12 Apdjes Inteligencias Multiples

8/10/2019 12 Apdjes Inteligencias Multiples

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UNIVERSIDAD DE CHILE

FACULTAD DE FILOSOFA Y HUMANIDADES

DEPARTAMENTO DE LINGSTICA

A close look at l2 learning: from individaldifferences to mlti!le intelligences and "rain "asedstdies

Tesis para optar al grado de Licenciado en Lingstica con Menci!n en Leng"a #Literat"ra Inglesas

AL$MNOS PARTICIPANTES%

Giovanna Abarca

Marian Gonzlez

Natalie !oi"nant

Carolina O#arzo

A$bar %o$ero

I&i& San'eza

Daniela Silva

PRO&'G$A%Liliana (altra M'

Santiago)C*ile +,,-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

.e /o"ld li0e to t*an0 o"r teac*er Miss Liliana (altra M' 1or *er patience2 g"idanceand /illingness to *elp "s e3er# ti4e /e needed'

.e t*in0 it is necessar# to 4ention o"r respect and gratit"de 1or all o"r teac*ers2especiall# Miss Al1onsina Doddis2 /*o contri5"ted /it* *er 0no/ledge and ad3ice'

&inall# /e cannot 1orget to e6press o"r gratit"de to o"r 1a4ilies 1or t*eir"nconditional lo3e and s"pport'

A 4is padres2 pro1esores # co4pa7eros 8"e 4e aco4pa7aron # apo#aron d"rante esteproceso'

Gio3anna'


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A 4i 1a4ilia2 *i9os2 a 4i nanita # especiales agradeci4ientos a C:sar # a5"elitaEliana'

Marian'

A a8"ellos acad:4icos # a4igos 8"e a lo largo de estos a7os 4e entregaron s" realapo#o # oport"na g"a' A todos # cada "no de 4is seres a4ados2 a8" # en otrasdi4ensiones' A Dios'

Nat*alie'

A $i& (a)re&* (ero en e&(ecial a $i $a$ +'e &ie$(re $e a(o#o # t'vo ,e en $ic'an)o #o #a no la ten-a. A $i e&(o&o # $i i/a (or la (aciencia # la co$(a0-a # a $ia$i"a 1arin* (or aco$(a0ar$e to)o& e&to& a0o&.

Carolina'

A 4is padres2 1a4ilia # pro1esores por s" constante apo#o2 cari7o # conse9o2 d"rantecada 4o4ento en estos a7os de est"dio' A ;os": por s" dedicaci!n # a4or los c"ales4e *an dado 4"iero agradecer a 4i 1a4ilia2 a4igos # pro1esores por s" paciencia # apo#o d"rantetodos estos a7os'

Daniela'

INTRODUCTION

Since t*e second *al1 o1 t*e t/entiet* cent"r# a signi1icant paradig4 s*i1t *as ta0enplace in second lang"age ed"cation2 na4el#2 t*e s*i1t 1ro4 positi3is4 to post)

positi3is42 and 1ro4 5e*a3io"ris4 to cogniti3is4'In science2 in general2 /*en a paradig4 s*i1t2 li0e t*is one occ"rs2 /e loo0 at t*ings1ro4 a di11erent perspecti3e since /e 1oc"s on di11erent aspects o1 t*e p*eno4ena ino"r li3es' In t*e case o1 lang"age pedagog#2 speci1icall#2 /e 1o"nd a 4o3e a/a# 1ro4t*e tenets o1 5e*a3io"rist ps#c*olog# and str"ct"ral ling"istics to/ards a cogniti3e2and later2 to/ards a sociocogniti3e ps#c*olog#' .e also /itness a 4oreconte6t"alised 4eaning)5ased 3ie/ o1 lang"age'

T*is 1act is re1lected in s"c* di11erent 4et*ods as A"dioling"alis42 /*ose goal /as toattain 4aster# o1 ling"istic co4petence 5# 4eans o1 oral drill practice? and later inapproac*es s"c* as t*e Nat"ral Approac* /*ic* ai4ed to ac*ie3e t*e a5ilit# to "se

t*e lang"age in t*e rig*t conte6t or sit"ation2 i'e' ling"istic co4petence'


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@e# co4ponents o1 t*is s*i1t *a3e 4eant%

&oc"sing greater attention on t*e role o1 learners rat*er t*an on t*e e6ternalsti4"li learners are recei3ing 1ro4 t*eir en3iron4ent' T*"s2 t*e centre o1attention s*i1ted 1ro4 t*e teac*er to t*e st"dent' T*is s*i1t is generall# 0no/nas a 4o3e 1ro4 teacer2centre) in&tr'ctionto learner2centre) e)'cation.

Respecting di3ersit# a4ong learners and 3ie/ing t*eir di11erences not asi4pedi4ents to learning2 5"t as reso"rces to 5e recognised2 catered to andappreciated' T*is s*i1t is 0no/n as t*e st"d# o1 in)ivi)'al )i,,erence&'

&oc"sing on t*e internal processes o1 t*e classroo4 rat*er t*an solel# 3al"ingt*e 3ie/s o1 t*ose /*o co4e 1ro4 o"tside to st"d# classroo4s' T*is s*i1t led "sto s"c* inno3ations as 8"alitati3e researc*2 /*ic* 3al"es t*e s"59ecti3e anda11ecti3e 1actors o1 t*e participants and t*e "ni8"eness o1 eac* classroo4sit"ation'

Along /it* t*is e4p*asis on conte6t2 ca4e t*e idea o1 connecting t*e sc*ool/it* t*e /orld 5e#ond as a 4eans o1 pro4oting *olistic learning'

elping t*e st"dents "nderstand t*e p"rpose o1 learning and de3elop t*eir

o/n p"rposes' A /*ole)to)part orientation instead o1 a part)to)/*ole approac*' T*is in3ol3es

s"c* approac*es as 5eginning /it* 4eaning1"l /*ole te6ts and t*en *elpingst"dents "nderstand t*e 3ario"s 1eat"res t*at ena5le te6ts to 1"nction'

An e4p*asis on t*e i4portance o1 4eaning rat*er t*an sentence drills andot*er 1or4s o1 rote 4e4orisation'

A 3ie/ o1 learning as a li1elong process rat*er t*an so4et*ing acti3ated toprepare 1or an e6a4'

T*e paradig4 s*i1t in t*e teac*ing and learning o1 an L+ o"tlined a5o3e *as led to4an# c*anges in t*e /a# second lang"age teac*ing is cond"cted and concei3ed' .e*a3e de3eloped so4e o1 t*e di11erent proposals t*at *a3e e4erged /it*in t*is ne/paradig4 1or t*e /riting o1 t*is t*esis'

C*apter B presents a s#nt*esis o1 (loo4s ta6ono4# o1 t*e ed"cational s#ste4sgoals2 /it* a strong e4p*asis on t*e concept o1 a11ecti3e do4ain and its t*eoreticalpotentialities 1or second lang"age ed"cation'

C*apter + o11ers a general 3ie/ o1 t*e di11erence 5et/een lang"age)centredinstr"ction and learner)centred ed"cation2 as /ell as learning instr"ction 4atc*ing'

C*apter addresses t*e s"59ect o1 indi3id"al di11erences in lang"age learning and8"otes t/o e6a4ples o1 4et*ods considering t*ese di11erences'

C*apter e6a4ines t*e relations*ip 5et/een 5rain2 lang"age and learning2 1oc"singon *o/ t*e 5rain /or0s to carr# o"t di11erent ling"istic tas0s' It gi3es an insig*t into*o/ ne"roscienti1ic researc* pro3es as a relia5le so"rce 1ro4 /*ic* ed"cationalproposals 4a# i4pro3e'

C*apter - deals /it* t*e concept o1 intelligence2 t*e t*eor# o1 M"ltiple Intelligencesand t*e positi3e ed"cational i4plications t*at t*is t*eor# *as *ad and 4a# *a3e int*e 1ield o1 ed"cation in general and in second lang"age learning in partic"lar' T*isc*apter depicts *o/ t*e 1ields o1 ps#c*olog# and ne"roscience *a3e 5een "se1"l 1ort*e de3elop4ent o1 so4e t*eories2 speci1icall#2 t*e /a# in /*ic* t*e t*eor# o1M"ltiple Intelligences de)e4p*asises t*e rigid 4eas"re4ent o1 intelligence t*ro"g*t*e I> to/ards a 4ore *olistic "nderstanding o1 t*e indi3id"als di11erent intelligent

5e*a3io"rs'


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C*apter F relates speci1ic cases o1 s"ccess1"l L+ learners incl"ding t*e t*eoreticalaspects t*at *a3e 5een disc"ssed in t*is t*esis'

.e e6pect o"r /or0 to pro3ide a /ider pict"re o1 t*e c*anges t*at t*e learning andteac*ing o1 a second or 1oreign lang"age are e6periencing toda#'

#$%EC&IVES

T*e 4ain o59ecti3e o1 t*is t*esis is to re3ise t*e general process o1 L+ learning andso4e t*eories t*at *a3e atte4pted to c*aracterise it in t*e past 1i1t# #ears'

T*e speci1ic o59ecti3es are%

To e6a4ine t*e learners indi3id"al di11erences as 1actors in3ol3ed in t*e L+learning process'

To anal#se t*e T*eor# o1 General Intelligence in contrast to t*e T*eor# o1M"ltiple Intelligences and *o/ t*e latter contri5"tes to consider st"dents as*olistic learners'

To re3ise t*e state o1 t*e art o1 5rain st"dies as a ne"roscienti1ic 5asis 1orlearning in general and t*e learning o1 an L+ speci1icall#'

To relate speci1ic cases o1 s"ccess1"l L+ learners /it* t*e t*eoretical aspectsdisc"ssed in t*is t*esis'

I Chapter One

'( A))EC&IVE D#*AIN

'('( $ackgrondIn BH d"ring t*e A4erican Ps#c*ological Association Con3ention2 a gro"p o1 college

e6a4iners integrated 5# Da3id @rat*/o*l2 (en9a4in (loo4 and (ertra4 Masia2esta5lis*ed a classi1ication s#ste4 as a t*eoretical 1ra4e/or0 o1 ed"cational goals1or t*e e3al"ation o1 st"dent per1or4ance' T*e# considered identi1#ing it as ata6ono4# /*ic* /o"ld pro3ide a "se1"l str"ct"re 1or categorising le3els o1a5straction o1 8"estions t*at co44onl# occ"r in ed"cational settings' T*e#considered t*at teac*ers c*aracteristicall# as0 8"estions /it*in partic"lar le3els2 andi1 t*ose le3els co"ld deter4ine t*e le3els o1 8"estions t*at /o"ld appear on t*ee6a4s2 st"dents /ill 5e a5le to st"d# "sing appropriate strategies'

T*at 4eeting 5eca4e t*e 1irst o1 a series o1 in1or4al ann"al 4eetings o1 t*esecollege e6a4iners? 5eing t*e p"5lis*ing o1 t*e Ta6ono4# o1 Ed"cational O59ecti3est*e 1irst prod"ct o1 t*ese 4eetings'

According to (loo4 et al' JB-FK t*eir ed"cational ta6ono4# /as intended to pro3ide1or classi1ication o1 t*e goals o1 t*e ed"cational s#ste4' It /as e6pected to 5e o1general *elp to all teac*ers2 ad4inistrators2 pro1essional specialists and researc*/or0ers /*o deal /it* c"rric"lar and e3al"ation pro5le4s' It /as especiall# intendedto *elp t*e4 disc"ss t*ese pro5le4s /it* greater precision' &or instance2 so4eteac*ers 5elie3e t*at t*e 1irst t*ing t*eir st"dents s*o"ld do is "nderstand? ot*ersdesire t*eir st"dents to internalise 0no/ledge? /*ile ot*ers /ant t*eir st"dents tograsp t*e core or essence2 or co4pre*end' ("t do t*e# all 4ean t*e sa4e t*ing.*at does a st"dent /*o reall# "nderstands do /*ic* *e does not do /*en *e doesnot "nderstand It /as 5elie3ed t*at teac*ers s*o"ld 5e a5le to de1ine t*is iss"e2

since it /o"ld 1acilitate t*e e6c*ange o1 in1or4ation a5o"t t*eir c"rric"larde3elop4ents as /ell as t*eir e3al"ation de3ices'


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Moreo3er2 /e t*in0 t*e ta6ono4# co"ld 5e a so"rce o1 constr"cti3e *elp in relation tot*e pro5le4s o1 learning a second lang"age gi3en t*at t*e cogniti3e2 t*e a11ecti3eand t*e ps#c*o4otor do4ains are considered to 5e o1 e8"al i4portance'

'(2( &+e &a,onom- of Edcational #".ectives

.e are interested in anal#sing t*is i4portant doc"4ent in o"r st"d# since ('S' (loo4et al' /ere2 to a certain e6tent2 pioneers in t*e st"d# o1 *o/ st"dents learn'

1.2.1. Cognitive domain

It incl"des t*ose ed"cational goals or o59ecti3es /*ic* deal /it* t*e recall orrecognition o1 0no/ledge and t*e de3elop4ent o1 intellect"al a5ilities and s0illsJ(loo42 B-FK'

(loo4 et al' JBFK di3ided t*is do4ain into si6 4a9or *ierarc*icall# arranged le3elsas 1ollo/s%

)1no3le)"e% Most learners and t*eir teac*ers si4ilarl# consider t*e ac8"isition o10no/ledge or in1or4ation to 5e t*e pri4ar#2 i1 not t*e sole o59ecti3e o1 an# progra4o1 ed"cation' I1 a st"dent is a5le to recall or recognise so4e idea or p*eno4enonenco"ntered in learning2 *e or s*e satis1ies t*e re8"ire4ents o1 t*e 1irst le3el o1 t*isdo4ain' Alt*o"g* in1or4ation or 0no/ledge is recognised as an i4portant o"tco4eo1 ed"cation2 3er# 1e/ teac*ers /o"ld 5e satis1ied to regard t*is as t*e pri4ar# ort*e sole o"tco4e o1 instr"ction' .*at is needed is so4e e3idence t*at t*e st"dentscan do so4et*ing /it* t*eir 0no/ledge2 t*at is2 t*at t*e# can appl# t*e in1or4ationto ne/ sit"ations and pro5le4s Ji5id'K' T*e st"dent is a5le to% en"4erate2 de1ine2descri5e2 identi1#2 la5el2 list2 4atc*2 na4e2 o"tline2 recall2 recite2 recollect2 relate2reprod"ce2 select2 state'

