MELVIN JACKSON CHISUM, SR., LOUIS HARLAN'S “SPY ...

CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:

MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUISHARLAN’S“SPY”

UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945

CECELIARENABROOKS

BachelorofArtsinGeneralStudiesVirginiaCommonwealthUniversity

Richmond,Virginia1990

MasterofArtsinHistoryOklahomaStateUniversityStillwater,Oklahoma

SubmittedtotheFacultyoftheGraduateCollegeofthe

OklahomaStateUniversityinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfor

theDegreeofDOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY

December2018

CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:

MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUISHARLAN’S“SPY”

UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945

DissertationApproved:

DissertationAdviserDr.JamesHuston

Dr.BillBryans

Dr.MichaelLogan

Dr.JeanVanDelinder

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Onetimeisnotenough.Imustsay“thankyou”manytimesforthesupportIhavebeengivenovertheyears.Nothingisachievedonone’sown.IhavecrossedtheglobeinordertoresearchandunderstandtheAmericanBlackexperience.IcanneversaythankyouenoughtomymentorsRoyalHenderson,EuniceandHenryPonder,L.J.Galloway,JaneandHenryFenner,BettyandJackGraves,DaddyDaweandmy“mom”NancyDawe.IwouldnothavemadeitwithoutmyrunningbuddiesTracieandBrianStewart,PaulandMichaelEpstein,andE.CherylPonder.Likethespiritualsays,“Nevercouldhavemadeit,”withoutJune,Gary,John,andTravisChubbuck,mysisterDeidra,BettyeBlack,andMaryAnnBlochowiak.ThankstoOSUPhiAlphaThetaandtheHistoryDepartmentatOSUforsupport.IamgratefultoDr.CliffordEdwardsandDr.DarrylDancefortheirsupport.IPraiseGodthatatUnionTheologicalSeminaryinVirginiathelateDonaldGilbertDawe,introducedgroomedmeintheworksofRichardNiebuhr,KarlBarth,SojournerTruth,JamesCone,andLiberationTheology.ThroughmyresearchoftheLeonelleHargrove–Dr.IsaacWilliamYoungpapersImetthelateDr.JoyHargroveandtheChisumfamily.Thankyou,tothelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.andDr.GloriaChisum.ThankyoutoAnneJohnson,AngelaPeters,DianeJohnson,andSteveArcher.AspecialthankstoOklahomaStateUniversityprofessorsforsharingtheirknowledgewithme:Susan,Dr.JamesHuston,Dr.JasonLavery,Dr.DavidDeAndrea,Dr.BillBryans,Dr.JeanVanDelinder,Dr.L.G.Moses,Dr.RichardRohrs,Dr.AmyCarreiro,Dr.DouglassMiller,Dr.RichardBoles,andDr.MichaelLogan.ThankyouforthesupportgiventomeovertheyearsattheG.LamarHarrisonLibraryatLangstonUniversity,theNationalArchivesResearchCenterinWashington,D.C.,theMoorland-SpringarnResearchCenteratHowardUniversityinWashington,D.C.,theLibraryofCongress,andtoDanaattheTuskegeeLibraryArchivesRepository.TomyfamilyatTrinityUnitedMethodistChurchMuskogee,Oklahoma,thanksforyourprayersandsupport.

AcknowledgementsreflecttheviewsoftheauthorandarenotendorsedbycommitteemembersorOklahomaStateUniversity.

Name:CECELIARENABROOKS DateofDegree:DECEMBER,2018 TitleofStudy:CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUIS

HARLAN’S“SPY”UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945MajorField:HISTORYAbstract:Noman’slifeandworkshouldbebasedontheethicsandmoralityofhisemployer,especiallywhentheemployerwasthecontroversialleaderofAmericanBlacksinthelate-nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesBookerT.Washington(BTW).InthegroundbreakingbiographieswrittenbyLouisHarlanaboutBTW,thatiswhathappenedtoMelvinChisum’slife.WhileblackhistoriansandjournalistswroteaboutChisumascharismaticandidiosyncraticduringhislifetime;inthe1970shistorianHarlanusedChisum’slifestoryinjuxtapositiontoBTW’s,inordertohighlighttheworkethichethoughtBTWportrayed.CallingChisumnomorethanavillainous“spy”and“provocateur”oftheera,HarlanlefthistoriansandtheirstudentswithavoidinProgressiveErahistorybecauseChisumrepresentedsomuchmoreinsocialandpoliticalendeavorsduringhislifetime.ThisdissertationusesHarlan’sownachievedrecords,theinsightofChisum’sfamilymembers,andpersonallettersbetweenChisumandcolleagues.WhilethisdissertationdoesnotdescribeallofChisum’sdeedsduringhislifetime,itdoesgiveanoverviewofHarlan’sperceptions,abackgroundofChisum’searlylife,correctsmyths,offersablacksocialgospelperspectiveofChisum,andfillsgapsinhistoriography.ThisdissertationdescribesandenhancesbothblackhistoryandAmericanhistory.UnknowninterandintraracealliancesarerevealedthatwereoncethoughtofasunheardofinAmericanhistory.Chisum’sPilgrimageIIplacestheendofBTW’sadministrationofaccommodation,whichHarlanbelievedendedin1916,squarelyinPresidentFranklinDelanoRoosevelt’sNewDealAdministration.GroundbreakingresearchshowsthatChisum,onceaspyfortheAmericanblackleaderBTW,becameaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministrationfortwoconsecutivetermsoftheNewDeal.FromtherethedissertationbrieflyindicatesofhowBookeriteslikeChisumsupportedtheCivilRightsmovementbybackingtheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP).

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Chapter PageI.INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1DiscerningtheTruthFromtheDead.......................................................................................1ReviewofLiterature......................................................................................................................22Forward..............................................................................................................................................43 II.CONCEPTSINBLACKHISTORY.....……………………………………………………………..45FaithfulWitness,Chisum,BlackSocialGospel,andBlackCivilReligion...............45ChisumandTheChristologyofIsabella’sJourneytobecomeSojournerTruth.61

III.BACKGROUND...........................................................................................................................85 ItisNottheSizeoftheDogintheFightbuttheSizeofFightintheDog……...85 Chisum’sUniqueLinkstoAfro-Texans...........................................................................92 LeavingMexia:FindingAWayOut.................................................................................107 FromPullmanPortertoPugilisttoJournalist...........................................................125IV.THESTROKEOFAPEN:THEVILLAINIZATIONOFMELVINCHISUM.............142 Wizards,Genies,andJimCrow:HarlanRedrawsChisum....................................148 ChisumTheEntrepreneur..................................................................................................162V.CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEINOKLAHOMA.........................................................................184 WhentheWindComesSweepingDownthePlains…………………………………..184ANewArmyforBlackIndiansInOklahoma..............................................................191 MelvinChisumversusInmanPageatLangston,Oklahoma................................204

Chapter Page

VI.MELVINCHISUMINTHE1920s.......................................................................................227Service,Service,Service...……………………………………………………………………..227 AnotherLookAtEmmettScott.........................................................................................232 Chisum;ABlackCivilReligionCultHero?...................................................................239 ToChicago:Chisum,OscarDePriest,andSamuelInsull......................................254 VII.THETUSKEGEEVETERANSHOSPITALCRISIS........................................................266 YouMayComeThisFarButNoFurther(Job38:11)..............................................266 WhiteConflictOvertheVeteransHospital.................................................................275 UncoveringBlackPoliticalEspionageatTuskegee.................................................290“Oklahoma:Sitalone,talkandwatchahawkmakelazycirclesinthesky!”300 VIII.CROSSINGOVER,TRIPPINGUP,THEENDOFACCOMMODATION1930s.311 ChisumVersusHoover........................................................................................................318 Farley’sCheckMate:TheBigFour..................................................................................329 Chisum=BigFour+Young+Oklahoma.....................................................................345 CrossingOver,TrippingUp,andEndingAccommodation...................................360 AMysteryRemains.WasChisumMurdered?............................................................372REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................379APPENDICES....................................................................................................................................396

CHAPTERI

DISCERNINGTRUTHFROMTHEDEAD

“Thestoryofmyfatherwillneverbetold,becausethedetailsareshroudedincloudsofhistoryandthepeoplewho livedthoseeventshavegoneontotheir rewards in another world. Louis R. Harlan’s reference to Dad as“BookerT.Washington’sspy” isanexampleofthis.ReferringtohiminthiswayislikewritingofBobbyKennedyas“JohnF.Kennedy’sbrother.”Thisisatruestatement,but it issomuchshortof thewholetruththat it isnearlyamisstatement.Mr.Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthecorrespondencehediscovered,andthatwasnotmuch.”1

---Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.(1921-2014)

Noman’slifeshouldbemoldedaroundwhatoneofhisemployer’scritics

believedtobetrueabouthim,especiallywhentheemployerwasBookerT.

Washington(hereafterdenotedasBTW)(1856-1915),theacknowledgedleaderof

AfricanAmericansinthelate-nineteenthandearly-twentiethcenturies,whohad

legionsofcritics.Inmodernhistoriography,thelegacyofMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,

theAmericanblackefficiencyagent,investigator,sometimesspyandprovocateur,is

primarilyinterpretedinjuxtapositiontoBTWthroughthegroundbreakingwork1Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.

ofhistorianLouisHarlan(1922-2010)inthe1970s.YetDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,

questionedtheclarityofhisvision.Usingseveraldifferentinterpretivesourcesfrom

scholarswhodefinedthelifeofMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,includinghisfamily,oral

interviewsandtheirpapers,thisworkstrivestoframethecomponentsofhislifeto

givemorethanacomprehensivebiographyofMelvinChisumbeyondhisworkfor

BTW.ItaddstoAmericanBlackhistoriographybymovingbeyondtheBTWversus

WilliamDuBoisquarrelofaccommodationversusoutrightresistance.This

dissertationexplainshowresistancetookmanyforms,includingafirsttimelookat

abroadernarrativeshowinghowresistancetoblackachievementwassosolidly

entrenchedthatitevokedfromblacksworkingwithinthePresidentFranklinD.

Rooseveltadministrationadistastesostrongthatitbecametheimpetusfor

BookeritestopushforaCivilRightsmovement.

Oneofthemostdifficulttasksforhistoriansistoremainobjectiveand

dispassionateinthetreatmentofthepast,especiallywhenthepeopleoreventsthey

studyinvolvecontroversyormomentousaffairs.Agoodexampleofthisisthelifeof

MelvinChisum,whohasbeencharacterizedinhisowntimeandbyhistoriansas

eitheracivilrightsleaderoratraitor.Thisworkexaminesthehistoricallegacyof

Chisumandintheprocessshedslightonthehistoriographicaldebatesamongblack

historiansandhistoriansofcivilrights;itemploysfamilylegendsandrecordsin

ordertocreateafaithful,honestandobjectivebiography.Thelifeandlegacyof

Chisumismorethanthebiographyofoneman;itisanexampleofthestruggleto

defineandcontrolthedominantnarrativeofblackhistory.

ThisdissertationusesLouisHarlan’snarrative,whichdominatesthehistory,

toexplainthenecessityforprovidingabiographyofMelvinChisum.Incurrent

scholarshipthereareseveralstrandsofscholarshiponChisumthatconflictwith

eachother.ThestrandsincludetheworksofLouisHarlan,Chisum’sown

contemporariesfromthelastquarterofthenineteenthcenturytothe1960s,and

theChisum-Twinefamily.Sincethe1970sLouisHarlan’sworkscontrolledtheblack

narrativeaboutBTWandthusChisum.Harlan’sbooksincludedperhapsthefirst

biographicalnarrativeofChisuminthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.

ThroughhispresentationHarlanconcludedthatChisumwasnomorethana

notorious,reprehensiblespy,andprovocateurusedbyBTWtoperformdirtydeeds

tokeepBTWinpower.HarlanconcludedthatafterBTW’sdeath,Chisum,likeother

lieutenantswhoworkedfortheTuskegeemachine,wentintoobscurity.

