arose.

Uses – They are a popular pet because they are

usually playful, friendly, loyal and listen to humans.

• For more than 12,000 years it has lived with humans as a hunting companion, protector,

object of scorn or adoration, and friend.

• Dogs can help reduce stress levels in human beings and are often used for therapeutic

purposes in hospitals, nursing homes and hospices.

• Dogs raised as service, assistance or therapy animals can open up the world for disabled

individuals.

• Dogs provide a sense of security for human companions. Trained watchdogs can provide

a high degree of security, while even small house dogs can offer a sense of protection by

alerting their owners to approaching strangers or unusual circumstances in the home.

Inhuman torture – Street dogs are victim to many domestic violence. Sometimes they are

brought up as pets but afterwards get neglected. They are not taken care of anymore and lead

an uncertain life. People throw hot water on them or try to put color on them for fun. But all

these induce skin allergies and inflammation in dogs which lead to rashes and hair fall.

Lifespan – The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among

breeds, but for most, the median longevity ranges from 10

to 13 years.

Basic Principles of Identification – It is a four-legged

animal having two ears, two eyes, a tail, a snout mouth,

and a nose. They have a heterodont teeth with sharp

canines and are omnivorous in nature. They are usually

shorter in heights and have a strong smelling power.

Fig. 19

Fig. 10

(15)

Conclusion

Out of the four topics assigned, I found this one to be simpler yet an interesting project for me

to work on.

Living with someone or something does not necessarily mean knowing it. Keeping this in mind, I

had tried to highlight a few points about the common living beings that we see around us on an

average.

Starting from the medicinal uses of plants to the tortures faced by animals, we should be aware

of all these facts. And the moment we become aware; the next step is that we conserve.

Knowledge without application is useless and application without proper knowledge is pointless.

So, we must know to defend our self-less givers such as plants, cows etc. and rules and

regulations should be made so strict such that none dares to violate them.

Thus, we may feel that we are all quite familiar with the common plants, insects, birds,

mammals etc. around us but we are not all aware of the facts regarding them and their

importance in our everyday life.

Topic III opens the opportunity to study the above-mentioned scenario and thus I have chosen it

as my project.

References: The internet sources that have helped me in completing the project are –

Britannica, Edible Wild Food, NCBI, NWF.ORG, Orkin, PharmEasy, RxList, Wikipedia.

College Roll No. - CEMA20M142

26

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank my subject teachers of AECC ENVS

for providing me with adequate study materials for this

topic and encouraging me to do this project

systematically. I would also like to thank my mother

and brother, because without their timely help and

guidance, it was impossible for me to opt and work on

this project.

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

PROJECT WORK

“STUDY OF COMMON BIRDS, INSECTS,PLANTS, MAMMALS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES

OF IDENTIFICATION”

C.U. ROLL NO: 203223-21-0092

C.U. REGISTRATION NO: 223-1111-0389-20

COLLEGE ROLL NO: CEMA20M144

26

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to my Environment Studies teacher Dr.

Susmita Kar madam for her able guidance and support in completing my

project.I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Principal Madam

Dr.Madhumanjari Mandal and Vice Principal Sir Mr.Supratim Das for

providing me with all the facilities that was required.

Finally I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in finishing

this project within the limited period of time . It helped me to increase my

knowledge and my skills .

Date: 06.07.2021 Shaunak Roy

Semester Ⅱ

CEMA20M144

CONTENTS

STUDY OF BIRDS 1-5

● INTRODUCTION 1● BAYA WEAVER 2● INDIAN RING-NECKED PARROT 3● COMMON BULBUL 4● ROCK DOVE 5

STUDY OF INSECTS 6-9

● INTRODUCTION 6● INDIAN MEAL MOTH 7● MOSQUITO 8● PILL BUG 9

STUDY OF PLANTS 10-13

● INTRODUCTION 10● MARGOSA TREE 11● ALOE VERA 12● PERIWINKLE 13

STUDY OF MAMMALS 14-17

● INTRODUCTION 14● DOG 15● CAT 16● COW 17

CONCLUSION 18-19

1

INTRODUCTION

BIRDS

Birds are ready visitors that visit frequently from place to place even fromcontinent to continent.A good number of birds visit different sites due tochange of environment particularly for their feed and reproduction.Thecharacteristic features of birds are the presence of feathers and most ofthem can fly.They posses beak and wings.Skin is dry and generally havescales.Endoskeleton is ossified and long bones are hollow with air cavities.They are oviparous animals.

Here we will study about some common birds and basic principles of theiridentification.

2

OBSERVATION

BAYA WEAVER

● Common English Name: Baya weaver

● Bengali Name: Babui

● Scientific Name: Ploceus philippinus● Distribution: In plain with low altitude; found across indian

subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

● Characters: Chirping and roosting more time ;very swift

movement,they are best known for their hanging retort shaped nests

woven from leaves.

● Diet: They depend upon wild grasses such as Guinea Grass

(Panicum maximum) as well as crop like paddy for both their food

and nesting materials and also feed on insects.

3

INDIAN RING-NECKED PARROT● Common English Name: Indian ring-necked parrot

● Bengali Name: Tiya,

● Scientific Name: Psittacula krameri manillensis

● Distribution:Indian Sub-continent. All parts of the plain.They live inevergreen forests and also can live in the hilly areas.

● Characters:Indian Ringnecks are intelligent parrots and do makegreat pets. They learn concepts quickly and love to show off. Alongwith being intelligent, they are great at talking. Quaker Parakeets areknown for their talking ability; however, an Indian Ringneck can speakwith clarity that's phenomenal.

● Diet:Parrots eat fresh vegetables, fruits, pellets or seeds.Theyusually eat apples, bananas, grapes, mango, papaya, nuts etc.

4

COMMON BULBUL

● Common English Name:Common Bulbul

● Bengali Name: Bulbuli

● Scientific Name:Pycnonotus barbatus

● Distribution:In all parts of the plain and even in low altitude of hillyareas.It can be found throughout the tropical countries of SouthernAsia like India ,Sri Lanka ,Southern China, Philippines, Indonesia,Japan.

● Characters:Clever and very intelligent.. Bulbuls are short-neckedslender passerines. The tails are long and the wings short androunded.

● Diet:This species eats fruit, nectar, seeds,insects.

5

ROCK DOVE● Common English Name: Rock dove

● Bengali Name: payra

● Scientific Name: Columba livia

● Distribution: Indian Sub-continent. All parts of the plain. They oftenlive on or near large,rocky cliffs.They live in the south of Himalayanrange in India.

● Characters:The rock dove has a dark bluish-gray head, neck, andchest with glossy yellowish, greenish, and reddish-purple iridescencealong its neck and wing feathers. Females tend to show lessiridescence than the males. The bill is dark grayish-pink.

● Diet: Rock doves feed in the early morning and in the midafternoonon the open ground.They eat mainly seeds including corn, oats,cherry, barley.In cities feral pigeons also eat popcorn,cake, peanuts,bread etc.

6

INTRODUCTION

INSECTS

Insects are a class in the phylum Arthropoda. They are small terrestrialinvertebrates which have a hard exoskeleton. Insects are the largest groupof animals on earth by far: about 926,400 different species have beendescribed. They are more than half of all known living species. They maybe over 90% of animal species on Earth. New species of insects arecontinually being found. Estimates of the total number of species rangefrom 2 million to 30 million .Insects have six legs; and most have wings.Insects were the first animals capable of flight. As they develop from eggs,insects undergo metamorphosis. Insects live all over the planet: almost allare terrestrial (live on land). Few insects live in the oceans or in very coldplaces, such as Antarctica. Most species live in tropical areas.

Here we will discuss some insects and basic principles of theiridentification.

7

OBSERVATION

INDIAN MEAL MOTHThe Indian meal moth was given its name after an insect scientist found itfeeding on corn meal, also known as Indian meal. They typically live fromtwo to six months.

Size: 5/8" Shape: Elongated, oval

Color: Copper reddish Legs: 6

Wings: Yes Antenna: Yes

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Pyralidae Species: Plodiainterpuctella

➤ Diet: Indian meal moths feed on dried fruits, grains, seeds, nuts,chocolate, candies, bird seed, dog food, powdered milk, dried red peppersand candy.

❖ Habitat: Attracted to the light, these bugs are found in bright placeswhere food is stored like restaurants and grocery stores.

➤Impact:Moths infest foods and can contaminate food products by leavingskin and waste behind.

❖ Prevention: Store food in sealed containers. Discard infested foodsin outdoor trash bins. Clean infested cupboards thoroughly with avacuum and soap and water.

8

MOSQUITOThere are about 170 different kinds of mosquitoes in North America alone.These pests are part of the same family as house flies and fruit flies,because they all have two clear, veined wings. Best known as a summerpest, Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in 10 to 14 days.

Size: 1/4" to 3/8" Shape: Narrow, oval

Color: Pale brown with whitish stripes across the abdomen.

Legs: 6 Wings: Yes

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta Order: Diptera

Family: Culicidae Species: Varies

➤ Diet: We usually say, "I have been bitten by a mosquito", but this is notcompletely true. Mosquitoes do not bite. Female mosquitoes feed on plantnectar and blood. They need the protein to reproduce. To get to the blood,they pierce our skin with their "proboscis" and suck our blood. Malemosquitoes feed exclusively on plant nectars. Mosquitoes are busiest atnight and will fly up to 14 miles for a blood meal. They hunt for food bydetecting body heat and Carbon Dioxide, the gas we breathe out.

Habitat: Mosquitoes breed in soft, moist soil or stagnant water sourcessuch as storm drains, old tires, children's wading pools and bird baths.

➤ Impact: Mosquitoes spread diseases such as West Nile Virus, malariaand dengue fever.

Prevention: Replace all stagnant water at least once a week. Removetrash from around any standing water.When sleeping outdoors or in areaswhere mosquito populations are heavy, surround your bed with "mosquito"netting.

9

PILL BUGThe pillbug is the only crustacean that can spend its entire life on land.Their shells look like armor and they are known for their ability to roll into aball. Sometimes children call them rollie-pollies. Most pill bugs live for up totwo years. They are most active at night.

Size: 3/4" Shape: Oval

Color: Dark brown to black Wings: No

Antenna: Yes

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Malacostraca Order: Isopoda

Family: Armadillidiidae Species: Armadillidium Vulgare

➤ Diet: Pill bugs mostly eat rotting vegetation like vegetables.

➤Habitat: Pill bugs live in wet locations. They are found under dampobjects or in organic garbage. If Pill bugs enter a building, they will oftendry out and die.

➤ Impact:Pill bugs do not spread diseases or contaminate food

➤ Prevention: Keep your homes and the areas around your home cleanand dry. Eliminate food sources such as vegetable or plant debris.

10

INTRODUCTION

PLANTS

Plants are critical to other life on this planet because they form the basis ofall food webs. Most plants are autotrophic, creating their own food usingwater, carbon dioxide, and light through a process called photosynthesis.Some of the earliest fossils found have been aged at 3.8 billion years.These fossil deposits show evidence of photosynthesis, so plants, or theplant-like ancestors of plants, have lived on this planet longer than mostother groups of organisms. At one time, anything that was green and thatwasn't an animal was considered to be a plant. Now, what were onceconsidered "plants" are divided into several kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, andPlantae.Most aquatic plants occur in the kingdoms Plantae and Protista.

Here we will study about some plants and the principles of theiridentification.

11

OBSERVATION

MARGOSA TREE● Scientific name:Azadirachta indica.

● Vernacular Name: Neem, Kadu-limb

● Source:The leaves, bark, flowers, fruits and seeds are used asdrugs.

● Family & Distribution:Meliaceae is native to Burma but grown allover India. In Sangola taluka neem is found on a large scale in ruraland urban places. Some important places like Narale, Sangola,Spinning mill, Hatid, Walegaon, Andhalgaon, Wasteland of Sangola, itis recorded in garden, School and Colleges, Akola and Mangewadietc.

