CHAPTER II
CONTENTINTRODUCTION
..............................................................................................
.3Chapter 1 Transformation translation and their
classification.................................. 51.1 Development
of translation notion in linguistics
.......................................... 5 1.2 Equivalence of
translation
............................................................................
61.3 Translation transformations and their classification
................................ 11
1.4 Grammatical transformations
.....................................................................
14
Chapter 2 Analysis of grammatical transformations in translation
on the basis of "the dventures of Huckleberry Finn by M.
Twen........................................... 17
2.1 Conversion
...................................................................................................
17
2.2 Transposition
...............................................................................................
182.3 Sentence fragmentation
...............................................................................
182.4 Sentence integration
....................................................................................
192.5 Addition
.......................................................................................................
202.6 Omission
......................................................................................................
21CONCLUSION
....................................................................................................
22BIBLIOGRAPHY
.................................................................................................
24
INTRODUCTION
Translation is dominated by objective, scientific, and
linguistic description and explanation. At the same time it is a
subjective choice of means preserving stylistic equivalence of the
source text.
Translation reflects the source text but it does not copy it. To
translate adequately, a translator must do his or her best to find
a proper means of expression. A translator bears in mind that the
receptor has a cultural background other than that of a receptor of
the original text; therefore, s/he has to be very resourceful in
producing the same impact upon the receptor as that of the source
text. Special problems arise in translating dialects, foreign
speech, puns, poetry, etc. And a translator is in constant search
for new tools to solve translation problems.
Achievement of the translation adequacy, despite the discrepancy
in semantic systems of source and target languages, demands from
translator abilities to make numerous translation transformations
in order to target text transfers the information from source text
with maximum accuracy and observance SL norms. Actuality of the
given paper consists in problem of choice maximum correct
translation transformation in transferring different grammatical
forms to the Russian language.
The aim of this term paper is to investigate the problem of
transformations in translation and to reveal peculiarities of the
grammatical transformations usage in translation of the literary
texts.
The following tasks were set up to identify translation
peculiarities:
1. To give the notion and the general characteristics of the
transformations in translation;2. To reveal types of translation
transformations;3. To observe main types of the grammatical
transformations;4. To analyze peculiarities of grammatical
transformations usage on the basis of the literary text.
The object of this research is the peculiarities of grammatical
transformations usage in translating of the literary text. The
subject of this research is the problem of transformations in
translation.
Scientific novelty consists in reviling dominant grammatical
transformation in translation of the English fiction.
Main method of our course paper is comparative on the basis of
M. Twens novel "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" and its
translation into Russian by N. Daruzes.
Theoretical value of the given work consists in attempt to
develop uniform criteria of grammatical transformations
classification and different methods and approaches while
translating different grammatical forms from the English language
to Russian.Practical value. The results of the given research can
supply further investigations in the problem of translation
transformations; also all the materials of the work can be used on
lections and studies on theory and practice of translation.
The paper consists of introduction, two chapters and conclusion.
It is also provided with bibliography list. In introduction we
define actuality of the paper, set up aim and tasks, define
scientific novelty, theoretical and practical value of the work.
First chapter is devoted to translation notion in linguistics, to
the definition of the translation transformations and their
classification. In the second chapter we analyse types of
grammatical transformations through the translation of the story
"The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" by TwenM. The results of the
research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.Chapter 1
Transformation translation and their classification1.1Development
of translation notion in linguistics
Among multiple problems that modern linguistics studies an
important role is played by studying of linguistic aspects of
cross-language speaking activity that is called translation or
translating activity. Translation is an ancient human's activity.
