PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 2 Current Paradigms in Psychopathology Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Edition by Ann M. Kring, Gerald C.

PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 2

Current Paradigms inPsychopathology

Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Editionby

Ann M. Kring, Gerald C. Davison, John M. Neale, & Sheri L. Johnson

Notion of a Paradigm

Goal: Study abnormal behavior scientifically

Science aims for objectivity Paradigm (Thomas Kuhn)

» Perspective or conceptual framework from within which a scientist operates

– We can never be totally objective

No one paradigm sufficient to completely explain psychopathology

Current Paradigms: Genetic

Heredity plays a role in most behavior Genes

» Carriers of genetic information (DNA)» Impacted by environmental influences

– e.g., stress, relationships, culture

Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional» Nature via nurture (Ridley, 2003)

Important Genetic Terms

Gene expression» Proteins influence whether the action of a specific

gene will occur Polygenic transmission

» Multiple gene pairs vs. single gene Heritability

» Extent to which variability in behavior is due to genetic factors

– Heritability estimate ranges from 0.00 to 1.00– Group, rather than, individual indicator

Environmental Effects

Shared environment» Events and experiences that family

members have in common Nonshared environment

» Events and experiences that are unique to each family member

Behavior Genetics

Study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior

Genotype» Genetic material inherited by an individual» Unobservable

Phenotype» Expressed genetic material » Observable behavior and characteristics» Depends on interaction of genotype and

environment

Molecular Genetics

Identifies particular genes and their functions» Alleles

– Different forms of the same gene

» Polymorphism– Difference in DNA sequence on a gene occurring in a

population

Knockout studies» Removing specific genes in animals to

observe effect on behavior

Figure 2.1 DNA/RNA

Gene-Environment Interaction

Gene-environment interaction» One’s response to a specific environmental event

is influenced by genes. Epigenetics

» Study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function

» Cross-fostering adoptee method– Rats born to mothers with low parenting skills who were

raised by mothers with high parenting skills showed lower levels of stress reactivity (Francis et al., 1999)

Figure 2.2 Gene-Environment Interaction (Adapted from Caspi et al.,

Reciprocal Gene-Environment Interaction

Genes predispose individuals to seek out situations that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder. » Adolescent girls with genetic vulnerability

for depression more likely to experience events that can trigger depression (Silberg et al., 1999)

» Dependent life events influenced by genes (Kendler & Baker, 2007)

Current Paradigms: Neuroscience

Examines the contribution of brain structure and function to psychopathology» Mental disorders are linked to aberrant

processes in the brain.

Four mechanisms:» Neurons and neurotransmitters» Brain structure and function» Autonomic system» Neuroendocrine system

Figure 2.3 The NeuronBasic Unit of the Nervous System

Neurons and Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter» Chemicals that allow neurons to

send a signal across the synapse (gap) to another neuron.

Receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron absorb neurotransmitter» Excitatory» Inhibitory

Reuptake» Reabsorption of leftover

neurotransmitter by presynaptic neuron

Neurotransmitters and Psychopathology

Serotonin and dopamine» Depression, mania, and schizophrenia

Norepinephrine» Anxiety and other stress related disorders

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)» Anxiety

Possible mechanisms» Excessive or inadequate levels» Insufficient reuptake» Excessive number or sensitivity of postsynaptic receptors

Figure 2.5 The Process by which a Second Messenger is Released

Figure 2.6 Brain Structure and Function

Sulci define regions or lobes:» Frontal» Parietal» Temporal» Occipital

Figure 2.7 Brain Slice through Medial Plan

Figure 2.8 Subcortical Structures of the Brain

Figure 2.9 The HPA Axis

HPA axis involved in stress

Hypothalamus triggers release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRF)

Pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone

Adrenal cortex triggers release of cortisol, the stress hormone

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System» Excitatory» Heartbeat acceleration, pupil dilation,

gastrointestinal inhibition, electrodermal activity increases

Parasympathetic Nervous System» Quiescent» Heartbeat deceleration, pupil constriction,

gastrointestinal activation Involved in anxiety disorders, especially

Panic and PTSD

Figure 2.10 Autonomic Nervous System

Neuroscience and Treatment

Psychoactive drugs alter neurotransmitter activity» Antidepressants» Antipsychotics» Benzodiazepenes