● Chemical composition:The alkaloids are the main active principles.They are nimbin, nimbinin, nimbidin,nimbosterine and nimbectin etc.fatty acids are present in the plant and seed contain 40 to45 % fixedoil.

● Uses:The leaves are carminative, expectorant, anthelmintic, diureticand insecticidal properties. Fresh leaf juice with salt given forintestinal worms, jaundice, skin disease and malarial fever. Theleaves are applied for boils, chronic ulcers, swelling and wounds.Bark is used for liver complaints, removing roundworms. Gum is astimulant, demulcent tonic and used in debility.

12

ALOE VERA● Scientific Name: Aloe barbadensis Miller.

● Vernacular Name: Korphad, Gritakumari

● Source: Thick fleshy leaves (Pulp, dried, juice) are used as drugs.

● Family & Distribution: Liliaceae, it is native to the West Indies orMediterranean region. It grows wild in hot dry valleys of WesternHimalayas and southern, Northern part of India. Sangola is one of thedrought regions. It is mainly distributed in every place in rural areas,some of the important places like Waki, Mahud, Chindepir, Rajuri,Sangola, Jawala and Gherdi. It is a xerophytic plant.

● Chemical composition:The main active principle present in Aloe iscrystalline glucoside known as barbaloin, other constituent like resinand derivatives like emodin, chrysophanic acid, anthraquinones,hemoclin, also it contain glucose, galactose, mannose andgalacturonic acid with protein. The plant contains aloesone andaloesin.

● Uses:Aloe is chiefly used as purgative, abortifacient, anthelmintic,blood purifier, cathartic, cooling, digestive and diuretic, inflammation,and painful parts of the body. It is useful in burns, cold cough,jaundice, worms and piles. Aloe is used in preparation of vegetables,pickles, cosmetics, skin blemishes, and helps to grow new healthytissue. It is used as a hair tonic as it stimulates the growth of hair.

13

PERIWINKLEScientific Name: Catharanthus roseus Don.

Vernacular Name: Sadaphuli, sadabahar

Source: The dried leaves and roots of this plant used as drugs.

Family & distribution: Apocynaceae, the plant is probably indigenous toMadagascar. It is cultivated in South Africa, West Indies, Srilanka, India,U.S.A., Europe and Australia as an ornamental plant. It is also cultivated forits medicinal properties, in the garden. In India, it is grown in Nilgiri,Kanyakumari and Kottayam etc. In Sangola it is distributed to each andevery waste land, domestic places and gardens. Plant is observed in ruralareas like Wanichinchale, Medsingi, Walegaon, Kadlas, Sangola, andAndhalgaon.

Chemical composition: Catharanthus mainly consists of glycosides andalkaloids. The alkaloids are present in the entire plant but they are found inmore proportion in leaves and root. Some important alkaloids arevinblastine, vincristine, other alkaloids present in the plant are ajmalicine,serpentine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, vindoline, vindolinine andcatharanthine.

Uses:It is used in hypotensive, antidiabetic action, other dimerindole-indoline used for curing the anticancer activity. The alkaloidsvincristine is highly active in treatment of childhood leukaemia. Vincristineproves effective in breast cancer and the leaves are used in diabetes.

14

INTRODUCTION

MAMMALS

Mammal, (class Mammalia), any member of the group of vertebrateanimals in which the young are nourished with milk from special mammaryglands of the mother. In addition to these characteristic milk glands,mammals are distinguished by several other unique features.They havetwo pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing,swimming and flying.The skin of mammals is unique in possessinghair.External ears or pinnae are present.They are homoiothermous.Respiration is by lungs and heart is four-chambered.

Here we will study about some mammals and the principles of theiridentification.

15

OBSERVATION

DOGThe domestic dog is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. The dogderived from an ancient, extinct wolf and the modern grey wolf is the dog'snearest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated byhunter-gatherers over 15,000 years ago, before the development ofagriculture.

● Scientific name: Canis lupus familiaris.● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Chordata● Class: Mammalia● Order: Carnivora● Family: Canidae● Subfamily: Caninae● Tribe: Canini● Genus: Canis● Species: C.familiaris● Life span: 10 to 13 years

Characteristics: Each breed of dog may have its own special traits likefluffy fur, floppy ears, curly tails, spots. But dogs still share a commonanatomy , or physical make up.They possess special ability of smell andtaste.A dog can hear about 4times better than human beings.Diet: Domesticated dogs are largely carnivores but can also eat plantbased foods .Influence on human society: The dogs perform many roles for humans,such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and themilitary, companionship, therapy, and aiding disabled people. This influenceon human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend."

16

CATThe cat is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the onlydomesticated species in the family Felidae and is often referred to as thedomestic cat to distinguish it from the wild members of the family.

● Scientific name: Felis catus● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Chordata● Class: Mammalia● Order: Carnivora● Family: Felidae● Genus: Felis● Species: F.catus● Life span: 2-16 years● Size: 46 cm (without tail)

Characteristics: The cat is similar in anatomy to the other felid species: ithas a strong flexible body, quick reflexes, sharp teeth and retractable clawsadapted to killing small prey. Its night vision and sense of smell are welldeveloped. Cat communication includes vocalizations like meowing,purring, trilling, hissing, growling and grunting as well as cat-specific bodylanguage. A predator that is most active at dawn and dusk (crepuscular),the cat is a solitary hunter but a social species. It can hear sounds too faintor too high in frequency for human ears.Diet: Cats are obligate carnivores, which means that they rely on nutrientsfound only in animal products.Influence on human society: ats are common pets throughout the worldand their worldwide population as of 2007exceeded 500 million. [182] Catshave been used for millennia to control rodents, notably around grainstores and aboard ships, andboth uses extend to the present day.

17

COWCows are large domesticated cloven-hoofed herbivores. They are aprominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the mostwidespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classifiedcollectively as Bos taurus.

● Scientific name: Bos taurus● Kingdom: Animalia● Phylum: Chordata● Class: Mammalia● Order : Artiodactyla● Family: Bovidae● Genus: Bos● Species: B.taurus

Characteristics: Cows are intelligent animals with an innate sense ofcuriosity. They have a full range of personality traits that can includeboldness, shyness, sociability, excitability, and more. Cows have a naturalhesitancy and fear of the unknown; and do not like change.Most breedshave horns for defense.Diet: Cows are herbivores. They usually eat grass, hay, grains, vegetables,fruits etc.Influence on human society: Cows are commonly raised as livestock formeat (beef or veal, see beef cattle), for milk (see dairy cattle), and forhides, which are used to make leather. They are used as riding animalsand draft animals. Another product of cattle is their dung, which can beused to create manure or fuel. In some regions, such as parts of India,cattle have significant religious meaning. Cows, mostly small breeds suchas the Miniature Zebu, are also kept as pets.

18

CONCLUSIONBIRDSWe conclude that species spatial distributions are directly affected by globalwarming and subsequently climate change. In general terms it has beenstated by the scientific community that the distribution of species has beenmoving in a poleward trend. Within the realm of our study we found noconclusive evidence to prove or disprove this statement. The evidence thatwe did find and cited leads us to the conclusion that the distribution ofspecies is in fact being altered by climate change, but we were unable todetermine exactly what that change was. This project focused on birdspecies (as we found they were ideal indicators of species shifts due to thefact that their patterns of movement are already larger and more immediatethan other organisms. This and the fact that bird movements andmigrations are well documented are the reason we chose to focus ourstudy on birds). Evidence found specifically from birds shows that there is acorrelation between bird population characteristics and alterations inclimatic factors such as temperature and precipitation. The change inpopulation characteristics shows that some sort of shift or generally trendedmovement is occurring.

INSECTSInsects play many important roles in nature.bacteria, fungi, and otherorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter and in soil formation. Thedecay of carrion, for example, brought about mainly by bacteria, isaccelerated by the maggots of flesh flies and blowflies. The activities ofthese larvae, which distribute and consume bacteria, are followed by thoseof moths and beetles, which break down hair and feathers Insects andflowers have evolved together. Many plants depend on insects forpollination. Some insects are predators of others.

19

PLANTSEach plant is characterized by one of the three life histories: haploid (1n),diploid (2n), or the most common haploid-diploid. Within each of thesethree types, there are also variations. Of the plants with haploid life cycles,most algae lack a dikaryotic phase, while most fungi have a dikaryoticphase. There are also other algae and fungi that are characterized bydiploid life cycles. Lastly, plants with a haploid-diploid life history undergoan alternation of generations, either similar or dissimilar. In all of these lifecycles, asexual reproduction may occur, but it is sexual reproduction that isresponsible for genetic diversity. Due to variations arising separately and atdifferent rates, the evolution of land plants did not follow a linear sequence.Before land plants, alga with mostly haploid life cycles existed, but landplants later originated from a haploid-diploid ancestor.

MAMMALSMost mammals are intelligent, with some possessing large brains,self-awareness, and tool use. Mammals can communicate and vocalize inseveral ways, including the production of ultrasound, scent-marking, alarmsignals, singing, and echolocation. Mammals can organize themselves intofission-fusion societies, harems, and hierarchies-but can also be solitaryand territorial.Domestication of many types of mammals by humans playeda major role in the Neolithic revolution, and resulted in farming replacinghunting and gathering as the primary source of food for humans. This led toa major restructuring of human societies from nomadic to sedentary, withmore cooperation among larger and larger groups, and ultimately thedevelopment of the first civilizations. Domesticated mammals provided, andcontinue to provide, power for transport and agriculture, as well as food(meat and dairy products), fur, and leather. Mammals are also hunted andraced for sport, and are used as model organisms in science. Mammalshave been depicted in art since Paleolithic times, and appear in literature,film, mythology, and religion. Decline in numbers and extinction of manymammals is primarily driven by human poaching and habitat destruction,primarily deforestation.

20

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Shaunak Roy, a student of semester Ⅱ, Chemistry

honors, C.U. roll no. 203223-21-0092, C.U. registration no.223-1111-0389-20, college roll no. CEMA20M144, successfully completed

an Environmental Studies project on the topic of “ Study of commonbirds, insects, plants, mammals and basic principles of identification”under the guidance of Dr. Susmita Kar .

Date: 06.07.2021

Teacherʼs Signature

21

BIBLIOGRAPHY

● Asthana, D.K. (2006) Text Book of Environmental Studies,

S.Chand publishing.

● Basu, M., Xavier, S.(2016) Fundamentals of EnvironmentalStudies, Cambridge University Press, India.

● Basy, R.N.,(Ed) (2000), Environment. University of Calcutta,

Kolkata.

● Bharucha,E.(2013) Textbook of Environmental Studies forUndergraduate Courses, Universities Press.

● De, A.K.,(2006) Environmental Chemistry , 6th Edition, New age

International, New Delhi.

● Wikipedia

22

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

PROJECT WORK

TOPIC –

‘ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION’

COLLEGE ROLL- CEMA20M145

C.U. ROLL- 203223-21-0093

C.U. REGISTRATION NO. -223-1111-0393-20

26

1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to my teacher Dr. Susmita Kar

madam for her able guidance and support in completing my project.I

would also like to extend my gratitude to the Principal Madam

Dr.Madhumanjari Mandal and Vice Principal Sir Mr.Supratim Das for

providing me with all the facilities that was required.

Finally I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in finishing

this project within the limited period of time . It helped me to increase

my knowledge and my skills .