Due to groups of people appeared in the history of mankind had
different languages the bilinguals became urgent as they helped
communication between groups with different languages. Then writing
appeared and along with oral interpreters written translators
became urgent as well. They translated different texts of official,
religious and business issues. From its very beginning translation
played a significant social function allowing people of different
languages communicate. Spreading of written translations gave
people access to cultural achievements of other people and it made
interacting and intersaturation of literatures and cultures
feasible. Knowledge of foreign languages allows reading books
originally written in those languages [1,562]. The first theories
of translation were the translators themselves who tried to
generalize their own experience. Translators of ancient world
discussed the issue of proximity degree to the source text. In
early Bible translations or translations of other materials that
were considered to be sacral and exemplary we can find word for
word approach of the source text interpretation that sometimes lead
to partly or even full misunderstanding of translations. That is
why later translators tried theoretically approve the right of
translator for reasonable variety in subject to the source text
that meant the interpretation of meaning and the impression of the
source text instead of word for word coping [2,124]. The
foundations of scientific theory of translation started to be
developed in the middle of XXth century when the problematic of
translating appeared to be urgent amongst linguists. Before that
period it was thought that translation is not the issue of
linguistic range. Translators themselves considered linguistic
aspects to be non-significant but totally technical role. The
translator was supposed to be fluent both in source and target
languages but knowledge of the language was just a preliminary
condition and did not cover its meaning. By the middle of XXth
century the attitude to translation activity had changed and its
systematic studying commenced. During this period the translation
of political, commercial, scientific- technical and other texts was
of great priority. In those types of translation the features of
individual writer's style were not important. Due to this fact more
and more attention was paid to the main difficulties of translation
related to different structures and functioning of languages in
this process. The meaning of language units was emphasized by more
precise requirements for the translation. During the translation of
such materials it was not enough to get general translation as the
translation was supposed to provide information transmission in all
details up to the meaning of single words. It was required to
identify linguistic meaning of this process and what factors
identified it and what range they have for information transmitting
[3,44].1.2 Equivalence of translation
So, there are always two texts during translation, and one of
them is initial and is created independently on the second one, and
the second text is created on the basis of the first one with the
help of some certain operations - the inter language
transformations. The first text is called the text of original'';
the second text is called the text of translation". The language of
the text of original is called the source language (SL). The
language of the text of translation is called the target language
(TL) [4,97]. We need to define the most important thing: why do we
consider that the text of translation is equivalent to the text of
original? For example, why do we speak that the Russian sentence "
is the translation of the English sentence "My brother lives in
London", while the Russian sentence is not the translation of the
English sentence given above - to say in other words - is not
equivalent to it?
Obviously, the replacement of the text in one language by the
text in the other language is not always the translation. The same
idea can be expressed in the other way: the process of translation
or the inter language transformation is realised not arbitrary, but
with the help of some certain rules, in some strict frameworks. And
if we do not observe these rules we have already no rights to speak
about translation. To have the rights to be called the translation,
the text on TL should contain in it something that the text on SL
contains. Or else, while replacing the text on SL by the text on TL
it is necessary to keep some certain invariant; the measure of
keeping of this invariant defines by itself the measure of the
equivalence of the text of translation to the text of original. So,
first of all, it is necessary to define what is the invariant in
the process of translation, that is in the process of
transformation of the text on SL in the text on TL [5,176].
At the decision of this problem it is necessary to take in
account the following. The process of translation directly depends
on bilateral character of a mark, as it is called in a mark systems
science - semiotics - It means that any mark can be characterised
from two sides, or plans the plan of expression or form and the
plan of contents or meaning. It is known that the language is a
specific mark system, that is why the units of language are also
characterised by the presence of two plans, both form and meaning.
Thus the main role for translation is played by that fact that
different languages contain different units and these units differ
from each other in the way of expression, but they are similar in
the way of the contents, that is by the meaning. For example, the
English word "brother" differs from Russian word " in the way of
the expression, but coincides with it in the way of the contents,
that is has the same meaning [5,312]. The English word "brother"
has not only the meaning " but also some meanings expressed in
Russian language by the words ", ", , " etc. And the Russian word "
in the combination corresponds not to the English word "brother",
but to the word "cousin", which means not only but also ". This
phenomenon, namely, the incomplete concurrence of systems of
meanings of units in different languages, complicates the process
translation. Taking in account this fact we can say, that if we
replace the English word "brother" by the Russian word ", the
process of translation takes place here, as these words, differing
in the way of expression, that is by the form, coincide or are
equivalent in the way of the contents, that is by the meaning.