)Co$(reen&ion is t*e a5ilit# to grasp 4eaning o1 4aterial' T*is s0ill 4a# 5e s*o/n5# translating 4aterial 1ro4 one 1or4 to anot*er J/ords or n"45ersK2 5# interpreting4aterial Je6plaining or s"44arisingK' T*e st"dent is a5le to% c*ange2 constr"ct2con3ert2 decode2 de1end2 de1ine2 descri5e2 disting"is*2 discri4inate2 esti4ate2e6plain2 e6tend2 generalise2 gi3e e6a4ple2 ill"strate2 in1er2 parap*rase2 predict2restate2 re/rite2 sol3e2 s"44arise'

)A((licationis t*e a5ilit# to "se learned 4aterial in ne/ and concrete sit"ations'T*is 4a# incl"de t*e application o1 s"c* t*ings as r"les2 4et*ods2 concepts2principles2 la/s2 and t*eories' T*e indi3id"al can% appl#2 c*ange2 co4p"te2de4onstrate2 de3elop2 disco3er2 dra4atise2 e4plo#2 ill"strate2 interpret2 4anip"late24odi1#2 operate2 organise2 predict2 prepare2 prod"ce2 relate2 sol3e2 trans1er2 and

"se'

)Anal#&i&is t*e a5ilit# to 5rea0 do/n 4aterial into its co4ponent parts so t*at itsorganisational str"ct"re 4a# 5e "nderstood' T*is s0ill 4a# incl"de t*e identi1icationo1 t*e parts2 anal#sis o1 t*e relations*ip 5et/een parts2 and recognition o1 t*eorganisational principles in3ol3ed' T*"s t*e learner is a5le to% anal#se2 5rea0do/n2classi1#2 co4pare2 contrast2 deter4ine2 ded"ce2 diagra42 di11erentiate2 disting"is*2identi1#2 ill"strate2 in1er2 o"tline2 point o"t2 relate2 select2 separate2 and s"5di3ide'

)S#nte&i&is t*e a5ilit# to p"t parts toget*er to 1or4 a ne/ /*ole' T*is 4a# in3ol3et*e prod"ction o1 a "ni8"e co44"nication Jt*e4e or speec*K2 a plan o1 operationsJresearc* proposalK2 or a set o1 a5stract relations Jsc*e4e 1or classi1#ingin1or4ationK' T*e st"dents are a5le to% categorise2 co45ine2 co4pile2 co4pose2concei3e2 constr"ct2 create2 design2 de3ise2 esta5lis*2 e6plain2 1or4"late2 generate2


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in3ent2 4a0e 4anage2 4odi1#2 organise2 originate2 plan2 propose2 rearrange2reconstr"ct2 relate2 reorganise2 re3ise2 re/rite2 set "p2 s"44arise2 tell2 and /rite'

)Eval'ationis t*e *ig*er co4ponent o1 t*e Ta6ono4# to 9"dge t*e 3al"e o1 4aterialJstate4ent2 no3el2 poe42 researc* reportK 1or a gi3en p"rpose' And allo/s t*elearner to% appraise2 ascertain2 c*oose2 co4pare2 concl"de2 contrast2 criticise2decide2 de1end2 descri5e2 discri4inate2 e6plain2 interpret2 9"sti1#2 relate2 resol3e2s"44arise2 s"pport2 3alidate2 and /rite Ja re3ie/K'

1.2.2. Affective domain

It is i4portant 1or o"r st"d# since it incl"des o59ecti3es /*ic* descri5e c*anges ininterest2 attit"des2 and 3al"es2 and t*e de3elop4ent o1 appreciations and ade8"atead9"st4ent Ji5id'K2 /*ic* are essential aspects in learning a 1oreign lang"age'

T*e classi1ication o1 o59ecti3es in t*e a11ecti3e do4ain /as de1initel# 4orec*allenging' &irst2 t*e# /ere not stated as precisel# as /ere t*ose o1 t*e cogniti3edo4ain and2 in 1act2 ed"cators /ere not as clear as to t*e learning e6periences

appropriate to t*ese o59ecti3es' T*e e3idence s"ggests t*at a11ecti3e 5e*a3io"rsde3elop /*en appropriate learning e6periences are pro3ided 1or st"dents 4"c* t*esa4e as cogniti3e ones de3elop 1ro4 appropriate learning e6periences Ji5id'K' T*eresearc* tea4 did ass"4e t*at t*e a11ecti3e do4ain s*o"ld 5e str"ct"red*ierarc*icall# as is t*e cogniti3e do4ain' T*e c*allenge /as to locate t*e contin""4o1 5e*a3io"rs' T*e ta6ono4# 5egins at t*e le3el at /*ic* t*e learner is 4erel# a/areo1 or a5le to percei3e a p*eno4enon'

)%eceivin" is t*e /illingness to recei3e or to attend to partic"lar p*eno4ena orsti4"li Jclassroo4 acti3ities2 te6t5oo02 assign4ent2 etc'K' Recei3ing *as 5een di3idedinto t*ree s"5categories% a/areness2 /illingness to recei3e2 and controlled orselected attention' &ro4 t*e teac*ing standpoint2 recei3ing is concerned /it*getting2 *olding2 and directing t*e st"dents attention' T*e st"dent can%ac0no/ledge2 as02 attend2 5e a/are2 c*oose2 descri5e2 1ollo/2 gi3e2 *old2 identi1#2listen2 locate2 na4e2 recei3e2 repl#2 select2 s*o/ alertness2 tolerate2 "se2 3ie/2 and/atc*'

)%e&(on)in"re1ers to acti3e participation on t*e part o1 t*e st"dent' T*e st"dent iss"11icientl# 4oti3ated not to 9"st 5e /illing to attend2 5"t is acti3el# attending2 *e*as 5eco4e s"11icientl# in3ol3ed in or co44itted to a s"59ect2 acti3it#2 so as to see0it o"t and gain satis1action 1ro4 /or0ing /it* it or engaging in it' T*"s *e /ill% agreeJtoK2 ans/er2 as02 assist2 co44"nicate2 co4pl#2 consent2 con1or42 contri5"te2cooperate2 disc"ss2 1ollo/)"p2 greet2 *elp2 indicate2 in8"ire2 la5el2 o5e#2 participate2

p"rs"e2 8"estion2 react2 read2 repl#2 report2 re8"est2 respond2 see02 select2 3isit23ol"nteer2 and /rite'

)4al'in". .*en t*e st"dent sees /ort* or 3al"e in t*e s"59ect2 acti3it#2 assign4ent2etc' e is 4oti3ated2 not 5# t*e desire to co4pl# or o5e#2 5"t 5# t*e indi3id"alsco44it4ent to t*e learning sit"ation' T*e learner is a5le to% accept2 adopt2appro3e2 co4plete2 c*oose2 co44it2 descri5e2 desire2 di11erentiate2 displa#2endorse2 e6*i5it2 e6plain2 e6press2 1or42 initiate2 in3ite2 9oin2 9"sti1#2 pre1er2propose2 read2 report2 sanction2 select2 s*are2 st"d#2 and /or0'

)Or"ani&ation 4eans 5ringing toget*er a co4ple6 set o1 3al"es2 resol3ing con1licts5et/een t*e42 and 5eginning to 5"ild an internall# consistent 3al"e s#ste4' T*e

indi3id"al sees *o/ t*e 3al"e relates to t*ose alread# *eld or to ne/ ones t*at areco4ing to 5e *eld' T*e integration o1 3al"es is less t*an *ar4onio"s? it is a 0ind o1


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II Chapter Two

2( LEARNER/CEN&RED INS&RUC&I#N

Second Lang"age Ac8"isition JSLAK2 as a s"5)discipline o1 applied ling"istics2 is still a

3er# #o"ng 1ield o1 st"d#' .*ile it 4a# not 5e possi5le to identi1# its precise startingpoint2 4an# researc*ers /o"ld agree t*at t*e late si6ties 4ar0ed t*e 5eginning o1 anintense period o1 e4pirical and t*eoretical interest in *o/ second lang"ages areac8"ired' M"c* o1 t*is researc* *as 5een directed at "nderstanding and contri5"tingto 4ore e11ecti3e instr"cted lang"age learning2 and t*e e11ects o1 instr"ction onlearning' M"c* o1 t*e t*eorising a5o"t L+ instr"ction *as 5een speci1icall#"nderta0en /it* lang"age pedagog# in 4ind' &or e6a4ple2 @ras*ens Monitor ModelJ@ras*en2 BHBK2 Longs Interaction #pot*esis JLong2 BFK2 and especiall# t*e t*eor#o1 instr"cted lang"age learning JEllis2 BK all address t*e role o1 instr"ction in L+ac8"isition'

In partic"lar2 t*ere is no agree4ent as to /*et*er instr"ction s*o"ld 5e 5ased on a

traditional 1oc"s)on)1or4s approac*2 in3ol3ing t*e s#ste4atic teac*ing o1gra44atical 1eat"res in accordance /it* a str"ct"ral s#lla5"s2 or on anot*er 1oc"s)on)1or4 approac* /*ic* in3ol3es attention to ling"istic 1eat"res in t*e conte6t o1co44"nicati3e acti3ities deri3ed 1ro4 a tas0)5ased s#lla5"s or so4e 0ind o1co45ination o1 t*e t/o' Nor is t*ere agree4ent a5o"t t*e e11icac# o1 teac*inge6plicit 0no/ledge or a5o"t /*at t#pe o1 correcti3e 1eed5ac0 to pro3ide or e3en/*en e6plicit gra44ar teac*ing s*o"ld start' T*ese contro3ersies re1lect 5ot* t*eco4ple6it# o1 t*e o59ect o1 en8"ir# Jinstr"cted lang"age learningK and also t*e 1actt*at SLA is still in its in1anc#'

2('( )ormal Instrction

So4e pre3io"s in3estigations concerning t*e e11ects o1 1or4al instr"ction *a3ere1erred to t*e ter4 as gra44atical teac*ing' T*is occ"rs in classroo4s /*enteac*ers tr# to *elp learning 5# raising t*e learners conscio"sness a5o"t t*e targetlang"age r"les' &or4al instr"ction can 5e ded"cti3e Jt*e learners are told t*e r"lesKor ind"cti3e Jlearners de3elop a 0no/ledge o1 t*e r"les t*ro"g* carr#ing o"t lang"agetas0sK'

&indings 1ro4 3ario"s so"rces s*o/ t*at instr"ction *as little in1l"ence o3er t*e ordero1 ac8"isition JEllis BH2 Ellis B,% BFF2 Ellis B% FB2 &eli6 a*n BH-K? or as&eli6 said% T*e possi5ilit# o1 4anip"lating and controlling t*e st"dents 5e*a3io"r int*e classroo4 is in 1act 8"ite li4ited JBH-% B,K'

Di11ering 1ro4 @ras*en2 Ellis states t*at t*ere are in3estigations t*at indicate t*att*e ac8"isition o1 gra44atical 4orp*e4es is not ac8"ired in t*e sa4e order as t*e#/ere ta"g*t JB,% BK' T*ere1ore2 t*e# 8"estion 1or4al instr"ction especiall# /*enresearc*ers s"c* as Lig*t5o/n JBH-K clai4 t*at instr"ction 4a# appear to 5ee11ecti3e initiall# 5"t /it* ti4e t*e e11ects disappear'

Man# researc*ers *a3e arg"ed t*at st"dents2 partic"larl# ad"lts de1initel# 5ene1it1ro4 1or4al instr"ction2 e3en i1 t*e gra44atical str"ct"res are presented in an orderdi11erent 1ro4 t*e nat"ral order J(aile#2 Madden @ras*en B% +2 de QilliersBK2 or t*at instr"ction so4e*o/ is signi1icant 1or t*e learner so t*at /*en *e isread# to assi4ilate ne/ 4aterial2 ac8"isition 5eco4es easier JEllis B,% BFK' ("tde1initel# ot*ers *a3e e3en stated t*at 1or4al instr"ction is a 4ore e11icient /a# o1ac8"iring a second lang"age t*an nat"ral e6pos"re J@ras*en et al' BH% +F,K' .e


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no/ 0no/ t*at t*e process is di11erent 1or eac* indi3id"al2 as it is e6e4pli1ied in t*ene6t c*apters'

2(2( Langage/centred InstrctionTraditionall#2 lang"age instr"ction *as 5een directed at de3eloping r"le)5ased

co4petence Ji'e' 0no/ledge o1 speci1ic gra44atical r"lesK t*ro"g* t*e s#ste4aticteac*ing o1 pre)selected str"ct"res ) /*at Long JBBK *as re1erred to as a 1oc"s)on)1or4 approac*'

Ellis et al' J+,,BK reported t*at e6tensi3e instr"ction occ"rred relati3el# 1re8"entl#in co44"nicati3e ad"lt ESL lessons t*ro"g* attention to 1or42 eit*er pre)e4pti3eJi'e' teac*er or st"dent)initiatedK or reacti3e Ji'e' correcti3e 1eed5ac0K' Loe/enJ+,,+K s*o/ed t*at learners /*o e6perienced s"c* 4o4entar# 1or4)1oc"sed episodesde4onstrated s"5se8"ent learning o1 t*e 1or4s addressed in 5ot* i44ediate anddela#ed tests' o/e3er2 it is not possi5le to attend to t*ose str"ct"res t*at learnersdo not atte4pt to "se Ji'e' e6tensi3e instr"ction cannot deal /it* a3oidanceK' Also2o1 co"rse2 it does not pro3ide t*e practice t*at so4e str"ct"res 4a# re8"ire 5e1ore

t*e# can 5e 1"ll# ac8"ired' Alt*o"g* it *as 5een arg"ed2 instr"ction needs to 5econcei3ed o1 in ter4s o1 5ot* approac*es'

I4plicit 0no/ledge is proced"ral2 it is *eld "nconscio"sl#2 and can onl# 5e3er5alised i1 it is 4ade e6plicit' It is accessed rapidl# and easil# and t*"s it isa3aila5le 1or "se in rapid and 1l"ent co44"nication Jsee C*apter K'