Date: 06.07.2021 Sincerely,

Mrinmoy Deb Choudhury

Semester- 2

CEMA20M145

2

CONTENTS

● INTRODUCTION 3

● ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 3

● FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 4

●MAIN CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 5

1. Population growth 6

2. Increased General Affluence and Economic Growth 6

3. Nature of Modern Technology 7

4. Deforestation 8

5. Agricultural Development 10

6. Industrial Development 12

7. Urbanization 13

8. Unplanned Urbanization 14

9. Coal Burnt Thermal Power Plants 15

● CONCLUSION 17

● REFERENCES 18

3

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

INTRODUCTION:

The concept of environment is as old as the concept of the

nature itself. It is a composite term referring to conditions in which

organisms consisting of air, water, food, sunlight etc., thrive and

become living sources of life for- all the living and non-living beings

including plant life. The term also includes atmospheric temperature,

wind and its velocity.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION:

Before understanding what “Environmental Pollution” is it is

equally necessary to-know what “pollution” is. The Royal Commission

on Environmental Pollution in U.K. in its third report gave the following

definition to the term “Pollution”, namely: The introduction by man

into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to

human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, damage

to structure or amenity or interference with legitimate uses of the

environment”.

4

Fig.A ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

The environmental pollution can also be classified further as, Air

pollution, water pollution, land pollution, food pollution, noise

pollution and radio-active pollution, etc.

FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:

The environmental crisis is caused due to environment and

ecological changes as a result of developmental process of the

'economic and technological man’ of the present century. In fact if the

present century is marked by socio-economic, scientific and

technological development on the one hand, it is plagued by serious

problems of environmental problems on the other hand.The

environmental crisis arising out of the environmental deterioration

caused by several forms of pollution, depletion of natural resources

because of rapid rate of their exploitation and increasing dependence

on energy consuming and ecologically damaging technologies, the loss

5

of habitats due to industrial, urban and agricultural expansion,

reduction and loss of ecological populations due to excessive use of

toxic pesticides and herbicides and loss of several species of plants due

to practice of monoculture removal of habitats through forest

clearance has now become of global concern.

The impact of man on environment through his economic

activities are varied and highly complex as the transformation or

modification of the natural condition and process leads to a series of

changes in the biotic and abiotic components of the environment. The

impacts of man on environment fall into two categories (i) direct or

intentional impacts and (ii) indirect or unintentional impacts, Direct or

intentional impact of human activities are preplanned and

premeditated because man is aware of the consequences, both positive

and negative of any programme which is launched to change or modify

the natural environment for economic development of the region

concerned. The indirect impacts are experienced after long time when

they become cumulative. These indirect effects of human economic

activities may change the overall natural environmental system and the

chain-effects sometimes degrade the environment to such an extent

that this becomes suicidal for human beings.

MAIN CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION:

The problem of environmental pollution, we face

today, is a complex consequence of forces connected with various

interrelating factors. There are clearly a number of divergent and

conflicting views of what could be the basic factors underlying the

environmental crisis. No single cause can be considered as the root

cause of environmental impairment. However, the following causes

6

could be pointed out as the generally underlying factors though each of

these too could be operating simultaneously and their balance may

vary from place to place and through time.

1. Population growth

Modern thinkers consider that growth of population is

the root cause for many human problems. This observation also applies

to environmental degradation. Increase in the population will have a

multiplier effect requiring proportionate increase in all requirements

necessary for the existence of human beings. Population growth

requires abnormal exploitation of natural resources to provide day-to-

day essential requirements of life. It results in migration of people and

growth of urban areas, thereby inviting new problems of health,

ecology and human sustenance.

Fig.B INCREASE OF POPULATION

2. Increased General Affluence and Economic Growth

7

The affluence (i.e. material aspects of per capita

consumption of goods and resources) is an important factor in man-

resource- environment relationship. It is the increasing per capita

demand of rich which is absorbing the growth in output of goods and

Fig.C ECONOMIC GROWTH

services in the developed and developing countries and cause misuse or

overuse and pollution of resources, for the affluence unmatched to the

necessary resource consumption and not motivated by human

requirements produce tendency to waste matter and energy.

Surprisingly, affluence factor though, having a great impact on

environment, is seldom talked about. On the other hand, poor and the

poverty often get blamed for the destruction of environment. The

notion that poverty or the poor destroy the environment most is but

partially true.

3. Nature of Modern Technology

8

The nature of productive technology in recent years is closely

related to the environmental crisis. Commoner maintains that

sweeping transformations of productive technology since World War II

productive technologies with intense impacts on environment have

displaced less destructive ones. This factor has been largely responsible

for the generation of synthetic and non-biodegradable substances such

Fig.D OVER USE OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY

as plastics, chemical nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic detergents, synthetic

fibres, big cars, petrochemical and other environmentally injurious

industries and 'disposable culture. Thus, environmental crisis is the

inevitable result of a counter ecological pattern of productive growth.

Ecologically benign technologies did and do exist but they are not

utilized, for they are considered inconsistent with the short-term

interests of private profit maximization.

4. Deforestation

9

Forests are invaluable property of a nation because they provide

raw materials to modern industries, timber for building purposes,

habitats for numerous types of animals and micro-organisms. Good

fertile and nutrient-rich soils having high content of organic matter,

offer protection to soils by binding the soils through the network of

their roots and by protecting the soils from direct impact of falling

Fig.E DEFORESTATION

raindrops. They encourage and increase infiltration of rainwater and

thus allow maximum recharge of groundwater resources, minimize

surface run-off and hence reduce the frequency, intensity and

dimension of floods. They help in increasing the precipitation; they are

natural sink of carbon dioxide because they use carbon dioxide to

prepare their food during the process of photosynthesis. They provide

firewood to millions of people all over the world and food and shelter

to innumerable humans and animals. In fact, forests are 'life line' of a

nation because prosperity and welfare of the society directly depends

on sound and healthy forest cover of a nation concerned. Forests are

10

main component of the biotic components of the natural

environmental system and the stability of the environment and

ecological balance largely depend on the status of the forests of the

region concerned.

Deforestation gives birth to several problems

encompassing environmental degradation through accelerated rate of

soil erosion, increase in the sediment load of the rivers, siltation or

reservoirs and river beds, increase in the frequency and dimension of

Hoods and droughts, changes in the pattern of distribution of

precipitation, intensification of greenhouse effects increase in the

destructive force of the atmospheric storms etc. economic loss through

damages of agricultural crops due to increased incidence of floods and

draughts, decrease in agricultural production of loss of fertile top soils,

decrease in the supply of raw materials to the industries and building

matters etc. Thus deforestation cause a chain effects which adversely

affect the natural environment.

5. Agricultural Development

Agricultural development means expansion of agricultural

land increase in agricultural productivity and net agricultural

production. It is due to development of modern scientific techniques,

advanced technologies, increased production and use of chemical

fertilizers, expansion in irrigational facilities, development of

highyielding varieties of seeds, etc. This has solved the problem of

growing demand of food due to ever increasing world population on

the one hand; it has also created or is creating hazardous

environmental problems of serious concern on the other hand. Thus

modern economic and technological man is at the cross road of dangers

11

in all directions.

Fig.F DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The agricultural development degrades the environment in a variety of

ways, e.g. (i) through the application of chemical fertilizers and

pesticides and insecticides, (ii) through the increase in irrigational

facilities and amount of irrigation, (iii) by making changes in biological

communities etc.

Conversion of forests land into agricultural farms on sloppy

ground accelerates rate of soil erosion. Increased in agricultural land at

the cost of destruction ol forest and consequent soil erosion,

substantial increase in the productivity of land through the practice of

intensive cultivation, increased use of machines and modern scientific

techniques, application of chemical fertilities, pesticides, insecticides

and herbicides, increase in the frequency and area of watering of

agricultural fields, etc.It appears that the root cause of all these

12

environmental problems arising out of agricultural development is the

increase of human population at alarming rate. So the foremost step to

be taken is to stop population growth because if population continues

to grow agricultural development has to be maintained.

6. Industrial Development

Rapid Industrial Development has given economic

prosperity to human society. It has also given new dimension to socio-

economic structure and has provided material comfort to the people of

industrially developed countries but it has also created many fold

environmental problems. In fact, the glittering effects of

industrialization have affected the mind of the general public that

industrialisation is now being considered as the parameter of

modernity and as a necessary element of socio-economic development

of a nation.

Fig.G AIR POLLUTION DUE TO SMOKE

13

Release of toxic gases through advertent and inadvertent actions of

man causes environmental hazards which destroy all types of life forms

in the affected areas. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy (December 3-4, 1984,

India) is an example of disastrous effects of modern industrialization.

Acid rains, urban smogs, nuclear holocaust, etc., are the other forms of

environment hazards emanating from industrialization.

7. Urbanization

Exodus of population from rural areas to urban centre and

origin and expansion of new urban centres due to industrial expansion

and development are responsible for rapid rate of exploitation of

natural resources and several types of environment degradation and

pollution in the developed and developing countries. The accumulation

of wealth and availability of more economic and job opportunity in the

urban centres have resulted into the concentration of population in the

congested metropolitan areas and thus the formation and growth of

big slum areas.

Fig.H A MODERN URBAN AREA

14

Huge quantity of aerosols and gases is emitted from Chimneys of

factories and vehicles which form "Dust Domes" over the cities. These

Dust Domes cause 'Pollution Domes' over the cities. The urban and

industrial growth has resulted into rapid rate of deterioration of the

quality of air because of heavy pollution of air through gases and

aerosols emitted from the vehicles, factories and house-hold

appliances. About 60 per cent, of the pollution of Indian capital city of

Delhi is contributed by vehicles, Calcutta and Bombay metropolitan

areas have also reached high level of air pollution. According to the

survey report of the National Environmental Research Institute, Nagpur

(India) the level of air pollution in Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras,

Ahmedabad, Cochin, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Nagpur etc. has gone up.

Besides industrial wastes from industrial cities, huge quantity of urban

solid wastes also creates environmental problems. The quantity of

urban solid wastes is rapidly increasing with urban expansion and

growth in urban population.

8. Unplanned Urbanization

The skewed urban development has deteriorated the

environment visibly and considerably in both the urban and rural areas.

The urban areas suffer from their own plight, squatter settlements, lack

of sanitation and water supply, overcrowding, congestion and pollution.

The cities in India are facing environmental problems like lack of

sanitation, chronic shortage of traffic congestion etc. Moreover, the

domestic and industrial waste disposal in the urban areas is very

serious. Most of the cities are lacking sewer systems. For example

15

Fig.I UNPLANNED URBAN AREA

studies by the Central Board for the prevention and control of water

pollution have shown that the discharge of community wastage and

industrial effluents is the major cause of water pollution. At present

56% of Class-I cities and 87% of Class II towns do not possess sewerage

facilities. We therefore need a well controlled and well managed

process of urbanisation in order to curb rural urban migration and

other related problems.

9. Coal Burnt Thermal Power Plants

Power Plants either in public or private sector mainly use

coal for generation of electricity. About 62% of the coal produced in our

country is utilized for generation of electricity which accounts of 65% of

power generation. This process results in the accumulation of various

by-products such as bottom ash, boiler slag and fly ash. Fly ash alone

amounts to more than 70% of the total quantity. Disposal of this huge

amount of tty ash is a difficult and sensitive task. Though this material

16

can be used in manufacture of cement, brick and also used as soil

conditioner but these activities have not gained much popularity due to

Fig. J TOXIC GASES FROM THERMAL POWERPLANT

economical and social consideration. Even if the fly ash is utilized for

the above mentioned activities, it will not be possible to utilize even

30% to 40% of the ash produced. Thus there is a need to store the ash

produced in such a way as to have minimum damage to air, water and

soil bodies. A super thermal power plant built on about 800 acres of

land normally requires 1200 acres for ash disposal. On the basis of the

ash production trends the area requirement for dumping of the ash is

around 40000 hectares. Power plants are preferably placed away from

the human settlements and moreover on waste lands, but with course

of time some of the cultivable area is also covered for ash mount site.

Presence of ash particularly in the atmosphere is of major concern to

the people living close to the plant site. This is particularly severe in

summers due to prevailing high wind speeds. The finer fractions of fly

ash are potentially harmful as they get deposited in lungs/pulmonary

tissues of respiratory track when inhaled.