Actually, however, as the minimal text is the sentence, the process
of translation is always realised in the limits of minimum one
sentence. And in the sentence, as a rule, the discrepancy between
the units of different languages in the way of the contents is
eliminated. Proceeding from this, we can give now the following
definition of the translation:Thetranslation is theprocess of
transformation of the speech product in the language into the
speech product in the other language by keeping the constant plan
of the contents that is the meanings. About the keeping of the
constant plan of the contents it is possible to speak only in the
relative, but not in the absolute sense. During the inter language
transformation some losses are inevitable, that is the incomplete
transference of meanings, expressed by the text of the original, is
taking place [6, 29]. So, the text of translation can never be
complete and absolute equivalent of the text of original; the task
of the interpreter is to make this equivalence as complete as it is
possible, that is to achieve the minimum of losses. It means that
one of the tasks of the theory of translation is the establishment
of the order of transference of meanings. Taking into account that
there are various types of meanings, it is necessary to establish
which of them have the advantages during the transference in the
process of translation, and which of them it is possible to endow"
so that the semantic losses would be minimal while translating. To
finish the consideration of the question about the essence of
translation, it is necessary to answer one question yet. This
question arises from the definition of translation equivalence
based on the keeping of the constant plan of the contents, that is
the meaning, given above. It was already marked that the
opportunity of keeping of plan of the contents, that is the
invariance of meanings while translating, assumes that in the
different languages there are some units that are similar in the
way of meaning. The divergence in the semantic systems of different
languages is a certainty fact and it is the source of numerous
difficulties arising before the interpreter in the process of
translation. That is why, many researchers consider that the
equivalence of the original and the translation is not based on the
identity of expressed meanings.
From the numerous statements on this theme we shall quote only
one, belonging to the English theorist of translation J. Ketford:
... The opinion that the text on SL and the text on TL have the
same meaning" or that there is a carry of meaning" while
translating, have no bases. From our point of view, the meaning is
the property of the certain language. The text on SL have the
meaning peculiar to TL; for example, the Russian text has Russian
meaning, and the English text, that is the equivalent of it, has
the English meaning [7, 120]. For the benefit of translation it is
possible to state the following arguments: In the system of
meanings of any language the results of human experience are
embodied, that is the knowledge that the man receives about the
objectively existing reality.In any language, the system of
language meanings reflects the whole external world of the man, and
his own internal world too, that is the whole practical experience
of the collective, speaking the given language, is fixed. As the
reality, environmental different language collectives, has much
more than common features, than distinguishes, so the meanings of
different languages coincide in a much more degree, than they miss.
The other thing is that these meanings (the units of sense or
semes') are differently combined, grouped and expressed in
different languages: but it concerns already not to the plan of the
contents but to the plan of the language expression. The greatest
difficulties during translation arise when the situation described
in the text on SL is absent in the experience of language
collective - the carrier of TL, otherwise, when in the initial text
the so-called realities are described, that is different subjects
and phenomena specific to the given people or the given country.
The ability to describe new unfamiliar situations is the integral
property of any language; and this property makes what we speak
about to be possible. The translation was determined above as the
process of transformation of speech product in one language into
the speech product in the other language. Thus, the interpreter
deals not with the languages as the systems, but with the speech
products, that is with the texts. Those semantic divergences, that
is in the meanings, which we are talking about, concern, first of
all, to systems of different languages; in the speech these
divergences very often are neutralised, erased, brought to nothing.
The concrete distribution of elementary units of sense (semes" or
semantic units) on separate words, word combinations or sentences
of the given text is defined by the numerous and complex factors.