A neuroscience view does not preclude psychological interventions

Evaluating the Neuroscience Paradigm

Reductionism» View that behavior can best be understand

by reducing it to its basic biological components

– Ignores more complex views of behavior

Current Paradigms: Psychodynamic

Fails to contribute to our empirical understanding of the causes of psychopathology» Greatest contribution are in treatment

Role of the Unconscious

Contemporary theorists have attempted to study the unconscious scientifically» Pathogenic beliefs

– Beliefs that occur outside of conscious awareness– Trigger maladaptive thoughts and emotions

Implicit memory» Cognitive neuroscience paradigm

– The unconscious may reflect efficient information processing rather than a repository for troubling material

Importance of Interpersonal Relationships

Object relations theory» Longstanding patterns of relating to others

Attachment theory» Type and style of infant’s attachment to

caregivers can influence later psychological functioning.

Relational self» Individuals will describe themselves differently

depending upon which close relationships are told to think about (Chen et al., 2006)

Brief Psychodynamic Therapy

Time-limited Active therapist involvement Concrete goals Development of coping skills Current life experiences Transference downplayed Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)

» Unresolved grief» Role transitions» Role disputes» Interpersonal or social deficits

Evaluating Freud and Psychoanalysis

No formal research Inadequate non-representative samples Continuing impact:

» Personality shaped by early childhood» Behavior influenced by unconscious » Causes of behavior not always apparent or

obvious

Current Paradigms: Cognitive Behavioral

Roots in learning principles and cognitive science Behavior is reinforced by consequences

» Attention » Escape or avoidance» Sensory stimulation» Access to desirable objects or events

To alter behavior, modify consequences (e.g., time out)

Systematic desensitization» Relaxation plus exposure

– Imaginal or in vivo» Important treatment for anxiety disorders

Cognitive Science

Behaviorism criticized for ignoring thoughts and emotions

Cognition » A mental process which includes:

– Perceiving, judging, reasoning, conceiving, & recognizing Schema

» Organized network of previously accumulated knowledge

» We actively interpret new information Role of attention in psychopathology

» Anxious individuals more likely to attend to threat or danger

Beck’s Cognitive Therapy

Initially developed for depression Depression caused by distorted

thoughts» Nothing ever goes right for me!

Help patients recognize and change maladaptive thought patterns

Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy

Irrational beliefs» Internal, repetitive thoughts that reflect

assumptions about self– In order to be happy, I must be loved!

» Musts or shoulds– Unrealistic demands we place on self, others,

and the world People shouldn’t make mistakes!

Evaluating the CBT paradigm

Are distorted thoughts the cause or the result of psychopathology?» Causal status unclear

Is cognitive behavior therapy really different from behavior therapy?» Changing behavior can alter thought

patterns.

Table 2.1 Comparison of Psychoanalysis and CBT

Factors Common to Paradigms

Emotion» Components

– Expressive– Experiential– Physiological

» Most psychopathology includes disturbances of one or more component

– e.g., flat affect in schizophrenia Cultural factors influence ideal affect (Tsai,

Factors Common to Paradigms

Sociocultural Factors» Culture, ethnicity, gender, & social

relationships» May increase vulnerability to psychopathology

– e.g., women more likely to experience depression than men

» May also serve as a buffer– e.g., social support

» Some disorders specific to certain cultures– Hikikomori in Japanese culture

Table 2.2 Lifetime Prevalence Rates of DSM-IV-TR Disorders among Different

Ethnic Groups

Diathesis-Stress

Integrative model that incorporates multiple causal factors (Zubin & Spring, 1977)

Diathesis» Underlying predisposition

– May be biological or psychological» Increases one’s risk of developing disorder

Stress» Environmental events

– May occur at any point after conception– Triggering event

Psychopathology unlikely to result from one single factor

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PowerPoint Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 2 Current Paradigms in Psychopathology Abnormal Psychology, Eleventh Edition by Ann M. Kring, Gerald C.

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