In t*e 3ie/ o1 4ost researc*ers2 co4petence in an L+ is pri4aril# a 4atter o1i4plicit 0no/ledge' E6plicit 0no/ledge is t*e declarati3e and o1ten ano4alo"s0no/ledge o1 t*e p*onological2 le6ical2 gra44atical2 prag4atic and socio)critical1eat"res o1 an L+ toget*er /it* t*e 4etalang"age 1or la5elling t*is 0no/ledge JEllis2+,,K Jsee C*apter K'

Ellis 4a0es a distinction 5et/een e6plicit 0no/ledge as 4etaling"al e6planationand as anal#sed 0no/ledge' T*e 1or4er entails a conscio"s a/areness o1 *o/ astr"ct"ral 1eat"re /or0s /*ile t*e latter consists o1 0no/ledge o1 gra44atical4etalang"age and t*e a5ilit# to "nderstand e6planations o1 r"les'

Earl# researc* into nat"ralistic L+ ac8"isition s*o/ed t*at learners 1ollo/ a nat"ralorder in t*e se8"ence o1 ac8"isition' Act"all#2 t*e# 4aster di11erent gra44aticalstr"ct"res in a relati3el# 1i6ed and "ni3ersal order and t*e# pass t*ro"g* a se8"enceo1 stages o1 ac8"isition on ro"te to 4astering eac* gra44atical str"ct"re' T*is ledresearc*ers li0e Corder JBFK to s"ggest t*at learners *ad t*eir o/n 5"ilt)in

s#lla5"s 1or learning gra44ar as i4plicit 0no/ledge2 sa4e as C*o4s0#s LAD'@ras*en JBHBK 1a4o"sl# arg"ed t*at gra44ar instr"ction pla#ed no role in t*ede3elop4ent o1 i4plicit 0no/ledge J/*at *e called ac8"isitionK2 a 3ie/ 5ased on t*econ3iction t*at learners Jincl"ding classroo4 learnersK /o"ld a"to4aticall# proceedalong t*eir 5"ilt)in s#lla5"s as long as t*e# *ad access to co4pre*ensi5le inp"t and/ere s"11icientl# 4oti3ated' Gra44ar instr"ction co"ld contri5"te to learning onl#as e6plicit 0no/ledge'

According to Ellis2 lang"age instr"ction is a concept 1ro4 t*e F,s' In o"r st"d#2 /econsider instr"ction onl# as t*e trans4ission o1 0no/ledge t*at t*e teac*erpro3ides to t*e st"dent2 /*o is onl# a recipient'


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2(0( Learner/Centred A!!roac+esO3er t*e last t/ent# #ears2 t*ere *as 5een a s*i1t to/ards t*e idea o1 st"dentindependence /*en t*e# learn Englis*2 and s"5stantial researc* *as 5een done onlearner)centred approac*es to teac*ing' According to Da3id N"nan2 Learner)centredness is 4ore o1 an attit"de t*at an approac* Jcited in Ellis BK' e also

states t*at learner)centredness is not necessaril# s#non#4o"s /it* independencee3en t*o"g* in 4ost sit"ations it is'

In learner)centredness2 t*e 1oc"s is on 5ot* st"dents and instr"ctor2 and instr"ctionitsel1 1oc"ses on t*e learner and t*e learning process' T*e teac*er creates a learningen3iron4ent t*at rese45les as 4"c* as possi5le t*e one in /*ic* st"dents learnedt*eir 1irst lang"age' St"dents participate in t*e learning process 5# esta5lis*inglearning goals2 de3eloping and c*oosing learning strategies2 and e3al"ating t*eir o/nprogress' In t*e classroo42 st"dents attend to 4odels pro3ided 5# t*e teac*er Jinp"tKand t*en 5"ild on t*ose 4odels as t*e# "se lang"age t*e4sel3es Jo"tp"tK' Classroo4acti3ities incorporate real)/orld sit"ations' St"dents /or0 in pairs2 in gro"ps2 oralone depending on t*e p"rpose o1 t*e acti3it#' (esides2 t*e# tal0 /it*o"t constant

teac*er 4onitoring2 /*ile t*e teac*er pro3ides 1eed5ac0 or correction /*en8"estions arise'

Learner)centred teac*ing enco"rages st"dents to ta0e responsi5ilit# 1or t*eir o/nlang"age s0ill de3elop4ent and *elps t*e4 gain con1idence in t*eir a5ilit# to learnand "se t*e lang"age' Teac*ers s"pport st"dents 5# de3oting so4e class ti4e to non)traditional acti3ities2 incl"ding teac*ing learners *o/ to "se learning strategies2 *o/to "se a3aila5le tools and reso"rces2 and *o/ to re1lect on t*eir o/n learning2e6plained "nder t*e concept o1 4etacognition in 1ollo/ing c*apters'

Instr"ction 4a# not a11ect t*e spontaneo"s per1or4ance o1 t*e L+ learner 5"t it 4a#

positi3el# a11ect certain planned L+ prod"ction i'e' /riting2 /*en 1oc"sed on 1or42learners are a5le to 5ene1it 1ro4 0no/ledge ac8"ired t*ro"g* 1or4al instr"ctionJEllis BHF% ++K'

Anot*er 5ene1it o1 instr"ction is t*at it can pre3ent 1ossilisation Je'g' Long2 BH-% HKand t*e "se o1 pidgin)li0e constr"ctions /*ic* are "ngra44atical 5"t o1ten ne3errecti1ied 5# t*e "ninstr"cted learner since t*e# can co44"nicate in spite o1 t*at'

T*ere are 3ario"s t*eories a5o"t /*# instr"ction is 5ene1icial to ac8"isition' Onepossi5ilit# is o11ered as a si4ple conscio"sness raising acti3it#2 or t*at it /or0sindirectl# /it* dela#ed res"lts JEllis B,% BF),K'

T*e 1inal t*ing to 5e said a5o"t t*e e11ecti3eness o1 instr"ction is t*at in so4est"dies2 5ene1its *a3e 5een recorded% It s*o"ld also 5e noted t*at2 e3en t*o"g* nodi11erence /as 1o"nd 5et/een t*e orders o1 instr"cted and nat"ralistic learners in4ost o1 t*e st"dies2 t*ere /as e3idence in so4e ot*ers t*at speci1ic 4orp*e4es/ere per1or4ed 4ore acc"ratel# as a res"lt o1 instr"ction JEllis B% FBK'

To ac*ie3e 4a6i4"4 res"lts2 lang"age s#lla5"ses are generall# organised in order too11er a correlation 5et/een nat"ral learning order and teac*ing order2 since /*at/or0s 5est is so4e co45ination o1 t*e t/o JEllis BHF% +BFK'

(aile#2 Madden and @ras*en JB% +K and de Qilliers JBK note t*at ad"lts2 inpartic"lar2 /ill 5ene1it considera5l# 1ro4 a co"rse /*ic* 1ollo/s a nat"ral s#lla5"s'


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(rindle# JBB cited in Ellis B% F+K 4aintains t*at 8"estion 1or4ation isconsidera5l# aided 5# a care1"ll# designed co"rse o1 instr"ction2 one /*ic* 4atc*edt*e st"dents o/n nat"ral de3elop4ent'

Ellis JB% F+K arg"es t*at2 1or e6a4ple2 in t*e ac8"isition o1 Ger4an /ord orderr"les2 instr"ction /*ic* 1ollo/s t*e nat"ral progression is essential2 as it is presentedlater in Dere0s case Jsee C*apter FK' So2 i1 t*e data can 5e relied on and t*e c"rrentle3el o1 t*e st"dent ascertained2 instr"ction designed to *is needs s*o"ld ens"re4a6i4"4 5ene1it'

2.3.1. Learning Instruction Matching

Loo0ing 1or t*e 4ost e11icient t#pe o1 instr"ction t*e researc*ers recognised t*at t*eprocess o1 a second lang"age ac8"isition presents so4e str"ct"ral properties t*at"ni3ersall# e6ist in lang"age learners' According to Nic*olas JBH- cited in Ellis B%FFK T*ere is no "ni8"e 5est pat* to "lti4ate co44"nicati3e co4petence' Rat*er2learners /ill di11er in t*e 0ind o1 instr"ction t*at t*e# respond 5est' As a res"lt o1t*is2 it is possi5le t*at opti4al t#pe o1 instr"ction /ill 5e t*at /*ic* 4atc*es t*e

indi3id"al learners pre1erred approac* to learning'

It is pro5a5l# 5e#ond t*e a5ilities o1 4ost teac*ers to design lessons in3ol3ing t*e0ind o1 4atc*ing instr"ction e4plo#ed in .esc*es JBHBK st"d#2 /*ic* "sed lang"ageaptit"de tests to identi1# di11erent learning st#les and t*en so"g*t to 4atc* t*e 0indo1 instr"ction pro3ided to t*e learners pre1erred approac* to learning' o/e3er2teac*ers can cater to 3ariation in t*e nat"re o1 t*eir st"dents aptit"de 5# adopting a1le6i5le teac*ing approac* in3ol3ing a 3ariet# o1 learning acti3ities' T*e# can also4a0e "se o1 si4ple learner)training 4aterials Je'g' Ellis and Sinclair2 BHK designedto 4a0e st"dents 4ore a/are o1 t*eir o/n approac*es to learning and to de3elopa/areness o1 alternati3e approac*es' Good lang"age learner st"dies J;oan R"5in2B- and Alice O4aggio2 BHHK s"ggest t*at s"ccess1"l lang"age learning re8"ires a1le6i5le approac* to learning' T*"s2 increasing t*e range o1 learning strategies atlearners disposal is one /a# in /*ic* teac*ers can *elp t*e4 to learn' Si4ilaralternati3es are presented /it* t*e t*eor# o1 M"ltiple Intelligences in C*apter -'

III Chapter Three

0( )ACRS INV#LVED IN LEARNER/CEN&RED INS&RUC&I#N

T*e present c*apter re3ie/s indi3id"al di11erences as 1actors in3ol3ed in second or1oreign lang"age learning' It also intends to gi3e a 5rie1 e6position o1 t*esedi11erences2 5# enclosing a general classi1ication2 and t*e corresponding e6planation

o1 t*eir role in t*e learning process'

T*e st"d# o1 indi3id"al di11erences JIDsK is de1initi3el# rele3ant in L+ learning2especiall# in t*e area o1 learner)centred ed"cation' T*e 1indings t*at /e 4a#enco"nter in t*is area o1 researc* pro3ide signi1icant insig*ts t*at are "se1"l not also1or lang"age teac*ers or applied ling"ists2 5"t also 1or learners2 since t*e# *elp "s"nderstand /*# learners 3ar# in *o/ 8"ic0l# t*e# learn and /*# 4ost learners 1ail toac*ie3e nati3e)spea0er co4petence'

&o"r 5asic 8"estions t*at arise 1ro4 IDs st"dies are as 1ollo/s%

In /*at /a#s do lang"age learners di11er .*at e11ects do t*ese di11erences *a3e on learning o"tco4es o/ do learner di11erences a11ect t*e process o1 L+ ac8"isition


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o/ do indi3id"al learner 1actors interact /it* instr"ction in deter4ininglearning o"tco4es

T*is c*apter atte4pts to ans/er t*ese 8"estions in general'

Qario"s researc*ers *a3e classi1ied indi3id"al di11erences' Ta5le B Jsee Appendi6 1orC*apter K2 1or e6a4ple2 lists t*e 4ain 3aria5les 4entioned in t*ree s"r3e#s' Itde4onstrates t*e i4portance attac*ed to indi3id"al di11erences2 and also t*edi11erent /a#s to classi1# t*e4'

T*e constr"cts in Ta5le B Jpresented in Appendi6 1or C*apter K are o1ten 3ag"e ando3erlap in indeter4inate /a#s /*ic* 4a0es it di11ic"lt to s#nt*esise t*e res"lts o1di11erent st"dies2 and e3en 4ore di11ic"lt to arri3e at a co*erent o3erall pict"re'

Anot*er pro5le42 related to t*at o1 classi1#ing learner 3aria5les2 is t*e c*oice o1ter4s 1or la5elling eac* 1actor' O1ten t*ere is no clear distinction dra/n in t*e "se o1t*e ter4s'

Despite t*ese pro5le4s2 t*e st"d# o1 IDs *as attracted a lot o1 attention in secondlang"age ac8"isition researc* and *as 4ade considera5le ad3ances'

D"e to t*e pro5le4s t*at *a3e 5een recentl# 4entioned a5o3e2 no atte4pt /ill 5e4ade in t*e 1ollo/ing pages to e6a4ine all t*e di4ensions listed in Ta5le B' Rat*er2t*e c*apter /ill atte4pt to de1ine a n"45er o1 central constr"cts 5# o"tlining a1ra4e/or0 1or e6a4ining IDs JEllis2 BK'

0('( Individal Learner Differences

3.1.1. Learner's beiefs about anguage earning

Lang"age learners2 especiall# ad"lts2 5ring a 3ariet# o1 5elie1s to t*e classroo42/*ic* /e co"ld call 4ini t*eories o1 L+ learning' T*ere *as 5een relati3el# littleresearc* into t*e nat"re o1 t*e4 and e3en less a5o"t *o/ learners 5elie1s a11ectlang"age learning'

.enden JBHF2 HK gro"ped t*e4 into t*ree general categories%

B' $se o1 t*e lang"age% It incl"des 5elie1s relating to t*e i4portance o1learning in a nat"ral /a#2 li0e practicing2 tr#ing to t*in0 in t*e L+ andli3ing and st"d#ing in an en3iron4ent /*ere t*e L+ is spo0en'

+' Learning a5o"t t*e lang"age% ere2 t*e e4p*asis is on learninggra44ar and 3oca5"lar#2 enrolling in a lang"age class2 recei3ing 1eed5ac0

on errors2 and 5eing 4entall# acti3e'' I4portance o1 personal 1actors% It incl"des 5elie1s a5o"t t*e 1eelings

t*at 1acilitate or in*i5it learning2 sel1)concept2 and aptit"de 1or learning'or/it= JBHK "sed a 8"estionnaire to elicit t*e 5elie1s o1 t*irt# t/o inter4ediatele3el st"dents o1 di11erent et*nic 5ac0gro"nds /*o /ere st"d#ing at an intensi3e"ni3ersit# Englis* progra4 in t*e $SA' So4e o1 t*e pre)conceptions t*at t*e s"59ects*ad a5o"t lang"age learning incl"ded restricted 3ie/s a5o"t t*e nat"re o1 lang"agelearning2 i'e' 5elie3ing 1or instance t*at t*e 5est /a# to learn Englis* is to spend4ost o1 t*eir ti4e 4e4orising 3oca5"lar# and gra44ar r"les2 or to 0no/ 4ore a5o"tt*e c"lt"re? t*e idea t*at people are 5orn /it* a special aptit"de 1or learning a &L?or t*e 5elie1 t*at so4e lang"ages are 4ore di11ic"lt t*an ot*ers'