Thesecondgroupincludesblackliteraryscholars,journalists,andhistorians

oftheProgressiveandNewDealeraswhowerecontemporariesofMelvinChisum,

Sr.ThesemenandwomenrecountedChisum’spilgrimagesaroundthecountryin

blacknewspapersonaweeklybasis.ThreebookscoveredtheworkofChisum:

Chisum’sPilgrimage,byWendellPhillipsDabney(1865-1952)anotherbyRobert

RussaMoton(1867-1940),FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography,andananthology

NegroCaravan,editedbySterlingBrown(HowardUniversity),ArthurP.Davis

(VirginiaUnionUniversity),andUlyssesLee(LincolnUniversity).InFindingaWay

Out:AnAutobiography,MotondescribesChisumasamanwithgoodbusinesssense,

conscientious,andlevelheaded,workingwithinmanufacturingcompaniesasan

efficiencyman.1PerhapsthezenithofChisum’scareercamewhenhis

contemporariescelebratedhislifebyplacingastoryabouthimintheanthology

NegroCaravanin1941.2DuringatimeofJimCrowandwarpreparation,theNegro

Caravanpresentedsignificantstoriesofthe“Negrocharacterandexperience”in

America.TheeditorscamefromleadingAmericanblackuniversitiesthathad

installedblackpresidents.TheNegroCaravanwasadocumentofpride.Inrelation

toChisum,thetitleofWilliamPhillipsDabney’sbookChisum’sPilgrimageand

Others(1927)waschangedto“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb.”Dabney’sshortstory,

publishedintheanthology,preservesChisumasacharactertorememberfromthe

ProgressiveEra,exceptthenameMelvinChisumwasnotused,onlyhisinitials“M---

C---.”

Whentheanthologywasfirstpublishedin1941achangeinthepower

structureofblackleadershadoccurred.AsafterthedeathofFrederickDouglass,the

deathofraceleaderRobertRussaMotonleftblackAmericanswithnoobvious

leader.DuringthistimeChisum’sinfluencewaspivotalinthedevelopmentofthe

earlycivilrightsmovement.UnlikeHarlan’scentralthemeofspyandprovocateur

forBTW,the“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb”developsathemeofChisumasthe

“SojournerTruth,”the“HarriettTubman,”aphilanthropist,journalist,andan1RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(London:AdelphiTerrace:T.FisherUnwinLtd.,1920),282.2WendellPhillipsDabney,"AVisittoDunbar'sTomb,"inNegroCaravan,ed.ArthurPaulDavis,SterlingAllenBrown,andUlyssesLee(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941),1000.

unconventionalcharacterintheProgressiveandNewDealEras.Becausenothing

hasbeenwrittenaboutChisumduringtheperiod,hisvocationinthefederal

governmenthastobeusedtodiscerntheintegralworkingsoftheBookeriteswithin

themake-upoftheNewDeal.Addingthisthreadcandevelopthehistoryofhow

BookeritesorchestratedtheCivilRightsmovementsofthe1940s,includinghow

theysupportedtheMarchonWashingtonplannedin1941tobeledbyA.Philip

Randolph.

WithinfouryearsafterthepublicationofNegroCaravanandExecutiveOrder

8802signedbyPresidentFranklinRoosevelt,MelvinChisumdied,leavinghisfamily

withonlymemoriesofhislifeandsomedocumentssupportinghisclaimsofwhohe

was.InthepresenteratheChisumfamilyrecountsfamilylegendsandstoriesfrom

thepastthatlinkedMelvinChisumwithTexas,Oklahoma,GeorgePullman,the

MethodistEpiscopalChurch,andmajorpolitical,social,andeconomiceventsofhis

timeperiod.ChisumclaimedhemetandkneweverypresidentfromWilliam

McKinleytoFranklinRoosevelt.Dr.MelvinJacksonChisum,Jr.,PhiBetaKappa

honorsocietymember,WWIIveteran,medicaldoctor,communityleader,and

philanthropist,introducedlegends,familystories,letters,anddocumentsthat

showedahard-working,lovingfatherandhusbandwhoworkedformensuchas

BTW,BishopWilliamDerrickoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurch(AME),

RobertRussaMoton,electricityphilanthropistSamuelInsull,andpresidentsofthe

UnitedStates.MelvinChisumSr.wasalsoappointedasthefirstAmericanblack

PublicWorksAdministrationinvestigatorinAmericanhistory.

Dr.Chisum’sinformationlinesupwithhistorianDr.JamesSmallwood(1944-

2013),whowroteextensivelyaboutblacksinTexasfromslaverytoReconstruction,

andasaTexasTechgraduatestudentpublishedhisdissertationin1974,“Black

TexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874.”Smallwood’scollectionofbookshelped

unearththeChisum’sfamilylineagefromtheirperiodofslaveryinMacon,Georgia,

totheirfreedominMexia,Texas.Thesestrandsofinformationhavenotbeen

blendedwithotherstodevelopacomprehensivenarrative.Thisomissioncausesa

problemformodernscholarswhowanttoplaceChisumintotheAmerican

narrative.3

LouisHarlan’sschooltreatedChisumasaspyandprovocateurandremains

themasternarrative,butitisbreakingdownbecauseoftwenty-firstcentury

researchcapabilitiesinlocatingoncehard-to-findinformation.Unsureofwhich

threadtofollowortocreate,scholarslabeledChisumaseverythingfromsalesman,

togovernmentagent,tospy,tominister.Afterfortyyears,asthemasternarrativeof

theHarlanschoolbreaksdown,areevaluationofthatnarrativebecomesnecessary

–notonlyaboutthechronicles–butthegoalsofthehistory.

3NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),24-26.WeissdiscussedtheRepublicanefforttowintheelectionin1932.WithoutChisum’spartintheelectionherdiscussionlackstherealcompetitivenessamongblackDemocrats.BethBates,PullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925-1945(NorthCarolina:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001),24.BateslinksChisumbacktotheNationalNegroPressAssociationandhistiestoGeorgePullman.BlancheCook,EleanorRoosevelt,Volume2:TheDefiningYears,1933-1938(London:Penguin,1999),158.CookdescribedChisumasajournalistnotrealizingthatasapartofHaroldIckesDepartmentofInteriorChisumwaspunishedforcontactingEleanorRooseveltwiththevaluablesuggestion.

ThethreadsalsounravelwiththequeryfromDr.Chisum,Jr.—“wasHarlan’s

visionlimited?”—andtakesthemeritofHarlan’sportrayalofChisum,Sr.,toanother

level.Rhetorically,Dr.ChisumaskedifHarlanusedtheinformationhefoundinthe

1960sand1970sinhisresearchonMelvinChisumtogiveafairandaccurate

portrayalofhisfatherordidheuseonlythosepartsthatcreatedanarchetypeofthe

manheneededtoplaytheantagonistinAmericanblackhistory.Orwassomething

elsegoingoninterpretatively?WithoutafullChisumbiographythesequeries

remaininlimbo.WeretheretiesbetweenChisumandHarlan?Weretheretiesto

otherswhohelpedwiththeresearch?OutofthemanyspiesBTWused,whywas

ChisumseparatedassoimportantintheBTWpapersversusthemanyotherspiesin

thenetwork?ThesequestionsarelinkedtohowBTWandhisfollowerswere

respondingtoJimCrowinequality.Thesequestionscanonlybeansweredwitha

backgroundcheckonHarlanandChisum.

AfterHarlan’spublicationof“BookerT.WashingtoninBiographical

Perspective”intheAmericanHistoricalReview(October1970),andthesubsequent

publicationofthearticle“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington”intheJournalof

SouthernHistory(1971),inwhichHarlanlabeledChisumasalow“spyand

provocateur,”Dr.ChisumbegantoquestionHarlan’sportrayal.AstheHarlan

descriptionbecamethedominantinterpretation,theeditorsofNegroHistory

Bulletin,anAmericanblackpublication,soughtanarticleonChisumtocounterthe

emergingnegativeportrayalofhim.ThemagazinereachedouttoDr.Chisum.An

articlepublishedunderthebylineofThelmaPerrysoonappearedinprintinthe

attempttocorrectsomeofthenegativeassessments.Itwaslabeledasmaterial

gatheredbyDr.Chisum.Accordingtothearticle,Dr.Chisum“declinedthebyline

becausehedidnothavetimetowriteanarticleabouthisfather.”4However,he

assembleddata“torecreateafewhighlightsofthecareerofChisum,Sr.”5Thus,staff

memberThelmaPerry’snamewasusedtopublish“MelvinChisum,Pioneer

Newsman”inNegroHistoryBulletinin1973.

Eventhoughhistorytendstomergethecivilrightsmovementsofthe1950s

and1960s,the1970swerenotapost-civilrightsera.Theyweretheyearscivil

rightslegislationwasbeingcarriedoutinthemainstreamculture.Eventhe

denominationDr.Chisumsometimesworshipedin,theMethodistChurch,didnot

technicallyintegrateastheUnitedMethodistChurchuntiltheearly1970s.While

civilrightswriterssuchasHarlanintegratedthehistoricalliteraturetoincorporate

mensuchasBTWandChisum,Smallwoodcorrectedthenarrativeofthehistoryof

blacksinTexas.AshisfatherhaddealtwithJimCrowsomeeightyyearsprior,

Chisum’ssonandhiswife,theformerGloriaTwine,werelivingthechangescoming

fromtheendofJimCrow.MelvinChisumJr.,amedicaldoctor,wasonthefrontline

ofexpertblacksmovingfromsegregatedpositionsandintoelementsofwhite

Americansociety.

Dr.Chisum’sexpertiseinarthritis,rheumatology,andinternalmedicineled

tohisrecruitmentfromhisownprivatepracticeofmedicineinPhiladelphiato

becomeanassociatemedicaldirectorofBellTelephoneCompany.Likesomany

4ThelmaD.Perry,“MelvinJ.Chisum,PioneerNewsman,NegroHistoryBulletin,1December1973,Vol.36,8.5Ibid.,8.

blackswithvariedtalents,Dr.Chisumfoundhisprofessionaltimelimited.

Inundatedwithworkinthechangingworldofraceandpolitics,asaleadphysician

atAT&T,Dr.Chisumdidnotfindthetimetowriteanarticleinrebuttaltothe

statementscomingoutabouthisfatherinthemanuscriptsthatHarlanproduced.

While,inhisarticles,“BookerT.WashingtoninBiographicalPerspective”and“The

SecretLifeofBookerWashington,”andeventuallyinbooksonthelifeofBTW

HarlanreintroducedtheMelvinChisum,Sr.,characterwithhisowninterpretation,

eventhoughtheearlierworksbyWendellPhillipsDabney,SterlingBrown,and

ThelmaPerry/Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,providedgreaterdetailaboutChisumandhis

work.6WiththeflickofHarlan’spen,theChisumofwitandintegritychangedintoa

darkmenacingcharacter.Harlancasthimasnomorethanaspyandprovocateur

forBTW.

Chisum’snewcharacterwasfirstcastintheJournalofSouthernHistory

article,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington”(August1971).7Thefirstvolume

ofHarlan’sbiography,BookerT.Washington:TheMakingofaBlackLeader,1856-

1901,waspublishedin1972.ItwasawardedtheBancroftPrize,possiblythemost

prestigiousannualhonorinthefieldofAmericanhistory.Thesecondvolume,

BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee,1901-1915,waspublishedin1983.

HarlanwonthePulitzerPrizeforbiography,asecondBancroftPrize,andtheAlbert

6LouisHarlanandRaymondSmock,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Volume71903-4(Illinois:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970),219.HereaftercitedasBTWP.Theywrote,“From1903to1906ChisumwasWashington’spaidspy—andperhapssometimesprovocateur—intheranksofBTW’scritics.”7LouisHarlan,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,”JournalofSouthernHistory37(August1971).ThiscontainsabiographyofChisum.

J.BeveridgeAwardforthebestbookonAmericanhistory.TheChisumidentityand

nameand,indeed,theblacknarrativeofthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury

changedhandsfromthosewhohadliveditandstruggledwithJimCrow,tothose

whowroteaboutit.InthewordsofDr.HenryPonder,presidentofseveralblack

universities,includingFiskUniversity,TalladegaUniversity,BenedictUniversity,

andLangstonUniversityandanativeofOklahoma,“Itishewhowritesthehistory

thatmakesthegreatestimpact.”8

TakingonthemasternarrativeofblackAmerica,HarlanremovedChisumfar

awayfromtheheroicactionsofblackleaders,sodifferentfromthewritingsofthe

menandwomenwhowroteabouthimintheblackworld.WhatHarlanwroteabout

BTWandsupportersofhisideologybecamethegoldstandard,regardlesswhat

blackbiographerswrotepriortohisbooks.WhatHarlanwrotechangedthe

dominantnarrativeofatleasttwoblackleaders–BTWandMelvinChisum.Harlan

wasincontrolofthenarrativeaboutblacklifeinthefirstquarterofthetwentieth

century.Themodelforblackhistoriographycamefromnewsources:Gunnar

Myrdal’s,AnAmericanDilemma:TheNegroProblemandModernDemocracy(1944)

versusBTW’s,UpFromSlavery(1901)andanewblackheroismadeofW.E.B.

DuBoisandhisNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople

(NAACP)overandagainstBTWandTuskegeeUniversity.

