Pluralism and It's Place in Design Culture
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The Modernist art movement began with the ideology of moving away from the
traditions of the past and producing work which had an emphasis on the
reduction of decoration, the embracing of new technologies and a futurist
aesthetic. This search for new styles within the Modernist work later became
challenged as the movement of Postmodernism reacted in opposition to this
mode of practice. Emphases on a return to decoration and an encouragement of
emotional qualities, as well as observing and working with past styles were
beliefs of the artist and designers of the postmodern era.1 During the early 1980s
the search for new aesthetical qualities changed, with more of a focus placed on
the quoting or borrowing of styles from history; described by design critic Rick
Poynor as the introduction of a cultural obsession with the past.2 This approach
was coined ‘pastiche’ and ‘appropriation’ and adopted a pluralistic methodology
in which a variety of different styles is combined together creating a new
language within the piece. This placed an emphasis on all styles being of equal
importance and the Modernist notions of stylistic progression within art and
design practices was challenged.3
Critic Fredric Jameson saw the act of appropriation as a result of the search for
original styles had been exhausted. Innovation no longer existed; all that was left
is to imitate the dead styles from history emphasising the failure of previous art
trends and encouraging an imprisonment to these past styles.4 Jameson’s
pessimistic view on the state of cultural development of the time and his doubts
on the worth of the practice of pastiche are views shared by Hal Foster in his
essay, ‘Against Pluralism’. Foster refers to the mode of appropriation as being ‘in a
state of pluralism’, insofar as there is a reduction of cultural criticism and a lack
of prominent styles within art.5 Foster takes a strongly adamant position in the
essay with his views towards post-modern pastiche and refuses to acknowledge
that this approach to art and design could be of any significant worth.
Foster begins his argument by providing a background to his thoughts on the
historical development of appropriation. He claims that the demise of Modernist
practices lead to conceptual art modes such as, site-specific, ephemeral and
1 Llewellyn Negrin, The Legacy of Postmodernism, FST 202/303 Postmodernism and Visual Culture Lecture (School of Art,
University of Tasmania, Hobart, 28.05.07). 2 Rick Poynor, No More Rules – Graphic Design and Postmodernism (London: Lawrence King Ltd, 2003), 71. 3 FST 202/303 Postmodernism and Visual Culture Lecture (School of Art, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 28.05.07). 4 No More Rules – Graphic Design and Postmodernism (London: Lawrence King Ltd, 2003), 71. 5 Hal Foster, ‘Against Pluralism’, in Recodings, (Washington: Bay Press, 1985) 13.
textural pieces, which posed problems for art as a commodity and therefore the
art market encouraged a return to traditional approaches. This, Foster exclaims,
is one of two ‘important indices’ that encouraged the practice of pluralism. Foster
also sees the lack of collective art criticism within schools and institutions as the
other index which emphasised the growth of pastiche.6 This lack of criticism of
conceptual ideas and aesthetic motives within pluralistic works is a point that
Foster incessantly returns to throughout the essay, claiming that appropriation of
art only brings a decreased emphasis on a dialectic dialogue.7 His apathetic tone
continues, referring to the mode of appropriation as indication of a loss of
creative direction within the art practice as a whole. Foster sees the introduction
of pluralist approaches to art as encouraging a lack of engagement to pieces and
voices strong feelings against the idea that an abundance of freedom is gained
through appropriation. He is adamant that this methodology is void of producing
anything which has a significant meaning and only see this approach as the death
of all styles.8
Foster’s main thrust of his argument revolves around the notion that through the
act of appropriation the original meaning of the style is lost and the context is
disregarded. He claims that this mode of practice merely contextualises the work
in a manner which creates conflict and delivers a loss of meaning. This seems to
be a common position on this matter with other critics, such as Suzi Gablik in
‘Pluralism – The Tyranny of Freedom’, adding weight to Foster’s argument with
the claims that appropriation can trigger an internal collapse to art, resulting in
not only a loss of meaning, but also and a lack of quality to art works.9 Though
most of Foster’s statements are perhaps negatively over-sensitive, I do however
agree with his claims about a disregard for context within pluralised work. By
reusing a style or work, the original intent is lost and replaced with a new
contextual arrangement that could both enhance the work, but also servery
diminish it. In cases such as an improper reference to styles and meanings of an
indigenous or ethnic nature, the reuse of style could be quite inappropriate.
