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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory IntroductionIntroduction
STM versus LTM STM versus LTM Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory
Encoding in Long-Term MemoryEncoding in Long-Term Memory Depth of Processing (or Levels of Depth of Processing (or Levels of
Processing)Processing) Self Reference EffectSelf Reference Effect Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle Emotions, Moods, and MemoryEmotions, Moods, and Memory
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Long-Term Memory 2Long-Term Memory 2
Retrieval in Long-Term MemoryRetrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit versus Implicit MemoryExplicit versus Implicit Memory Very Long-Term MemoryVery Long-Term Memory ExpertiseExpertise AmnesiaAmnesia
Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories Schemas & Autobiographical Schemas & Autobiographical
MemoryMemory Source MonitoringSource Monitoring Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony
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Tulving’s Memory ModelTulving’s Memory Model
EpisodicEpisodic
SemanticSemantic
ProceduralProcedural
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Encoding in LTMEncoding in LTM
Levels (depth) of processingLevels (depth) of processing
Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect
Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle
Emotion and Memory Emotion and Memory
Mood and MemoryMood and Memory
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Levels of Processing FrameworkLevels of Processing Framework
Craik & Lockhart (1972)Craik & Lockhart (1972) Type of ProcessingType of Processing
Physical Processing > shallowPhysical Processing > shallow
Meaningful Processing > deepMeaningful Processing > deep
Trace byproduct of processingTrace byproduct of processing Deeper processing leads to more durable Deeper processing leads to more durable
tracestraces
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Levels of Processing Levels of Processing DemonstrationDemonstration
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Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal vs.vs.
Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal
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Research on LOP and Similar Research on LOP and Similar ThemesThemes
Tulving (1975)Tulving (1975)
Generation Effect (1978)Generation Effect (1978) e.g.e.g. lightlight d_ _ k (generation)d_ _ k (generation)
vs.vs.
lightlight dark (read)dark (read)
Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)Faces - e.g. Sporer (1991)
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Judge how wide theJudge how wide the person’s nose is: person’s nose is:
1 2 3 4 5very thin average very wide
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Judge how honest this face is:
1 2 3 4 5very dishonest very honest
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ExplanationsExplanations
DistinctivenessDistinctiveness
ElaborationElaboration
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Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1997)
Process list of words:Process list of words: Physical characteristicsPhysical characteristics Acoustic characteristicsAcoustic characteristics Semantic characteristicsSemantic characteristics Self - (reference)Self - (reference)
Robust effectRobust effect
Symons & Johnson (1997)Symons & Johnson (1997) Meta-analysisMeta-analysis
ExplanationsExplanations
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Rogers, et. al., 1977Rogers, et. al., 1977
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Revisions to LOPRevisions to LOP
Moscovitch & Craik (1975) Moscovitch & Craik (1975)
-Encoding Specificity Principle-Encoding Specificity Principle
Bransford & FranksBransford & Franks
- Transfer Appropriate Processing- Transfer Appropriate Processing
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Effects of ContextEffects of Context
Geiselman & Glenny (1977)Geiselman & Glenny (1977)
Outshining hypothesisOutshining hypothesis
H
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Effects of ContextEffects of Context
Baddeley - scuba divingBaddeley - scuba diving
Remembering names - faces as Remembering names - faces as contextual cuescontextual cues
Practical Application - imaginary Practical Application - imaginary reinstatementreinstatement
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Geiselman & Glenny Geiselman & Glenny (1997)(1997)
Encoding(Imagined)
female voice male voice
Test (ActualSpeaker)
male female male female
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How can we use theHow can we use theEncoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle
to improve memory for to improve memory for events?events?
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Mood & MemoryMood & Memory
Memory for items differing in emotionMemory for items differing in emotion Pollyanna PrinciplePollyanna Principle Mood CongruenceMood Congruence
- individual differences studies- individual differences studies
- experimental manipulation of - experimental manipulation of moodsmoods
Mood-State DependenceMood-State Dependence
- Claudia Ucros (1989)- Claudia Ucros (1989)
- meta-analysis- meta-analysis
- other variables- other variables
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Study each of the words that appearStudy each of the words that appear
PicturePicture
CommerceCommerce
MotionMotion
VillageVillage
VesselVessel
WindowWindow
NumberNumber
ReindeerReindeer
CustomFellowAdviceDozenFlowerKitchenBookstore
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Explicit Memory MeasuresExplicit Memory Measures
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Implicit Memory MeasuresImplicit Memory Measures
Picture, Commerce, Motion, Village,Vessel,Window, Number, Reindeer, Custom, Fellow, Advice, Dozen, Flower, Kitchen, Bookstore
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Explicit vs Implicit Measures of Explicit vs Implicit Measures of MemoryMemory
Explicit memory measures:Explicit memory measures: recallrecall recognitionrecognition
Implicit memory measures:Implicit memory measures: Word fragment completionWord fragment completion Stem completion Stem completion Repetition primingRepetition priming
Role of conscious, deliberate recollectionRole of conscious, deliberate recollection
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The Critical DistinctionThe Critical Distinction
Explicit memory tasks require Explicit memory tasks require consciousconscious, , deliberatedeliberate recollection of previous recollection of previous experiencesexperiences
Implicit memory tasks do Implicit memory tasks do not not require require consciousconscious recollection of previous events recollection of previous events
e.g., b_ _ ke.g., b_ _ k
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Research with AmnesicsResearch with Amnesics
Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)
TasksTasks
explicit - recognition, recallexplicit - recognition, recall
implicit - mutilated word guessingimplicit - mutilated word guessing
- stem completion - stem completion
e.g. st_ _ _ e.g. st_ _ _
ReplicatedReplicated
DissociationDissociation
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DissociationDissociation
A variable has an effect on one type of test, A variable has an effect on one type of test, but little or no effect on another type of testbut little or no effect on another type of test
A variable has one type of effect if A variable has one type of effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test A, but a different effect if measured by Test Bmeasured by Test B
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Research with Normal AdultsResearch with Normal Adults
Levels of processing and the Levels of processing and the
implicit / explicit distincionimplicit / explicit distincion
Picture Superiority EffectPicture Superiority Effect
Current StatusCurrent Status
- explanations- explanations
- applications- applications
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Levels of Processing: Explicit/Implict TestsLevels of Processing: Explicit/Implict Tests
truck
Semantic(pleasant vs unpleasant)
Physical, perceptualTask (# syllables orUpper/lower case?)