8Dr.HenryPonderinterviewwithAuthor23August2015,intheLeonelleYoungHargrove,Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,ChisumCollectionatOklahomaCityUniversityDulaney-BrownLibrary,OklahomaCityOklahoma.HereaftercitedasOKCU.

DidLouisHarlanremainobjectiveanddispassionateinthetreatmentofthe

Americanblackpast?ThelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,believedthatthedetailsofhis

father’sprogressivehistoryhavebeenshroudedinhistorytothepointtheyare

almostunrecoverable.Dr.Chisumwrotein2005,“LouisR.Harlan’sreferencetoDad

as‘BookerT.Washington’sspy’isanexampleofthis.Referringtohiminthiswayis

likewritingofBobbyKennedyas‘JohnF.Kennedy’sbrother.’Thisisatrue

statement,butitissomuchshortofthewholetruththatitisnearlyamisstatement.

Mr.Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthecorrespondencehe

discovered,andthatwasnotmuch.”9WasHarlanlimitedordidhereadjustfactsto

fitthetimeperiodofthecivilrightsmovement?Cantheyberecoveredbychecking

Harlan’sresearch?Also,keyinthisargumentistheideaofaccommodationversus

resistance.Inotherwords,astandardofjudgmentwasmade–civilrights,political

actionandresistanceweregood;therefore,thepolicyofaccommodation,meaning

acceptingsecondclasscitizenstatus,wasbad–andthusthoseforaccommodation

werebadandbackward.

UntilAugustof2017theboxesofHarlan’sresearchonhisbooksandarticles

remainedclosedandunprocessedinanarchivalwarehouseusedbytheUniversity

ofMaryland,CollegePark.OpeningtheboxesofHarlan’sresearchrevealedoverfive

hundredpagesofresearchrelatedtoMelvinChisum,includingthearticlewrittenin

1973intheNegroHistoryBulletin.TherecordsattheUniversityofMarylandshow

thatresearcherspresentedathoroughbackgroundcheckonChisumtoDr.Harlan.10

9Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.OKCU.10LouisR.HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries,

YetfromalltheresearchgatheredforHarlan’smanuscripts,onlytwodisparaging

wordswereusedtodescribeMelvinJacksonChisumas“spyandprovocateur.”One

incongruousfullparagraphexplainingtherelationshipbetweenBTWandChisum

servedasidiosyncraticoranecdotaltotheoverallBTW–Chisumrelationship.It

referredtoslavery.CouldthestainofslaverylinkBTWandChisumandHarlan?

Washington,havingstartedinslaveryandpoverty,would“gagatalmostnothing

thatpromiseddominance.”11Couldthissentencepointtodeeperquestionsin

researchnotaccountedforinHarlan’sworks?

AboutthetimeDr.ChisummovedtoBellTelephoneCompanyandLouis

HarlanwonawardsforhisworkonBTW,anewvoiceinthewildernessarosein

academia.Arevisionistscholar,Dr.JamesSmallwood,struggledtocorrectthe

historicalrecordofReconstruction,particularlyinTexas.Smallwoodbecame

associateprofessoratOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,intheHistory

Departmentin1975.Refutinglong-heldthemesofTexansoftheDunningschool,

Smallwoodwroteandpublishedagroundbreakingwork,TimeofHopeandTimeof

Despair:BlackTexansDuringReconstructionin1981.HisbookwontheCoralH.

TullisAwardin1982forthebestbookoftheyearonTexashistory.12

HornbakeLibrary,CollegeParkMaryland.Critics,Box(35),Box(38)Discardednotes,Box(40),BiographicalMaterialBox,(40),andSecretlife,PersonalBox(41).Thiscollectioniscurrentlyunprocessed.11LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983),92.12Howell,Kenneth(2014),“InMemoriam:JamesSmallwood,”EastTexasHistoricalJournal,Vol.52:Iss.1,Article7.Availableat:http://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/ethj/vol52/iss1/7

ByusingSmallwood’sscholarshipandlinkingittotheChisumbiography,

anotherunwovenstrandappearsfortherationaleofabiographyofMelvinChisum.

TheChisumfamilywasagroupofAfroTexans.Moreover,theyfollowedthepathof

theHarlanclantoTexasfromGeorgia.TheHarlansmovedfromMason,Georgia,to

RobertsonCounty,Texas,adjacenttoLimestoneCounty,asearlyas1837.Chisum’s

father,JohnChisum,cametoTexasasaslavefromMaconinthelate1850sorearly

1860swithJohnChisholm.MaconandMason,Georgia,areaboutthewidthofa

plantationapart.TheChisumssettledinLimestoneCounty.TheLoganStroud

familymovedtoTexasinthe1820s.JaneHarlanmarriedLoganStroud.Janewas

relatedtoLouisasaseventh-generationmemberoftheHarlanfamily.

JaneHarlanStroud,andherhusbandwereownersofMelvinChisum’s

motherRachalHenderson,ontheStroudPlantationinTexas.Jane’sfatherJoseph

movedin1837toRobertsonCounty,Texas,whereheraisedindigo,vegetables,and

cattle.RobertsonCountyisboundedonthenorthbyLimestoneCounty.13Perhaps,

Harlan’sunderstandingofslaveryisametaphorforwhathefoundoristhe

identificationwithlegendsintheHarlanfamily.IntheNewYorkTimes,January29,

2010,WilliamGrimeswroteinanarticle,“LouisR.Harlan,HistorianofBookerT.

Washington,Dies,at87,”that“criticspraisedMr.Harlan’sskillatcapturing

13SeeAlpheusH.Harlan,HistoryandGenealogyoftheHarlanFamilyandParticularlyoftheDescendantsofGeorgeandMichaelHarlanwhoSettledinChesterCounty,Pa.,1687(Maryland:LordBaltimorePress,nd.,1914?)DigitizedforMicrosoftCorporationbytheInternetArchivein2008FromtheNewYorkPublicLibrary.AlsoseeJamesSmallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874"(TexasTechUniversity,1974),37.SeealsoHandbookofTexasOnline,ArtLeatherwood,“Stroud,LoganAlmaren,”accessedDecember20,2017,http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fstak

Washington’selusivecharacterandgettingareadonapersonalitythat‘had

vanishedintotherolesithadplayed,’asheonceputit.”CouldGrimes’statementbe

trueaboutHarlanhimself?DidHarlan’spersonalityasanhistorianvanishintoa

familyroleashewroteoftheChisumfamilyorBTW?Harlanwascertainlyawareof

hislineage.In1987theHarlanFamilyinAmericacreatedanonprofitassociationto

celebratetheirfamilyheritagesince1687.LouisHarlanwrote“HarlanFamilyin

America:ABriefHistory.”14ThereareboxesintheHarlancollectionthatcannotbe

opened;perhaps,thereismoreinformationwithinthem.

TheideathatHarlanknewthatChisum’smotherhadoncebelongedtoa

familymemberandhismentionthatBTWandChisumwould“gagatnothing

becauseoftheirslavepast”leadstoquestionsaboutthedepictionofChisuminthe

writingofHarlan.Moresimpleassociationscomeintoquestion.Forinstance,why

didHarlanusethedescriptionofChisumasanelderlymanshapedlikean

armadillo?GiventhatChisumwasbornintheearly1870s,Chisumwouldhavebeen

onlyinhisearlythirtieswhenheworkedforBTW.Thatdescriptioncamefroma

1968interviewwithG.W.AScottdonebyHarlanhimselfandwasusedbyhis

studentsasastandardviewofChisum.PeteDanielrepeatsitin1968whenhe

describedChisumas“likeanarmadillo”becauseofhisbullet-proofvest,adding,“He

14FredHarlan,HarlanFamilyinAmerica,SiteHostedbyAeneas,www.harlanfamily.org/book.htm.“ABriefHistory”waswrittenbyLouisR.Harlan.

wasshort,stubby,andugly.Hehadabigbelly...hewasallegedtohavecarrieda

pistolallthetime.”15ButtheinterviewwithScottistakenoutofcontext.

TherestofthestoryintheinterviewnotesthatScottandChisumhadan

altercationontheTuskegeecampus.Accordingtohisinterview,ScottmetChisumin

the1930s.Chisumwouldhavebeeninhissixties.Menchangeinappearanceover

thirtyyears.BTWdiedin1915.BTWneverknewthe“plumplittlerogueinabullet-

proofvest”butasleekmanofaffairswholookedyearsyoungerthanamaninhis

thirties.Thisisaglaringmistake.Ifoneopenstheboxesofresearchlongburiedin

therecessesofthearchivesattheUMD,thequestionofDr.Chisum’s

characterizationofhisfatherbyHarlantakesonanewformforaresearcher.The

factthatHarlanhadthisinformationwithinthefilesraisesquestionsofambiguityin

thecharacterizationofChisuminthehistoriographyoftheHarlanschoolonblack

Americanhistory.16

Thus,thisbiographyundertakesDr.Chisum’schallengetorectifythe

scholarlycharacterizationofMelvinChisumand,additionally,wonderswhether

suchanundertakingwouldindeedchangetheentiredepictionofblackactivityin

theageofBTW.Doesitdemonstrateafissureinscholarshipthatcouldchangeor

challengetheHarlanschool’sunderstandingofChisumandtherebyopenthedoor

formoreresearchonotherblacksoftheperiod?Italsoevenbrokersthequestionof

15HarlanandSmock,BTWP,Vol.8:1904-1906,7.InterviewofG.W.A.Scott,7November1968,LouisR.HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries,Box26,GalleyProofs.PeteDanielsdidtheinterviewforHarlan.16HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UMDLibraries.http://hdl.handle.net/1903.1/1362.Box41.

whetherHarlan’svisionofBTW’slifeandworkfromReconstructionto1940is

accurate.17Ifso,thendevelopingachronologyofChisum’swork,whichofnecessity

includesotherBookerites,couldconstructamorecomprehensiveunderstandingof

theperiod.

UnderstandingthecomplexityofhowHarlanrecastBTWhelpsshedlighton

thehistoricaldebatesaboutMelvinChisum.Thus,inordertoplaceChisuminthe

narrativeofblackhistory,thisdissertationfocusesonBTW’sbiographerLouis

Harlan.HarlancompletedhisdoctoralworkatJohnsHopkinsUniversityunderhis

advisorC.VannWoodward,authorofTheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(1955).While

attendingJohnsHopkins,HarlanmetandbefriendedDr.JohnHopeFranklin,the

AmericanblackauthorofTheMilitantSouth1800–1861(1956)andFromSlaveryto

Freedom(1958).AccordingtoRaymondSmock,inmemoriam,writteninthe

AmericanHistoricalAssociation(AHA)magazineinApril2010,theimpactofthe

twomentors,particularlyFranklin,ledHarlantodevotehiscareertoracerelations

andAfricanAmericanhistory.

AsaprofessorattheTexasStateCollegein1958HarlanpublishedSeparate

andUnequal:PublicSchoolCampaignsandRacismintheSouthernSeaboardStates,

1901–1915.Throughuseofmanuscripts,publicdocuments,newspapers,andofficial

reports,thebookprovidedevidencethatSouthernstatesovertlyignoredtheir17TheodoreM.Pryor,WealthBuildingLessonsofBookerT.WashingtonforaNewBlackAmerica(Maryland:Duncan&Duncan,1995),v.MaceoCrenshawDailey,WhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScottandtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(ElPaso,Texas:SweetEarthFlyingPress,2013).ThesehistoriansaskedthesamequestionsbutdidnothavetheinformationonChisumtohelpthemmakeavalidargument.

obligationstoAmericanblackschoolsundertheseparatebutequaldoctrine.In

1965HarlanmovedtotheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkasahistory

professor.AugustMeierwhousedtheBTWcollectionattheLibraryofCongressfor

hisownbook,NegroThoughtinAmerica1880-1915:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeof

BookerT.Washington(1963),urgedHarlantousethecollectionforhisown

research.AccordingtoDavidLeveringLewis,writinginmemoriamofAugustA.

Meier(1923-2003)intheAHA’sPerspectivesinHistory,bytheendofthe1960s

MeierheldeminenceinthefieldofAmericanblackhistory.

RickiMoskowitzandJaniceQuinterwroteintheintroductiontotheAugust

MeierPapersfortheSchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCultureinNewYork,

that,“perhapsMeier’smostfar-reachingimpactontheintellectualcommunityhas

beenachievedthroughhisroleaseditorofbooksandotherpublicationsforfour

seriesinblackstudies.”18Meier’sgreatestimpactonthehistoricalcommunitywas

achievedinhisroleasmentor.Meier’spoliticalbackgroundwas,likeAPhillip

Randolph,(1889-1979)socialist.MoskowitzandQuinterdescribedMeier’s

backgroundasradical:hismotherandfathermetthroughthesocialistpartyand

Meierwasrearedinasocialistcommunityofreformerswithbackgroundsin

socialism,communism,unionism,andvariousprogressiveeducators,and

anarchists.