A poster designed by Paula Scher for the Swatch watch company reuses the
aesthetical concept of a 1938 Swiss tourism poster by Herbert Matter in a
grotesque manner that degrades the original work with the contextual
displacement. Matter’s poster celebrates a typical clean use of diagonally placed
Swiss-style typography, complimented by a traditional motif of Swiss
iconography, again displayed on a diagonal axis. Scher’s work could be seen as an
appropriated parody, using the same structured composition and imagery as the
Swiss tourism poster, though comprising of a clinical computerised aesthetic.10
Whether it is the intent of Scher to add a humorous twist to her design or pay a
6 Ibid, 14. 7 Ibid, 15. 8 Ibid. 9 Suzi Gablik, ‘Pluralism – The Tyranny of Freedom’, in Has Modernism Failed?, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1984) 73. 10
Steven Heller, Julie Lasky, Borrowed Design – The Use and Abuse of Historical Form (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1993) 65.
type of homage to Matter is unknown. The success however, of this
transformation from Swiss tourism to a Swiss-made product is unconvincing
because of the disconnection between the aesthetics of the work and the original
context.
Left: Poster for Swiss Tourist Bureau by Herbert Matter, 1938.
Right: Poster for Swatch Watch Company by Paula Scher, 1985.
A record cover for the 1978 album, The Man-Machine, by German electronic act
Kraftwerk is another example of a poor use of appropriating a style, which can be
of detriment to the original context, and in this case the concept of the album
design as well. The record cover stylistically borrows a Russian Constructivist
aesthetic, referencing in particular work by El Lissitzky. The dynamic
constructions of typography and imagery, along with the strong use of colours on
The Man-Machine cover can be seen as a quote from Lissitzky 1924 publication,
For The Voice.11 The designer of the Kraftwerk album, Karl Klefisch, confirms this
connection by crediting
Lissitzky in the liner notes, as well as featuring a quotation from the Russian
designer’s book on the back cover.12 The electronic artists adapted a futuristic
mode to their music, creating synthetic, rhythmic beats, void of any sense of
traditional musical structure and composition. The Russian Constructivist had
similar approaches to their work, which perhaps was Klefisch’s influence behind
this 1920s inspired design. This stylistic reuse is rather ironic in the sense that
referencing the work of Lissitzky is providing a glance back into history, opposing
the progressive nature of the music and therefore creating a contextual conflict.
11 Ibid, 45. 12 No More Rules – Graphic Design and Postmodernism, 70.
Left: Pages from For The Voice by El Lissitzky, 1924. Right: Kraftwerk Album Cover by Karl Klefisch, 1978.
Another Russian Constructivist work, a 1925 poster by Alexander Rodchenko
advertising a publishing house, is again a point of history in which designers have
quoted in manners that can be seen as indiscriminate to the original piece. The
Rodchenko design uses a strong visual motif of clean geometric typography
projecting from the mouth of a girl in a triangular form, which collides with the
circular frame surrounding the girl. This imagery has been heavily quoted in the
cover design of a 1987 journal publication, Reklama. This work by an unknown
designer has reuse the exact image of the girl, whom is now surrounded by a
combination of haphazardly placed floating shapes, blocks of colour and sunlight
rays. The impact and dynamism of the triangle form and typography is
aesthetically weakened and does not provide that strong collision between the
circle and triangle. Rodchenko’s use of colliding shapes is such a strong political
gesture with a comparable reference to El Lissitzky’s 1920 poster, Beat the
Whites with the Red Wedge. The cover design for the magazine looses that
emphasis and perhaps meaning with the weakened size and composition of the
forms. Rodkenko’s image has again been appropriated on the cover design of a
2005 album by musicians, Franz Ferdinand. The girl is arranged in a similar
manner as the original image, shouting the name of the band in the same
triangular projection as Rodchenko’s poster. The imagery has been constructed
with the use of a computer, yet applies techniques to achieve a fake newspaper
collaged aesthetic, which perhaps derives a lack of honesty and understanding
with this pastiche approach. Both appropriations seem to be to the detriment of
Rodchenko’s design. By re-contextualising the imagery, a loss of meaning to the
original work has occurred. There is also a sense of a void of authenticity to the
1925 poster with the unsympathetic reproductions. This loss to the piece, of
what has been coined ‘aura’ by Walter Benjamin in his essay, ‘The Work of Art in
the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’, is a viewed shared by Foster.13 If a work or
style is appropriated in a manner that is inconsiderate to the original source, not 13 ‘Against Pluralism’, in Recodings, (Washington: Bay Press, 1985) 17.