17

CONCLUSION :

The causes for environmental problems are many. The

multiplicity of causes makes it difficult to clearly delineate the causes

and consequences of environmental degradation in terms of simple one

to one relationship. The causes and effects are often interwoven in

complex webs of social, technological, environmental and political

factors. However, some of the very common causes of environmental

degradation which can be clearly pointed out are the population

growth, the economic growth associated with the affluence factor and

change of technology. Population is an important resource for

development, yet it is a major cause of environmental degradation

when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support systems. The

overriding impact of adverse demographic pressure ultimately falls on

our resources and ecosystems. Combined with it the conditions of

poverty and underdevelopment themselves create a situation where

the people are forced to live in squalor and further degrade their

environment. The process of development itself also leads to damage

of the environment, if not properly managed. Associated with the rapid

economic growth, the extravagant affluence consume far more

resources and put far greater pressure on natural resources. The

change of technology causes planned obsolescence causing the

generation of more and more wastes which in turn prove ecologically

harmful. Shortterm interests of private profit maximization, further,

hamper the process of replacement of obsolete technologies by the

ecologically benign technologies.

18

REFERENCES :

1. Wikipidia

2. Kailash Thakur, Environment Protection Law and Policy in India, Deep and Deep Publications,

New Delhi.

3. Armin Rosencranz, Shyam Divan and Martha L. Noble, Environmental Law and Policy in India –

Cases, Material and Statutes, 1991.

4. Baker, Susan., Kousis, Maria., Richrdson, Dick, and Young, Stephen.(eds), The Politics of

Sustainable Development: Theory, Policy and Practice within the European Union , London:

Routledge, 1997

5. Duxbury, R.M.C. and Morton, S.G.C. (eds) Blackstone's Statutes on Environmental law. Third

Edition, London: Blackstone Press Limited, 2000.

6. Kuik, O.J. et al. Pollution Control in the South and North: A Comparative Assessment of

Environmental Policy Approaches in India and the Netherlands, New Delhi: Sage Publications,

1997.

7. Salve, H., ‘justice Between Generations: Environment and Social Justice', in A.N.Kripal, A. Desai,

G Subramanium, R. Dhavan and R. Ramachandran eds. Supreme But Not Infallible, New Delhi:

Oxford University Press, 2001.

8. Mehta, A. and Hawkins, 'Integrated Pollution Control and its Impact: Perspectives from

Industry', Journal of Environmental Law, 10(1), 1998, pp.65.

9. Asthana, D. K. (2006).Text Book of Environmental Studies. S. Chand Publishing.

27

TOPIC PAGE NO.

Concept of Ecosystem Definition Biome

1

Three major principles of Ecosystem Ecosystem Goods & Services Energy Flow in Ecosystem

2

Biogeochemical cycle in an Ecosystem 3 Food Chain

Characteristics Types of Food Chain

4

Food web Types of Ecosystem

5

Forest Ecosystem Introduction Types of Forest Ecosystem Energy Cycle in Forest Ecosystem

6-7

Desert Ecosystem Introduction Plants & Animals of Desert Characteristics of Desert

8-9

Grassland Ecosystem Introduction Types of Grassland Structure & Function of Grassland

9-10

Pond Ecosystem Introduction Components

11-12

Agro Ecosystem Introduction Definition of Agroecosystem Components of Agroecosystem Properties of Agroecosystem

12-13

Conclusion 14

Acknowledgement 15

Page 1 of 15

CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM: - An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific andrecognizable landscape form such as forest, grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area.The nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills, mountains,plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled by climatic conditionssuch as the amount of sunlight, the temperature and the rainfall in the region. Thegeographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non-living (abiotic) component.These features create conditions that support a community of plants and animals thatevolution has produced to live in these specific conditions. The living part of theecosystem is referred to as its biotic component.

Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems in water. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living organisms. All the living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and animals. They interact with their non-living environment, and with each other at different points in time for a large number of reasons. Life can exist only in a small proportion of the earth’s land, water and its atmosphere. At a global level the thin skin of the earth on the land, the sea and the air, forms the biosphere.

DEFINITION: - The living community of plants and animals in any area together withthe non-living components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute theecosystem.

Some ecosystems are fairly robust and are less affected by a certain level of human disturbance. Others are highly fragile and are quickly destroyed by human activities. Mountain ecosystems are extremely fragile as degradation of forest cover leads to severe erosion of soil and changes in river courses. Island ecosystems are easily affected by any form of human activity which can lead to the rapid extinction of several of their unique species of plants and animals. Evergreen forests and coral reefs are also examples of species rich fragile ecosystems which must be protected against a variety of human activities that lead to their degradation. River and wetland ecosystems can be seriously affected by pollution and changes in surrounding land use.

BIOME A biome is a community of plants and animals that

have common characteristics for the environmentthey exist in.

They can be found over a range of continents Biomes are distinct biological communities that

have formed in response to a shared physicalclimate.

There are six major categories of biomes on earth.In these five, there are many sub biomes, underwhich are many more well defined ecosystems.

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o Freshwater biomeo Marine biomeo Desert biomeo Forest biomeo Grassland biomeo Tundra biome

THREE MAJOR PRNCIPLES OF ECOSYSTEM: -1. NUTRIENT CYCLING –

Movement of chemical elements from the environment into living organismsand from them back into the environment through organisms live, grow, die anddecompose.

2. ENERGY FLOW – Energy is required to transform inorganic nutrients into organic tissues of an

organism. Energy is the driving force to the work of ecosystem.

3. STRUCTURE – It refers to the particular pattern of inter-relationships that exists between

organisms in an ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM GOODS & SERVICES: - DIRECT VALUES -These are resources that people depend upon directly and are

easy to quantify in economic terms. Consumptive Use Value - Non-market value of fruit, fodder, firewood, etc. that

are used by people who collect them from their surrounds. Productive Use Value – Commercial value of timber, fish, medicinal plants, etc.

that people collect for sale.

INDIRECT VALUES - These are uses that do not have easy ways to quantify themin terms of a clearly definable price.

Non-consumptive use value – scientific research, bird-watching, ecotourism,etc.

Option value - maintaining options for the future, so that by preserving them onecould reap economic benefits in the future.

Existence value - ethical and emotional aspects of the existence of wildlife andnature

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM: - Energy is the capacity to do work. Solar energy is transformed into chemical energy by

the process of photosynthesis, and is stored in plant tissue and then transformed intomechanical and heat forms during metabolic activities.

Thus the energy flow through atmosphere to an ecosystem involves the radiation fromsun was 50% absorbed by the atmosphere itself. From remaining 50% of radiations afew % absorbed by plants for the process of photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O---- (sunlight) ------ C12H22O11 + 6O2

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Carbon-Cycle Nitrogen Cycle

Oxygen Cycle

1st law of Thermodynamics - Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but oneform of energy can be converted in to another formI.e. solar energy in to chemical energy

2nd law of Thermodynamics - Whenever energy is transformed there is a loss of energythrough the release of heat.I.e. the loss of energy takes place by respiration, running, hunting etc., the reactionduring respiration is: C12H22O11 + 6O2 6CO2 +6H2O

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE IN AN ECOSYSTEM: - The cyclic flow ofnutrients between the biotic and a biotic components is known as nutrient cycle. Elementsneeded in huge quantity are macro (O, C, H, N, P, Ca) and needed in minimum are calledmicro nutrients (B, Co, Sr, Zn, Cu). Nutrients are the elements essential for the growth ofplants and animals.

Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle

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-: FOOD CHAIN :- A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web

starting from producer organisms (such as grass or trees which use radiation from the Sun to make their food) and ending at an apex predator species (like grizzly bears or killer whales), detritivores (like earthworms or woodlice), or decomposer species (such as fungi or bacteria). A food chain also shows how organisms are related to each other by the food they eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level. A food chain differs from a food web because the complex network of different animals' feeding relations are aggregated and the chain only follows a direct, linear pathway of one animal at a time. Natural interconnections between food chains make it a food web.

CHARACTERISTICS: - 1. There is repeated eating in which each group eats the smaller one and is eaten by the

larger one. Thus, it involves a nutritive interaction between the biotic components ofan ecosystem.

2. The plants and animals which depend successively on one another form the limbs of afood chain

3. There is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and then to a series ofconsumers of various types

4. Usually 80 to 90% of potential energy is lost as heat at each transfer on the basis ofsecond law of thermodynamics (transformation of energy involves loss of unavailableenergy).

TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN: - There are mainly two types of food chains operating in nature

A. Grazing food chain B. Detritus food chain.

Grazing food chain is generally seen in ecosystems such as grassland, pond or lakewhere a substantial part of the net primary production is grazed on by herbivores(cattle and rodents).

Usually up to 50% of the NPP is grazed on by these animals in their respectiveecosystems and the remaining 50% goes to the decomposer organisms as dead organicmatter.

Thus, in these ecosystems, the food chain is herbivore based.Grazing food chain

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-: FOOD WEB :- Food web can be defined as, "a network of food chains which are

interconnected at various trophic levels, so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different organisms of a biotic community".

Food webs are indispensable in ecosystems as they allow an organism to obtain its food from more than one type of organism of the lower trophic level.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM: - 1. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM – I. Forest,

II. Grassland,III. Semi-arid areas,IV. Deserts,V. River, VI. Mountains,VII. Islands.

2. Aquatic Ecosystem – I. Pond,II. Lake,III. Wetland,IV. River,V. Estuary, VI. Marine

Forest food web

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INTRODUCTION: - Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantlystructurally defined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetationlooks vastly different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly rows. The most‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly in our National Parks and WildlifeSanctuaries. The landscapes that make up various types of forests look very different fromeach other. Their distinctive appearance is a fascinating aspect of nature. Each forest typeforms a habitat for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.

The forest ecosystem has two parts – The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest: The type of forest depends

upon the abiotic conditions at the site. Forests on mountains and hills differ from thosealong river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the amount of rainfall and the localtemperature which varies according to latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in theirplant communities in response to the type of soil.

The living or the biotic aspects of the forest: The plants and animals formcommunities that are specific to each forest type. For instance coniferous trees occurin the Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river deltas. Thorn trees grow in arid areas.The snow leopard lives in the Himalayas while the leopard and tiger live in the forestsof the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live high up in the Himalayas. Many of thebirds of the Himalayan forests are different from the rest of India. Evergreen forestsof the Western Ghats and North East India are most rich in plant and animal species.

TYPES OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM: - The forest ecosystem is of 3 types-tropical rain forest, tropical deciduous forest

and temperate coniferous forest. Tropical rain forest provides both shelter and food for huge number of animals which

include birds like cuckoo bird, parrot, swallows humming bird eagles; mammals likeorang-utans, monkeys gibbons, tiger, foxes, hippopotamus, jaguar, reptiles likecrocodiles, alligators, anaconda, flying gecko etc.

Tropical deciduous forest contains animals like deer, elephants, sambars, cheetahs,wild buffalo’s tiger, and leopard. Birds, reptiles, amphibians are also found inabundance.

Coniferous forests consists of rich and varied animal life which includes mammalslike mouse deer, musk, rat, porcupine, rabbit, squirrels etc. Insectivorous birds likegrouse, jay cross bill etc. and reptiles like snakes and lizards

ENERGY CYCLE IN FOREST ECOSYSTEM: - In the Forest ecosystem animals are the consumers. They influence the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients through systems as well as

structure and composition of forests through their feeding behaviour and thedisturbances that they create.

In turn their abundance and diversity is influenced by the composition of the forestand the various disturbances that occur in the forest.

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Animals in an ecosystem formthe heterotrophic stratum orbrown belt of an ecosystem.

The animals in the ecosystemcan be classified on the basis oftheir feeding habits into:-

Herbivores are animals thatconsume plants and get theirenergy by eating plants. Theyform the primary consumers ofthe ecosystem. Cow, sheep,goat, deer, rabbit, horse, zebraare some of the herbivorousanimals.