18AugustMeierPapers,SCMG340,SchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCulture,theNewYorkPublicLibrary,@http//archievesnypl.org/scm.

Werethe“civil-rights”historiansobjectiveanddispassionateabout

Bookerites?AsthecultureofWWIIpeopleturnedfromtheColdWartoAmerican

civilandpoliticalunrest,mostblackhistorynarrativeswerecelebratoryinnature,

writtenbyblacksthatsoughttoemphasizeinbiographytheheroicstatureofblack

leaders.Post-WWIIhistoriansrevisedthegenreofblackhistoricalstudytofita

moremodernphilosophyofblackassertionoftheirrights.Againstthesuggestions

ofAmericanblackprofessorsinthe1960s,includinghistorianP.SterlingStuckey,

whobelievedthatblacksshouldwritetheirownhistory,liberalandconservative

whitessuchasC.VannWoodward(1908-1999),AugustMeier(1923-2003),and

LouisHarlanbuiltthedominantschoolsofblackhistoryintheUnitedStatesbased

ontheirinterpretationofblacksuffrage.19Reachingback,thesescholars’historical

analysischangedthemasternarrativefromracialupliftandreformtoradical

demandsforequality,demandsthatincludedjusticethroughagitation.

Asuncontestedleaderinwritingandeditingblackhistoryinthe1960s-

1980s,MeiersetthedominantormainstreamnarrativeforBTWandhisfollowers

suchasChisum.Acivilrightsactivistsincehisyouthinthe1930s,Meierputinhis

prefacesofblackhistorybooks(suchasNegroProtestThoughtintheTwentieth

Century(1965)),anti-BTWrhetoric,andheincorporatedthepsychologicaltermsof

JeanPiaget(1896-1980)—“accommodationandassimilation”—todescribeBTW’s

agendaandtocontrastitagainstW.E.B.DuBois’moresocialist-gearedreform.

MeierpitsBTW’sagendaagainsttheonesupportedbyinfluentialwhiteliberalsand

19ErnstBreisach,Historiography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(Chicago:UniversityChicagoPress,1983),366-367.

socialistsoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople

(NAACP)thatfavoredpoliticalaction;hedepictedthetwoprogramsasiftheywere

battlesofrightandwrong.IncontrastKellyMiller,aprominentblackpolitician,

mathematician,sociologist,andhistorianatHowardUniversitywhosawthings

differently.InRaceAdjustment:EssaysonNegroAmerica(1908),hereferredtothe

differencesas“constructions,”notasaccommodationandassimilation.Helookedat

BTWandDuBoisastwomen“whoagreedtothesameendbutdifferedonhowto

getthere,”notasamonumentalconfrontationofuncompromisingprinciplesas

Meiersetinhiscommandingnarrative.AccordingtoMiller,blackswereinlinewith

radicalssuchasDuBois,butalsosawaplaceforsolidarity,thrift,andinstitutionas

espousedbyBTW.Thegenerationofthe1960screatedablackhistorywhichdrew

itsperspectivefromasocialistleadersblackandwhitewhousedtheNAACPasthe

centralpieceintheessentialnarrativeofblackhistory.Thisdissertationcontends

thatHarlancontinuedthisthreadofMeier’sphilosophy.

Inthe2010AmericanHistoricalAssociationmagazinearticle,Raymond

Smock,acoauthorwithHarlanintheBookerT.WashingtonPapers(1973),gave

detailsonwhyHarlanusedMeier’smasternarrativeandredefinedBTW’sstory:

Themid-1960s,ofcourse,wastheheightofthecivilrightsmovementandthebeginningofamajorseachangeintheattentionandprominencegiventoAfricanAmericanhistory.Yetatthissametime,BookerT.Washington’simageinthepantheonofsignificantblackfiguresinAmericanhistorywasbadlywaning.Washington,theleaderwhoaccommodatedtoJimCrowstricturesinthelate19thandearly20thcentury,hardlyseemedthestuffofheroestoanewgenerationofactivistsbothblackandwhite,whowereagitatingforanendtoJimCrowanddemonstratingforfullcivilrights.LouisHarlanparticipatedinthecivilrightsmovement,marchinginMontgomerywithMartinLutherKingJr.andlatermarchingandprotestingagainstthe

VietnamWar,allthewhilestudyingthelifeoftheconservativeRepublicanBookerT.Washington,whohadrejectedprotestasameanstoachievesocialandpoliticalequality.20

Harlanrecasttheself-madeprogressivemoldofBTWandthemenwho

supportedhisideologyofaccommodation.TheauthenticMachiavellian-cum-Uncle

Tomwayofhandlingwhitesandotheradversariesbecameapsychologicalproblem

ofblackleadershipinsteadofasurvivaltechnique.Thebackbookcoverreadsabout

Washingtonasifhewereabedlamitenotablackmaninawhiteworld.Theywrite

positiveaboutHarlanandrecklesslyaboutBTW.“Asuperbworkofscholarship...

Tomeetthechallengeofasubjectascomplex,difficultandtreacherousas

Washingtoncallsforabiographicaltalentofhighhonor....’CVannWoodward

writes,“Hebringstolifeamanofenormouscomplexity,anenigmaticfigurewho

offendsourera’ssensibilitiesandrefusestomeetourpreconceivednotionsofhow

agreatleadershouldbehave,”intheWashingtonPostBookWorld.21Thelarger

problemofhowtocombatviolentracismwasatstake.PossiblyBTWhadoneway

andHarlansimplycouldnotorrefusedtolookthoughBTW’slenses.22

20RaymondSmock,"InMemoriamLouisR.Harlan,"PerspectivesonHistory48,no.4(2010).21LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983).ThebackcoverpresentsaviewofWashingtonasamanfinallydismantledlikeaclownwhosepaintedfaceiscleanedtorevealnothingbutanotherdressedupNegro.22StevenMintzandJohnStauffer,TheProblemofEvil:SlaveryFreedom,andtheAmbiguitiesofAmericanReform(AmherstUniversityofMassachusettsPress,2007).Mintz’sbookseesthistypeofReconstructionasaproblemofevil.HisgoalistoresituateAmericainabiggerframeinordertolookatAmericanBlackhistory.

ItismycontentionthatHarlan,usingthedevelopingpsychoanalyticalhistory

techniquesofthelate1950s,concludedthatconflictsoccurringinaslavechildhood

formulatedattributesinBTW’spersonalityandprovidedanopeningforhimto

acceptMelvinChisumashispersonalfriendandpoliticalally.ContrarytoDr.

Chisum’sideathat“Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthe

correspondencehediscovered,andthatwasnotmuch,”Harlanhadquiteabitof

informationonMelvinChisum.23InvolumesevenoftheBookerT.Washington

Papers,HarlandescribesMelvinChisum’scareerasbusinessman,journalist,and

politician.TheworkChisumdidforBTWfrom1903to1915asspyandprovocateur

andhiscontinuedsupportofBTW’saccommodationfitthenarrativeofthe“new-

left”revisionistmodelthattheaccommodationistswerebackward,debasedleaders.

ItseemsthatHarlanchosespecificletterstouse,andbyleavingoutothers,heand

othersrecastMelvinChisumasanantagonistandtraitortohisraceinsteadofthe

politicianthatwashisactuallegacy.

HarlandevelopedthenarrativefurtherbytwistingBTW’sblack“UncleTom”

Machiavellian-styleofleadershipintoapsycho-historicalproblem.Harlanextended

thissocialpsychosisintothedevelopmentoftherelationshipbetweenBTWand

Chisum.HeblamedBTW’sfriendshipwithChisumonBTW’supbringingandslave

C.VannWoodwardandMeierasmentorsmaneuveredHarlanintotheir

versionofblackhistory.HarlaninturnindoctrinatedandinfluencedRaymond23Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.OKCU.

Smock,StephenFox,DavidLeveringLewis,PeteDaniels,BrianKelly,andother

historiansinhisgenerationintohisinterpretation,whichdevelopedanddescribed

therelationshipbetweenBTWandChisumaspsychologicallydisturbed.Underthe

advisementofLouisHarlan,thetrailofthenewlydevelopedChisum

characterizationstartsin1970withthepublicationofStephenR.Fox’s,The

GuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter.Foxnamedthreeprofessors—Arthur

Zilversmit,AugustMeier,andLouisHarlan—whohelpedhimpublishhis

manuscript.FoxexplainedinhisprefacethatHarlan“helpedmefindapublisher,

permittedmetoreadanunpublishedpaperofhisonBookerT.Washington,and

finallygaveacriticalreadingtomymanuscriptinitspenultimateform.”24Inhis

researchFoxaccessedtheW.E.B.DuBoispapersprivatelyheldinthecustodyof

HerbertAptheker,whopublishedADocumentaryHistoryoftheNegroPeopleinthe

UnitedStatesin1951.Inhisbook,ApthekerlabeledChisum“self-styledasan

efficiencyengineer”whowasagainsttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters

(BSCP).25

ReviewofLiterature

Exceptforthesocialistmagazine,TheMessenger,historiographicalresearch

inbooksandpapersintheearlytwentiethcenturydidnotportrayChisumasa

traitortohisrace.AsWashington’sspy-cum-man-of-affairsfrom1903until1915,24StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter,ed.AugustMeier,StudiesinAmericanNegroLife(NewYork:Atheneum,1970),Preface.25HerbertAptheker,ADocumentaryHistoryoftheNegroPeopleintheUnitedStates(PennsylvaniaStateUniversity:CitadelPress,1951),635.Nowaccessiblethrougharchives,theseprimarysources,particularlytheWalterWhitepapers,giveaclearerstoryofMelvinChisum’slateryears.

ChisumhadaccesstoeverypresidentfromWilliamMcKinleytoFranklinRoosevelt.

SomeletterstoandfromthemareinthepresidentialfilesintheLibraryof

Congress.RaymondSmockco-editedAGuidetoManuscriptsinthePresidential

LibrarieswithDennisBurtonandJamesRhoadsin1985.26Completedin1937,the

NationalArchivesinMarylandholdcongressionalpapers.TheNAACPpaperswere

intheLibraryofCongressin1964,availableandprocessedby1978inthe

ManuscriptDivision.JosephSullivanandMichaelMillerpreparedTheHaroldIckes

PapersintheManuscriptDivisionoftheLibraryofCongressin2005.However,

Ickes’diarywasinthefilesoftheLibraryofCongress.BackcopiesoftheAfro

AmericanNewspaperslayavailableintheMarylandofficearchives.Wendell

Dabney’sChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers(1927)wasavailableinlibrariesof

AmericanblackcollegesintheformoftheNegroCaravan’s“VisittoDunbar’sTomb”

in1941.AllofthesemanuscriptsportrayedChisumasloyaltohisraceandparty

platform.Historicallyblackcollegesanduniversitiesinthe1970shadMonroe

Work’sTheNegroYearbookandAnnualEncyclopediaoftheNegro(1913),and

copiesoftheNegroCaravan((1941)ontheirshelves,aswellasTheMulattointhe

UnitedStates(1918),Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens(1927),andRobertRussaMoton’s

autobiographyFindingaWayOut(1920).HowardUniversityremainsonlyafew

milesfromtheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkandtheNationalArchives.

TheresearchofStephenFoxsettheanti-Chisumstageforthestudentsofthe

HarlanschoolwiththefirstbookinmoderntimestojudgeChisumas“niggardly.”

26DennisBurton,RaymondSmock,andJamesRhoads,AGuidetoManuscriptsinthePresidentialLibraries(UniversityofMichigan:ResearchMaterialsCorp,1985).

FoxalsousedtheCharlesM.StoryandWilliamH.Lewispapers,theJamesWeldon

JohnsonandWalterWhitepapers,andtheHenryCabotLodgepapersthathe

obtainedthroughtheirfamilies.Fox’suseofnewspaperarticlesonChisum’s

charactershowsthattherewereothersourcesavailableforthesehistorianswriting

Americanblackhistoryinthe1970s.TheDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,familyandChisum,

Sr.’spaperswereaccessibleinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.Inthe1970s,Dr.Chisum

hadaprivatemedicalpracticeininternalmedicineat245NorthBroadStreetin

Philadelphia.Hiswife,GloriaTwineChisum,workedattheNavalAirDevelopment

Centerasanexpertinvisualperformanceandperception.Foryearsnewspapers,

magazines,andjournalscarriedstoriesofherawardsandprizesinthefieldof

scienceandphilanthropy.Dr.GloriaChisumwonthe“BlackEngineeroftheYear”

awardin1989.However,thehistorianschosetocastorframeMelvinJackson

Chisum,Sr.’sworkandlegacybasedonthecharacter,reputation,andideologythey

werecreatingaboutBTW;theydidnotconsulttheChisumfamily–theycertainly

consultedotherfamilies–aboutaccuracy.Foxalsobasedhischaracteronoral

historygleanedfrommensuchasPercivalPrattis,wholivedduringtheperiod,but

whohadlittleassociationwithChisum.