only is the contextual relationship strained, the uniqueness of the primary piece
can be lost in the process.
Left: Poster for Publishing House by Alexander Rodchenko, 1925. Centre: Cover for Magazine, Reklama, Unknown Designer, 1987. Right: Franz Ferdinand Album Cover, Unknown Designer, 2005.
In ‘Against Pluralism’, Foster sees the practice as a participant in the loss of aura
and meaning of works, as well as encouraging a lack of critical values, promoting
a falseness within the works and practice and recycling previous styles in a
manner which limits creative progression. He continues his criticism of pluralism
with the idea that national and international art and high and low art is merely
diminish to a homogenous state, which also has a reduced gestural impact as a
result of appropriation.14 I am unconvinced by this statement of Fosters and am
of the belief that the mode of pastiche had a more positive impact on these
modes of art work. Indeed there was a reduction of distance between the forms
of high and low art through the use of appropriation, but this need for a
distinction to remain clear, as is the view expressed by Foster, is perhaps
unnecessary. With the diminishing boundaries and detachment between these
forms of art, a reduction in the levels of elitism and an increasing expression of
the vernacular was celebrated. A poster designed by Charles S. Anderson
advertising the last episode of the American television show, Seinfeld, is an
example of the successful expression of pastiche practice of vernacular culture
into high art. This piece has a strong collage aesthetic of imagery and text from a
variety of advertisements, while overlaying a print of a 1950’s styled television,
which adds a degree of depth to the work. This use of images from vernacular
culture, comments on the role of the television in the portrayal of mass imagery
and highlights a sense of nostalgia.15
14 Ibid, 31. 15 No More Rules – Graphic Design and Postmodernism, 89.
Poster for Seinfeld by Charles S. Anderson, 1998.
Pluralistic work does have some points and examples, as articulated by Foster, in
which the process acts as a detriment to art and design practices. But on a whole
the advent of pastiche can be seen as a chance to re-evaluate the creative process
and redefine the rules of art and design, as well as finding new relationships
within the pluralisation of imagery and methodology. The manner in which one
appropriates styles or images can enhance and add to works. The practice also
allows a chance to learn from the past styles, as graphic designer Neville Brody
describes, ‘I look at it and try to evaluate the core of what is being done, and
why… Once you looked at that, you could then pursue your own response’.16
When this approach is taken the pluralistic process becomes an area of self
exportation. With this idea of an abundance of freedom within appropriation,
one does have an opportunity to explore and form new relationships, contrary to
Foster’s idea that the practice only displays a false sense of freedom. And this
boundless freedom does not result in a lack of critical values in art and design;
the values may have changed, but as Brody claims, the act of questioning and
asking why does continue.
This idea of re-evaluating previous style within pastiche practice and learning
from them is a method which graphic designer Peter Saville applies to works
such as, the album cover design for the Joy Division 1980 record Closer. The front
of the album sleave has a stark off-white background in which a haunting black
and white photograph of robed figures weeping over the death of another person
is centrally placed and complimented by a single-line border and text. Saville
16 Ibid, 76.
claims that he has made a choice to borrow a neo-classical aesthetic style for the
record design and in doing gives him the opportunity to reference, but yet
progress within his own creative process.17 This neo-classical design is
emphasised by the purity within the positioning of the imagery, text and use of
borders, as well as the choice of displaying a distinguished san serif font for the
whole of the sleave design. Saville has taken the approach of an aesthetical
reduction for the work. This notion of reduction creates a visually strong piece,
which also has a subtle, yet powerful quality to the work. This appropriation of a
neo-classical style provides an atmosphere that contextually compliments the
stark, perhaps slightly restrained, yet emotional powerful music of Joy Division. If
applied in the right manner, borrowing from the past can result in works that
contextually enhance the choice of reuse.
