© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Introduction to Motor Development Chapter 1.

© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Introduction to Motor Development

Chapter 1


Learning Objectives• Define human development and human motor

development• Explain why the study of human motor

development is important• Describe the four domains of human

development and explain how they interact• Explain the concepts of development,

maturation, and growth, and describe the elements of developmental change

• Define common terms in the study of human motor development

• Define the terms gross and fine movement, and explain how they are important in human motor development

• Describe the process–product controversy and how it relates to human motor development

• Define various terms for age periods throughout the lifespan

• Define various stages of human development• List the periods and describe the history of the

field of motor development• Explain the phrase interdisciplinary approach to

motor development


Human behavior is notcompartmentalized; there

is a complex system of constant, reciprocal exchanges

among an individual’s cognitive, affective, motor, and physical

being


What is Motor Development?

• Human Motor development is. . .– Process through which we pass

during the course of our life• Change that occurs in our ability to move

– A field of study


Various Definitions

• “changes in motor behavior which reflect the interaction of the maturing organism and its environment” (Notes from Scholarly Directions Committee, 1974)

• “changes in movement competencies from infancy to adulthood and involves many aspects of human behavior, both as they affect movement development and as movement development affects them” (Keogh, 1977)


Various Definitions

• “the change in motor behavior across the lifespan” (Clark & Whitehall, 1989)

• “the sequential, continuous age-related process whereby an individual progresses from simple, unorganized, and unskilled movement to the achievement of highly organized, complex motor skills and finally to the adjustment of skills that accompanies aging” (Haywood & Getchell, 2005)


Working Definition for this text

“Motor development is the study of changes in human motor behavior over the

lifespan, the processes that underlie these changes, and the factors that affect them.”

(Payne & Isaacs, 2007)


Why is the study of motor development important?

• To– Understand present motor behavior

• What is happening and why it is happening

– Understand what this behavior was like in the past and why

– Understand what the behavior will be like in the future and why


Why is the study of motor development important? Because……

Human development is multifaceted. As movement changes, so do the intellectual, social, and emotional domains

Understanding the process of motor development allows us to diagnose cases of abnormal development and to provide intervention and remediation

Developmentally appropriate activities can be selected for an optimal teaching/learning environment


Domains of Human Development

• The four domains are useful for categorizing the study of human and motor development

• Domains are not discrete


Domains

• Cognitive domain– Concerns human intellectual development

• Affective domain– Concerned with the social and emotional

aspects of human development

• Motor domain– Development of human movement and

factors that affect that development

• Physical domain– All types of physical/bodily change


A Definition of the term Human Development

“…changes that all human beings face across their lifespan. Such changes

result from increasing age as well as one’s experiences in life, one’s genetic

potential, and the interactions of all three factors at any given time.

Therefore, development is an interactional process that leads to

changes in behavior over the lifespan.” (Motor Development Task Force, 1995)


Elements of Developmental Change

• Six components of developmental change– Qualitative– Sequential– Cumulative– Directional– Multifactorial– Individual


Elements of Developmental Change

Qualitative Not “just more of something”

Sequential Certain motor patterns precede others

Cumulative Behaviors are additive

Directional Development has an ultimate goal

Multifactorial No single factor directs change

Individual Rate of change varies for all people


Definitions of Development, Maturation, and Growth

• Development is a term referring to the progressions and regressions that occur throughout the lifespan

• Growth is the structural aspect of development

• Maturation deals with the functional changes in human development.

Development

Growth Maturation

Development includes both growth and maturation


Maturation and Growth

• Growth is quantitative – increase in size

• Maturation is qualitative – functions of organs and tissues

• Growth and maturation are interrelated– As the body grows, functions improve

• As we age, growth slows, but maturation continues throughout the lifespan


Terms

• Developmental directions

– Cephalocaudal• From head to tail• Can be applied developmentally through the study

of walking

– Proximodistal• From those points close to the body’s center to

those points close to the periphery• Prenatal growth and acquisition of motor skill


Terms

• Differentiation– Progression from gross, immature movement to

precise, well-controlled, intentional movement

• Integration– Motor systems are able to function together as

ability progresses


How does the child in this picture demonstrate the concept of integration?


Terms

• Gross movement– Movement controlled by the large muscles or

muscle groups• Legs

• Fine movement– Movement controlled by the small muscles

or muscle groups• Hands


Terms

Two controversial views on measurement in

motor development • Process Approach

– Emphasizes the movement without consideration for the outcome

• How a child catches a ball

• Product Approach– Emphasizes the outcome of a movement

• How much control did the child have while catching the ball?


Terms

• Age periods throughout the lifespan

• Accepted age periods are helpful in discussions concerning development throughout the lifespan

• The term “stages” is often substituted for the term “age periods”


More on Age Periods (Stages)

Period Significant Events•Prenatal

-Embryonic

-Fetal

•Conception to birth•Very important period•Embryo •Fetus - at eight weeks post-gestation•Organogenesis

•Infancy

-Neonatal

-Toddlerhood

Birth to year 1

0-22 days after birth

Walking alone

Early Childhood Ages 4-7 yr

Middle Childhood Ages 7-9 yr

Late Childhood Lasts 3 years

Adolescence Landmark period

Puberty

Girls - 11 yr

Boys - 13 yr


More on Age Periods (Stages)

Period Significant Events

Early Adulthood

•Begins when adolescence reaches maximum height

•Girls –age 20 yr

•Boys – age 22 yr

•Lasts until age 40 yr

Middle Adulthood •Ages 40-60 yrs

Late Adulthood •Age 60 until death


Stages of Development

• Stages of development– Phase, time, levels, periods– Provides manageable portions of behavior

• Controversy over whether the stages of development actually exist– Does life proceed smoothly and

continuously?– Is life discontinuous with abrupt behavior

changes?


Periods in the History of Motor Development

• Precursor Period (1787-1928)

– Descriptive observation of human movement

• Maturational Period (1928-1946)

– Biological processes shape human development

– Bayle’s scale of motor development


Periods in the History of Motor Development

• Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970)

– Dormant period (1946-1960)– Norm referenced standards for

motor performance measurement (1960’s)

– Kephart’s Slow Learner in the Classroom

• Kephart maintained that certain movement activities enhanced academic performance

• Not supported by research, still influences professional practice today

– Biomechanical analysis

• Process-Oriented Period (1970-present)

– Describe the process, not just the change in movement

– Dynamical systems theory

– Psychologist return to the study of motor behavior via processing information


Interdisciplinary Approach in the Study of Motor Development• Today, there is interaction among the 3

subareas of motor behavior (motor learning, motor control, motor development), with biomechanics and exercise physiology

• Working together, experts are able to discern more accurately subtle movement changes and differences


Research Designs

Cross-sectional Comparison of two or more persons or groups at one point in time

Longitudinal A study over a long period of time

Time-lag Different cohorts are compared at different times

Sequential-Cohort

Integrates the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and time-lag designs within one study


Research Designs ~ Pros

Cross-sectional Administratively efficient

Quickly completed

Age differences can be observed

Longitudinal Change can be observed across ages

Sequential-Cohort

Accounts for generational (cohort) effect


Research Designs - Cons

Cross-sectional

Cannot observe change

Cannot determine accurate age of groups

Age and cohort are confounded

Longitudinal Administratively inefficient

Age and time of measurements are confounded

Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing

Subjects may drop out

Sequential-Cohort

Administratively inefficient

Costly

Subjects may drop out

Difficult to analyze statistically


Research


© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Introduction to Motor Development Chapter 1.

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domains of human development

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