3.1.2. Learner!s Affective "tates


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.*ile st"dents 5elie1s a5o"t lang"age learning tend to 5e sta5le2 t*eir a11ecti3estates are 8"ite t*e opposite' Learners2 especiall# st"dents in a classroo4 sit"ation2react in di11erent /a#s to t*e sa4e sit"ations' Apparentl#2 t*e# need to 1eel sec"reand 1ree o1 stress in order to ta0e a learning tas0 properl#'

T*o"g* learners a11ecti3e states are so indi3id"alistic and c*angea5le in nat"re2t*e# *a3e gained i4portance in second lang"age teac*ing' Se3eral *#pot*esis *a3e5een 4ade a5o"t t*eir enor4o"s in1l"ence on st"dents a5ilit# to concentrate onlearning2 and t*ere1ore2 on t*e ac8"isition o1 a second lang"age'

One co4ponent o1 learners a11ecti3e states is an6iet#'

0('(2('( An,iet-

An6iet# can 5e de1ined as a di11"sed "nco41orta5le 1eeling o1 ner3o"sness or /orr#a5o"t so4et*ing ca"sed 5# a certain t*reat to a 3al"e t*at t*e indi3id"al 5elie3es to5e i4portant'

According to S0e*an JBHK t*ere are t/o t#pes o1 an6iet#%

B' Trait an6iet# is c*aracteristic o1 t*e learners partic"lar personalit#/*ic* a11ects all do4ains2 and t*ere1ore /ill 5e present in all sit"ations'

+' State an6iet# is t*e appre*ension t*at is e6perienced at a partic"lar4o4ent in response to a partic"lar sit"ation'

' T*e latter is o"r 4ain concern2 as it is t*e one t*at is nor4all# presentin t*e classroo4'

A piece o1 researc* carried o"t 5# or/it= and Uo"ng JBB cited in Ellis +,,% H,Kindicates t*at st"dents generall# e6perience /*at is re1erred to as lang"agean6iet#2 a sit"ation)speci1ic an6iet# lin0ed to atte4pts to learn a second lang"age

and co44"nicate in it'Anot*er st"d# 4ade 5# (aile# JBH cited in Ellis +,,% H,K 1o"nd t*at learners /ereli0el# to 1eel an6io"s /*en t*e# co4pared t*e4sel3es to ot*er class4ates andpercei3ed less pro1icient in t*e lang"age' On t*e contrar#2 t*eir an6iet# decreased/*en t*e# 1o"nd t*e4sel3es 4ore capa5le t*an t*eir peers' S*e also 4entions ot*erpossi5le so"rces o1 an6iet#2 s"c* as tests2 t*e relation a st"dent *as /it* t*e teac*er2and /*en t*e st"dent co4pares *i4sel1 to *is o/n personal standards or goals'

Ne3ert*eless2 t*ere is e3idence o1 cases in /*ic* an6iet# in1l"ences t*e learner in apositi3e /a#' T*is is /*at is called 1acilitating an6iet# Jas opposed to de5ilitatingan6iet#K' &or e6a4ple2 @lein4ann JBH cited in Ellis +,,% HBK in3estigated an6iet#

in Spanis*) and Ara5ic)spea0ing learners o1 Englis*' It /as reported t*at t*e# /ereless li0el# to a3oid co4ple6 gra44atical str"ct"res and t*at ner3o"sness /*ile "singEnglis* *elped t*e4 do 5etter'

Mi6ed res"lts2 s"c* as t*e ones 4entioned a5o3e2 co"ld 5e d"e to t*e 1act t*at t*erelations*ip 5et/een an6iet# and per1or4ance is not si4pl# a linear one2 since 4an#o1 t*e st"dies *a3e 5een 4ade "nder t*e ass"4ption t*at learners /it* lo/ an6iet#/ill learn 5etter JSco3el2 BH? cited in S0e*an BH% BB-K'

McInt#re and R' Gardner JBB2 cited in Ellis +,,% HK proposed a /idel#)accepted4odel JTa5le +2 see Appendi6 1or C*apter K t*at acco"nts 1or t*e role o1 an6iet# inlang"age learning' In t*is 4odel2 an6iet# is not regarded as a necessar# condition o1

s"ccess1"l L+ learning2 5"t rat*er as one o1 t*e 1actors t*at contri5"tes /it* 3ar#ingdegrees in di11erent learners' T*e# state t*at t*e relations*ip 5et/een an6iet# and


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learning is reg"lated 5# t*e learners stage o1 de3elop4ent and 5# sit"ation)speci1iclearning e6periences' As S0e*an JBHK recognises2 t*e 4odel s*o/s t*at an6iet# can5e t*e ca"se as /ell as t*e res"lt o1 it'

&or instance2 a st"dent in a post)5eginner stage /ill de3elop sit"ation an6iet# i1 *isclass4ates *a3e 4ade 1"n o1 *i4 in anot*er opport"nit#2 disco"raging *i4 tocontin"e participating in class'

(ased on t*ese st"dies2 /e can sa# t*at t*ere does see4 to 5e a relations*ip5et/een an6iet# and learning2 5"t it is a rat*er arg"a5le one as 4ost st"dies s*o/di11erent res"lts' Moreo3er2 additional 3aria5les s"c* as age2 aptit"de2 and ot*ers24a# all a11ect t*is relations*ip'

T*ere1ore2 additional designs and st"dies are needed in order to separate t*edi11erent e11ects o1 t*ese potentiall# i4portant 3aria5les'

3.1.3. Age

T*ere is a /idel#)*eld la# 5elie1 t*at #o"nger L+ learners generall# do 5etter t*anolder learners' T*is is s"pported 5# t*e Critical 6erio) H#(ote&i&2 according to/*ic* t*ere is a 1i6ed span o1 #ears Jt*e 1irst ten #earsK d"ring /*ic* lang"agelearning can ta0e place nat"rall# and e11ortlessl#2 and a1ter /*ic* it is not possi5le to5e co4pletel# s"ccess1"l' T*is is contro3ersial2 *o/e3er' T*e contro3ers# centres on5ot* /*et*er t*ere are signi1icant di11erences in L+ learning according to age2 andalso on t*e t*eoretical e6planations 1or t*ose di11erences /*ic* researc*ers clai4 to*a3e 1o"nd'

T*e age iss"e re4ains an i4portant one 1or t*eor# 5"ilding in second lang"ageac8"isition researc*2 1or ed"cational polic# 4a0ing and 1or lang"age pedagog#' It isalso *elp1"l to disting"is* t*e e11ects o1 age according to learning conte6ts s"c* as innat"ralistic and instr"cted sit"ations'

T*ere is a large a4o"nt o1 researc* t*at *as addressed t*e age iss"e' Nots"rprisingl#2 co44entators *a3e arri3ed at distinct concl"sions2 5"t despite t*is2so4e co44on gro"nd is e4erging%

B' Ad"lt learners *a3e an initial ad3antage /*ere rate o1 learning isconcerned2 partic"larl# in gra44ar' o/e3er2 e3ent"all# t*e# /ill 5eo3erta0en 5# c*ild learners2 /*o recei3e eno"g* e6pos"re to t*e L+'O53io"sl#2 t*is is less li0el# to *appen /it*in instr"ctional conte6ts t*anin nat"ralistic settings2 5eca"se t*e critical a4o"nt o1 e6pos"re is "s"all#

not a3aila5le in t*e 1or4er'+' Onl# c*ild learners are capa5le o1 ac8"iring a nati3e accent in in1or4al

learning conte6ts' Land JB,K p"ts t*e critical age at F #ears2 5"t Sco3elJBHBK arg"es t*at t*ere is no e3idence to s"pport t*is2 and arg"es 1or apre)p"5ert# start' On t*e ot*er *and2 Singleton JBHK points o"t t*atc*ildren /ill also ac8"ire nati3e)li0e accent i1 t*e# recei3e 4assi3ee6pos"re' o/e3er2 so4e c*ildren /*o recei3e s"c* e6pos"re still do notac*ie3e a nati3e)li0e accent2 possi5l# 5eca"se t*e# stri3e to 4aintainacti3e "se o1 t*eir LB' Ad"lt learners 4a# 5e a5le to ac8"ire a nati3eaccent /it* t*e assistance o1 p*onetic instr"ction2 5"t 1"rt*er researc* isneeded to s"5stantiate t*is clai4'

' C*ildren 4a# 5e 4ore li0el# to ac8"ire nati3e gra44aticalco4petence' T*e critical period 1or gra44ar 4a# 5e later t*an 1or


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pron"nciation Jaro"nd B- #earsK' So4e ad"lt learners2 *o/e3er2 4a#s"cceed in ac8"iring nati3e le3els o1 gra44atical acc"rac# in speec* and/riting and e3en 1"ll ling"istic co4petence'

' Irrespecti3e o1 /*et*er nati3e)spea0er pro1icienc# is ac*ie3ed2 c*ildrenare 4ore li0el# to reac* *ig*er le3els o1 attain4ent in 5ot* pron"nciation

and gra44ar t*an ad"lts' A concl"sion t*at 4ig*t 5e dra/n 1ro4 all t*isis t*at t*e process o1 ac8"iring a L+ gra44ar is not s"5stantiall# a11ected5# age2 5"t t*at o1 ac8"iring pron"nciation 4a# 5e'

T*ese general concl"sions pro3ide s"5stantial s"pport 1or t*e e6istence o1 at least asensiti3eperiod 1or t*e ac8"isition o1 L+' T*e distinction 5et/een a critical and asensiti3eperiod rests on /*et*er co4pletel# s"ccess1"l ac8"isition is dee4ed to 5eonl# possi5le /it*in a gi3en span o1 a learners li1e2 or /*et*er ac8"isition is 9"steasier /it*in t*is period' T*e concl"sions also led to t*e possi5ilit# t*at t*ere 4a# 5e4"ltiple criticalsensiti3e periods 1or di11erent aspects o1 lang"age'

One o1 t*e 4a9or points o1 contro3ers# is /*et*er t*e di11erences 5et/een c*ild andad"lt learners are to 5e e6plained as pri4aril# t*e res"lt o1 en3iron4ental 1actors oro1 c*anges in t*e 4ental and ne"rological 4ec*anis4s responsi5le 1or lang"agelearning'

An o53io"s possi5le reason co"ld 5e t*e 1act t*at ad"lts e6perience 4ore negotiationo1 4eaning and t*ere1ore 5etter inp"t' Anot*er o53io"s possi5ilit# is t*at adolescentsand ad"lts possess 4ore 1"ll# de3eloped cogniti3e s0ills2 /*ic* ena5le t*e4 to appl#t*e4sel3es conscientio"sl# to t*e tas0 o1 learning an L+' T*is is li0el# to gi3e t*e4 aninitial ad3antage o3er c*ildren2 5"t 4a# not 5e s"11icient to gra44atical *ig* le3elso1 L+ pro1icienc#' Most li0el#2 t*e rate ad3antage en9o#ed 5# ad"lts is t*e res"lt o1 aco45ination o1 1actors'

3.1.#. Language A$titudeT*e concept o1 lang"age aptit"de is o1ten seen as a 4onolit*ic constr"ct' o/e3er2in ed"cational ter4s it is 4ore 1r"it1"l to consider its 4"ltico4ponent 5asis2 sincet*is pro3ides a 1ra4e/or0 1or t*e st"d# o1 learner strengt*s and /ea0nesses' S"c*3ie/ o1 aptit"de /as proposed 5# Carroll in BF-2 a conception t*at /as deri3ed 1ro4T*e Modern Lang"ages Aptit"de Test2 also 0no/n as MLAT JCarroll and Sapon B-2BF,K /*ic* *as pro3en to 5e t*e 4ost e11ecti3e /a# o1 1inding o"t a5o"t lang"ageaptit"de' T*e MLAT 4eas"red so4e a5ilities li0e%

T*e a5ilit# to 4i4ic so"nds and stretc*es o1 so"nds Jlengt* and acc"rac#K Oral prod"ction speec* st#le

Rote)4e4or# 1actor and 1l"enc# 1actor P*onetic discri4ination .or0 sa4ple tests o1 lang"age learning P*one4ic acc"rac# "nder conditions o1 distraction A5ilit# to i4itate 1oreign accents &oreign lang"age ort*ograp*#s 1le6i5ilit# A5ilit# to de3elop 4eanings ind"cti3el#

T*ese aspects o1 aptit"de /ere later on s"44arised into 1o"r 4ain co4ponents%

BK 6one$ic Co)in" Abilit#% It is t*e a5ilit# to 4a0e a lin0 5et/een so"nd and s#45olJso"nd s#45ol association a5ilit#K and t*e capacit# to discri4inate and code 1oreignso"nds in s"c* a /a# t*at t*e# co"ld 5e recalled later' Merel# associating so"nd and

s#45ol is not eno"g*? 4ore i4portant are t*e a5ilit# to i4pose so4e sort o1 anal#sison t*e 1a4iliar 1oreign so"nds and also t*e a5ilit# to trans1or4 t*e so"nd into a 1or4


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4"c* easier to storage' Carroll spec"lated t*at /*at is in3ol3ed in t*is a5ilit# is4ainl# t*e capacit# to spell and *andle p*onetic)ort*ograp*ic 4aterial'

+K Gra$$atical Sen&itivit#% T*e a5ilit# to recognise t*e gra44atical 1"nctions t*at/ords 1"l1il in sentences' T*ere is little e3idence t*at gra44atical sensiti3it# is anarte1act o1 t*e /a# lang"ages are ta"g*t'

K In)'ctive Lan"'a"e Learnin" Abilit#% It is t*e a5ilit# to e6a4ine lang"age 4aterialand 1ro4 t*is to notice and identi1# patterns o1 correspondence and relations*ipsin3ol3ing eit*er 4eaning or s#ntactic 1or42 i'e'2 t*e a5ilit# to in1er general aspectso1 t*e lang"age 1ro4 li4ited partic"lar e3idence' Alt*o"g* t*is a5ilit# is close to t*ato1 gra44atical sensiti3it#2 ind"cti3e lang"age learning a5ilit# is 4ore connected /it*reasoning and e6trapolating'