Carnivores or predators are animals that feed on the herbivores or other animals inorder to derive energy and nutrients required for their diet.

They form the secondary consumers of the ecosystem. Mammals like dogs, cats,mongoose, hyenas; birds like hawks, eagle, falcon, and reptiles like crocodile, snake,and turtles are examples of carnivorous animals.

The tertiary consumers are also carnivores that feed on primary consumers likeherbivores and also feed on secondary consumers. Lion, tiger are examples of tertiaryconsumers.

Scavengers are flesh eaters and eat the dead flesh from left over of the carnivores.Jackal, vultures are examples of scavengers.

Parasites are organism consumes blood or tissues of the host animal without killingthe host.

Decomposers break down complex compounds of dead tissues of producers andConsumers absorb some of the decomposition products and release simple substancesconsumable by autotrophic organisms.

Decomposers include earthworms, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes etc.

Page 8 of 15

INTRODUCTION: - Deserts ecosystems located in tropical regions are environment ofextremes, with lack of moisture and generally synonymous with arid regions. They aresome of the hottest and driest areas of the planet, with no or sporadic rainfall. Theseconditions are due to some different conditions as continentally, topography andsubtropical high pressure Cells’ influence. These kinds of deserts are located in thesouthern and northern hemispheres, especially between 5 and 30 degrees of latitude A desert ecosystem may seems to be

barren land and devoid of life but plantsand animals do exist in desert.

But their number of plants and animalsis not as large as that in otherecosystems.

A desert ecosystem is a type of aridecosystem that exists where there isvery little rainfall and the climate isusually extreme in harshness.

Other arid ecosystems are semi-desert, sub-desert, steppe, and semiarid or aridgrasslands.

Due to the low moisture content in desert the biological activities are regulated byephemeral water availability.

These ecosystems are either barren or with scanty vegetation consisting of mainlythorny bushes.

Deserts are classified as warm (hot) and cold (temperate) deserts The hot deserts are the Sahara in Northern Africa, Kalahari in Southern Africa, Thar

in India, Atacama in South America, deserts of Mexico and Australia. The deserts of Iran and Turkey, Gobi desert of Mongolia, some deserts of Argentina

are recognised as temperate or cold deserts

PLANTS & ANIMALS OF DESERT: - Plants in the desert ecosystem are generally

dwarfed because of the lack of rainfall. The most common plant that is seen in the desert

ecosystem is the cactus. More than hundreds of different types of cactus

are found in desert ecosystem and each one hasevolved to suit the particular desert ecosystem towhich they are endemic.

Other plants of desert ecosystem are saltbush andgrevilleas.

Plants of the desert ecosystem have evolved withsucculent bodies that can retain the precious

Page 9 of 15

moisture needed for growth and narrow needle like leaves that reduces the lose moisture easily.

Animals present in the desertecosystem include very fewlarge mammals but camel is oneof the prominent animals foundin this environment.

Other animals found in desertecosystem includes rats, smallrodents, rabbits, moles and foxlike creatures.

Burrowing creatures, snakes,insects, ants, birds, lizards, andbeetles are regular inhabitantsthat are found in desertecosystem

Animals and other creaturespresent in desert ecosystem have managed to survive in the harsh climate, hot daysand freezing nights, by controlling their body heat.

It is essential for any desert ecosystem animals to adjust to the particular aspects oftheir environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERT: -I. Most deserts receive some rain every year but not uniform. II. Light green covering of annuals is seen just after rains.III. Have scanty vegetation, clear skies, hot days and extremely cold nights.IV. Soil is rocky and encrusted with sand or saltV. Long periods without precipitation and extreme temperature (50 - 60oC) conditions

(arid lands) impose considerable restraints on the flora and fauna which inhabit there. Sandy storms are very frequent.

INTRODUCTION: - A wide range of landscapes in which the vegetation is mainly formedby grasses and small annual plants are adaptedto India’s various climatic conditions. Theseform a variety of grassland ecosystems withtheir specific plants and animals.

Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor. The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to support the growth of grass cover during the monsoon.

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Many of the grasses and other small herbs become dry and the part above the ground dies during the summer months. In the next monsoon the grass cover grows back from the root stock and the seeds of the previous year. This change gives grasslands a highly seasonal appearance with periods of increased growth followed by a dormant phase.

TYPES OF GRASSLANDS: -1. TROPICAL GRASSLAND –

Found near the borders of tropical rain forests. High temperature and moderaterainfall.

It is also known as Savanah type. Tall grasses, scattered shrubs, stunted trees. Animals- zebras, giraffes, antelope.

2. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND – Found in the centres of continent Characterised by very cold winters and hot summers. Intense grazing and summer fires, do not allow shrubs or trees to grow.

3. POLAR GRASSLAND – Found in artic polar regions Characterised by severe cold and strong winds along with ice and snow In summer annual plants grow Animals- artic wolf, weasel, artic fox.

STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF GRASSLAND: - ABIOTIC COMPONENTS – Nutrients, C, H, O, N, P, S etc. BIOTIC COMPONENTS –

1. PRODUCERS : Grasses, herbs &shrubs

2. CONSUMERS :a. Primary consumers (herbivores)

(e.g.) cows, buffalos, deer, sheepetc.

b. Secondary consumer (Primarycarnivores)(e.g.) snake, lizards, birds,jackals, fox

c. Tertiary consumers (e.g.)Hawks, eagles etc.

3. DECOMPOSERS: Bacteria &fungi.

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INTRODUCTION: - The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe. There aredifferences in a pond that is temporary and has water only in the monsoon, and a largertank or lake that is an aquatic ecosystem throughout the year. Most ponds become dryafter the rains are over and are covered by terrestrial plants for the rest of the year.

On the basis of water depth and types of vegetation and animals there may be three zones in a lake or pond. The different zones are as follows: - 1. Littoral - It is the shallow water region which is

usually occupied by rooted plants.2. Limnetic - ranges from the shallow to the depth

of effective light penetration and associatedorganisms are small crustaceans, rotifers, insects,and their larvae and algae.

3. Pro-fundal - It is the deep-water parts where thereis no effective light penetration. The associatedorganism are mussels, crab, worms etc.

COMPONENTS: - Two main components of pond ecosystems are as follows-1. BIOTIC COMPONENT2. ABIOTIC COMPONENT

PRODUCER - The main producers inpond or lake ecosystem are algae and otheraquatic plants, such as Azolla, Hydrilla,Potamogeton, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna,Eichhornia, Nymphaea, Jussiaea etc. Theseare either floating or suspended or rooted atthe bottom. The green plants convert theradiant energy into chemical energythrough photosynthesis. The chemicalenergy stored in the form of food is utilizedby all the organisms. Oxygen evolved byproducers in photosynthesis is utilized by all the living organisms in respiration.

CONSUMERS - In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are tadpole larvae of frogs,fishes and other aquatic animals which consume green plants and algae as their food.These Herbivorous aquatic animals are the food of secondary consumers. Frogs, bigfishes, water snakes, crabs are secondary consumers. In the pond, besides the secondaryconsumers, there are consumers of highest order, such as water-birds, turtles, etc.

DECOMPOSERS & TRANSFORMERS - When aquatic plants and animals die, a largenumber of bacteria and fungi attack their dead bodies and convert the complex organicsubstances into simpler inorganic compounds and elements. These micro-organisms arecalled decomposers chemical elements liberated by decomposers are again utilized bygreen plants in their nutrition.

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ABIOTIC COMPONENT - Abiotic factors are non-living factors that can have animpact on the ecosystem the main factors of ponds include water quality, temperature,light, soil, and seasonal change. Water is an important abiotic factor. The quality of wateris crucial for living organisms in the pond. The temperature could impact the ecosystemif they are at the extremes. Water that is too hot will not have as much oxygen for the fishand they will in return become weak and prone to parasites and diseases. Too low of awater temperature also puts the aquatic ecosystem under stress and the fish can die off inlarge amounts. pH is also taken into consideration because too low or too high of acidityin the water can clog a fish's gills and reproduction will be more challenging. The lay ofthe land and the soil is of importance as well. The soil needs to contain enough moistureto keep the surrounding plants alive. If the soil or ground is dry, it is less likely to sustaina live or growing plant in comparison to moist, fertile soil that will help the plant stayalive. Light is also an abiotic factor in this ecosystem. The plants need light forphotosynthesis so they can produce oxygen not only above the water but below as well tosustain healthy oxygen levels for aquatic organisms. Fish also need light in the form ofheat from the sun to keep the water at a regular temperature. The change of seasons hasan impact on the pond. Spring and fall are the seasons that keep the ecosystem healthyand the risk of negative effects on the organisms that inhabit the environment very low.

INTRODUCTION: - An agroecosystem is the basic unit of study in agro ecology, and issomewhat arbitrarily defined as a spatially and functionally coherent unit of agriculturalactivity, and includes the living and non-living components involved in that unit as wellas their interactions. An agroecosystem can be viewed as a subset of a conventionalecosystem. As the name implies, atthe core of an agroecosystem lies thehuman activity of agriculture.However, an agroecosystem is notrestricted to the immediate site ofagricultural activity (e.g. the farm),but rather includes the region that isimpacted by this activity, usually bychanges to the complexity of speciesassemblages and energy flows, aswell as to the net nutrient balance.Traditionally an agroecosystem, particularly one managed intensively, is characterized ashaving a simpler species composition and simpler energy and nutrient flows than"natural" ecosystem. Likewise, agroecosystems are often associated with elevatednutrient input, much of which exits the farm leading to eutrophication of connectedecosystems not directly engaged in agriculture.

DEFINITION OF AGRO-ECOSYSTEM: - No organism or a species live alone, always thereare associates influencing each other and organized themselves into communities. Theorganism of any community besides interacting among themselves always have

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functional relationship with the external world or environment. This structural and functional systems of communities and their environment is called ecological system, in short the ecosystem “Interaction of living organism with environment is known as ecosystem”. 1. Living (Biotic component) - Autotrophs and heterotrophs are biotic component of

ecosystem. Green plants take simple inorganic materials and produce their own foods,this organism are called autotrophs. All other form of life which do not possesschlorophyll can’t produce their own foods and depend upon others are known asheterotrophs. E.g. Fungi, most of bacteria and animal etc.

2. Non-living (Abiotic component) - Abiotic component are non-livingenvironment are usually of 2 types Materials like water, mineral salts, atmosphericgases etc

COMPONENTS OF AGRO ECOSYSTEM: - PRIMARY PRODUCER - Crops and weeds of the field are the primary producer

of agro ecosystem. E.g. In a Rice field, there are many producer like durba, mutha,syma etc also present with rice.

CONSUMER - Among consumer grasshoppers, aphids, bugs, ants, rats, birds, manetc are macro consumer and frog, snake, hack are micro consumer.

PROPERTIES OF AGRO ECOSYSTEM: -1. Productivity - It is net increment of values products per unit resources (land, labour,

energy, capital) and is commonly measured as annual yield /hectare.2. Stability: - It is the degree to which, productivity remain constant, in spite of normal

small scale fluctuation in environmental variables such as climate or in the economiccondition in market.

3. Sustainability-It is defined as the ability of the system to maintain its productivity whensubject to stress or perturbation. A stress is defined as regular, sometimes continues,relatively small and predictabledisturbance. E.g. effect ofgrowing soil salinity. Aperturbation by contrast is anirregular, in frequent relativelylong and unpredictabledisturbance such as drought orflood or a new pest.

4. Equitability-It is a measure ofhow evenly the produce of Agroecosystem is distributed amongits human beneficial. The moreequitable the system, the moreevenly are the products to feedshared among the population ofthe farm, village, regions ornation.