And, as a rule, it does not coincide in the text on SL and text on
TL. But it concerns not to the plan of the contents, but to the
plan of expression and is not the infringement of a principle of
semantic equivalence of the texts of original and the text of
translation [8, 65]. Last give an example to prove the fact given
above. In the story of the known English writer S. Moem A Casual
Affair " we can see the following sentence: " He'd always been so
spruce and smart; he was shabby and unwashed and wild-eyed ". This
is the Russian variant of this sentence: " , , , , , (translation
of Litvinova ) On the first sight the Russian text do not seems to
be the equivalent to the English one: there are such words as ", ,
" in it, which have not the direct conformities in the text of
original. But really, the semantic equivalence is available here,
though here are no verbal equivalence, of course. The thing is that
the Russian words " and transfer the meanings, which are expressed
not by the words, but by the grammatical forms in the English text:
the opposition of the forms of the verb "to be" -had been and was
expresses that the first event is taking place before the second
one, which has the logical expression through adverbs of time in
Russian language. [9, 90] Words " transfer the semantic
information, which the initial English text contains too, but in
one of the previous sentences, not in the given sentence (He didn't
been the job in Sumatra long and he was back again in Singapore).
So, the semantic equivalence is provided not between the separate
words and even not between the separate sentences here, but between
the whole text on SL and the whole text on TL as a whole [10, 37].
So, the semantic divergences between the languages cannot serve as
the insuperable obstacle for the translation, by virtue of that
circumstance, that the translation deals with the languages not as
the abstract systems, but with the concrete speech products
(texts). And in their limits there is the complex interlacing and
interaction of qualitatively diverse language means being the
expressions of meanings - of words, grammatical forms, and "super
signments" means, transmitting this or that semantic information
together. That semantic equivalence of the texts of the original
and the text of translation, which we regard as the necessary
condition of the process of translation, exists not between the
separate elements of these texts, but between the texts as a whole.
And inside the given text the numerous regroupings, rearrangement
and redistribution of separate elements are not only allowed, but
frequently they are simply inevitable, (" translation
transformations "). So, while translating, there is a strict rule -
the principle of submission of elements to the whole, of the lowest
units to the highest [11, 176].
1.3Translation transformations and their classification
Main purpose of the transfer is the achievement of adequacy.
Adequate, or as it also called equivalent translationis
atranslation, which is performed at the level necessary and
sufficient for transfer invariable plane of content, subject to
appropriate plan expression, i.e. rules of thetranslationlanguage.
By definition by A.V. Fedorov, adequacy a "comprehensive transfer
semantic content of the original and is fully functional and
stylistic correspondence to him" [12, 179].
Main task of an interpreter in achieving adequacy - ably produce
varioustranslationtransformation in order to texttranslationas
close as possible to transmit all information contained in the
original text, while respecting the rules of
thetranslationlanguage."Transformation is the basis of most methods
oftranslation. It consists in change of formal (lexical or
grammaticaltransformations) or semantic components of the source
text while transferring".
Y.I. Retsker defines transformation as "the techniques of
logical thinking, with we disclose the value of foreign words in
context and find him n match, does not coincide with the
dictionary" [13, 38].Currently, there are many classifications
oftranslationtransformations proposed by various authors.
Let's consider some of them.Latyshev gives a classification of
the nature deviations from the interlanguage of correspondences in
which all are divided at:1) Morphological replacement of a
categorical form of one or more;2) Syntax changed the syntactic
functions of words and phrases;3) The style stylistic change in
color of the segment of text;4) Semantic a change not only the
content of expressions, but the content itself, namely, those signs
by which describe the situation;5) Mixed lexical-semantic and
syntactic and morphological.
The classification by Barkhudarov differs transformations on
formal grounds: transpositions, additions, functional replacements,
omissions. Barkhudarov emphasizes that such a division is in
largely approximate and relative. Transpositions are changes in
location (order of) the language elements in the
texttranslationcompared with the text of the original. Under the
functional replacements are regarded as changes in thetranslationof
words, parts of speech, parts of the sentence, types syntactic
context, and lexical substitution (concretization, generalization,
antonymic translation, compensation). Additions imply the use of
additional words in thetranslation, without correspondences in the
original. Omission means the omission of one or other words in
thetranslation.