FoxturnedtoHarlan,Harlan’snotes,andHarlan’sestimateofChisuminstead

ofdoinganinterviewwiththeChisumfamily.Foxwrotethat“Washington’ssecret

campaignagainstTrotterbeganearlyinSeptember1903withtheespionageefforts

ofaNewYorkBookeritenamedMelvinJ.Chisum.Chisumwasamanofno

particulardistinction”;afewyearslaterWashington’sbestfriendinNewYork

remarkedthatChisum“hasmadeuphismindnottowork,andexpectstoliveby

borrowing.”The“ChisumTrail”becameoneofaddingtoHarlan’snegativedepiction

ofChisum.Foxaddedthatin1916theNewYorkAgereportedthatChisumhadfled

fromacriminallibelconvictioninOklahoma.Butin1903hiscasual

unscrupulousnessmadehima“goodhenchman-errandboyforTuskegee.”27

JervisAnderson,aJamaican-bornhistorianandjournalist,wroteA.Philip

Randolph:ABiographicalPortraitin1972.Itisthebestoverallreportonthe

Pullmanportercrisisintheblackcommunity.Inhisresearchon“Negrounionism,”

theAfrocentrichistoriancallstheChisumofthe1920sa“prominentChicago

politician,”“whoadvisedporterstheywouldbebetteroffrelyinguponthegoodwill

ofthePullmancompany.”Andersondidnotusetheanti-herojargonassociatedwith

Chisum’sstanceagainsttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters(BSCP).Anderson

providesanoveralllookatthePullmanporterconflictbyincludingthepointofview

oftheblackchurches,theblackpress,theblackcommunity,thesocialist-backed

MessengermagazineofRandolphandChandler,andblackleadersbothforand

againsttheunionizationofporters.

InEssaysontheAgeofEnterprise(1974),laborhistorianDavidBrody

followedtheHarlanschoolin1974byusingtheexactwordingof“spyand

provocateur”thatHarlanwoulduseinhis1977publicationoftheBookerT.

WashingtonPapers.Harlanmentionstwoofhiscolleaguesandstudentsattheend

ofhisdescriptionofChisumasspyandprovocateur.Hewritesthat,formore

informationonChisum,thereadershouldconsultPeteDaniel,“BlackPowerinthe27Fox,TheGuardianofBoston,57.

1920s:TheCaseoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”intheJournalofSouthern

History(August1970),andWilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,

MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(1977).

DanielwasastudentofHarlan,Harrisablackeducator.

WilliamHarriscontinuedthenegativedepictionofChisuminKeepingthe

Faith.Thebookwasoriginallypublishedin1925.Anamesakepossiblypublished

theoriginalcopyofthebook.Anattempttofindtheoriginalauthorwas

unsuccessful.WilliamHarriscouldnothavebeentheoriginalauthorbecausehewas

notbornuntil1945.TheoriginalmanuscriptdidnothavethedescriptionofChisum

fromPercivalPrattis.ItdidgiveinformationthatChisumwasloyaltothePullman

portersbecauseofhispersonalrelationshipwithGeorgePullmanwhohadhired

himwhenhewasaboytobeaporter.LikeFox’suseoftheerroneoussources,

HarrisusedthePrattisinterviewinthere-edited1977versionofthebook.Inthe

neweditionpublishedbytheUniversityofIllinoisPress,HarrisdescribedChisumas

the“smoothestofalargegroupofunderhandedoperatorsinChicagoduringthe

1920s;he[Chisum]hadalonghistoryofsecretiveandunprincipledmissionsfor

pay.”HarrisearnedhisM.A.andPh.D.fromIndianaUniversityandtaughthistory

therefrom1972to1982.HarrisdidnotuseChisum’spoliticalorjournalistic

reputationtodescribeChisumforhisbook,butindicatedheinterviewedPercivalL.

Prattis,a“ne’re-do-welljournalist.”EarlyonPrattiswasaChicagopublisherof

HeebieJeebies:ASignofIntelligenceandacolleagueofChisum’sattheNational

NegroPressAssociation(NNPA)inthe1920s.28Yet,somehow,withalltheprimary

andsecondarysourcesrelatedtoChisuminthegenerationtiedtotheHarlanschool,

thePrattisinterviewandonebyG.W.A.Scott,ateacheratTuskegeeHighSchool,

becamethemostnoteworthysourcesonChisum.

HenryP.Guzda’sarticle,“LaborDepartment’sFirstProgramtoAssistBlack

Workers,”appearedinthemagazineMonthlyLaborReviewinJune1982.Thearticle

supportsMoton’sautobiographicaldataonChisumasanefficiencyengineerfrom

anarticleintheSouthernWorkmanlabormagazinein1920.Thearticledoesnot

nameChisumbutdiscussesaletterhewrotetoGeorgeE.Haynes,theheadofthe

DivisionofNegroEconomicsfortheUnitedStatesgovernmentduringWorldWarI.

Chisum’snameisincludedinthefootnotes.GuzdadescribesChisumasahigh-

rankingofficialofTuskegeewhoworkedforthegovernmentasanefficiencyagent.

ThearticledescribedChisum’sworkinMobile,Alabama,whereblackworkerswere

“exploitedtothedegreeofslavery.”Thisexploitationofworkerswasthesame

informationthatDabneywritesaboutinthisbookChisum’sPilgrimageand

Cincinnati’sColoredCitizensaspositiveforthewareffortandbusiness.

DespitetheHarlanschool,AfricanAmericanbiographiesinthe1980s

continuedtocastChisumasaheroofthecivilrightsmovementsintheProgressive

andNewDealeras.RoyWilkinswasawell-knowncivilrightsleaderinthemid-

twentiethcentury.Inhisautobiography,StandingFast:TheAutobiographyofRoy

28Harris,KeepingtheFaith,53.PrattislaterpublishedtheNewPittsburghCourierafterRobertVann(oneoftheBigFourin1932)in1941.PrattiswasonthelocalboardoftheNNPAwithChisumin1927.

Wilkins(1982),WilkinsregardsChisumasacivilrightsleaderwhocouldmakeor

breakablacknewspaper.WilkinseditedtheNorthwesternBulletinin1922.Asfield

agentfortheNNPA,Chisum,toWilkins’delight,supportedtheinstrumentofcivil

rights.WilkinssucceededW.E.B.DuBoisaseditoroftheCrisismagazine,an

instrumentoftheNAACP.

Thesameyear,1982,JohnHopeFranklinandAugustMeierpublishedthe

book,BlackLeadersoftheTwentiethCentury.WhereasWilkinsadmiredChisumand

wasdelightedwiththesupportChisumgavetoyoungmenseekingtobecivilrights

leaders,FranklinandMeierwereoftheHarlanschool,denigratingChisum’sworkas

thatofaspyandprovocateur.FranklinandMeier,likeStephenFoxinTheGuardian

ofBoston,wroteintothenarrativethatBTWhiredayoungblackman,MelvinJ.

Chisum,toinfiltratetheinnercouncilsofTrotter’santi-BTWorganizationinBoston.

TheauthorscontinuedthenarrativethatHarlanschoolwritersbeganaspartof

theirframeworkandincludedinformationthatChisumlaterspiedontheBrooklyn

branchoftheNiagaraMovement,arrangedtobribeanoppositionnewspapereditor

inWashington,andreportedtheseandotherclandestineactionstoBTWonapark

benchinNewYorkCity.29

Thestruggletointegrate,todefine,andtocontrolthedominantnarrativeof

blackhistoriesseemedtobewonin1983whenHarlanpublishedhissecondvolume

onBTW,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Hisrevisionist

motifbecamethegoldstandardforBTW’slifeandthedominantnarrativeforblack

29Harlan,WizardofTuskegee.98.

historiesabouttheAfricanAmericanexperience1896-1940.Contrarytotheway

BTWwroteofhimselftheHarlanschooldescribedhimasacomplex,ambiguous

man.Importantfiguresin1950shistorywhowerealsoHarlan’smentorssupported

thenewBTW.C.VannWoodwardcalledtheredefinedBTW“complex,difficultand

treacherous,”inhisNewYorkTimesbookreview.TheWashingtonPostreviewer

discoveredthatBTWwas“anenigmaticfigurewhooffendsourera’ssensibilities

andrefusestomeetourpreconceivednotionsofhowagreatleadershouldbehave.”

HarlansuggestedtoMarjorieHunteroftheNewYorkTimesin1984thathe

personallymaynothavelikedBTWforhavingso“manypersonalities.”30

Accordingtovarioushistorians,Harlan,byunmaskingBTW,liftedhimselfto

newheightsinacademia.InHarlan’sinterpretation,BTWdescendedfromablack

icontoanunlikablepsychotic.TheWashingtonPostreviewer,MattSchudel,justified

Harlan’sredefinitionofBTW.SchudelwrotethatblacksdisfavoredBTWbecauseof

hisstanceonaccommodation.TheHarlanschoolalsocastanothercharacterasan

anti-hero,alecherousvillain,andspy—MelvinChisum.Dr.QuintardTayloratthe

UniversityofWashingtonplacedChisum’snarrativeinhis20thCenturyAfrican

AmericanHistoryManualasanespionageagent.

AnewversionofChisumbegantopopup,however,onethatchallengedthe

wholeHarlaninterpretationofBTW,theideaofaccommodation,andtheactivities

ofMelvinChisum.GloriaT.Hull’sdescriptionofChisuminGiveUsEachDay:The

DiaryofAliceDunbarNelson(1984)wascontrarytoHarlan’sdepictioninthe30MarjorieHunter.“APulitzerBiographer’s30-YearLaborofLove,”NewYorkTimes,(NewYork),10May1984.

WizardofTuskegeeandQuintardTaylor’sassessmentofChisuminhishistoryclass

asanespionageagentforTuskegee.WhenPaulLawrenceDunbarandAliceDunbar

weremarried,theylivedinanapartmentwithChisuminNewYork.AliceDunbar

continuedherrelationshipwithChisuminherthirdmarriagetoRobertJ.Nelson.

NelsonwasacivilrightsactivistthatChisumsupportedmonetarilyandbacked

throughpoliticalmeans.ContrarytoHarlan,AliceDunbarNelsoninherdiary

describesChisumasabehind-the-scenescivilrightsactivistsupportive,strong

enoughtopullacaroutofmuddyditch,andaleaderofAmericanblacksinthe

1930s.HerdiarypointstoChisumworkinginthebackgroundasherhusbandgrew

morepowerfulasanactivist.Nelson’sdiaryprovesherhusbandbecameacivil

rightsleaderthroughChisum’scovertworkforhim.

Anotherhistorian,DonaldLisio,whowroteHoover,Blacks,andLily-Whites:A

StudyofSouthernStrategies(1985),examinedChisum’slegacyoutsideoftheHarlan

school.HedescribedChisum’sactivismforcivilrightsduringtheHerbertHoover

administration.Insteadofaspyandprovocateur,LisiodescribedChisumas“awell

known,Chicagoconservative,who,however,opposedblackunions.”WhenChisum

opposedHooveroverthetreatmentofAmericanblacks,Lisiodocumentedthesame

imageofChisumthatRoyWilkins,AliceNelson,andJohnsondidintheirbooks.

VanessaGambleinMakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospital

Movement1920-1945picksupLisio’smotif.Gamble’sresearchplacesChisumwith

theleadersoftheblackhospitalmovementincludingthemembersoftheNAACP.

UsingmanyofthesamesourceswhichHarlanandhisstudentshadaccessto,

Gambledevelopedaless-biasedviewofChisumandhisworkasanefficiency

engineer.

Butdespiteafewpositivecharacterizations,thedamagetoChisum’s

reputationcontinued.Forexample,usingthesameinformationasGamble,Pete

DanielasastudentofHarlan’s,inhisarticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof

theTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”understoodChisumasthepersonwhobrokethe

criticalstandoffatTuskegeeUniversityinthe1920s.Danielusedthepsychohistory

ideathatChisumwas“psychic”inhisworkinsteadofamanproficientasarace

leaderandefficiencyengineer.InDaniel’sfootnotesarereferencestoHarlan’sBTW

papers.Danielfoundpleasureinaddinganotethat“Harlanwasapparentlyunaware

oftheperiodduringwhichChisumworkedforTCI[TennesseeCoalandIron

Company]—anappointmentapparentlysecuredforhimbyMotonthroughhislong

relationshipwiththecompany’smanagement.”TheHarlangroupseemedtotake

pleasureinfindingnegativeinformationaboutChisum.