K Me$or# an) Learnin"% According to Carroll JBHBK2 t*e 4e4or# "sed 1or learninglang"ages is 4ainl# associati3e2 since it in3ol3es t*e 5onding or sta4ping in o1connections 5et/een nati3e lang"age and target lang"age /ords' e also clai4s t*at

people 3ar# in t*e e11icienc# /it* /*ic* t*e# 4a0e s"c* 5onds and t*ere1ore inspeed o1 3oca5"lar# gro/t*2 and conse8"entl# in 1oreign lang"age ac*ie3e4ent'

Later on2 S0e*an JBHK clai4ed t*at ta0en t*ese co4ponents into consideration it ispossi5le to ded"ce t*e logicall# possi5le learners' Ta5le Jsee Appendi6 1or C*apterK s*o/s eig*t di11erent learner t#pes' ere2 5ot* t*e constr"cts o1 ind"cti3elang"age learning a5ilit# and gra44atical sensiti3it# *a3e 5een collapsed into one1actor2 t*at o1 lang"age anal#tic sensiti3it#'

0('(1('( Langage a!titde: a relevant factor in L2 learning

T*e general clai4 t*at lang"age aptit"de is a rele3ant 1actor in second or 1oreignlang"age learning entails ot*er ass"4ptions concerning t*e role o1 aptit"de in t*e

learning process'

A(tit')e i& &e(arate ,ro$ acieve$ent

Carroll JBHBK arg"es t*at t*e# are concept"all# di11erent and also t*at t*e# can 5edisting"is*ed e4piricall# 5# de4onstrating t*at t*ere is no relations*ip 5et/een4eas"res o1 aptit"de and o1 pro1icienc# at t*e 5eginning o1 a lang"age progra42 5"tt*at t*ere is a relations*ip at t*e end o1 t*e progra4'

A(tit')e $'&t be &o3n to be &e(arate ,ro$ $otivation

Pi4sle"r JBFFK treats 4oti3ation as an integral part o1 aptit"de' Carroll arg"es t*atresearc* 5# La45ert and R' Gardner JB,K *as consistentl# s*o/n t*at aptit"de and4oti3ation are separate 1actors'

A(tit')e $'&t be &een a& a &table ,actor* (era(& even innate

In s"pport to t*is clai42 Carroll re1ers to st"dies /*ic* s*o/ t*at learners aptit"de isdi11ic"lt to alter t*ro"g* training'

A(tit')e i& to be vie3e) not a& a (rere+'i&ite ,or L7 learnin"

All learners2 irrespecti3e o1 t*eir aptit"de2 4a# ac*ie3e a reasona5le le3el o1pro1icienc#' o/e3er2 aptit"de is a capacit# t*at en*ances t*e rate and ease o1learning' Aptit"de tests2 t*ere1ore2 are 4eant to pro3ide a prediction o1 rate o1learning'


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A(tit')e $'&t be ,o'n) to be )i&tinct ,ro$ "eneral intelli"ence 8I9:

Researc* 5# La45ert and R' Gardner Ji5id'K s*o/s t*at aptit"de and intelligence4eas"re4ents are not related'

Aptit"de researc* *as adopted a concatenati3e approac*2 i'e' tr#ing to 1indcorrelations 5et/een t*e di11erent 1indings' As a res"lt2 4eas"res o1 Lang"ageAptit"de are correlated /it* 4eas"res o1 lang"age pro1icienc# and ac*ie3e4ent' T*e4ain ai4 o1 t*e researc* *as 5een to esta5lis* to /*at e6tent it is possi5le to predictlearning o"tco4es' A secondar# ai4 *as 5een to identi1# /*ic* speci1ic aspects o1aptit"de indi3id"al learners are strongest in2 so t*at 4atc*ing 1or4s o1 instr"ctioncan 5e pro3ided' A general ass"4ption o1 t*e researc* is t*at aptit"de /ill onl# *a3ean e11ect on learning o"tco4es i1 t*e learners are s"11icientl# 4oti3ated to learn'Ji'e' 4a0e t*e e11ort to "se t*eir intrinsic capacitiesK'

Researc* into lang"age aptit"de /as pop"lar in t*e BF,s and B,s'No/2 /it*st"dies on 5rain 5ased learning and /it* t*e *elp o1 tec*nolog# /e can *a3e a

di11erent 3ie/2 as /e /ill see in C*apters and -' One reason 1or t*is is "ndo"5tedl#t*e strong lin0 t*at e6isted 5et/een t*e 4odels o1 aptit"de de3eloped d"ring t*atti4e and t*e pre3ailing 3ie/s o1 lang"age Jstr"ct"ralistK2 lang"age learningJ5e*a3io"ristK and lang"age teac*ing Ja"dioling"alK' As t*ese 4et*ods or s#ste4s5eca4e o5solete2 or c*allenged2 so interest in aptit"de declined'

Despite t*e earl# researc* *ad li4itations2 since it /as restricted onl# to learners in1or4al learning conte6ts2 it pro3ided con3incing e3idence t*at classroo4 learnerslang"age aptit"de *as a 4a9or e11ect on t*eir L+ learning' Researc* 4a0es clear t*atin t*e long r"n aptit"de is pro5a5l# t*e single 5est predictor o1 ac*ie3e4ent in asecond lang"age'

3.1.%. Language Learning "tyesLang"age Learning St#les are "s"all# associated /it* personalit# traits' Personalit#traits are t*e indi3id"al c*aracteristics o1 a person2 and t*e /illingness to t*in0 oract in a si4ilar /a# in response to di11erent sti4"li and sit"ations'

o/e3er2 Pro1essor ;o# M' Reids de1inition o1 lang"age learning st#les is t*e 4ostin1l"ential and /idel# accepted' (esides2 *er classi1ication o1 st#les into 3is"al2a"ditor#2 0inaest*etic2 tactile2 gro"p2 and indi3id"al coincides2 to a certain e6tent2/it* ' Gardners classi1ication o1 intelligences' o/e3er2 Gardner2 as /e /ill seelater on Jsee C*apter -K2 disagrees /it* t*is'

According to ;o# Reid JBH2 cited in Peacoc0 +,,BK2 lang"age learning st#les are3ariations a4ong learners in "sing one or 4ore senses to "nderstand2 organise2 andretain e6perience2 t*e# are nat"ral2 *a5it"al2 and pre1erred /a#JsK o1 a5sor5ingprocessing2 and retaining ne/ in1or4ation and s0ills'

T*e concept o1 learning st#le i4plies indi3id"al di11erences2 since a learning st#le isa per3asi3e 8"alit# in t*e learning strategies or t*e learning 5e*a3io"r o1 anindi3id"al Ji5id'K' Learning st#les di11er 1ro4 person to person and also 1ro4 c"lt"reto c"lt"re since people learn *o/ to learn t*ro"g* t*e socialisation processes t*atta0e place in 1a4ilies and gro"ps o1 1riends'

.*ile learning strategies re1er to t*e 4et*ods a learner e4plo#s in order to 4aster

t*e 4aterial2 learning st#les re1er to sta5le and per3asi3e c*aracteristics o1 an


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indi3id"al2 e6pressed t*ro"g* t*e interaction o1 ones 5e*a3io"rs and personalit# asone approac*es a learning tas0 JGarger and G"ild2 BH? cited in Peacoc0 +,,BK'

(roadl# spea0ing /e can de1ine learning st#les as 1ollo/s%

4i&'al Learner&

T*is t#pe o1 st"dent learns t*ro"g* seeing' &or t*e4 t*e teac*ers 5od# lang"age and1acial e6pressions are 3er# "se1"l /*en tr#ing to "nderstand t*e content o1 a gi3enlesson' T*e# "s"all# sit at t*e 1ront o1 t*e classroo4 in order to a3oid 3is"alo5str"ctions' In t*e sa4e /a#2 t*e# pre1er to ta0e detailed notes to 5etterco4pre*end t*e in1or4ation' T*e# tend to t*in0 in pict"res and learn 5est 1ro43is"al displa#s s"c* as diagra4s2 *and)o"ts2 ill"strated te6t 5oo0s2 3ideos2 etc'

A')itor# Learner&

T*is gro"p learns t*ro"g* listening' T*e# interpret t*e "nderl#ing 4eanings o1 speec*5# listening to tone o1 3oice2 pitc*2 speed2 etc' T*ere1ore2 t*e# 5est learn t*ro"g*listening to 3er5al lect"res2 disc"ssions2 tal0ing t*ings t*ro"g* or listening to /*atot*ers *a3e to sa# a5o"t t*e4' Reading te6ts alo"d or "sing tape recorders can 5ee6cellent strategies 1or t*ese learners'

1inae&tetic Learner&

T*is t#pe o1 learner pre1ers acti3e participation and e6periences' T*e# learn 5# doingt*ings' Conse8"entl#2 so4e strategies t*ese st"dents can "se are dra4a2 role)pla#2 orsi4pl# 4o3ing aro"nd'

Tactile Learner&

T*ese learners pre1er /*at is 0no/n as *ands)on /or0' T*e# learn 5# *andling4aterials2 4a0ing t*ings /it* t*eir *ands or ta0ing notes' Class pro9ects2 4a0ingcollages2 or art/or0 in general are e6cellent learning tools 1or t*is t#pe o1 learners'

Gro'( Learner&

T*ese learners pre1er st"d#ing /it* ot*ers as gro"p interaction *elps t*e4 to"nderstand t*e contents o1 t*e class 4ore easil# and e11ecti3el#'

In)ivi)'al Learner&

As it can 5e ass"4ed2 t*is st#le is present in learners /*o pre1er st"d#ing alone' Sel1)directed st"d# or independent reading and st"d# are 4ore e11ecti3e strategies 1ort*is t#pe o1 learners'

Reid JBH2 B-K2 prod"ced t/o 4a9or *#pot*eses /*ic* 1or4 t*e 5ac0gro"nd toideas and /or0 in t*e area'

B' All st"dents *a3e t*eir o/n learning st#les and learning strengt*s and/ea0nesses'

+' A 4is4atc* 5et/een teac*ing and learning st#les ca"ses learning1ail"re2 1r"stration2 and de)4oti3ation'

$n1ort"natel#2 4is4atc*es 1re8"entl# occ"r and *a3e 5ad e11ects on t*e learning andattit"des o1 t*e st"dents to t*e class and to t*e lang"age t*e# are learning' &ore6a4ple2 i1 learners pre1er indi3id"al /or02 5"t t*e teac*er pre1ers gro"p acti3ities


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/e /o"ld 5e 1acing a 4is4atc* 5et/een teac*ing and learning st#les /*ic* /ill4a0e t*e learning process 4ore di11ic"lt and less 1riendl#'

I1 learning and teac*ing st#les are 4atc*ed2 learning2 5e*a3io"r2 attit"des and4oti3ation /ill 5e i4pro3ed' All learners /ill *a3e an e8"al c*ance in t*e classroo4and a ne/ gained sel1)a/areness' St"dents /ill 5e li0el# to /or0 *arder eit*er insideor o"tside t*eir classroo4s and t*e# /ill ta0e 5etter ad3antage o1 t*eir classes' All o1t*ese 1actors pro4ote 4ore e11icient second lang"age ac8"isition2 since st"dents /illtr"st t*eir teac*ers and /ill *a3e a 4ore positi3e attit"de to t*e lang"age t*e# arest"d#ing'

3.1.&. Motivation

Moti3ation is co44onl# de1ined as t*e dri3e t*at 4a0es "s acco4plis* /*at /e /ant2/*et*er t*at in1l"ence is a partic"lar goal2 incenti3e2 or e3en o"r o/n nat"re' Itconcerns t*e deter4inants o1 intent2 e11ort and tenacit#2 1actors t*at p"s* or p"ll "sas indi3id"als to 5e*a3e in a partic"lar 4anner'

T*e concept *as 5een st"died in dept* in second lang"age ac8"isition researc* as/ell as in second lang"age teac*ing and learning2 since t*e i4portance o1 4oti3ation/*en learning a 1oreign lang"age *as 5een /idel# ac0no/ledged'

According to Ro5ert Gardners socio)ed"cational 4odel JBH-K2 it is "se1"l to la5el4oti3ation in ter4s o1 t*e learners o3erall goal or orientation' Instr"4ental4oti3ation occ"rs /*en t*e learners goal is 1"nctional2 i'e' /*en t*e learnerrecognises t*e practical 3al"es and t*e ad3antages o1 learning t*e lang"age e'g' toget a 9o5 or pass an e6a4ination' Integrati3e 4oti3ation occ"rs /*en t*e learner/is*es to identi1# /it* t*e c"lt"re o1 t*e L+ gro"p' M"c* o1 t*e researc* cond"cted5# R' Gardner and *is co)researc*ers s"ggested t*at integrati3el# 4oti3ated st"dentsare 4ore s"ccess1"l lang"age learners t*an t*ose /*o are instr"4entall# 4oti3ated'

It is also *elp1"l to de1ine t*e concept in ter4s o1 t*e so"rce o1 t*e incenti3e' T*e4odel proposed 5# Deci and R#an JBH-2 cited in E*r4an et al' +,,% +,Kdisting"is*es 5et/een intrinsic and e6trinsic 4oti3ations' .*ile t*e 1irst oneco4es 1ro4 /it*in t*e indi3id"al and is related to t*e indi3id"als identit# and senseo1 /ell)5eing2 e6trinsic 4oti3ation co4es 1ro4 o"tside t*e indi3id"al /*en learningis done 1or t*e sa0e o1 re/ards Js"c* as grades or praiseK' Contrasti3el#2 1or st"dents/*o are intrinsicall# 4oti3ated2 t*e re/ard is t*e en9o#4ent o1 t*e acti3it# itsel1 ora 1eeling o1 acco4plis*4ent in doing t*e tas0'

ence2 it is di11ic"lt to deter4ine /*et*er 4oti3ation is t*e ca"se or t*e res"lt o1

s"ccess in L+ learning or 5ot*' T*e res"ltati3e *#pot*esis proposed 5# er4annJBH,2 cited in Ellis +,,% -B-K clai4s t*at learners /*o do /ell are 4ore li0el# tode3elop 4oti3ational intensit# and to 5e acti3e in t*e classroo4 i'e' *ig* le3el o14oti3ation sti4"lates learning' T*"s2 percei3ed s"ccess in ac*ie3ing L+ pro1icienc#can *elp to 4aintain e6isting 4oti3ation' Con3ersel#2 a 3icio"s circle can 5e createdas lo/ 4oti3ation can lead to lo/ ac*ie3e4ent and 1"rt*er lo/er 4oti3ation'