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You should now understand that: Ecology is a scientific approach to the study of the biosphere. Ecosystems are created by the interrelationships between living organisms and the

physical environments they inhabit (land, water, air). Ecosystems require a source ofenergy to make them work and for most, although not all, this is light from the sun.

To study ecosystems we have to start to identify the components involved and theinterrelationships between them. We can list the living organisms by identifying thespecies involved.

Food chains and food webs are a way of mapping one type of interrelationship betweenthe organisms in an ecosystem.

Human beings are part of ecosystems, as well as manipulators of ecosystems. As suchwe are dependent on, as well as responsible for, the ecological health of the ecosystemswe inhabit.

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I would like to express my gratitude to my teacher Dr. Susmita Kar madam for her able guidance and support in completing my project. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Principal Madam Dr.Madhumanjari Mandal and Vice Principal Sir Mr.Supratim Das for providing me with all the facilities that was required.

Finally I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in finishing this project within the limited period of time. It helped me to increase my knowledge and my skills.

Date: - 06.07.2021

Sincerely, Subhranil Das Semester – II

CEMA20M146

25

College roll no. -CEMA20M122

University roll no. :- 203223210128

University :- 223-1111-0463-20

registration no.

ENVS PROJECT WORK-

Environmental pollution

26

Contents-

● Environmental pollution

● TYPES OF POLLUTION

● EFFECTS OF POLLUTION

● HUMAN HEALTH RISK

● POLLUTION CONTROL

● SOLID-WASTE

-PRECAUTIONS ARE TAKEN BY

MUNICIPAL CORPORATION

STEPS TO REDUCE -

AIR,WATER,E-WASTES

● CASE STUDY-

•VISIT TO A LOCAL POLLUTED SITE-.

TOTAL PAGES-13

Environmental pollution

Environmental pollution is not a new phenomenon, yet it remains theworld’s greatest problem facing humanity, and the leading environmentalcauses of morbidity and mortality. Man’s activities through urbanization,

industrialization, mining, and exploration are at the forefront of globalenvironmental pollution. Both developed and developing nations share this

burden together, though awareness and stricter laws in developedcountries have contributed to a larger extent in protecting their

environment. Despite the global attention towards pollution, the impact isstill being felt due to its severe long-term consequences. This chapter

examines the types of pollution—air, water, and soil; the causes and effectsof pollution; and proffers solutions in combating pollution for sustainable

environment and health.Pollution is a term which even kids are aware of these days. It has become

so common that almost everyone acknowledges the fact that pollution isrising continuously. The term ‘pollution’ means the manifestation of any

unsolicited foreign substance in something. When we talk about pollutionon earth, we refer to the contamination that is happening of the natural

resources by various pollutants. All this is mainly caused by humanactivities which harm the environment in ways more than one. Therefore,an urgent need has arisen to tackle this issue straightaway. That is to say,pollution is damaging our earth severely and we need to realize its effectsand prevent this damage. In this situation of pollution, we will see what are

the effects of pollution and how to reduce it.Fig-POLLUTION CONTROL

1

Fig- Pollution control

How to Reduce Pollution?People should join hands to reduce pollution. So that our coming

generations can experience the healthy environment. To preserve thehealthy living environment, people should take some precautions and

measures. Check the below steps that can help in reducing the pollutants-

● Reduce the use of non-biodegradable things– Environment has aproperty of reviving itself by degrading the naturally producedsubstances. However, the non- biodegradable things like plastic bagsand bottles pollute the environment.

● Plant more trees– To decrease the air pollution and save the species,it is very important to plant more number of trees. Trees help inpurifying the air by adding more oxygen in the environment.

● Less Use of Chemicals– With advancement in technology, manychemical-made substances are used to improve the yield of foodproducts. People should produce food without using pesticides .

● Reduce Population– Continuously increasing population is the majorreason for increased pollution. People should follow the policy Wetwo, our two (hum do hamare do) to keep the population undercontrol.

● Recycling is also a very effective and efficient way to reduce thepollution. It helps in limiting the use of non- biodegradable products.

2

TYPES OF POLLUTION

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with theparticular contaminant relevant to each of them:

Fig:TYPES OF POLLUTION

● Air pollution: The release of chemicals and particulates intothe atmosphere. Common gaseous pollutants include carbonmonoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andnitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles.Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogenoxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulatematter, or fine dust is characterized by their micrometre sizePM10 to PM2.5.

● Soil pollution : Soil contamination occurs when chemicalsare released by spill or underground leakage. Among themost significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavymetals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinatedhydrocarbons.

3

● Water pollution:By the discharge of wastewater fromcommercial and industrial waste (intentionally or throughspills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated domesticsewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, fromtreated sewage; release of waste and contaminants intosurface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urbanrunoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemicalfertilizers and pesticides; also including human feces fromopen defecation – still a major problem in many developingcountries); groundwater pollution from waste disposal andleaching into the ground, including from pit latrines andseptic tanks; eutrophication and littering.

● Noise pollution : which encompasses roadway noise,aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

● Marine pollution :Marine pollution is a combination ofchemicals and trash, most of which comes from landsources and is washed or blown into the ocean. Thispollution results in damage to the environment, to the healthof all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

Fig- Types of pollution4

E�ects Of Pollution

Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works inmysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye.However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you

might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they arestill there. Similarly, the pollutants which are messing up the air and

increasing the levels of carbon dioxide is very dangerous for humans.Increased level of carbon dioxide will lead to global warming.

Further, the water is polluted in the name of industrial development,religious practices and more will cause a shortage of drinking water.Without water, human life is not possible. Moreover, the way waste is

dumped on the land eventually ends up in the soil and turns toxic. If landpollution keeps on happening at this rate, we won’t have fertile soil to grow

our crops on. Therefore, serious measures must be taken to reducepollution to the core.

● Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans.Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease, cardiovasculardisease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion

● Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day,mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreatedsewage in developing countries. An estimated 500 millionIndians have no access to a proper toilet, Over ten millionpeople in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and1,535 people died, most of them children.

● The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warmingwhich affects ecosystems in many ways.

● Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, theongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans as CO2becomes dissolved.

5

Human Health Risk

Fig- HUMAN HEALTH RISK

● Exposure to high levels of air pollution can cause a variety of adversehealth outcomes. It increases the risk of respiratory infections, heartdisease and lung cancer. Both short and long term exposure to airpollutants have been associated with health impacts. More severeimpacts affect people who are already ill. Children, the elderly and

poor people are more susceptible. The most health-harmfulpollutants – closely associated with excessive premature mortality –are fine PM2.5 particles that penetrate deep into lung passageways.

● Long-term exposure to noise can cause a variety of health effectsincluding annoyance, sleep disturbance, negative effects on the

cardiovascular and metabolic system, as well as cognitive impairmentin children.

● Health risk associated with polluted water includes different diseasessuch as respiratory disease, cancer, diarrheal disease, neurological

disorder and cardiovascular disease . Nitrogenous chemicals areresponsible for cancer and blue baby syndrome

6

POLLUTION CONTROL. --- Pollution control is a term used inenvironmental management. It means the control of emissions andeffluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste productsfrom overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing,transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate ordisperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls,pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable thanpollution control. In the field of land development, low impact developmentis a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.

Fig-Steps tocontrolpollution

Solid-waste management-Solid-wastemanagement, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solidmaterial that is discarded because it has served its purposeor is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solidwaste can create unsanitary conditions, and theseconditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environmentand to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseasesspread by rodents and insects. The tasks of solid-wastemanagement present complex technical challenges. Theyalso pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, andsocial problems that must be managed and solved.

7

Fig- solid waste managementFollowing steps of precautions are taken by MUNICIPALCORPORATION-

Municipal corporation is set to amend its building rules to make itmandatory for everyone to take adequate precautionary

measures before demolishing a building to stop air pollution. Anumber of measures have also been made compulsory to deal

with bulk generation of waste following demolition of a big buildingor a huge concrete structure.

Those razing a particular structure have to ensure that demolitiondebris don’t get mixed with other solid waste. Additionally, they

must make sure the debris are kept on the premises. Littering ordeposition of demolition waste has been prohibited as this might

not only contribute to the growing air pollution but also createhurdles in traffic movement. Disposal of demolition waste, like

concrete, steel, bricks, mortar and plastic, will be segregated andthe applicant will also need to give an undertaking that all

stipulated measures will be followed to control air pollution at thesite. The applicant will also have to bear the expense of

transportation if the civic solid waste manage department isapproached to take such debris away.

8

The Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC) is trying to find out theexact source of contamination of water in Baghajatin and adjacent

areas, two days after preliminary test reports from the KMClaboratory found coliform bacteria in 12 out of 14 waters samples

collected in the area following the outbreak of jaundice andHepatitis-A in which nearly 60 persons have been affected so

far.A team from the KMC’s water supply department is rechargingthe water standposts that distributes water in the taps and random

sample collection both from the standposts and from packagedwater jars is underway in the areas of Baghajatin, VidyasagarColony and Ramgarh to further assess the situation.the KMCauthorities collected samples from 14 places, both from the

standposts and from packaged water that are sold through 10 litreor more capacity jars. Out of the 14 samples, confluents thatcauses jaundice were found in seven samples collected frompackaged water jars and in five samples collected from watertaps, though no contamination was apparently found from the

standposts, civic officials said.. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation,

river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses,including being safely returned to the environment. This

treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefitfrom both drinking and irrigation use.Treatment for drinking water

production involves the removal of contaminants and/orinactivation of any potentially harmful microbes from raw water to

produce water that is pure enough for human consumptionwithout any short term or long term risk of any adverse health

effect. . Faeces can be a source of pathogenic bacteria, viruses,protozoa and helminths.

9

The removal or destruction of microbial pathogens is essential,and commonly involves the use of

reactive chemical agents such as suspended solids, to removebacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals including iron and

manganese. These substances continue to cause great harm toseveral less developed countries who do not have access to

effective water purification systems.Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the

treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution aftertreatment. It is therefore common practice to keep residual

disinfectants in the treated water to kill bacteriologicalcontamination during distribution and to keep the pipes

clean.Water supplied to domestic properties such as for tap wateror other uses, may be further treated before use, often using an

in-line treatment process. Such treatments can include watersoftening or ion exchange. Many proprietary systems also claim

to remove residual disinfectants and heavy metal ions.

Fig- water treatment plantWorkers in the informal sector who remove precious base metalsfrom e-waste work in hazardous conditions.This is why the safest

way to dispose of e-waste is by giving it to a certified e-wasterecycler.

10

E-waste recyclers can also refurbish it to make newproducts.E-waste or electronic waste is created when anelectronic product is discarded after the end of its useful life. Therapid expansion of technology and the consumption driven societyresults in the creation of a very large amount of e-waste.

Recycling is an essential element of e-wastemanagement. Less than 20% of e-waste is formallyrecycled, with 80% either ending up in landfill or beinginformally recycled – much of it by hand in developingcountries, exposing workers toFig- E- waste management

hazardous andcarcinogenic substances such as mercury, lead andcadmium.

One of the major challenges is recycling the printed circuit boardsfrom electronic waste. The circuit boards contain such preciousmetals as gold, silver, platinum, etc. and such base metals as

copper, iron, aluminum, etc. One way e-waste is processed is bymelting circuit boards, burning cable sheathing to recover copperwire and open- pit acid leaching for separating metals of value.

11

Conventional method employed is mechanical shredding andseparation but the recycling efficiency is low.

Alternative methods such as cryogenic decomposition havebeen studied for printed circuit board recycling, and some

other methods are still under investigation. Properly disposingof or reusing electronics can help prevent health problems,

reduce greenhouse-gas emissions, and create jobs.

Case study-•Visit to a local polluted site-.

Time is of the essence be it to reduce an wound to a scar orcleaning up a water body shrinking under the onslaught ofdisposal of waste and encroachment of hyacinth.The progressof the growth of water hyacinth and the disposal of waste onSantragachi jheel, described to be a bird sanctuary in thepetition continuesSantragachi jheel stated to be a birdsanctuary was being polluted due to dumping of municipaland plastic waste and building waste material.

