-Pengantar Modul

PENGANTAR Modul metodologi penelitian dan statitstika dasar kesehatan(disampaikan pada semester ganjil 2015/2016)drg. Michael A. Leman, MMedEd3 Agustus 2015Reference:Fraenkel JR, Wallen NE, Hyun HH. How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: Mc-Graw Hill; 2012Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K. Research methods in education. New York: Routledge; 2011.

No problem, no research (Leedy)

I keep six honest serving-men (They taught me all I knew); Their names are What and Why and When And How and Where and Who (Kipling, 1902/1988, p. 3)

Is the Teachers Assumption Correct?

Ways of knowingReference:Fraenkel JR, Wallen NE, Hyun HH. How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: Mc-Graw Hill; 2012

The search for truth People have long been concerned to come to grisp with their environment and to understand the nature of the phenomena it presents to their senses. They set out to achieve these ends by experience, reasoning, and research (Mouly, 1978).The limitations of personal experience in the form of common-sense knowing.concerned to come to grisp= berkelahi, berusaha mengatasi

The search for truth People attempt to comprehend the world around them, by using three types of reasoning:Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoningInductive-deductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning Based on the sylogism (silogisme), such as:All planets orbit the sun.The earth is a planet.Therefore the earth orbits the sun.The assumption underlying the syllogism is that through a sequence of formal steps of logic, from the general to the particular, a valid conclusion can be deduced from a valid premise

Inductive reasoningThe history of reasoning was to undergo a dramatic change in the 1600s when Francis Bacon began to lay increasing stress on the observational basis of science. Being critical of the model of deductive reasoning on the grounds that its major premises were often preconceived notions which inevitably bias the conclusions, he proposed in its place the method of inductive reasoning by means of which the study of a number of individual cases would lead to an hypothesis and eventually to a generalization.

Inductive reasoningMouly (1978) explains it by suggesting that Bacons basic premise was that, with sufficient data, even if one does not have a preconceived idea of their significance or meaning, nevertheless important relationships and laws would be discovered by the alert observer. Logic and authority in themselves were no longer regarded as conclusive means of proof and instead became sources of hypotheses about the world and its phenomena.

Inductive-deductive reasoningBacons inductive method was eventually followed by the inductive-deductive approach which combines Aristotelian deduction with Baconian induction. Here the researcher is involved in a back-and-forth process of induction (from observation to hypothesis) and deduction (from hypothesis to implications) (Mouly 1978).Hypotheses are tested rigorously and, if necessary, revised.

The Research Process

Statement of the research problemThe problem statement should be accompanied by a description of the background of the problem (what factors caused it to be a problem in the first place) and a rationale or justification for studying it. Formulation of an exploratory question or a hypothesisResearch problems are usually stated as questions, and often as hypotheses. A hypothesis is a prediction, a statement of what specific results or outcomes are expected to occur. The hypotheses of a study should clearly indicate any relationships expected between the variables (the factors, characteristics, or conditions) being investigated and be so stated that they can be tested within a reasonable period of time. Not all studies are hypothesis-testing studies, but many are.

Definitions: All key terms in the problem statement and hypothesis should be defined as clearly as possible.Review of the related literature: Other studies related to the research problem should be located and their results briefly summarized. The literature review (of appropriate journals, reports, monographs, etc.) should shed light on what is already known about the problem and should indicate logically why the proposed study would result in an extension of this prior knowledge.Sample: The subjects* (the sample) of the study and the larger group, or population (to whom results are to be generalized), should be clearly identified.

Instrumentation: Each of the measuring instruments that will be used to collect data from the subjects should be described in detail, and a rationale should be given for its use. Procedures: The actual procedures of the studywhat the researcher will do (what, when, where, how, and with whom) from beginning to end, in the order in which they will occurshould be spelled out in detail (although this is not written in stone). A realistic time schedule outlining when various tasks are to be started, along with expected completion dates, should also be provided. All materials (e.g., textbooks) and/or equipment (e.g., computers) that will be used in the study should also be described.

Procedures: (cont)The general design or methodology (e.g., an experiment or a survey) to be used should be stated. In addition, possible sources of bias should be identified, and how they will be controlled should be explained.Data analysis: Any statistical techniques, both descriptive and inferential, to be used in the data analysis should be described. The comparisons to be made to answer the research question should be made clear.

Types Of ResearchQuantitative researchQualitative researchExperimental researchCorrelational researchCausal-comparative researchSurvey research Ethnographic research*Historical research*Action research*Evaluation research**jarang dalam bidang kesehatan

Historical researchIn this type of research, some aspect of the past is studied, either by perusing documents of the period or by interviewing individuals who lived during the time. The researcher then attempts to reconstruct as accurately as possible what happened during that time and to explain why it did.

Action researchAction research is conducted by one or more individuals or groups for the purpose of solving a problem or obtaining information in order to inform local practice. Those involved in action research generally want to solve some kind of day-to-day immediate problem.

Evaluation researchFormative evaluation are intended to improve the object being evaluated; they help to form or strengthen it by examining the delivery of the program or technology and the quality of its implementation.Sumative evaluation seek to examine the effect or outcomes of an object by describing what happens after the delivery of the program or technology in order to assess ehtjer the object caused the outcome.

General Research typesDescriptive studies:Survey researchQualitative research (etnographic and historical research)Associational research:Correlational researchCausal comparative researchIntervention studies:Ethnographic researchHistorical researchAction researchEvaluation researchMeta analysis (trying to locate all the studies on a particular topic)