Moti3ation in L+ learning constit"tes one o1 t*e 4ost 1"ll# researc*ed areas o1indi3id"al di11erences2 #et it *as 5een di11ic"lt to esta5lis* 4et*ods to 4eas"re itand st"dies *a3e 1oc"sed 4ainl# on t*e integrati3e and instr"4ental t#pes'&"rt*er4ore2 t*ere are a n"45er o1 ot*er a11ecti3e 1actors 5esides 4oti3ation /*ic*are in so4e /a# related to it2 incl"ding an6iet#2 sel1)estee4 and internal attit"des2

and ot*ers2 s*o/ing t*at 4oti3ation is a 3er# co4ple6)co4po"nd 1actor in learning'


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3.2.1. Learning "trategies

T*e /ord strateg# co4es 1ro4 t*e ancient Gree0 ter4 &trate"ia;t*at 4eans t*eart o1 t*e /ar' In non)4ilitar# settings2 t*is concept *as 5een applied to di11erentsit"ations /*ere it *as co4e to 4ean a plan2 step2 or conscio"s action to/ardsac*ie3e4ent o1 an o59ecti3e'

According to Re5ecca O61ord JB,K2 learning strategies are operations e4plo#ed 5#t*e learner to aid t*e ac8"isition2 storage2 retrie3al2 and "se o1 in1or4ation' In1act2 s*e de1ines t*e4 as speci1ic actions ta0en 5# learners to 4a0e learning easier21aster2 4ore en9o#a5le2 4ore sel1)directed2 4ore e11ecti3e2 and 4ore trans1era5le tone/ sit"ations' .*ile Ric*ards and Platt JB+2 cited in is4anogl" +,,,K de1inelearning strategies as intentional 5e*a3io"r and t*o"g*ts "sed 5# learners d"ringlearning so as to 5etter *elp t*e4 "nderstand2 learn2 or re4e45er ne/in1or4ation2 Stern JB+2 cited in is4anogl" +,,,K states t*at2 t*e concept o1learning strateg# is dependent on t*e ass"4ption t*at learners conscio"sl# engage inacti3ities to ac*ie3e certain goals2 conse8"entl#2 learning strategies can 5econsidered as intentional directions andor learning tec*ni8"es'

All lang"age learners "se learning strategies eit*er conscio"sl# or "nconscio"sl# /*ent*e# process ne/ in1or4ation or per1or4 di11erent tas0s in t*e lang"age classroo4'Act"all#2 t*e lang"age classroo4 is a pro5le4 sol3ing en3iron4ent /*ere lang"agelearners 1ace ne/ inp"t and di11ic"lt tas0s gi3en 5# t*eir instr"ctors' T*"s2 learners"se lang"age learning strategies to do /*at is re8"ired in t*e 8"ic0est and easiest/a#'

Lang"age learning strategies *elp learners to participate in co44"nication andenco"rage t*e4 to de3elop co44"nicati3e co4petence' T*e# enco"rage generalsel1)direction 1or learners and are tools /*ic* are "sed 5eca"se t*ere is a pro5le4 tosol3e2 a tas0 to acco4plis*2 an o59ecti3e to 4eet2 or a goal to attain'

0(2('('( Classifications of Langage Learning Strategies 5Re"ecca #,ford6 '7789

It is i4portant 1or "s to *ig*lig*t t*at lang"age learning strategies are not restrictedto cogniti3e 1"nctions2 s"c* as 4ental processing and 4anip"lation o1 t*e ne/lang"age' T*e# also incl"de 4etacogniti3e 1"nctions li0e planning2 e3al"ating2 andarranging ones o/n learning? as /ell as ones e4otional2 a11ecti3e2 and social1"nctions' So4e o1 t*e 1irst ones X 0no/n as direct strategies) in3ol3e directlearning and t*e "se o1 t*e s"59ect 4atter2 in t*is case a ne/ lang"age' Ot*erstrategies s"c* as 4etacogniti3e2 a11ecti3e2 and social strategies X 0no/n as indirectstrategies) contri5"te indirectl# 5"t po/er1"ll# to learning' All o1 t*e4 are e8"all#i4portant and s"pport eac* ot*er'

It is also /ort* 4entioning t*at learning strategies are eas# to teac* and 4odi1#'T*e# are 1le6i5le2 *ence2 t*e# are not al/a#s 1o"nd in predicta5le se8"ences or inprecise patterns' o/e3er2 t*e# can so4eti4es 5e co45ined in a con3entional /a#'

T*ere are 4an# 1actors /*ic* 4a# a11ect an indi3id"als partic"lar c*oice o1strategies2 s"c* as degree o1 a/areness2 stage o1 learning2 tas0 re8"ire4ents2teac*er e6pectations2 age2 se62 nationalit#et*nicit#2 general learning st#le )/*ic*/e *a3e alread# anal#sed) personalit# traits2 4oti3ation le3el2 and p"rpose 1orlearning t*e lang"age'

'+'B'B'B' Direct and Indirect StrategiesDirect and indirect strategies are s"5di3ided into t*ree gro"ps%


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aK Direct strategies Jsee &ig"re B2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K

Direct strategies are lang"age learning strategies t*at directl# in3ol3e t*e targetlang"age' T*e# are di3ided into 4e4or#2 cogniti3e2 and co4pensationstrategies'All o1 t*ese re8"ire 4ental processing o1 t*e lang"age2 5"t eac* gro"p per1or4s t*isprocessing di11erentl# and 1or di11erent p"rposes'

Me$or# Strate"ie&

So4eti4es called 4ne4onics2 *elp learners to store and retrie3e ne/ in1or4ation'T*e# re1lect si4ple principles2 s"c* as arranging t*ings in order2 4a0ing associations2and re3ie/ing' Since all o1 t*ese principles in3ol3e 4eaning2 t*e arrange4ent andassociations 4"st 5e personall# rele3ant to t*e learner2 and t*e 4aterial to 5ere3ie/ed 4"st *a3e signi1icance'

(rie1l#2 4e4or# strategies are s"5di3ided into%

B' T*e Creation o1 Mental Lin0ages2/*ic* are s"5di3ided into t*reestrategies t*at lang"age learners "s"all# "se% gro"ping2 associating orela5orating2 and placing ne/ /ords into a conte6t'

+' T*e Application o1 i4ages and so"nds2 /*ere t*e indi3id"al 4a0es "seo1i4ager#2 se4antic 4apping2 0e#/ords2 and t*e representation o1so"nds in 4e4or# J4ore in1or4ation a5o"t t*is in C*apter K'

' Re3ie/ing /ell2 /*ic* incl"des str"ct"red re3ie/ing'' E4plo#ing action are t*ose strategies /*ere st"dents 4a0e "se o1 a

p*#sical response or sensation2 and 4ec*anical tec*ni8"es'Co"nitive Strate"ie&

T*e ter4 cognition re1ers to all t*e 4ental processes t*at are "sed to o5tain0no/ledge or to 5eco4e a/are o1 t*e en3iron4ent' According to Piaget Jcited in(oeree BK2 cogniti3e de3elop4ent consists o1 a constant e11ort to adapt to t*een3iron4ent in ter4s o1 assi4ilation and acco44odation2 since cogniti3e str"ct"resc*ange t*ro"g* t*ese processes' Assi4ilation in3ol3es t*e interpretation o1 e3entsin ter4s o1 e6isting cogniti3e str"ct"re2 /*ereas acco44odation re1ers to c*angingt*e cogniti3e str"ct"re to 4a0e sense o1 t*e en3iron4ent'

.e can in1er 1ro4 t*is t*at cogniti3e strategies are 4ental de3ices learners "se to4a0e sense o1 t*eir learning' T*e#are considered to 5e t*e 4ost pop"lar strategiesa4ong lang"age learners and ena5le t*e4 to "nderstand and prod"ce ne/ lang"age5# 4an# di11erent 4eans' T*ese strategies range 1ro4 repeating to anal#sing

e6pressions and t*en to s"44arising' o/e3er2 t*eir co44on 1"nction is t*e4anip"lation or trans1or4ation o1 t*e target lang"age'

T*e "se o1 Cogniti3e Strategies2 5rie1l#2 is di3ided into%

B' Practising2 /*ic* is s"5di3ided into repeating2 1or4all# practicing /it*so"nds and /riting s#ste4s2 recognising and "sing 1or4"las and patterns2reco45ining2 and practicing nat"ralisticall#'

+' Recei3ing and sending 4essages2 also s"5di3ided into getting t*e idea8"ic0l#2 and "sing reso"rces 1or recei3ing and sending 4essages'

' Anal#sing and reasoning2 /*ere /e 1ind reasoning ded"cti3el#2

anal#sing e6pressions2 anal#sing contrasti3el#2 translating2 andtrans1erring'


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' T*e creation o1 str"ct"re 1or inp"t and o"tp"t2 /*ic* is s"5di3ided intota0ing notes2 s"44arising2 and *ig*lig*ting'

Co$(en&ation Strate"ie&

T*ese strategies ena5le learners to "se t*e ne/ lang"age 1or eit*er co4pre*ension

or prod"ction despite li4itations in 0no/ledge' T*e# are intended to 4a0e "p 1or aninade8"ate stoc0 o1 gra44ar and2 especiall#2 o1 3oca5"lar#2 and to *elp learners too3erco4e 0no/ledge gaps to contin"e t*e co44"nication' Co4pensation occ"rs 5ot*in "nderstanding t*e ne/ lang"age and in prod"cing it'

R' O61ord s"5di3ides Co4pensation Strategies into%

B' G"essing intelligentl#2 /*ere s*e incl"des t*e "se o1 ling"istic cl"es2and ot*er cl"es'

+' O3erco4ing li4itations in spea0ing and /riting2 /*ic* are s"5di3idedinto s/itc*ing to t*e 4ot*er tong"e2 getting *elp2 "sing 4i4e or gest"re2a3oiding co44"nication partiall# or totall#2 selecting t*e topic2 ad9"stingor appro6i4ating t*e 4essage2 coining /ords2 and "sing circ"4loc"tion ors#non#4s'

5K Indirect strategies Jsee &ig"re +2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K

Indirect Strategies s"pport and 4anage lang"age learning /it*o"t necessaril#in3ol3ing t*e target lang"age directl#' T*e# are di3ided into 4etacogniti3e2a11ecti3e2 and social strategies' T*e# are "se1"l in al4ost all lang"age learningsit"ations and are applica5le to all 1o"r lang"age s0ills'

Metaco"nitive Strate"ie&

Metacognition re1ers to a *ig*er order t*in0ing /*ic* in3ol3es acti3e control o3ert*e cogniti3e processes engaged in learning' In &la3ells JBK /ords% Metacognitionre1ers to ones 0no/ledge concerning ones o/n cogniti3e processes or an#t*ingrelated to t*e4' In ot*er /ords2 4etacognition is related to t*e capacit# o1recognising o"r o/n processes o1 learning and "nderstanding toget*er /it* t*e a5ilit#/e possess to conscio"sl# re1lect and act on t*at 0no/ledge o1 cognition to 4odi1#t*ose processes'

&la3ell disting"is*es 4etacogniti3e 0no/ledge and 4etacogniti3e e6periences orreg"lation%

Metacogniti3e 0no/ledge is ac8"ired 0no/ledge a5o"t cogniti3e processes?

0no/ledge t*at can 5e "sed to control cogniti3e processes' On t*e ot*er *and24etacogniti3e e6periences or reg"lation is t*e process t*ro"g* /*ic* /e 4a0e "seo1 4etacogniti3e strategies or 4etacogniti3e reg"lation' Metacogniti3e strategiesare se8"ential processes t*at one "ses to control cogniti3e acti3ities2 and to ens"ret*at a cogniti3e goal Je'g'2 "nderstanding a te6tK *as 5een 4et' T*ese processes *elpto reg"late and o3ersee learning and consist o1 planning and 4onitoring cogniti3eacti3ities2 as /ell as c*ec0ing t*e o"tco4es o1 t*ose acti3ities'

Metacogniti3e strategies are essential 1or s"ccess1"l lang"age learning2 and t*e#incl"de 1"nctions s"c* as centring2 arranging2 planning2 and e3al"ating'

R' O61ord s"5di3ides Metacogniti3e Strategies into%


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B' Centring #o"r learning2 /*ere s*e incl"des strategies s"c* aso3er3ie/ing and lin0ing /it* alread# 0no/n 4aterial2 pa#ing attention2and dela#ing speec* prod"ction to 1oc"s on listening'

+' Arranging and planning #o"r learning2 /*ere st"dents are 1inding o"ta5o"t lang"age learning2 organising2 setting goals and o59ecti3es2

identi1#ing t*e p"rpose o1 a lang"age tas02 planning 1or a lang"age tas02and see0ing practice opport"nities'' E3al"ating #o"r learning' T*is last categor#2 pres"4a5l# 1or ad3anced

learners2 incl"des sel1)4onitoring2 and sel1)e3al"ating2 iss"es t*at (loo4et al' *ad identi1ied as cr"cial 1or learning in t*e 4id -,s'

A,,ective Strate"ie&

T*e a11ecti3e side o1 t*e learner is pro5a5l# one o1 t*e 5iggest in1l"ences onlang"age learning s"ccess or 1ail"re' Negati3e 1eelings can in*i5it progress2 /*ilepositi3e e4otions and attit"des can 4a0e lang"age learning 4"c* 4ore e11ecti3e anden9o#a5le' ence2 t*e# *elp to reg"late e4otions2 4oti3ations2 and attit"des'

According to R' O61ord2 A11ecti3e Strategies are s"5di3ided into%

B' Lo/ering #o"r an6iet#2 /*ere /e can 1ind t*e "se o1 progressi3erela6ation2 deep 5reat*ing2 4editation2 t*e "se o1 4"sic2 and t*e "se o1la"g*ter'

+' Enco"raging #o"rsel12 /*ic* incl"des strategies s"c* as 4a0ing positi3estate4ents2 ta0ing ris0s /isel#2 and re/arding #o"rsel1'