Joy Division Album Cover by Peter Saville, 1980.
The design of a selection of Penguin Book classics, re-published under the banner
of Great Ideas books in 2004 is another example in which pluralism can play a
benefiting role to the aesthetic and contextual relationships of a work. The books
in the series are designed with a formula of each cover using expressive display
typography in a theme that reflects the time and style in which the works were
first published. The colours of red, white and black are used throughout the
series to create a unified presence within the designs.18 With each book
responding to this brief, the original essence from a variety of typographic
periods and styles are use in a manner which accentuates the flavour of the
writings, creating a contextual link that is enhanced by the appropriation of
aesthetics.
17 Rick Poynor, Design Without Boundaries – Visual Communication in Transition (London: Booth-Clibborn Editions, 1998), 121. 18 Phil Baines, Penguin By Design – A Cover Story 1935-2005 (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2005), 244.
Penguin Book Covers by David Pearson, 2004.
The designs of typography itself can be seen as an act of appropriation with fonts
always having to reference what has gone before to understand and provide any
form of development.19 With the realisation of such a prominent and important
element of design in our society (typography) as having always appropriated in
order to progress, perhaps this is an indication that Foster’s claims are
unconvincing and the practice of pastiche has always existed and needs to, in
order for progression. Appropriation therefore could be a necessity, with
returning to the past becoming a chance to review options, which then
contributes to the process of invention and reinvention.20 Influences can be seen
as creative nourishment, therefore Foster’s statements about pluralism not
contributing to artistic development and a lack of thoughtful criticism within the
process could be viewed as nothing but a personal attack lacking in substance.
Indeed Foster points about a loss of meaning through the
re-contextualisation of past styles can be true in certain circumstances and is
worthy of acknowledgment. Appropriation on the whole, is not the creative
demise of the future of art and design and the reusing of styles can enhance the
piece and contribute to the process of self development and a furthering of
artistic merit. The art of typography, the Arts and Craft movement returning to a
medieval aesthetic, present day musicians reusing 1960s rock melodies,
contemporary architecture still referencing the 1930s modernist aesthetic, is an
indication that perhaps appropriation has always existed. The practice should
not be seen as merely reusing styles in an indiscriminate manner, but is an
integral part to all creative aspects of culture and through all periods in the
development of present day society. Appropriation could be viewed as a
necessary ingredient to art and design practices.
19 Borrowed Design – The Use and Abuse of Historical Form (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993), 9. 20 Ibid, 35.
Baines, Phil, Penguin By Design – A Cover Story 1935-2005, London: Penguin
Books Ltd, 2005.
Benjamin, Walter, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’, in Art
in Theory, 1900-2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, edited C. Harrison and P.
Wood, 520-527. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003.
Crimp, D. ‘Appropriating Appropriation’, in On the Museum Ruin’s, 126-147,
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995.
Designed by Peter Saville, ed. Emily King, London: Frieze, 2003.
Foster, Hal, ‘Against Pluralism’, in Recodings, 12-32, Washington: Bay Press, 1985.
Gablik, Suzi, ‘Pluralism – The Tyranny of Freedom’, in Has Modernism Failed?, 73-
87. London: Thames and Hudson, 1984.
Heartney, E., ‘Appropriation and the Loss of Authenticity’ in Critical Condition, 11-
24, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Heller, Steven, Lasky, Julie, Borrowed Design – The Use and Abuse of Historical
Form, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.
Hollis, Richard, Graphic Design – A Concise History, London: Thames and Hudson
Ltd, 2001.
Negrin, Llewellyn, The Legacy of Postmodernism, FST 202/303 Postmodernism
and Visual Culture Lecture, School of Art, University of Tasmania, Hobart,
28.05.07.
Poynor, Rick, Design Without Boundaries – Visual Communication in Transition,
London: Booth-Clibborn Editions, 1998.
Poynor, Rick, No More Rules – Graphic Design and Postmodernism, London:
Lawrence King Ltd, 2003.
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