Retsker writes that "although not always possible classify each
example the transfer because of interlocking categories, generally
can be identified 7 types of lexicaltransformations:
- differentiation of values;
- specification of values;
- generalization of values;
- meaning development;
- antonymictranslation;
- holistic transformation;
- compensation for losses in thetranslationprocess.[14,48]
Barkhudarov (1973), Latyshev (1988), Levitskaya, Fiterman
(1973), Komissarov (1994), Retsker (1974) divided all
transformations on the lexical, grammatical, stylistic.
Transformations can be combined with each other, taking the nature
of complextransformations. For example, Lviv (1985) finds that
among the different types oftransformationsare no blank wall, the
same transformation can sometimes be a contentious case, they can
be attributed to different types.
Lexical transformations
Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated
word. According to Retsker they can be classified into the
following groups:
1. Lexical substitution, or putting one word in place of
another. It often results from the different semantic structures of
the source language and target language words.
Deliberate substitution as a translation technique can be of
several subtypes:
a) Specification,
b) Generalization
c) Differentiation
d) Modulation
2. Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional
element in the target text to make up for the loss of a similar
element in the source text.
3. Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the
meaning due to the similarity of notions [15, 44]. Stylistic
transformations
Stylistical transformations at the translation from English into
Russian have to consider a contextual background of the original
texts (micro and macrocontext), individuality of author's style and
also to consider specifics of SL, its stylistic norms and syntactic
organization of the text.
Stylistic techniques of different languages are basically the
same, however, their functioning in the speech is variously. During
translation of original text the translator's task consists in
defining function of used stylistic technique and to make the
necessary decision concerning possibility of preservation this
technique in target text or about its replacement with other
stylistic technique.
Kazakova defines three main stylistic techniques:
metaphor translation;
metonymy translation;
irony translation.
1.4 Grammatical transformations
The term "grammatical transformation" as transformation of the
English sentence in translation process, certainly, should be
understood relatively. The English sentence, of course, isn't
changed, but in mind of the translator there is a certain
transformational operation of that "picture" of an English sentence
construction in which English words are already replaced by
Russians. Essentially, there is a transferring of a literal
translation which is an inevitable stage in work of the beginning
translator. Only experience can fast prompt on Russian sentence
construction typical for English language, like the following: A
bus and tram crash killed four. [16,22]. According to Retsker all
types of grammatical transformations can be set to the following
main categories:
Conversion (grammar substitution) is used at partial discrepancy
of structural-semantic properties of this or that syntactic unit in
initial and translating languages [18; 41]. Transposition (word
order change). Usually the reason for this transformation is that
English and Russian sentences have different information
structures, or functional sentence perspective. Sentence
partitioning. Sentence fragmentation is the replacement of a simple
sentence in the source text with a complex sentence (with some
clauses), or a complex sentence with several independent sentences
in the target text for structural, semantic or stylistic reasons .
Sentence integration is a contrary transformation. It takes place
when we make one sentence out of two or more, or convert a complex
sentence into a simple one . Omission. In the translation process
the words being semantic superfluous, i.e. express semantic excess
values that can be understood from the text without their help, are
most often exposed to omission. Both system of any language as a
whole, and concrete speech works possess, as we know, very big
degree of redundancy that gives the chance to make these or those
omissions in translation process [17,145]. Addition. The reasons
causing the necessity of lexical additions in a target text can be
various. One of them perhaps, the most usual is that it is possible
to call "formal not expressiveness" semantic components of the
phrase in SL. These phenomenon are quite usual for English words
combinations, grammatically they can be regarded as "ellipse".
Words which the known American linguist Z. Harris calls
"appropriate words" often are exposed to such "ellipse".
Two last transformations omission and addition Retsker regards
as more lexical than grammatical one.
Shweizer classified grammatical transformations following
way:
1. Sentence integration;
2. Sentence fragmentation;
3. Addition of grammatical units (prepositions, conjunctions,
pronouns, etc);
4. Omission of grammatical units.
Pivueva and Dwoinina having compared grammatical categories and
forms of both languages, have come to conclusion, that folllowing
situations can be in any both languages:
1. lack of this or that grammatical category;
2. partial coincidence;
3. absolute coincidence.