Asthetwenty-firstcenturyapproached,afewhistorianslookedoutsideof

theHarlanschoolandbacktothepre-1965erafortheirdescriptionsofChisum.

TheireffortstendtodevelopadifferentlegacyforMelvinChisum.BlancheCookin

EleanorRoosevelt:DefiningYears1933-1938(1999)wrotethatChisumwaspartofa

thinktankofblackleadershipintheUnitedStatesunderFranklinDelanoRoosevelt.

In2001,BethBates,inPullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlack

America1925-1945,includedChisumasoneofthebest-educatedblackmeninthe

countryalongwithBenjaminE.Mays,presidentemeritusofMorehouseCollege.She

relatesthestoryoftheporterstrikeandChisum’srelationshipswiththeGeorge

Pullmanfamily.SheplantsMelvinChisum,asamemberoftheNNPA,inalarger

communityoflaboraristocrats,includingPerryHoward,Republicannational

committeemanfromMississippi,JesseBinga,headofBingaStateBankinChicago,

andJ.FinleyWilson,grandexaltedruleroftheElks,allofwhomweregratefultothe

PullmancompanyforhiringthemwhenmostemployersexcludedAfrican

Americans.

In2003,MarcusPohlmannwroteCapitalismversusCollectivism:TheColonial

Erato1945,whichdescribesMelvinChisumasaself-styledefficiencyengineer.His

bookisacomprehensivecollectionofmajorandminorleadersinAmericanblack

politics.PaulBernsteininLetterstoEleanor:VoicesoftheGreatDepression(2004)

writesofChisumasoneofanumberofblackleaders.RefutingBrianKelley’sarticle

thatbecameabookin2000,WilliamGriffininAfricanAmericansandtheColorLine

(2005)revisitstheissueoflaborrecruitingthatBrianKellydescribesinRace,Class,

andPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921(2001).GriffinsuggeststhatJoseph

L.JonesandChisumfoundedaCincinnatiemploymentagencythatbecamealabor-

recruitingcenterfornorthernmanufacturersandmunitionsplantsduringthewar.

Kelly,astudentofHarlanwrotethatChisumsoughtcheapblacklaborfromthe

South.HeaddsintohisfootnotestheexcerptofthedescriptioninHarlan’sBookerT.

WashingtonPapers.Kellywentastepfurther–writingasifhisdiscovery-merited

accolades-thatHarlanwasunawareofChisum’sworkforTennesseeCoalandIron.

HadKellyresearchedtheHarlanpapershewouldhavefoundthathis

mentorHarlanknewbutchosenottopublishtheinformation.RaymondArsenault

wroteMarianAnderson,theLincolnMemorialandtheConcertthatAwakened

America(2009),inwhichhetracedChisum’sworkasraceleaderandfieldsecretary

oftheNNPAandhiseffortsthathelpedHaroldIckesgetMarianAndersontosingat

theLincolnMemorial.ShawnAlexanderinAnArmyofLions:TheCivilRights

StrugglebeforetheNAACP(2012)focusedonChisum’sworkasBTW’sagent,who

infiltratedtheBrooklynbranchoftheNiagaraMovement,butnotasaspyand

provocateur.31

Chisum’spositiverolewasnotacknowledgedbytheHarlanschool.Aslateas

2009historianRaymondSmock,consideredaBTWscholarforhisworkinassisting

LouisHarlaninhisaward-winningworks,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardof

Tuskegee1901-1915andTheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,continuesHarlan’s

traditionoftreatingChisumasanineteenth-andtwentieth-centuryvillain.Notonly

doesSmockadverselyevaluateChisumbutalsowithinthreesentencesaddsinsult

toinjurybyspellingChisum’ssurnameincorrectly.ThisaffrontoccursintheLibrary

ofAfrican-AmericanBiographySeriesbook,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadership

intheAgeofJimCrow,inwhichSmockwritescomparativelyaboutChisumand

otherspies:

It[NiagaraMovement]wasinfiltratedbyanevengreaternumberofWashington’sspies,includingRichardT.Greener,aHarvardgraduate,andashadycharacternamedMelvinJackChissum[sic]whomWashingtonhad

31ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).

employedin1903tospyonMonroeTrotter.Chissum[sic]wouldbecomearegularfixtureinWashington’ssecreteffortstokeepaneyeonhiscritics,oftenmeetinghimonparkbenchesinNewYorkandinothercitiestogethisinstructions.Actingtheroleoftheespionageagenttothehilt,includingcarryingaconcealedweaponandoccasionallywearingabulletproofvest,theobsequiousChissum[sic]wouldsignhisletterstoWashingtonwithflourishessuchas“Iam,Yourobedienthumbleservant,Chissum[sic],todowithasyourEminencedesires,absolutely.”32

SmockbelittledChisumforhisattitudeofhumblenessbeforetheAmericanblack

kingandperhapsplayedonthe“possum”shapeofhisfigurewith“Chissum.”33

TherevisionofChisum’slifebytheHarlanschoolillustratesthathistorians

havebiasesintheirwritingofhistory.Likecastingaplay,pioneerhistorianschose

charactersfromtheProgressiveEraforrolesthatwereacceptableduringthepost–

civilrightsmovement.Theeraofwritingsymbolizedacivilrightsperspective.John

HopeFranklinreferredtotheritualofcastingintheprefaceofhispublication,From

SlaverytoFreedom(1990).Hewrotethattheprocedureofwritingblackhistory

involveda“discreetbalancebetweenrecognizingthedeedsofoutstandingpersons

anddepictingthefortunesofthegreatmassofNegroes...wheredominant

personalitiesforgedtothefrontandassumedrolesofresponsibilityand

leadership.”34Somehow,Chisumdidnotfitthecriteriafortheclassicroleofblack

leadership.

32RaymondSmock,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadershipintheAgeofJimCrow,ed.JohnDavidSmith,TheLibraryofAfrican-AmericanBiography(Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2009),181.33Ibid.,181.34Ibid.,xii.

The1970sbiographersintheHarlanSchoolcastMelvinJacksonChisumonly

asavillain,asimpleone-dimensionalcharacterbasedonhisworkforBTWat

Tuskegee.35Theythenaddedtheanti-heroinformationaboutChisumastheyfound

itinhistory.Historiansdevelopedtheirownblackheroesbasedontheir

interpretationofwhathistoryshouldhavebeen.Initially,theyneededastory,but

nowtherewereenoughresourcestoincludethedimensionsthey,purposefullyor

not,leftouttodismissAmericanblackleaderswhotheybelieveddidnotseek

justiceandthemoralandmaterialimprovementofAmericanblacks.Chisumdidnot

fittheirmold,sohewasleftout,recast,orreducedtoacaricature.Reclaimingthe

fullcharacterofAmericanblackhistoryincludeswrestlingwithChisumandadding

backintothenarrativethatBTW’sdeathdidnotendaccommodation.

TheMachiavellian-cum-UncleTomactremainedinblackcirclesasawayof

dealingwithpeopleinracistpoliticalandsocialarenas.Itwasdevelopedbyblacks

tosurviveinaracistworld;itwasnotapsychologicalproblemofAmericanblacks

inChisum’sera,asforwardedinnarrativesoftheHarlanschool.Inordertomake

BTWmoredigestibleforwhitesandblacksinthecivilrightsmovement,Harlan

admittedlytamperedwiththeBTWcharacterinhisnarrativebecausehewantedto

usehishistoriesastoolsforsocialreconstruction.InsteadofrevealingthatBTW

usedMachiavelliantacticsofslaveresistanceortheUncleTompersonato

manipulatewhitesociety,HarlanreadjustedBTW’scharactertothatofacomplex

personalitywithadamagedpsychemanifestingitselfinunstablebehavior.In

manipulatingWashington’scharacter,HarlanalsoalteredthereputationofChisum35HarlanandSmock,BTWP,Vol.8:1904-1906,77.

toshowBTWwasderangedenoughtoacceptChisumasacloselyregardedfriend.

OnlyasocialistnewsmagazineduringlaborunionconflictslabeledChisumasa

traitor.OnlyanotherspylabeledChisumaslecherousintheBTWpapers.Bothwere

pickedupbytheHarlanschoolasobjectivetruthabouthisnatureinhistoriography.

Inher1995book,MakingAPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement

1920–1945,VanessaGambledescribedChisumas“FieldSecretaryfortheNational

NegroPressAssociationwhoplayedsuchaprominentrole....”36Aswell,Blanche

CookinEleanorRoosevelt:DefiningYears1933–1938,recountedthatChisumwas

partofthethinktankofblackleadershipundertheRooseveltadministration.Other

historianswroteofChisumandtheirresearchshowedhisworthinhistory.Beth

Bates’sPullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925–1945,

(2001),MarcusPohlman’sCapitalismvs.Collectivism:TheColonialErato1945,

AfricanAmericanPoliticalThought,(2003),PaulBernstein’s,LetterstoEleanor:

VoicesoftheGreatDepression(2004),WilliamGriffin’sAfricanAmericansandthe

ColorLineinOhio,1915-1930(2005),RaymondArsenault’sA.PhilipRandolph:A

BiographicalPortrait,(2009),andShawnAlexander’sAnArmyOfLions:TheCivil

RightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(2012)allgivetruthfulandobjectiveaccountsof

MelvinChisum.

Thereisnooverallexplanationastowhythesetwenty-firstcentury

historianschosetheirdepictionsofChisumdespitethedominantnarrativeofthe

Harlanschool.Theyareallfromdifferentuniversities,somefromdepartments36VanessaNorthingtonGamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920-1945(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),80,82,97.

otherthanhistory.ThoughtheyhavedifferentinterpretationsofChisumthanthe

Harlanschool,theirworkforhistoricalclaritydoesnotmeantheinfluenceofthe

Harlanschoolisover.Perhapsthenewmoretruthfulandobjectivedescriptions

meananewschoolofhistorianshasalreadybegun,--whichincludesareassessment

ofaccommodationaswell–butbecauseweareinthemidstofthechangeithasnot

yetbeennamedorrecognized.

Withtruthandobjectivity,thereallegacyofMelvinChisum’shistorywill

impactsocial,labor,andracialhistory,allowingforamorecomprehensivestudyof

Americanhistorytobewritten.Twenty-firstcenturyhistorianswillshowthatthe

HarlemRenaissancewillnolongerpervadetheunderstandingofthedynamicsand

ethosofblackAmericainthe1920s.Roomwillbemadeforalegitimatehistorical

viewofanearliercivilrightsagendathatwasbeingbuiltinboththeRepublican

PartyandtheDemocraticPartyaswellinlabor,throughmensuchasChisumand

Nelsonwhosetthefinalstageofthecivilrightsmovementthatstartedin1940at

thedeathofRobertRussaMoton.

ThisattemptofaddingChisumonthenationallevelandminorcharacterson

thestatelevel,suchasOklahomansDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,(1873-1937)and

WilliamTwine(1860-1933),andthewhiteleaders,preachers,industrialists,and

politicianswhoworkedwiththem,willfocusonandanalyzeanevolvingpatternof

racerelationsthatbroughtanewordertoAmericaby1940,showinghowfittingthe

lifeofChisumintothepuzzleofbattlingJimCrowandracismduringtheProgressive

EraandtheNewDealyearsaidsindevelopingacomprehensivepictureofblack

activism.InsertingintohistorythelifeofMelvinChisumbringsalivethepeopleand

ideasofthetimeperiodfrom1873tothe1930s.

Inthisdissertation,thenameofBookerT.Washingtonisshortenedtothe

initialsBTWbecauseusinghislastnameismanytimesconfusedinthisinstrument

withWashingtonD.C.Usingallcapitalsgiveshomagetohimasthegreatmanhe

continuestobeinourmemory.Eachchapterbringsintoperspectivethelifeof

MelvinChisumbeyondhisworkforBTW.

ThisChapter1servesasanintroduction.DiscerningtheTruthFromtheDead,

takesthechallengeofthelateMelvinChisum,Jr.,toresearchandanalyzewhether

thetheoryofHarlanabouthisfatherwasshortsighted.UsingDr.Chisum’squeryit

demonstratesthatresearchhasuncoveredseveraldiscrepanciesinthecharacterof

ChisumpaintedbyHarlan’spen.Therefore,thedepictionofChisumasaspyand

provocateurattheheightofhiscareerisreopenedforinterpretation.Thechapter

examinesHarlan’sobjectivityaswellasreviewsHarlan’slineageinjuxtapositionto

Chisum’sfamilylineage.Tiesarefoundthatleadtomoreindepthinvestigationin

chapter3.