' Ta0ing #o"r e4otional te4perat"re2 t*e strategies pro5a5l# "sed 5#*ig*l# e4otional indi3id"als2 in3ol3e listening to #o"r 5od#2 t*e "se o1 ac*ec0list2 /riting a lang"age learning diar#2 and disc"ssing #o"r 1eelings

/it* so4eone else'Social Strate"ie&

Lang"age is a 1or4 o1 social 5e*a3io"r? it is co44"nication2 and co44"nicationocc"rs 5et/een and a4ong people' Learning a lang"age in3ol3es ot*er people2 andappropriate social strategies are 3er# i4portant in t*is process' T*ese strategies *elpst"dents learn t*ro"g* interaction /it* ot*ers'

Social Strategies are s"5di3ided 5# R' O61ord into%

B' As0ing 8"estions2 /*ic* incl"de 8"estions to as0 1or clari1ication or3eri1ication2 and to as0 1or correction'

+' Cooperating /it* ot*ers2 is also s"5di3ided into cooperating /it* peers2and cooperating /it* pro1icient "sers o1 t*e ne/ lang"age'

' E4pat*ising /it* ot*ers2 is a *ig*er strateg# generall# "sed 5# ad"ltlearners /*ere /e 1ind de3eloping c"lt"ral "nderstanding2 and 5eco4inga/are o1 ot*ers t*o"g*ts and 1eelings'

0(0( &o E,am!les of Learner/Centred &eac+ing *et+ods

3.3.1. "uggesto$edia

S"ggestopedia is a *"4anistic 4et*od designed 5# t*e ("lgarian ps#c*iatrist)

ed"cator Georgi Lo=ano3 in B and one o1 t*e 1irst 4et*ods to consider t*e inner4ood o1 learners as /ell as t*e p*#siological aspects in3ol3ed /*ile learning'


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to/ard t*e session2 stress glo5al rat*er t*an anal#tical attit"des to/ard 4aterial and4aintain a 4odest ent*"sias4 a4ong ot*er t*ings'

T*e role o1 instr"ctional 4aterials is also 3er# i4portant' T*e# are pri4aril# te6t andtape2 and indirect s"pport 4aterials2 incl"ding classroo4 1i6t"res and 4"sic'Perip*eral learning can enco"rage st"dents to appl# lang"age 4ore independentl#'T*e te6t 5oo0 s*o"ld *a3e e4otional 1orce2 literar# 8"alit# and interestingc*aracters'

T*e en3iron4ent co4prises a 5rig*t and c*eer# classroo42 reclining c*airs arrangedin a circle2 pl"s t*e 4"sic2 all *elp to ind"ce a rela6ed attit"de2 re1erred to asconcert pse"do)passi3eness'

Teor# o, Learnin"

T*e learning process is 5ased on des"ggestion2 /*ic* in3ol3es "nloading t*e4e4or# 5an0s? and s"ggestion2 /*ic* in3ol3es loading t*e 4e4or# 5an0s /it*

desired and 1acilitating 4e4ories'T*ere are si6 principal co4ponents t*ro"g* /*ic* des"ggestion and s"ggestionoperate and t*at set "p access to reser3es' T*ese are descri5ed 1ollo/ing (ancro1tJB+K'

&irst co4es t*e principle o1 a'torit#' People re4e45er 5est and are 4ostin1l"enced 5# in1or4ation co4ing 1ro4 an a"t*oritati3e so"rce' Teac*ers areca"tioned to 4aintain prestige )) "nderstood as a readiness to s*are "nderstandings/it* st"dents JLo=ano32 BHK'

T*en2 in,antili&ation% T*e teac*er)st"dent relations*ip s*o"ld 5e si4ilar to t*at o1

parent)c*ild' In t*e c*ilds role t*e learner ta0es part in role pla#ing2 ga4es2 songs2and g#4nastic e6ercises t*at *elp t*e older st"dent regain sel1)con1idence2spontaneit# and recepti3it# o1 t*e c*ild J(ancro112 B+% B2 cited in Ric*ards andRogers2 BHFK'

T*irdl#2 Do'ble


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Act"all#2 Carroll2 in *is Model o1 Sc*ool Learning JBFK identi1ied t/o 1actors t*ata11ected t*e learning rate o1 a st"dent% perse3erance o1 t*e st"dent2 and t*eopport"nit# to learn' T*e 1irst is controlled 5# t*e st"dent2 t*at is2 *o/ 4"c* ti4e*e /ill spend on learning2 t*e latter is t*e ti4e allo/ed to learn in t*e classroo42 or5# access to 4aterials2 or ot*er 1actors'

T*e 4ain ideas and proposals o1 t*is 4odel are disc"ssed in t*e 1ollo/ing section'o/e3er2 it /as (en9a4in (loo4 JBFHK2 /*o 1"ll# de3eloped t*e concepts no/0no/n as Master# Learning' In t*e BF,s2 (loo4 /as in3ol3ed in researc* onindi3id"al di11erences as applied to learning' I4pressed /it* Carrolls ideas2 *e too0t*e4 1"rt*er 5# concl"ding t*at gi3en s"11icient ti4e and 8"alit# o1 instr"ction2nearl# all st"dents co"ld learn'

T*e t*eories o1 Master# Learning res"lted in a radical s*i1t in responsi5ilit# 1orteac*ers? t*e 5la4e 1or a st"dents 1ail"re rests /it*in t*e instr"ction2 and not on alac0 o1 a5ilit# 1ro4 t*e part o1 t*e st"dent' In t*is t#pe o1 learning en3iron4ent2 t*ec*allenge 5eco4es pro3iding eno"g* ti4e and e4plo#ing speci1ic instr"ctional

strategies so t*at all st"dents can ac*ie3e t*e sa4e le3el o1 learning'Te Mo)el o, Scool Learnin"

;' (' Carrolls 4odel is t*e 5asis 1or Master# Learning' It ste44ed 1ro4 *is earlier/or0 in 1oreign lang"age' ere *e *ad 1o"nd t*at a st"dents aptit"de 1or a lang"agepredicted not onl# t*e le3el2 5"t also t*e a4o"nt o1 ti4e *e re8"ired to learn to agi3en le3el2 rat*er t*an 3ie/ing aptit"de as inde6ing t*e le3el to /*ic* a st"dentco"ld learn'

T*e 4odel 5asicall# proposes t*at i1 eac* st"dent /as allo/ed t*e ti4e *e needed tolearn to a certain le3el and *e spent t*e re8"ired learning ti4e2 t*en *e co"ld 5e

e6pected to attain t*e le3el' T*is 4eans t*at aptit"de is de1ined as 1ollo/s%

aptit"de Y ti4e needed to learn

Con3ersel#2 i1 t*e st"dent /as not allo/ed eno"g* ti4e2 t*en t*e degree to /*ic* *eco"ld 5e e6pected to learn /as a 1"nction o1 t*e ratio ti4e spent and ti4e needed2as it is ill"strated in t*e 1or4"la%

degree o1 learning Y 1 J ti4e act"all# spent ti4e needed K

$nder t#pical sc*ool learning conditions2 t*e ti4e spent and t*e ti4e needed /ere1"nctions o1 certain c*aracteristics o1 t*e indi3id"als and t*eir instr"ctions J3aria5les

/*ic* interacted to in1l"ence sc*ool learning s"ccessK' T*ese 3aria5les are ill"stratedin Ta5le Jsee Appendi6 1or C*apter K'

Te 4ariable& ,or Ma&ter# Learnin" Strate"ie&

(en9a4in (loo4 JBBK speci1icall# rede1ined t*e 3aria5les t*at Carroll descri5ed in*is 4odel o1 sc*ool learning2 1or Master# Learning p"rposes and o59ecti3es2 as1ollo/s%

Aptit"de

It is de1ined as t*e a4o"nt o1 ti4e re8"ired 5# t*e learner to attain 4aster# o1 a

learning tas0' I4plicit in t*is 3ie/ is t*e ass"4ption t*at all st"dents can concei3a5leattain 4aster# o1 an# learning tas02 gi3en eno"g* ti4e' I1 t*is is correct2 t*en


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learning 4aster# is t*eoreticall# a3aila5le to all i1 onl# teac*ers can 1ind 4et*ods 1or*elping eac* st"dent' T*en2 t*e central tas0 o1 ed"cational progra4s s*o"ld 5e toprod"ce positi3e c*anges in st"dents 5asic aptit"des2 and *elp t*e4 to learn'o/e3er2 t*e 0e# pro5le4 1or Master# Learning strategies is to *elp st"dents learn as"59ect to 4aster# /*et*er or not c*anges are 4ade in t*e aptit"des /*ic* arepredicti3e o1 s"c* learning'

>"alit# o1 Instr"ction

&or Master# Learning p"rposes2 8"alit# o1 instr"ction s*o"ld 5e "nderstood as t*edegree to /*ic* t*e presentation2 e6planation2 and ordering o1 ele4ents o1 t*elearning tas0 approac* t*e opti4"4 1or a gi3en learner'

Sc*ools *a3e "s"all# ass"4ed t*at t*ere s*o"ld 5e a standard classroo4 sit"ation 1orall st"dents2 t#picall# consisting o1 gro"p)5ased instr"ction /it* a ratio o1 oneteac*er to a5o"t t*irt# st"dents' All teac*ers are e6pected to teac* a gi3en s"59ectin 4"c* t*e sa4e /a# "sing t*e sa4e te6t' Conse8"entl#2 in t*is t#pe o1 instr"ctional

en3iron4ents2 8"alit# o1 instr"ction is de1ined in ter4s o1 gro"p res"lts' (loo4s 3ie/is 8"ite t*e opposite in t*is respect' e asserts t*at teac*ers 4a# start /it* t*e 3er#di11erent ass"4ption t*at indi3id"al st"dents 4a# need 3er# di11erent t#pes and8"alit# o1 instr"ction to learn t*e sa4e content and instr"ctional o59ecti3es to4aster# le3els' >"alit# o1 instr"ction t*en 4"st 5e de3eloped /it* respect to t*eneeds and c*aracteristics o1 indi3id"al learners rat*er t*an gro"ps o1 learning'

A5ilit# to "nderstand instr"ction

T*is concept re1ers to t*e a5ilit# o1 t*e learner to "nderstand t*e nat"re o1 t*e tas0*e is to learn and t*e proced"res *e is to 1ollo/ in its learning'

A5ilit# to "nderstand instr"ction is deter4ined 5# 3er5al a5ilit# and readingco4pre*ension2 5ot* related to t*e concept o1 ling"istic intelligence2 /*ic* ise6plained in t*e ne6t c*apter' T*is s"ggests t*at 3er5al a5ilit# deter4ines so4egeneral capacit# to learn 1ro4 teac*ers and 4aterials'

T*e greatest i44ediate pa#o11 in dealing /it* t*e a5ilit# to "nderstand instr"ction isli0el# to res"lt 1ro4 4odi1ications in t*e instr"ction to 4eet indi3id"al st"dentneeds' Teac*ers s*o"ld *a3e a 3ariet# o1 reso"rces a3aila5le2 a4ong /*ic* t*eres*o"ld 5e di11erent instr"ctional strategies and aids t*e# co"ld "se to 1it t*eirinstr"ction to t*e di11ering needs o1 all t*eir st"dents' So4e e6a4ples o1 s"c*alternati3es are s4all)gro"p st"d# sessions2 t"torial *elp2 alternati3e te6t5oo0s2/or05oo0s2 a"dio3is"al 4et*ods2 ga4es2 and t*e li0e'

Perse3erance

Perse3erance can 5e de1ined as t*e ti4e t*e learner is /illing to spend in learning'

St"dents 3ar# in t*e a4o"nt o1 perse3erance 5ro"g*t to a speci1ic learning tas0'(esides2 st"dents perse3erance can 5e en*anced 5# increasing t*e 1re8"enc# o1 are/ard and t*e e3idence o1 learning s"ccess' &"rt*er4ore2 in Master# Learning t*eresee4s to 5e little reason to 4a0e learning so di11ic"lt t*at onl# a s4all proportion o1st"dents can perse3ere to 4aster#'

Opport"nit# to learn

A st"dents opport"nit# to learn is t*e ti4e allo/ed to learn a speci1ic learning tas0'


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Ass"4ing t*at aptit"de deter4ines t*e rate o1 learning2 4ost st"dents can ac*ie3e4aster# i1 t*e# are allo/ed and do spend t*e necessar# a4o"nt o1 ti4e on a learningtas0' T*ere1ore2 an e11ecti3e 4aster# learning strateg# 4"st 1ind /a#s o1 altering t*eti4e needed to learn as /ell as pro3iding t*e ti4e necessar# 1or eac* st"dent'

&ig"re Jsee Appendi6 1or C*apter K s"44arises t*e /a# in /*ic* t*e 3aria5les o1t*e 4odel interact in t*e process o1 learning a speci1ic learning tas0'

.*ere t*e degree to /*ic* a st"dent can learn is t*e res"lt o1 t*e co45ination o1t*ese 3aria5les' It is cr"cial t*en2 t*at Master# Learning teac*ers are a/are o1 t*is inorder to control t*e learning sit"ations according to speci1ic o59ecti3es'

S'$$in" '(

Master# Learning is a gro"p)5ased teac*er)paced instr"ctional approac*' T*eass"4ption is t*at gi3en eno"g* ti4e and good instr"ction2 al4ost all st"dents /ill5e a5le to 4aster /*at t*e# are as0ed to learn' T*ere1ore2 its 1oc"s is not on t*e

content2 5"t on t*e process to 4aster it'Nor4all#2 teac*ers e6pect a5o"t ten percent o1 t*eir st"dents to recei3e t*e *ig*estgrades and are 8"ite prepared to 1ail an e8"al proportion o1 t*e4' T*"s2 st"dents1ail"re is 1re8"entl# deter4ined 5# t*eir ran0ed position /it*in t*e class rat*er t*ant*eir ina5ilit# to grasp t*e central ideas o1 t*e s"59ect 4atter' T*e 4ain proposal o1Master# Learning is 5asicall# t*at t*is nor4al c"r3e is not sacred' &"rt*er4ore2 itass"res t*at aro"nd ninet#)1i3e percent o1 t*e st"dents can learn a s"59ect' &ig"re -Jsee Appendi6 1or C*apter K s*o/s t*e distri5"tion o1 sc*ool ac*ie3e4ent in 5ot*t#pes o1 instr"ction Jaccording to t*e grading s#ste4 in C*ileK