The railways would provide for the land for the setting up ofSewage Treatment Plant (STP) for treatment of

sewage diverted away from the jheel.12

This season thousands of Lesser Whistling Ducks arrivedalong with Northern Pintails, Gadwalls, the endangered

Ferruginous Pochard, Common Teal, Cotton Pygmy Gooseand other waterfowl.

Critically endangeredspecies

Threatened species

FerruginousPochard

Gadwalls

Laysan duck Cotton PygmyGoose

SAVE THEM !!!!

THANK YOU🦆13

COLLEGE ROLL:CEMA20M125

CU Roll:203223-21-0129

CU Registration no: 223-1111-0465-20

26

pg:1

TITLE: Agricultural pollution

Contents

• Introduction : pg:2-pg:6

• Causes of Agricultural pollution: pg:7-10

• Impact of Agriculture on air quality pg:11-12

• Solutions to Agricultural Pollution pg:13-17

pg:2

INTRODUCTION

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Developmental activities such as construction, transportation and

manufacturing not only deplete the natural resources but also produce

large amount of wastes that leads to pollution of air, water, soil, and

oceans; global warming and acid rains.

Untreated or improperly treated waste is a major cause of pollution of

rivers and environmental degradation causing ill health and loss of crop

productivity. In this lesson you will study about the major causes of

pollution, their effects on our environment and the various measures

that can be taken to control such pollutions.

POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS:

Human activities directly or indirectly affect the environment

adversely. A stone crusher adds a lot of suspended particulate matter

and noise into the atmosphere. Automobiles emit from their tail pipes

oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide

and a complex mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons and black soot which

pollute the atmosphere. Domestic sewage and run off from agricultural

fields, laden with pesticides and fertilizers, pollute water bodies.

Effluents from tanneries contain many harmful chemicals and emit foul

smell. These are only a few examples which show how human activities

pollute the environment. Pollution may be defined as addition of

undesirable material into the environment as a result of human

activities. The agents which cause environmental pollution are called

pollutants. A pollutants may be defined as a physical, chemical or

biological substance unintentionally released into the environment

which is directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living

organisms.

Pg:3

Pg:4

WHAT IS AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture

was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization,

whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that

enabled people to live in cities. Industrial agriculture based on large-

scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural

output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence

agriculture

Agriculture is a source of economic development and livelihood on one

hand, but pollution due to it can lead to a number of environmental and

health hazards. The nature of pollutants and the way they behave in

environment are of high importance. Agricultural pollution is defined

as the phenomena of damage, contamination and degradation of

environment and ecosystem, and health hazards due to the by- products

of farming practices.

Pg:5

Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic by products

of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the

environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans

and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of

sources, ranging from point source water pollution, landscape-level

causes, also known as non-point source pollution and air pollution. Once

in the environment these pollutants can have both direct effects in

surrounding ecosystems, i.e. killing local wildlife or contaminating

drinking water, and downstream effects such as dead zones caused by

agricultural runoff is concentrated in large water bodies.

Management practices, or ignorance of them, play a crucial role in the

amount and impact of these pollutants. Management techniques range

from animal management and housing to the spread

of pesticides and fertilizers in global agricultural practices. Bad

management practices include poorly managed animal feeding

operations, overgrazing, ploughing, fertilizer, and improper, excessive, or

badly timed use of pesticides.

Pollutants from agriculture greatly affect water quality and can be found

in lakes, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and groundwater. Pollutants from

farming include sediments, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides, metals, and

salts.

Pg:6

Causes of Agricultural Pollution pg:7

1. Pesticides and Fertilizers

To begin with, the earliest source of pollution has been pesticides

and fertilizers. Modern-day pesticides & fertilizers have to deal

with the local pests that have existed for hundreds of years along

with the new invasive species. And so, they are laden with

chemicals that are not found in nature

Once they have been sprayed, it does not disappear completely.

Some of it mixes with the water and seeps into the ground. The

rest is absorbed by the plant itself. As a result, the local streams

that are supplied water from the ground become contaminated,

as do the animals that eat these crops and plants.

2. Contaminated Water pg:8

Contaminated water used for irrigation is one further source of

pollution. Much of the water we use comes from groundwater

reservoirs, canals and through the rains. While plenty of it is clean

and pure water, other sources are polluted with organic

compounds and heavy metals. This happens due to the disposal

of industrial and agricultural waste in local bodies of water.

As a result, the crops are exposed to water, which has small

amounts of mercury, arsenic, lead, and cadmium dissolved in it.

The process of agricultural pollution becomes harder to fight

when such water poisons livestock and causes crop failure.

3. Soil Erosion and Sedimentation pg:9

Further problems are caused by soil erosion and sedimentation.

The soil is comprised of many layers, and it is only the topmost

layer that can support farming or grazing. Due to

inefficient farming practices, this soil is left open for erosion and

leads to declining fertility each year. Whether eroded by water or

wind, all this soil has to be deposited somewhere or the other.

The resulting sedimentation causes the soil to build up in areas

such as rivers, streams, ditches and surrounding fields. And so,

the process of agricultural pollution prevents the natural

movement of water, aquatic animals and nutrients to other fertile

area's

4. Organic Contaminants pg:10

Manures and Bio solids frequently contain nutrients, including nitrogen,

carbon, and phosphorus. Furthermore, because they are industrially

processed, they may also have within them contaminants such as personal

care products (PPCPs) and pharmaceuticals. These products have been

found in human and animal bodies and are believed to have negative

health impacts on wildlife, animals, and humans.

Agricultural pollution becomes even harder to manage with such types of

organic contaminants.

5. Land Management

Poor land management also leads to an irreversible decline in soil fertility.

Profound land management is crucial for keeping agricultural pollution to

a minimum level. Therefore farmers should have the awareness of how

their actions can impact the environment.

6. Excess Nutrients

The manure and fertilizers usually contain excess chemical nutrients,

especially phosphorus and nitrogen, and cause nutrient pollution from

agricultural sources. Excess nutrients can have tragic consequences on

water quality and the survival of aquatic life.

When these nutrients are washed into the water systems, e.g., rivers, lakes,

streams or oceans during rainy periods, it alters the marine and

freshwater nutrient cycles and as an outcome the species composition of

the respective ecosystems. The most common consequence

is eutrophication, which depletes the water dissolved oxygen, and in

consequence, can kill fish and other aquatic life.

Impact of Agriculture on Air Quality pg:11

This part focuses upon the impact of agricultural technology on air

pollution. Different processes are carried out in this field , which badly

affect the environment.

AGRICULTURE BURNING

It is the process of burning waste material coming from agricultural

practices and is carried out for clearance of land, shrubs, pests, and

production of better quality crops by getting nutrients from the land. The

by-products of this process include certain chemical substances, smoke,

and particulate matter, which pollute the air and are harmful for health.

This also releases carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon mon-oxide, and sulphur

dioxide, which not only affect atmosphere but also the crops (Jenkins et

al. 1996 ). These contaminants result from a combustion process carried

out at low temperature (Weather et al. 2000 ). Residual waste of rice and

wheat usually contributes to the production of many gases

(Venkataraman et al. 2006 ). Agricultural burning is usually performed for

the management of crop’s wastes, but it causes pollution. There should be

some guidelines for farmers to be followed, while performing such

activities.

Use of Fertilizers pg:12

fertilizer are added to the soil to increase fertility and nutrient quantity of

the soil for better crop production. These can be chemical or mineral

fertilizers, and nitro-gen, phosphorous, and potassium are present as

primary nutrients in these fertilizers. They have a very important role in

the production of corn. If increased quantity of chemical fertilizers is

applied to plants, it affects the air and releases nitrogen oxides such as

NO, NO 2 , and N 2 O causing air pollution (Savci 2012 ). The use of

fertilizers has been decreased in the developed nations of the world

because of their impact on the environment, but is still used in excessive

quantity in underdeveloped countries. Fertilizers result in the emission of

1.2 % of green-house gases into the environment (Kongshaug 1998 ).

Ammonium fertilizers result in the emission of ammonia gas. Ammonia is

converted to nitric acid through oxidation process resulting in the acidic

rain, which then affects the crops. During nitrification and denitrification

of soil, nitrous oxide is produced. Nitric acid is also responsible for the

emission of nitrous oxide

Particulate Matter

It is the mixture of sulphate, organic and elemental carbon, solid

compounds, dust, nitrate, smoke, and small droplets of liquid (Jacob and

Winner 2009 ). Their diameter ranges from >2.5 μm to <10 μm. It can

also be resulted from wind erosion, tillage process performed to prepare

land for agricultural purposes, by burning of crops, and can be formed

during the reactions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides. They badly affect the

vegetation by interfering with the pesticides. Besides this, alkaline dust

may increase the alkalinity of the cultivating land, inhibiting the crop

growth and death of leaf

Solutions to Agricultural Pollution

1. Government Regulations

Keeping agricultural pollution in check is much harder than it seems.

For the farms to become clean once again, levels of water, soil,

and industrial pollution have to be kept in check. Over the last decade

or so, governments have become stricter about enforcing regulations.

2. Awareness of farmers

Farmers often unknowingly cause harm to the

environmental system. They should be taught that the excessive

use of fertilizer and pesticides has a huge adverse impact on

the whole ecosystem. Thus, by increasing the farmers’ knowledge

and awareness, agricultural pollution can be mitigated to a pg:14

certain degree. They must know:

❖ Applying the right quantity of pesticides and fertilizers that

are necessary to get a reasonable crop yield.

❖ Using cover crops to prevent bare ground when the actual

harvest is over, thus preventing soil erosion and loss of

waterways.

❖ Planting grasses, trees and fences along the edges of a field

that lies on the borders of water bodies. They could act as

buffers, and nutrient losses can be avoided by filtering out

nutrients before reaching the groundwater.

❖ Reduction in tillage of the fields in order to reduce runoffs,

soil compaction and erosion.

❖ Animal or cattle waste is a big cause of agricultural pollution.

The management of these pollutants is crucial.

❖ Several manure treatment processes need to follow, which

aim to reduce the adverse impact of manure on the

environmental system.

Pest Management

Pesticides are applied to control the pests like weeds, insects, and

diseases because these pests are the cause of reduction in

agricultural yield. On the other hand, the use of these pesticides is

a source of agricultural pollution. So, it is essential to design,

establish, and implement such technologies, which have

application of precision agriculture to pest management. The

feasible use of pesticides can be helpful in preventing human

diseases and ecosystem destruction

Soil and Water Quality pg:15

The properties of soil and water are interlinked with each other in

a way that if one thing is in poor condition, then the other must

be affected. Healthy soil keeps the water clean, and similarly clean

water keeps the soil in a healthy condition. The soil quality is

defined as the amount of soil fi t for sustainable agricultural

production. The water quality is assessed by the quantity of

hazardous chemicals and sediments present in the water. Again

the soil and water quality can be maintained by the eradication of

excess pesticide and fertilizer use.

Manure Recycling

Farm animal faeces and urine together are called as excreta,

which can be used to produce manure. The benefits like supply of

nutrients to crops, refining soil structure, and moisture-absorbing

ability of the soil can be obtained by using manure. If the excreta

are collected in semiliquid form, then it is called as slurry. Slurry is

also used like manure to increase the soil fertility. Using nitrogen

present in excreta can do the nitrogen cycling in the environment.

Based on the variation of species, the nitrogen content of manure

and slurry can also differ.

Compost Application in a Cropping System

The agricultural pollution can be prevented by using compost in

the cropping sys-tem. The compost is produced from manure and

other agricultural by-products. It has many advantages like

reduction of soil erosion, refinement of soil texture, and

decreased use of fertilizers. Its most important functions are to

Pg:16

provide nutrient source and to suppress plant diseases. Compost

prevents soil erosion as it provides a structure to the soil to which

it is added. It has beneficial microorganisms that actually work in

suppressing the plant diseases. In different places, different

volumes of compost are used to attain the same desired results.