Higher recall,recognition *
___
Higher--or at least equal performance*
___ImplicitMemory Test(e.g. t_u_k)
ExplicitMemory Test
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QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture. versus. Elephant
Picture Superiority EffectPicture Superiority Effect
1. Subjects view a series of pictures or a series of words
2. Subjects recall stimuli by writing down names of items -- recall of pictures is higher than recall of words.
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Weldon & Roediger (1987)Picture Superiority Effect
vs. ‘FROG’Encoding
Test Recall Recall
H
Compare Implicit vs. Explicit Measures
vs. ‘FROG’Encoding
Test
Recall Recall wordfragmentcompletion
f r _ g
wordfragmentcompletion
f r _ g
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Weldon & Roediger Graph Weldon & Roediger Graph (1987)(1987)
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ExplanationsExplanations
No agreed-upon explanationNo agreed-upon explanation
Context & encoding specificityContext & encoding specificity
Multiple memory systemsMultiple memory systems
e.g. Tulvinge.g. Tulving
Neuroscience accountNeuroscience account
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Applications of implicit / Applications of implicit / explicit memory research to explicit memory research to
real life problems?real life problems?
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Ad for Experimental Ad for Experimental PsychologistsPsychologists
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ExpertiseExpertise
Influence on LTMInfluence on LTM
Definition - consistent superior performanceDefinition - consistent superior performance
- deliberate practice- deliberate practice
- at least 10 years- at least 10 years
Domain specificDomain specific
10-year rule10-year rule
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Context-Specific Nature of ExpertiseContext-Specific Nature of Expertise
Skilled memory effectSkilled memory effect ChessChess
-De Groot-De Groot
-Chase & Simon (1973):-Chase & Simon (1973):
5 second task5 second task
typical vs. random positionstypical vs. random positions
Similar effects in many domains:Similar effects in many domains:
-basketball-basketball
-x-rays-x-rays
-circuit diagrams, etc.-circuit diagrams, etc. SF (digits only)SF (digits only)
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An Expert Waiter - JCAn Expert Waiter - JC
Ericsson (1985)Ericsson (1985)
J.C. - 20 topsJ.C. - 20 tops
Comparison of J.C. to college studentsComparison of J.C. to college students
Critical difference = memory strategies and Critical difference = memory strategies and knowledgeknowledge
Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Follow-up study (Crutcher, Ericsson, & Bauder)Bauder)
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t-bonerarebaked potatoblue cheese
sirloinmediumriceoil and vinegar
filet mignonwell-donericethousand island
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JC’s Strategies
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Characteristics of ExpertsCharacteristics of Experts
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Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory
Memory for events and issues related to Memory for events and issues related to yourselfyourself
Naturally occurring eventsNaturally occurring events
Rapidly growing interestRapidly growing interest
Wide variety of topicsWide variety of topics
High ecological validityHigh ecological validity
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Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories Brown & Kulik (1977)Brown & Kulik (1977)
High level of surpriseHigh level of surprise
High level of emotional arousalHigh level of emotional arousal
Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)Recent Research (Weaver, 1993)
Schemas & Autobiographical Schemas & Autobiographical MemoryMemory Generalized, abstract knowledge Generalized, abstract knowledge
structuresstructures
Memory for common, ordinary eventsMemory for common, ordinary events
Variable instantiationVariable instantiation
False memoriesFalse memories
Consistency biasConsistency bias
Repisodic MemoryRepisodic Memory
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Source MonitoringSource Monitoring
Origin of a memoryOrigin of a memory
Actual versus imagined actionActual versus imagined action
Marsh & Colleagues (1997)Marsh & Colleagues (1997)
Henkel & Colleagues (2000)Henkel & Colleagues (2000)
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Flashbulb Memory DemonstrationFlashbulb Memory Demonstration
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Schematization of MemorySchematization of Memory
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Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony
The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)The ‘gentleman bandit’ (1979)
Identifying facesIdentifying faces
Recognition accuracyRecognition accuracy
Time and attentionTime and attention
Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)Reintz, et al. (1994, p 45)
Length of retention intervalLength of retention interval
Intervening infoIntervening info
Misleading post-event infoMisleading post-event info
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Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect
Caused by misleading information given after Caused by misleading information given after viewing an earlier eventviewing an earlier event
RI = retroactive inhibition or interferenceRI = retroactive inhibition or interference
• Classic experiment - Loftus (1978)
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Loftus (1978)Loftus (1978)Slides:
• Delay: 20 minutes to 1 week
• Question Answering
• Critical Question: consistent orinconsistent detail
• Test: Select 1 or 2 slides matchingpreviously-viewed slide
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Loftus (1978) ResultsLoftus (1978) Results