Necessity in grammatical transformations appears only in first
and second cases. The Russian language in comparison with English
doesn't have such grammatical categories as article and gerund, and
also such compound complexes as gerund, participle and infinitive
constructions. Discrepancy or partial coincidence in meaning of
corresponding forms and constructions require grammatical
transformations. There can be partial discrepancy of number
category, passive constructions, participle, infinitive, some
differences in modality. Pivueva and Dwoinina classified four types
of grammatical transformations:
1. Transposition
2. Replacement
3. Additions
4. Omissions.
In our paper we adhere Retsker's classification, as it is more
complete and common. We performed an analysis of
grammaticaltransformationson the example of translationof selected
chapters from the book by M. Twen"The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn", translation byN. Daruzes.Chapter 2Analysis of grammatical
transformations in translation on the basis of "the adventures of
Huckleberry Finn" by M. Twen 2.1 ConversionConversion is applied
when a grammar category of the translated unit is changed. Thus a
passive construction can be translated by an active voice verb
form: That book was made by Mr. Mark Twain, and he told the truth,
mainly [20; 5]. , , [19; 6]. The reason for this transformation is
stylistic: in English the passive voice is used much more often in
neutral speech, whereas in Russian this category is more typical of
the formal style.
Or there may be substitution of the noun number category, the
singular by the plural or vice versa: She put me in them new
clothes again, and I couldnt do nothing but sweat and sweat, and
feel all cramped up [20, 6]. , , , [19, 7]. This transformation is
due to the structural difference between the English and Russian
languages: in English the analyzed noun is Singularia Tantum, in
Russian it is used in the plural [18; 40].
Parts of speech, along with the parts of the sentence, can be
changed: Pretty soon I wanted to smoke, and asked the widow to let
me [20, 6]. , [19,7], where the verb is substituted by the noun.
The reason for this transformation can be accounted for by language
usage preferences: English tends to the nominal expression of the
state, Russian can denote the general state by means of the verb
[18, 40]. Conversion is often used for English grammatical forms
like infinitive that don't coincide with Russian one, for example:
If you are with the quality, or at a funeral, or trying to go to
sleep when you aint sleepy if you are anywheres where it wont do
for you to scratch, why you will itch all over in up-wards of a
thousand places [20; 10]. : - , , , , [19; 11]. In this sentence
subordinate clause with infinitive is submitted by the impersonal
sentence. This miserableness went on as much as six or seven
minutes; but it seemed a sight longer than that [20; 11]. , , [19;
12]. In the given sentence grammatical construction "it seemed"
transfered with the help of personal sentence. I didnt want him to
try [20; 11]. [19; 12]. Here, in order to transfer the meaning of
the sentence infinitive construction is submitted by the personal
sentence. 2.2 TranspositionThe stars were shining, and the leaves
rustled in the woods ever so mournful; and I heard an owl, away
off, who - whooing about somebody that was dead, and a whipp of
will and a dog crying about somebody that was going to die [20; 8];
is naturally equivalent to , ; - , - ; , , , - [19; 9], where the
subject, predicate and adverbial modifier are positioned in a
mirrorlike fashion. He got up and stretched his neck out about a
minute, listening [20; 10]. , [19; 11].
2.3 Sentence fragmentation
Then I slipped down to the ground and crawled in among the
trees, and, sure enough, there was Tom Sawyer waiting for me [20;
9]. . : [19; 10]. There was a place on my ankle that got to
itching, but I dasnt scratch it; and then my ear begun to itch; and
next my back, right between my shoulders [20; 10]. , . , , [19;
11]. The Widow Douglas she took me for her son, and allowed she
would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the
time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in
all her ways; and so when I couldnt stand it no longer I lit out. I
got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and
satisfied [20; 5]. , ; : , . , , - , [19; 6]. In the given examples
we have both transformations sentence fragmentation and
integration. But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going
to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to
the widow and be respectable [20; 6]. , . , [19; 7].