Conclusions and Future Perspective

Three “P”s of agricultural Policy, agricultural Production, and

agricultural Pollution are correlated with each other. It is

considered that agriculture is affected by the environmental

pollution, but there is always the other side of the story too. Two

aspects of agriculture have been discussed in detail. One is the

pollution caused by the agriculture and the other is the impact of

pollution upon agriculture. It has been seen that there is a

complex relationship between the two and the resulting

consequences indicate that it is difficult to handle such

complications. There is no doubt that agriculture sector plays an

important role in the economy and food industry of a country.

Many kinds of staple crops, grains, and fruits are being produced

from this sector, which are making major share in the export

industry. But with the pas-sage of time, this sector is becoming

troublesome for the surrounding environment. Agricultural

pollution not only affects air, water, and soil, but problems related

to health and biodiversity have also been observed through the

use of fertilizers 381pesticides, organic matter, and greenhouse

gas emissions. There will be an alarming situation when

agricultural pollution will minimize the agricultural yield itself.

There is an increasing public concern regarding agricultural

Pg:17

pollution and its impact on the environment. There is a need to

maximize the agricultural production to overcome the increasing

demand of food. Nowadays, farmers are using new techniques to

increase the crop productivity and quality, but despite all this, this

industry is not following rules and regulations that have been

implemented in other industries. So there should be a primary

focus to strengthen the regulatory programs to prevent the

agricultural pollution and its drastic effects on the environment.

Proper policies should be made on local to global level to

minimize its effects on our surroundings and to improve yield,

quality, the agricultural practices, and the well- being of humans

and biodiversity.

1 | P a g e

REPORT ON

POLLUTION

College roll:CEMA20M152

University roll:203223-21-0132

University registration number:

223-1111-0472-20

26

2 | P a g e

TABLE OF CONTENT TOPIC PAGE NUMBER

WHAT IS POLLUTION AND HOW DOES IT OCCUR?

PAGE 3

TYPES OF POLLUTION PAGE 4

AIR POLLUTION PAGE 5

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION PAGE 6

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION PAGE 8

WATER POLLUTION PAGE 9

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION PAGE 10

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION PAGE 11

NOISE POLLUTION PAGE 12

CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION PAGE 13

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION PAGE 14

LAND POLLUTION PAGE 15

CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION PAGE 16

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION PAGE 17

3 | P a g e

WHAT IS POLLUTION AND HOW DOES IT OCCUR?

Pollution occurs when any form of impurity is introduced into a clean source. It is most often used in an environmental concept like air or water pollution. There are mainly four types of pollution air, water, soil and land.

Pollution can come in 4 different types affecting different types of areas in the world. Air pollution affects the air, water pollution affects the water and marine life, land pollution affects the land destroying life and the environment and there is also noise pollution that can affect our hearing. Pollution is dangerous. It affects everything from land to water, air, noise and more. Really pollution is just muck. Harmful substances cause by everything. Pollution kills, so reduce it.

China is the most polluted country in the world.

4 | P a g e

TYPES OF POLLUTION

There are four types of pollution:

1. Air pollution2. Water pollution3. Noise pollution4. Land pollution

5 | P a g e

AIR POLLUTION Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere. Air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made. E.g. Sulphur dioxide, Smoke, Fly ash.

6 | P a g e

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

1. Carbon dioxide is one the main pollutants that causes airpollution. This is because, although living beings do exhalecarbon dioxide, this gas is harmful when emitted from othersources, which are caused due to human activity. An additionalrelease of carbon dioxide happens due to various suchactivities. Carbon dioxide gas is used in various industriessuch as the oil industry and the chemical industry. Thecombustion of fossil fuels and the harmful effects ofdeforestation have all contributed towards the same.Scientists have now therefore identified carbon dioxide as oneof those elements that have contributed to global warming.

2. The combustion of fuels in automobiles, jet planes, etc allcause the release of several primary pollutants into the air.The burning of fossil fuels in big cities which is seen atmost factories, offices and even a large number of homes, itis no wonder that air pollution is increasing at an alarmingrate. The release of other harmful gases all adds to the statethat we see today. Although carbon dioxide plays an importantrole in various other processes like photosynthesis, breathingan excess of the same also causes harmful effects towardsone’s health.

3. Carbon monoxide is another such gas which, although waspresent in the atmosphere earlier, is now considered to be amajor pollutant. An excess of the same has a harmful effect onour system. There are many reasons why carbon monoxide can bereleased into the atmosphere as a result of human activities.This is also produced due to any fuel burning appliance andappliances such as gas water heaters, fireplaces, woodstoves,gas stoves, gas dryers, yard equipment as well as automobiles,which add to the increased proportion of this gas into theatmosphere.

7 | P a g e

4. Sulfur dioxide is yet another harmful pollutant that causesair pollution. Sulfur dioxide is emitted largely to theexcessive burning of fossil fuels, petroleum refineries,chemical and coal burning power plants etc. Nitrogen dioxidewhen combined with sulfur dioxide can even cause a harmfulreaction in the atmosphere that can cause acid rain.

5. Nitrogen dioxide is one more gas that is emitted into theatmosphere as a result of various human activities. An excessof nitrogen dioxide mainly happens due to most power plantsseen in major cities, the burning of fuels due to variousmotor vehicles and other such sources, whether industrial orcommercial that cause the increase in the levels of nitrogendioxide.

8 | P a g e

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

The effects of air pollution on humans are fatal and life threatening. WHO statistics report that over 2 million people succumb to the fatalities attributed to air pollution. Consistent exposure to pollutants leads to the development of:

1. Premature mortality2. Heart attack3. Asthma4. Difficulty in breathing5. Wheezing and coughing6. Cyclic fibrosis7. Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases8. Chronic bronchitis

Poisonous gases get trapped into our atmosphere and cause Global Warming. Air pollution has also caused a hole in our ozone layer that allows the ultra-violet rays of the sun to enter the earth’s atmosphere that can cause diseases like skin cancer.

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WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater).

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, but to the natural biological communities.

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CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION There are several causes of water pollution:

1. Organic2. Inorganic as well3. Municipal4. Industrial5. Agricultural

The causes of water pollution may be due to direct and indirect contaminant sources. The former are effluent outputs from refineries, factories, waste treatment plants. Fluids of differing qualities are emitted to the urban water supplies. However, still pollutants can be found in the water bodies. Contaminants can also be divided into inorganic, organic, acid/base and radioactive.

The major sources of water pollution are as described below.

Discharge of contaminated and/or heated water that has been used for industrial purposes. The surface runoff from farms, construction sites or other impervious surfaces. The improper disposal of solid wastes like littering on a localized scale. Addition of excessive nutrients by runoff containing detergents or fertilizers called as eutrophication. The geology of aquifers where groundwater is abstracted. Maltreated sewage discharged in a wrong manner. Slash and burn farming practice is a component in shifting cultivation agricultural systems. Radioactive substances from nuclear power plants and industrial, medical and scientific use are also contributive. Uranium and thorium mining and refining are some of the examples. Heat is a leading cause as it results in the death of several aquatic organisms. A discharge of cooling water by factories and power plants lowers the temperature of the water bodies. Oil pollution is very harmful for coastal wildlife. Oil spreads on huge areas to form oil slicks.

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EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

1) The food chain is damaged. When toxins are in the water,the toxins travel from the water the animals drink to humans when the animals’ meat is eaten.

2) Diseases can spread via polluted water. Infectiousdiseases such as typhoid and cholera can be contracted from drinking contaminated water. This is called microbial water pollution. The human heart and kidneys can be adversely affected if polluted water is consumed regularly.

3) Acid rain contains sulfate particles, which can harm fishor plant life in lakes and rivers.

4) Pollutants in the water will alter the overall chemistryof the water, causing changes in acidity, temperature and conductivity. These factors all have an affect on the marine life.

5) Altered water temperatures (due to human actions) cankill the marine life and affect the delicate ecological balance in bodies of water, especially lakes and rivers.

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NOISE POLLUTION

Noise can be defined as an unwanted or undesired sound. Decibel is the standard unit for measurement of sound. Usually 80 db is the level at which sound becomes physically painful. And can be termed as noise. Humans, animals, plants and even inert objects like buildings and bridges have been victims of the increasing noise pollution caused in the world. Be it human or machine-created, noise disrupts the activity and balance of life. While traffic dons the cap of being the largest noise maker throughout the world, there are many others that add to it, making our globe susceptible to its effects. The effect of noise pollution is multi-faceted and interrelated. In the following lines, we have provided some of the causes and effects of noise pollution.

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CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Traffic noise is the main source of noise pollution caused in urban areas. With the ever-increasing number of vehicles on road, the sound caused by the cars and exhaust system of autos, trucks, buses and motorcycles is the chief reason for noise pollution.

People living beside railway stations put up with a lot of noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles and switching and shunting operation in rail yards. This is one of the major sources of noise pollution. Though not a prime reason, industrial noise adds to the noise pollution.

Machinery, motors and compressors used in the industries create a lot of noise which adds to the already detrimental state of noise pollution. Plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans create a lot of noise in the buildings and add to the prevailing noise pollution.

Household equipments, such as vacuum cleaners, mixers and some kitchen appliances are noisemakers of the house. Though they do not cause too much of problem, their effect cannot be neglected.

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EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

Deafness, temporary or permanent, is one of the most prevalent effects of noise pollution. Mechanics, locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc all have their hearing impairment.

Fatigue caused is another effect of noise. Due to lack of concentration, people need to devote more time to complete their task, which leads to tiredness and fatigue.

Noise pollution acts as a stress invigorator, increasing the stress levels among people.

Sometimes, being surrounded by too much of noise, people can be victims of certain diseases like blood pressure, mental illness, etc.

Noise pollution indirectly affects the vegetation. Plants require cool & peaceful environment to grow. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops.

Animals are susceptible to noise pollution as well. It damages the nervous system of the animals.

Noise indirectly weakens the edifice of buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves, which can be very dangerous and harmful and put the building in danger condition.

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LAND POLLUTION Land pollution the action of environmental contamination with man-made waste on land. Americans generate five pounds of solid waste every day, furthermore creating one ton of solid waste each year. In an average day in the United States, people throw out 200,000 tons of edible food and throw 1 million bushels of litter out of their automobiles. The main human contributor to pollution are landfills. Approximately half of our trash is disposed in landfills. Only 2% of our waste is actually recycled.

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CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION

Increase in urbanization. More constructions means increase in demand for raw materials like timber. This leads to the exploitation and destruction of forests. There is more demand for water.

Domestic waste. Every single day, tons and tons of domestic waste is dumped ranging from huge pieces of rubbish such as unused refrigerator to fish bones. If all these wastes are not disposed of properly, the damage they can do to the environment and humankind can be devastating.

Agricultural activities. Besides domestic waste, pesticides and herbicides used by farmers to increase crop yields also pollute the land when they are washed into the soil.

Industrial activities. Industrial activities also are a contributing factor to land pollution. For example, in open cast mining, huge holes are dug in the ground and these form dangerously deep mining pools. Heaps of mining waste are left behind and these waste often contain several poisonous substances that will contaminate the soil.

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EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION

1. Exterminates wildlife2. Acid rain kills trees and other plants.3. Vegetation that provides food and shelter is

destroyed. 4. It can seriously disrupt the balance of nature,

and, in extreme cases, can cause human fatalities.

5. Pesticides can damage crops, kill vegetation,and poison birds, animals and fish. Most pesticides kill or damage life forms other than those intended. For example, pesticides used in an effort to control or destroy undesirable vegetation and insects often destroy birds and small animals. Some life forms develop immunity to pesticides used to destroy them.

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