Master# Learning is ideal 1or se8"ential s"59ects /*ere prior 0no/ledge is necessar#

to progress li0e 1oreign lang"age learning2 5"t it is also adapta5le to episodics"59ects li0e *istor#' In ot*er /ords2 t*e goal o1 Master# Learning approac*es is to*a3e all st"dents learn instr"ctional 4aterial at ro"g*l# e8"i3alent2 *ig* le3els' It ise3ident t*at t*is t#pe o1 learning /or0s 5est /it* t*e traditional content)1oc"sedc"rric"l"42 i'e' 5ased on /ell)de1ined learning o59ecti3es organised into s4aller2se8"entiall# organised "nits'

T*e teac*ing strategies capt"re 4an# o1 t*e ele4ents o1 s"ccess1"l t"toring and t*eindependent 1"nctionalit# seen in s"ccess1"l top)ten st"dents' In a Master# Learningen3iron4ent2 t*e teac*er directs a 3ariet# o1 gro"p)5ased instr"ctional tec*ni8"es"sing co)operati3e learning sc*e4es' o/e3er2 so4e strategies re8"ire st"dents to/or0 independentl#2 rat*er t*an /it* class4ates' T#pical strategies "sed are

4odelling2 practice2 re)teac*ing2 and rein1orce4ent' T*e instr"ctional 4aterial 4a#in3ol3e t*e "s"al /or05oo0s2 te6t)5oo0s2 or lect"res2 5"t t*ese s*o"ld 5es"pple4ented indi3id"all# or 5# s4all)gro"p t"torial disc"ssions'

In)ivi)'al Di,,erence& 3itin ti& $o)el

.e 5elie3e t*at Master# Learning is 4ainl# concerned /it* dealing /it* t*e speci1icpro5le4s t*at 4a# arise d"e to learners di11erences in aptit"de' Its 4et*odolog# andproced"re are directed to t*is partic"lar o59ecti3e2 5ased on t*e ass"4ption t*ataptit"de does not necessaril# *a3e a correlation /it* ac*ie3e4ent2 as it /as stateda5o3e'


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Anot*er indi3id"al di11erence t*at is ta0en into acco"nt is 4oti3ation2 /*ic* isrelated to t*e 3aria5le o1 perse3erance' T*e c"rric"l"4 is also designed to 4oti3atelearners to spend e6tra ti4e on i4pro3ing t*eir per1or4ance'

Concerning indi3id"al di11erences2 t*e clai4 see4s to 5e t*at t*e# s*o"ld not pla# arole in st"dents learning' T*ere1ore2 neit*er teac*ing standards nor criteria s*o"ldre1lect s"c* di11erences' &"rt*er4ore2 Master# Learning s"pporters arg"e t*at it ispossi5le t*at 1or 4an# #ears indi3id"al di11erences *a3e 5een "sed as a scapegoat 1orine11ecti3e instr"ction J(loc02 BBK' T*en2 a 1"nda4ental tas0 in ed"cationaccording to t*is t*eor# is to de3elop strategies t*at2 ta0ing into acco"nt indi3id"aldi11erences2 pro4ote rat*er t*an in*i5it t*e 1"llest de3elop4ent o1 t*e indi3id"al'

IV Chapter Four

1( $RAIN AND LAN;UA;E LEARNIN;

T*is c*apter deals /it* t*e relations*ip 5et/een 5rain2 lang"age and learning' More

speci1icall#2 it gi3es an o3er3ie/ on *o/ t*e 5rain /or0s e3er#da# inside t*e 5od# to1"l1il ling"istic tas0s'

In spite o1 t*e 1act t*at t*ere is a great a4o"nt o1 in1or4ation a5o"t t*ese topicsand t*e lin0s a4ong t*e42 "ntil t*e last decade2 4ost o1 t*e in1or4ation *ad co4e1ro4 st"dies o1 5rain)in9"red patients /*o *ad s"11ered stro0es d"e to 5loc0age o15lood 1lo/ to t*e 5rain2 se3ere accidents2 or g"ns*ot /o"nds to t*e *ead d"ring /arti4e JDron0ers2 BK' In t*is researc* paradig42 1acts are o5tained 5# co4paringt*e lang"age de1icits res"lting 1ro4 t*ese in9"ries /it* t*e areas o1 t*e 5rain /*ic*5eca4e in9"red'

It is o53io"s t*en2 t*at s"c* in3estigations *ad to rel# on a"tops# data o5tained longa1ter t*e# *ad 5een collected' Toda#2 ne"roscience researc* is 5eing cond"cted /it*nor4al non 5rain)in9"red s"59ects2 gi3ing "s an increasing "nderstanding a5o"t t*estr"ct"re and 1"nction o1 t*e 5rain2 as /ell as t*e 5rain 4ec*anis4s in3ol3ed inlang"age and learning'

1('( Conte,ts of LearningT*e indi3id"al 5rain and t*e indi3id"al person cannot 5e st"died in isolation'Ed"cators and ps#c*ologists *a3e 5een tr#ing to 1ig"re o"t2 /it*o"t 4"c* s"ccess2t*e /a# in /*ic* t*ese areas s*o"ld 5e connected in lang"age teac*ing and learning'Ne3ert*eless6ne"roscience can also o11er 3al"a5le insig*ts a5o"t t*e /a# in /*ic*conte6t a11ects learning and *ence it 4"st 5e considered in t*e process'

Conte6t incl"des 5iological 1actors2 s"c* as dr"gs and sleep2 /*ere 4e4or# isconsolidated2 as /ell as social 1actors2 li0e c"lt"re2 and re/ard and p"nis*4ent' Int*is st"d# e4otion2 4oti3ation and stress2 /*ic* traditionall# are not considered as a1"nda4ental part neit*er o1 teac*ing nor o1 learning2 /ill 5e ta0en into acco"nt'

Most teac*ers /o"ld agree t*at st"dents participate in class and learn 5est /*ent*e# are in a rela6ed2 4oti3ated en3iron4ent' T*e opposite is also tr"e% 1ear andan6iet# can in*i5it learning and ed"cational per1or4ance' Ne"roscientists 5elie3et*e# 0no/ /*# JCeri2 +,,K' E6perts *a3e e6a4ined t*e lin0 5et/een e4otions2learning and t*e 5rain2 and t/o speci1ic parts o1 t*e 5rain /ere o1 partic"larinterest% t*e ippoca4p"s2 /*ic* a4ong ot*ers2 1"nctions as an inter1ace 5et/eens*ort and long)ter4 4e4or#2 is cr"cial in storing in1or4ation Jsee &ig"re B2 inAppendi6 1or C*apter K? and t*e A4#gdala2 /*ic* is in3ol3ed in assigning e4otional


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signi1icance to e3ents2 and is especiall# engaged in t*e 4anage4ent o1 1ear Jsee&ig"re +2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K' I1 #o" con1ront a dangero"s 5"ll2 1or instance2t*e A4#gdala /ill ta0e o3er and in*i5it reasoning' In t*e sa4e /a#2 "nder stress2trans4ission o1 in1or4ation to t*e neocorte6 eit*er does not *appen2 or at least2 notnor4all# or opti4all#'

A di11erent sit"ation is presented /*en /e deal /it* an6iet#' Jsee C*apter K'

1(2( $rain and LangageI1 /e o5ser3e t*e 5rain2 t*e 4ain c*aracteristic /e e6ternall# see is t*e di3ision o1 itin t/o *e4isp*eres2 1or a long ti4e considered t*e4 as separate entities Jsee &ig"re2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K'

T*e le1t *e4isp*ere *as 5een t*o"g*t to 5e t*e anal#tical one2 t*at is to sa#2 its4ain 1"nction /o"ld 5e t*e recognition o1 t*e di11erent parts t*at constit"te a/*ole' On t*e ot*er *and2 t*e role o1 t*e rig*t *e4isp*ere *as 5een to loo0 1or and5"ild relations*ips a4ong scattered parts2 not acting lineall# 5"t in a *olistic /a#'

In t*is /a#2 it /o"ld 5e especiall# e11icient in 3is"al and spatial processes as /ell asin t*e e4otional and non)3er5al co4ponents o1 speec*' (esides2 it /o"ld *a3e to do/it* 4"sic2 gest"res2 recognition o1 colo"rs and i4age 1or4ation' T*e a5ilit# to deal/it* certain 0ind o1 concept"al t*o"g*t and ideas s"c* as lo#alt#2 5ea"t# or lo3e 6 isalso attri5"ted to t*e rig*t *e4isp*ere'

A "s"al 4isconception in 5rain science and learning /as to consider a disp"te5et/een t*e *e4isp*eres2 rig*t 5rain 3ers"sle1t 5rain learning' It is *ig*l#i4portant to clari1# at t*is point2 t*at t*e 5rain /or0s as an integrated s#ste4 in/*ic* one part rarel# /or0s in isolation JParadis +,,BK' Act"all#2 t*e t/o *e4isp*eresare connected 5# t*e cor('& callo&'$ Jsee &ig"re 2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K'ence2 recent 1indings in ne"roscience s*o/ "s a 4ore co4ple62 1le6i5le anintegrated 3ie/ o1 t*e *"4an ner3o"s s#ste4' In t*is /a#2 learning and 5e*a3io"r arenot e6pected to 5e si4ple processes reg"lated 5# si4ple cortical areas in t*e 5rain25"t co4ple6 s#ste4s t*at are reg"lated 5# di11erent cortical and s"5cortical do4ainst*at relate cogniti3e2 a11ecti3e and social 1actors in a d#na4ic and integrated /a#'

.e are 9"st in t*e 5eginnings o1 t*e co4pre*ension o1 t*e relations*ip 5et/een*"4an 5rain and *"4an 4ind' T*at 4eans t*at 1ro4 no/ on ed"cators andne"roscientists 4"st /or0 toget*er in order to de3elop 4ore co4pre*ensi3e ande11ecti3e t*eories o1 teac*ing and learning'

People learn in an integrated /a# /*ere i4plicit2 s"5conscio"s2 proced"ral2 ande4otional 1eat"res interact /it* e6plicit2 conscio"s2 declarati3e2 and non)declarati3e1eat"res' T*e e4otional en3iron4ent o1 learning is2 t*en2 o53io"sl# cr"cial 1or a 5estst"dents a11ecti3e ac*ie3e4ent'

#.2.1. (he Cassica Mode

Classic descriptions o1 t*e 5rain areas in3ol3ed in lang"age *a3e largel# i4plicatedt*ose in t*e le1t cere5ral *e4isp*ere 0no/n as (rocaZs area and .ernic0eZs areaJDron0ers BK' T*ese in3estigations 5egan in BHFB /*en Pierre Pa"l (roca descri5ed*is e6a4ination o1 a c*ronicall# ill patient /it* "n"s"al speec* de1icit' .*en t*epatient died2 (roca disco3ered a lesion in3ol3ing t*e posterior in1erior 1rontal g#r"sJi'e'2 t*e 5ac0 part o1 t*e lo/est section /it*in t*e 1rontal lo5eK' T*o"g* (rocane3er c"t t*e 5rain to e6a4ine t*e e6tent o1 *is lesion2 *e s"ggested t*at t*isspeci1ic region /as responsi5le 1or t*e artic"lation o1 speec*'


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So4e #ears later2 in BH2 t*e Ger4an ne"rologist Carl .ernic0e disco3ered t*at a3er# di11erent 0ind o1 lang"age de1icit2 an i4pair4ent o1 a"ditor# 4e4or# 1or /ords2/as related to a da4age in t*e s"perior te4poral g#r"s Ji'e'2 t*e top o1 t*e te4porallo5eK Jsee &ig"re -2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K'

.ernic0e also de3eloped a 4odel o1 lang"age processing t*at /as re1or4"lated 5#Nor4an Gesc*/ind in t*e BF,s2 t*e so called ?ernic>e2Ge&c3in) Mo)el Jsee&ig"re F2 in Appendi6 1or C*apter K' According to t*is 4odel2 co4pre*ension o1lang"age is dependent on .ernic0eZs area2 /*ereas (rocaZs area2 ne6t to t*epri4ar# 4otor corte62 is responsi5le 1or lang"age prod"ction' (et/een 5ot* areast*ere is a lin0 0no/n as t*e arc"ate 1ascic"l"s2 a gro"p o1 associated 1i5ers /*ic*1"nction is t*e trans4ission o1 ling"istic in1or4ation 1ro4 .ernic0eZs to (rocaZsareas'

Modern tec*ni8"es and tec*nologies 4a# grad"all# 5e c*anging t*e classic 4odel2since t*e ne/ 1indings are s*o/ing 4ore and 4ore clearl# t*at ot*er 5rain areas arealso i4portant2 as /ell as t*e li0eli*ood t*at lang"age processing in3ol3es a net/or0

o1 5rain areas t*at contri5"te in indi3id"al 5"t interacti3e /a#s'

#.2.3. Modern Methods of Anaysis

Toda# scientists e4plo# ,'nctional ne'roi$a"in" tecni+'e&2 /*ic* 4eas"re 5rainacti3it# 5# detecting c*anges in 5lood 1lo/ in *"4an s"59ects'

T*e 4ain t/o ne"roi4aging tec*ni8"es are PET JPositron E4ission To4ograp*#K and1MRI J&"nctional Magnetic Resonance I4agingK' In 5ot*2 PET and 1MRI t*e 3ol"nteerlies inside t*e scanner and per1or4s so4e cogniti3e or sensori4otor tas0 /*ile t*escanner registers regional 5lood 1lo/ in t*e persons 5rain J("c0ner and PetersenBH2 (la0e4ore and &irt*2 +,,,K'

Ot*er 4et*ods operate in a di11erent /a#' T*e EEG JElectroencep*alogra4K 4eas"rest*e electrical acti3it# o1 net/or0s or large circ"its o1 5rain cells Jp#ra4idal cellsK int*e o"ter la#ers o1 t*e corte6' Acti3ated ner3e)cells o1 t*e 5rain generate electricsignals' In t*e standard proced"re B 4etal electrodes are gl"ed to t*e scalp andt*"s t*e oscillator# acti3it# o1 t*e corte6 J5rain /a3esK is recorded' T*e 1re8"enc#ranges Jdelta2 t*eta2 alp*a2 and 5etaK are t*en c

12 Apdjes Inteligencias Multiples

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