2.4 Sentence integration
She got mad then, but I didnt mean no harm. All I wanted was to
go somewheres; all I wanted was a change, I warnt particular [20;
7]. , , -, , [19; 8]. Here two sentences are integrated by
conjunction a. I went up to my room with a piece of candle, and put
it on the table. Then I set down in a chair by the window and tried
to think of something cheerful, but it warnt no use. I felt so
lonesome I most wished I was dead [20; 8]. , - , : , [19; 9]. three
simple sentences are integrated into one composed by punctuation
marks. I got up and turned around in my tracks three times and
crossed my breast every time; and then I tied up a little lock of
my hair with a thread to keep witches away. But I hadnt no
confidence. You do that when youve lost a horseshoe that youve
found, instead of nailing it up over the door, but I hadnt ever
heard anybody say it was any way to keep off bad luck when youd
killed a spider [20; 8]. , , , , , - : , , , ; , , [19; 10]. this
integrated sentence transfers the meaning of the original one more
accurately. 2.5 AdditionShe worked me middling hard for about an
hour, and then the widow made her ease up [20; 7]. , [19; 8]. ease
up is translated into Russian like "" so to make adequate
translation there is need to add some information. Well, likely it
was minutes and minutes that there warnt a sound, and we all there
so close together [20; 10]. , , , , [19; 11]. Tom he made a sign to
me kind of a little noise with his mouth and we went creeping away
on our hands and knees [20; 11]. , . [19; 12]. 2.6 OmissionShe said
all a body would have to do there was to go around all day long
with a harp and sing, forever and ever [20; 7]. , [19; 8]. I didnt
need anybody to tell me that that was an awful bad sign and would
fetch me some bad luck, so I was scared and most shook the clothes
off of me [20; 8]. , , , , [19; 10].
CONCLUSION
Interlingual transformations exist in our language consciousness
as some deviations from interlingual compliances perceived by
us.
We came to conclusion that necessity in grammatical
transformations appears only in first and second cases. The Russian
language in comparison with English doesn't have such grammatical
categories as article and gerund, and also such compound complexes
as gerund, participle and infinitive constructions. Discrepancy or
partial coincidence in meaning of corresponding forms and
constructions require grammatical transformations. There can be
partial discrepancy of number category, passive constructions,
participle, infinitive, some differences in modality.
The first task of our paper was to give the notion and the
general characteristics of the transformations in translation.
Transformation is the techniques of logical thinking, when we
disclose the value of foreign words in context and find their
equivalents if the meaning does not coincide with the
dictionary.
The second task was to reveal types of translation
transformations. There is a big number of different classifications
of translation transformations generally and grammatical
transformations in particular. The most common classification
belongs to Latishev:
1) Morphological replacement of a categorical form of a word;2)
Syntax changed the syntactic functions of words and phrases;3) The
style stylistic change of expressive means of text;4) Semantic a
change not only the content of expressions, but the content itself,
namely, those units that describe the situation;5) Mixed
lexical-semantic and syntactic and morphological.
The third task was to observe main types of the grammatical
transformations. In our paper we investigated different
classification and came to conclusion that the most universal is
Retsker's one. He divided grammatical transformations into word
order change, sentence integration and fragmentation, conversion,
transposition, addition and omission.
The fourth task was to analyze peculiarities of grammatical
transformations usage on the basis of the literary text.
It is necessary to emphasize that subdivision of translation
transformations is considerably approximate and relative. First, in
a number of cases this or that transformation can be treated with
identical success both as one, and as other type of elementary
transformation. For example, in case of the translation from
English into Russian typical replacement of conjunctional
connection of clauses by the clauses without conjunctions can be
characterized as conversion (one type of a syntactic link is
replaced with another), and as omission (as thus there is an
omission of the union which is available in the SL text). We came
to conclusion that there is no dominant grammatical transformation.
The most important that these types of translation transformations
"in pure form" meet seldom in practice, usually they are combined
with each other, accepting form of difficult, "complex"
transformations.
Thereby the aim of our investigation, to investigate the problem
of transformations in translation and to reveal peculiarities of
the grammatical transformations usage in translation of the
literary texts, was achieved.
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