Chapter2,ConceptsinBlackHistory,FaithfulWitness:Chisum,theSocial

GospelandAmericanCivilReligion,laysafoundationfordefiningthecourageous

“risktaking”characteristicsChisumbecameknownforinhislifetime.Whilebothhis

sonanddaughterwantreaderstoknowhewasnotanavidchurchgoer;Chisum

developedwithinhimthebehaviorsthatcamefromatraditionofthesocialgospel.

Thesepracticesledtogivingone’slifeforothers,nomattertherisk.Thechapter

developstheideathatChisumwasamysticwhopracticedtheblacksocialgospel

undertheumbrellaoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligion.Hispracticecanbeseenin

thesamepraxesofSojournerTruthandotherblackheroes.

Chapter3,Background,ItisnottheSizeoftheDogintheFightbuttheSizeof

theFightintheDog,coversthebackgroundandmeaningfulassociationsMelvin

Chisummadeasayoungmanthathelpedhimbecomearaceman,spy,and

eventuallyaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministrationintheNewDeal.Itis

thenarrativeofhischildhoodinfluencesthatmadehimamanofsteel.Chisumwas

bornpost-CivilWarinoneofthetoughestpartsofthecountryforfreedmento

survive.HecasthimselfasTexasSteelandliterallyboxedhiswayoutoftheSouthas

“TexasRedBud,”aprize-winningpugilist.Heformedintimateattachmentsto

whitessuchasGeorgePullmanandblackssuchasBTWandBishopWilliamDerrick,

thatguidedandhelpedhimgainprestige,positions,andlateremergeduringthe

ProgressiveEraatopblackpoliticianintheDemocraticParty.

Chapter4,TheStrokeofaPen,TheVillainizationofMelvinChisum,unravels

thecaricatureoftheBookerT.Washington–Chisumrelationshipdevelopedby

Harlanasoneof“moralinsensitivity.”ThechapterrevisitsthequestionofHarlan’s

descriptionofChisumfurtheringresearchintheMaster’sThesis,“DrivingBlack

American:MelvinJacksonChisumSr.,AfricanAmericanKingmaker.”UsingHarlan’s

ownarchivedresearchfromtheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkstorage,the

chaptercontinuestoquestionHarlan’sdescriptionofChisum’srelationshipasclose

totheTuskegeeMachine.IttakesalookatthecaricaturesthatHarlanusedforBTW.

HarlanusedideasofmysticssuchasinthestoryofCamelotincludingwizards,and

wizard’slamps-thatcalledtogenies-todescribetheblackethic.AstudyBlack

MachiavelliansshowsthatBrerRabbit,EmmettScott,BTW,Chisumandmostblack

leadersusingthemaskofUncleTomwerewizardsattemptingtoescapeJimCrowin

theUnitedStatesofAmerica.ThechaptertakesChisum’slifeintotheearly1910sas

hedevelopedintoanentrepreneurasarealestateagentinNewYork.

Chapter5,Chisum’sPilgrimageinOklahoma,WheretheWindComesSweeping

DownthePlains,movesChisum’slifeintothepivotalmomentswhenheloosensties

withtheTuskegeeMachineandstartstomovearoundthecountrydevelopinghis

notorietyasajournalistandhishobbyofrescuingthepoor.Hisrescuesweremore

intheorderofblackmysticsoftheblacksocialgospel,SojournerTruth,Harriett

Tubman,andToussaintL‘Overture.UnlikeRobinHood,Chisumdidnottakefrom

therichandgivetothepoor.Heliterallyheldhisneckupforthelynchingrope,to

aidblacksinescapingblackleaderswhoabusedotherblacks.Hetooktheriskof

goingagainstasystemmiredincriminalconspiracyandJimCrow.Thischapter

takesanotherlookatChisum’sattackonLangstonUniversitypresidentInmanPage

andestablisheshispartinthecourtcasethatfollowed.IthighlightshowChisum’s

newspaper,thefirstblacknewspaperinOklahomaCity,TheOklahomaTribune,

becameacatalystforthecivilrightsmovementthroughRoscoeDunjee’sriseas

editoroftheBlackDispatchinafightagainstChisum’sespionage.Itbroadensthe

narrativeofthechildhoodfriendshipbetweenChisumandDr.IsaacWilliamYoung

asChisumsetsthestageforYoung’srisetobecomingOklahoma’s“FirstBlack

Governor”in1921andanationalblackleaderinthe1930s.

Chapter6,MelvinChisuminthe1920s,Service,Service,Service,picksupfrom

Chisum’spivotalmomentinOklahomaandguidesthereaderintoChisum’slifeafter

thedeathofBTW.ThechapterchangesthehistoricalnarrativesetbyHarlan’s

SchoolonBTW.Hisinfluencedidnotdiewithhim.Itshowshowsomelieutenantsof

theTuskegeeMachinecontinuedtoworkwithintheUnitedStatesgovernment

carryingoutBTW’sagendaintothe1930s.Thechaptercontinuestoshowthebreak

downbetweenChisumandtheTuskegeeMachineandpicksupwithEmmettScott

asleaderoftheremainingBookerites.ItsuggestschangesatTuskegeeandchanges

inChisum.ThechaptertakesChisumbeyondbeingaWorldWarIefficiencyagent

fortheU.S.EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomics(coveredinmy

master’sthesis,“DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumSr.AnAfrican

American“Kingmaker.”)ItlooksatChisumwithinthepoliticsduringtheriseofthe

“lily-white”agendainboththeWarrenG.HardingandCalvinCoolidgePresidential

administrations.EmphasisismadeonChisum’srelationships,hismarriage,family,

andhisnemesesincludingMaysBenjaminoftheBrotherhoodofSleepingCar

Porters,andOscarDePriest,arising,black,Republicanpoliticianinthefourthward

inChicago.ThechapterdevelopsandshapesChisum’sdevelopingcareerunder

SamuelInsull.

Chapter7,TheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalCrisis,YouMayComeThisFar:But

ComeNoFurther,(Job38:11):ChisumandtheTuskegeeVeteran’sHospitalCrisis,

specificallygivesanaccountofChisum’smissiontoaidtheWarrenHarding

administration,theNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople

(NAACP),JamesWeldonJohnson,andRobertRussaMotoninbringingaboutanall-

blackadministrationattheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thechapteroffersacloser

lookatChisum’spracticeofdetectivework.Itdemonstrateshiscapacitytoconfront

leadingblackpoliticianswhoattackedTuskegee,andshowsdevelopmentofhis

acumenandskillsforhisworkoverhislifetime.TheepisodeforeshadowsChisum’s

1930sunveiling;hisgradualmovementfromperformingundercoverworkforpay–

tothehighestbidder–tohisaccomplishmentsinovertpoliticalwork.

Chapter8,CrossingOverTrippingUp,theendofAccommodation,discusses

thefinalmovementofBTW’slieutenantsintotheProgressiveErareform.Theyleft

theRepublicanPartyforaNewDealwithinPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’s

administrationonlytofindthesameolddeal.Chisum’srisetobethemostpowerful

blackintheUnitedStatesistheclimaxofthechapter.Usingletterswrittenbetween

ChisumandDr.IsaacWilliamYoungofOklahoma,thechapterintroducesthenewly

discoveredprimarysourcesthatshowtheworkofblackDemocratsinthe

patronagesystemonthelocal,state,andnationallevel.Thesegiveanintimateview

ofblackswholefttheRepublicanPartybelievingDemocratswouldsupportthem.

AfteralltheyearsofplayingBrerRabbitandescapingthefarmer,thefarmercaught

BrerRabbit,byluringtheminandthen–fencingtheranch.Somehistoriansbelieve

thattheendofthesocialgospelperiodendedundertheNewDeal.Chisumwrites

thattheperiodwastheendoftheProgressiveEra.ForChisumandotherblack

leadersthetransformationbecameonefromtheblacksocialgospelintoaliberation

theology.Liberationtheologygrewfromthesocialgospel.OnceBookeritesjoined

theotherblackpoliticalfactionsinthe1930stheytookovertactioninsteadof

accommodation.BecauseoftheNewDealwizardry,“warwickism”wasswappedfor

assertiveness.Theywouldhavetofighttheirwayoutandwiththisparadigm

changecreatedthemoderncivilrightsmovement.

Forward

Almostfiftyyearsafterthepublicationof“SecretLifeofBookerT.

Washington,”andtheintroductiontoChisumintheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,as

aspyandprovocateur,scholarscontinuetoprobeforanswersabouttherealMelvin

Chisum.LouisHarlanlegitimizedanddefinedthestudyofAmericanblackhistory

fortheworld.HisworkkepttheBookerites’workintheclassroominthetwentieth

century.Itspullwassoweightythatfewquestioneditsaccuracyuntilapleafrom

thelateDr.MelvinChisumtoclearhisfather’snamecametogetherwithaccessto

newsourcesprovidedbydigitization,whichallowedthetasktobeundertaken.

JamesSmallwood’sworkimpactedboththreadsofhistoriographyandledbackto

thejournalistsofthe1920sandearlier.Modernscholarsneedanswersandlike

Chisum’ssonseekavisionofChisumthatisnotdistortedandaviewofBTWthatis

nottwisted.ThisisanattemptatabiographicalsketchofthelifeofMelvinJackson

Chisum,Sr.,andanunderstandingblackpoliticsintheProgressiveEra,ofatime

whenBookeritesbecameapartofthecivilrightsmovementandwhytheydid.That

informationhasgoneunrecognized.

LouisHarlan’sresearchonMelvinChisumwasnotthecentralreasonfor

writinghisbooks.However,thedevelopmentofChisumasnomorethanspyor

provocateur,andtherecollectionsofhiscareerinthenarrativesoftheHarlan

schoolneedtobeadjusted.BlackhistoriansportrayedChisuminthelastofthe

nineteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyasaraceleader,hero

andpolitician.IcontendaswellthatonlyafterBTW’slieutenantslikeChisumwho

werestilldeeplyembeddedandentrenchedingovernmentnetworks,attemptedto

makeaccommodationworkfromwithintheRooseveltadministrationandfailed,

couldtheCivilRightsMovementariseandgraspandholdthenation’sattentionas

“the”movementofAmericanBlacks.Thus,thedissertationrecalculatesthe

beginningoftheCivilRightsMovementbasedonBTW’sinfluencethroughhis

lieutenantsthatremainedingovernmentandprivatepoliticalcirclesafterhisdeath.

RobertRussaMotonheldthemajorinfluenceinkeepingaccommodationalive.

WithinamonthofRobertRussaMoton’sdeaththeBaltimoreAfroAmerican

newspapermadeaboldstatementwhenitpublishedthenewleadersofblack

reform.BackedbyChisum,thefirstpicturethateverappearedofW.E.BDuBoisand

hisfamilywaspublishedinJuly1940.OnemonthlaterWalterWhiteandhisfamily

werepresented.TheculminationofBTW’sworkofaccommodationandcivilization

buildingbyhislieutenantshadended.Thesenewspaperitemssymbolizeda

paradigmshiftbetweenBookeritesandmoreliberalblacks.Theycametogetheras

one.Thefactionsoftheblackleadership(chapter5)becameone.Agitationnot

accommodationwasthenewvoiceofthemovementforjustice,libertyandequality.

CHAPTERII

FAITHFULWITNESSTOLIBERATION

CHISUM,THESOCIALGOSPEL,ANDAMERICANCIVILRELIGION

MelvinChisum,Sr.spokeatSecondBaptistChurchinMcKinney,Texas,“Declaringthatthecoloredmanshouldbemorereligiousthanotherracesbecausehisblessingshadbeengreat,butdeploringthesuperstitionthathadgrownuparoundNegroChurchactivities,thespeaker’s(Chisum)finalconclusionswere,thattheblackfolksmusthavemore“seven-dayintheweekhometraining”and“lessSundayshoutingreligion.”

---McKinneyDailyCourierGazette,23June1916

InordertounderstandChisumandtheworldofblacksinthefirstquarterof

thetwentiethcentury,oneneedstounderstandthedevelopmentofthe“blacksocial

gospel”and“AmericanBlackCivilReligion.”Historianstendtosuperimposethe

theoriesofadominant,Anglo-Saxon,upperclass,socialgospelmovementoverthe

entiresocialgospelmovementacrossthespanofAmericanhistoryfromthemid

1800stotheCivilRightsmovementinthe1960s.Whileitistruethatthesocial

gospelmovementattheendofnineteenthandturnofthetwentiethcentury

inspiredreformmovementswhichincludedgovernmentreformsintheworkplace

andeveninpersonalspheres,theleadershipofthosefactionschoosetoaddress

equalityonanunequalbasis.TheirworkswereimpededandlimitedinAmerican

society,becausethechurchandtheeducationalsectorsallowedracism,sexism,and

classisminaone-sidedquasi-Christiangospel.Thischapteridentifiestheeffortsof

commonpeopleonthefringesoftheSocialGospelMovement,reevaluatestheBlack

SocialGospel,anddefinestheAmericanCivilReligionthatsupportedit.

AnAmericanCivilReligionexistsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Robert

Bellah,Americansociologist,wrote,“WhilesomehavearguedthatChristianityisthe

nationalfaith,andothersthatchurchandsynagoguecelebrateonlythegeneralized

religionof(theAmericanWayofLife),fewhaverealizedthatthereactuallyexists

alongsideofandratherclearlydifferentiatedfromthechurchesanelaborateand

well-institutionalizedcivilreligioninAmerica.”1EarlyAmericanmulti-dimensional

societiescreatedracialseparationandultimatelyseparatebutequallaws.Underthe

umbrellaofProtestantreligiousculture,AmericanBlackscontinuedoutsideaswell

aswithinthemainlinechurchactsoftheBlackSocialGospel.Separatedspaces

allowedforblackstocreatetheirownAmericanCivilReligion.Intheirownsphere

blackscelebratedEmancipationProclamationDay,Juneteenth,andThirdofApril

ratherthanjusttheAmericanIndependenceDayonJuly4.Followingtheblack

newspapers,churchexperiences,andbooksoftheperiodshowsthatthenational

blackcommunityhadtheirownheroes,holidays,folklore,andliterature.Modernity

isstilldiscoveringtherubricsofthedifferentdimensions.Theyareevidencedin

researchonMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.

1RobertBellah,"CivilReligioninAmerica,"Daedalus96,no.1(1967).1.

HowdidseparationandtheirownAmericanCivilReligionaffectthesocial

gospelofAmericanblacks,AmericanAsians,andothercultures?Itcreateddifferent

domainsinwhichtodiscoverfreedom,justice,andliberty.Becausemostblacks

wereslavesthenlaterencasedinaJimCrowframework“truth”wasnotareally

tangibleentity.WomenlikeSojournerTruthwereinvolvedinquasi–Christian

movementssuchaswomen’ssuffrage.Whenthetimecametogiveallwomen

equalityofthevoteinAmerica,herAnglo-SaxoncounterpartsleftAmericanblack

womenbehind.BlackshadbeenleftbehindinthegrowthoftheUnitedStates.

InregardstoChisumheunderstoodthatthe“truth”ofblackpeoplewas

distortedasachild.Hisfamilymember,MerrittTrammell,knowntofreedmenand

thefirstgenerationoffreebornblacksahero,preacher,andlawman,was

characterizedinthenewspapersandbystateleadersasanoutlaw(chapter3).

Duringandafterslaveryandintothemodernera,theAnglochurchesandtheir

revivalistsdevelopedtheologicaldistortionsandtokeepblacksunequal.Evenin

somemainlinedenominationsuntilthe1920sonlywhitescouldpastorblack

mainlinechurches,therebykeepingthepowerofthewhiteperson’sGodinwhite

hands.Fromslaveryandintothe1970sthisdistortionofgospelwasforce-fedto

blacks.ForanexamplewhileattendingdesegregatedschoolsinVirginiamany

learnedforthefirsttimethatAmericanblackancestorswereslavesbecauseofthe

HamDoctrine.Eventhoughelementaryschoolhistoriansforcedthenarrativeson

children,bythe1970ssomeblackpastorswereeducatedenough,thoughblack

colleges,torepudiatethemyth.

ToborrowatermfromMelvinChisumin1916andCarterG.Woodsonin

1933,Blackswereintentionally“mis-educated”byliberalpastors.Biblicalpassages

suchas“slavesobeyyourmaster”in1Peter2:18,weredistortedbypastors

ignoringaccompanyingtextsusedintheblacksocialgospellikeJohn8:36thatread

“whomtheSonsetsfreeisfreeindeed.”Chisumwaspreaching/speakingat

churchesduringthesametimeperiodthathebeganliterallymovingblackstothe

North.Chisumindicatedthismis-educationinhis1916speechbeforeamixed

audienceatSecondBaptistChurchinMcKinney,Texas.Hesaid,“Thereisnoreason

whytheblackmanshouldnothavegivenevidenceofallthefinequalitiesofthe

whiteman,butforthefactthathiseducationhasbeenwrongandhisleadersare

responsibletherefore.”2Heincorporatedtheblacksocialgospelbiblicalemphasis

offreedomintohisownlife.In1915ChisumescapedOklahomaalivebysheerwill

againstalmostinsurmountableodds.By1916hewasdodgingwarrantsforhis

arrestforabscondingbynighttotheNorthwithSouthernworkers(chapter5).

Lawsagainsteducatingblacksstifledtheirspiritualaswellastheirsecular

growth.Inspiteofthis,the“HolySpirit”oftheJudeo-ChristianGodmetthemas

slavesandfreedmenandspirituallyfreedthem.Forsome,hundredsofyearsafter

theircapture,thisknowledgefitthereligiouspraxisratherthananAfro-centricone

relatedtothecultsorancestorworshipofAfrica.3Whilethemainline

denominationstaughtofaGodwhodecreedHam’sdescendantstobeslaves;

2“COLOREDMANISTOSPEAKHERE,”McKinneyDailyCourierGazette(Texas)23June1916.3EFranklinFrazier,TheNegroChurchinAmerica(NewYork:ShockenBooks,1963).55.FrazierbelievedblacksdevelopednewideasaboutGodtofittheirneeds.

somehow,theyknewthe“true”Godwasdifferent.Eventhoughbereftofthefull

gospelaboutsociety,ChisumandSojournerTruthandevenJackJohnson,Chisum’s

childhoodfriend,foundthat“withintheirownbeings”theyhadexperiencethat

bespokeofaspiritoffreedombeyondbondage.Mysticallytheyknewa

transcendentGodthathadsomethinggoodforthemlikeotherpeoples.Theyhadno

namefortheir“trueGod”butspoketheirthoughtsinslavesongswiththelyrics:

Whatisthis,thatmakesmefeelsogoodinside?WhatisthisthatmakesmelaughwhenIfeellikecrying?Whateveritis,itwon’tletmeholdmypeace.Itmakesmelovemyenemiesandmakesmelovemyfriends.Itwon’tletmebeashamedthatI’vebeenbornagain.4

Evenwhileblack-theycouldbebornagainandwashedwhiteassnow–itinthe

supernaturalthough,thespiritrealmofthetrueGod.

AsastudentoftheologyandUnitedStateshistory,Igrapplewithdistortions

inthedifferencesinwhitesocialgospelandtheblacksocialgospelasrelatedtothe

AmericanBlackdiasporaandtheirsalvationhistory.Thoughseldommentioned

becauseitwasthetimeofCivilRightsmovementandequality,duringdesegregation

manyyoungblacks,struggledwithblacknessinaworldwhereallblackthingswere

destroyedsothattheymightassimilateintowhiteculture.WilliamElbertBurghardt

(W.E.B.)DuBoiscalledintegrationintoexistence.However,DuBoisleftforAfrica

leavingagenerationtoliveouthisvision.TheyfacedanewReconstructionmuch4Thisslavesonghasnoorigin.Itwaspasseddownthroughtheblackchurches.TheauthorpickeditupinVirginiaatFirstUnionBaptistChurch.TravelingthroughouttheUnitedStatestoblackchurchesonefindsthatitisapartoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligionsongtradition.

liketheirancestorsonehundredyearsprior.Theirworldwastornapart.According

toErnstBreisachinHistoriography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(1983),NewLeft

andCivilRightshistorians“attackedtheestablishedorderofblackhistory”turning

blackheroessuchasBookerT.Washington(BTW)“intodarkfigures”while

underdogssuchasW.E.B.DuBoisbecametheheroes.5The“true”blacksocialgospel

andAmericanBlackCivilReligionbecametheinspirationforthe1970s

Reconstructioncommunitytouseinordertosurvivetheangstthatcamefrom

movingoutoftheirblackenclavestotheracismofdesegregationwheretheywere

viewsassecond-classcitizens.Thesegroupsofyoungadultsconsideredthemselves

martyrslikeMartinLutherKingJr.Theysearchedforheroesandheroinessuchas

BrerRabbit,SojournerTruth,andmenlikeMelvinChisuminordertosurvivewhen

theirliberationwaschallenged.Theyneedednotthefundamentalistjargonbuta

“sevendayaweekhometraining”thatChisumcalledforinhisspeechatSecond

BaptistChurch,astheyriskedlife,limb,andallforjusticetogoforwardinthenewly

developingworld.

Exploringthisrelationshipdeeplyhasshapedmyacademicworkand

Master’sTheses.AtUnionTheologicalSeminaryinVirginiaandPresbyterianSchool

ofChristianEducation,thisledtomywriting“SojournerTruth;AFaithfulWitness”

(1994).Iwrote“ADefiantBreed”(1996)attheDivinitySchoolatDukeUniversity.

AttheUniversityofOklahoma,itwas“Oklahoma’sFirstBlack‘Governor:’Dr.Isaac

WilliamYoung,”(2004)andJusticeThroughEspionage(2006).Mymaster’sthesisat

5SeeErnstBreisach,Historiography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1983).363-365.

OklahomaStateUniversity,“DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,

AfricanAmericanKingMaker(2014)helpedmeunderstandthatChisum’sworkwas

thesameideologyoftheblacksocialgospelasSojourner’s.Idiscoveredand

followedthehypothesisoftheblacksocialgospelaslinkedtothe“socialgospel”but

advancedtotheunderstandingthattherewasanAmericanBlackCivilReligionover

andaboveanAmericanCivilReligion.Chisum’slifefittheparadigm.Chisum

changedfromaneophytetohero.WhetheritwasthedeathofHarriettTubman

(1914)ortherealizationthatBookerT.Washingtonwasdying(1915)(that

consequentlytherewouldbenowizardtoleadblackpeople),somethinggavehim

impetustosavehispeople.However,inthattimeperiodhechangedintoarace

warriorwhotookrisksthatnoothermaninthecountrywaswillingtotakefor

indigentblacksanddestitutewhitepeople.

Chisum’santics,thewayhewroteandspokeofGod“withinhim”andthe

blackcommunity’scelebrationsofJohnBrown’sdeath,theEmancipation

Proclamation,NatTurner,andtheiraccoladesforToussaintL’Overture,didnotfit

themoldandmoresoftheAmericansocialgospelidealnorAmericaCivilReligion.

AmericansocialgospelislinkedtoProgressivism.ItisassociatedwithAmerican

ProtestantismintheNorthernStates,butitwasdifferentfromthereligiosityofthe

ex-slavesinthesouthernstatesaswellasthoseblackslikeChisumwhomoved

North.Thenorthernmovementofthesocialgospeldealtwithsocialproblems

relatedtoChristianethicsfoundintheDominionistTheology,whichrosebeside

fundamentalisminthe1960s,notequivalenttotheliberationtheologyamong

blacks.6Thisformofnationalismsuggestedthattheonepercentofrichpeople

shouldrulethenationevenaftertheCivilRightsMovement.

TheDominionisttheologyemployedbiblicaltextualguidesthatledthe

peopletofollowthe“Beatitudes”versusaliberationtheology.Thetheology

incorporating“blessedbethemeek”discouragedthemeekfromchallengingthe

powerstructure.IntheProgressiveEra,poorblacksweretiedtoagricultureby

gunmensurroundingthemandusedinlaborbybigbusinessinthesamewaysas

thepastplantationownersusedslaves.Eveninthelatenineteenthandearly

twentiethcentury,theblacksocialgospelwasitselfaresponsetotraditionalliberal

andconservativemainlineChristianChurchdogma.Sometimesblackshadtoshape

-shiftintotheSon(avesselforGod’sspirit)duringthenight,playBrerRabbit,and

trickthetricksterinordertomoveforward.Chisumbecamethemodernshape-

shifterinhistime.DrawingthepowerfromGodhedidwhatwasnecessarytosave

livesandsouls.ThearticleintheMcKinneynewspaperliftsChisumasa“savior”of

coloredyouths.7

ThearticlerecountsanationalstoryaboutChisum’sfirstknownheroic

achievementoutsideoftheboxingring.TheMcKinneyDaileyCourierGazettegavean

overviewofChisum’srecentworksavingyoungwomen’svirtue.Itretoldthestory

ofChisum’sexposeofallegedimmoralconditionsatacoloredschool.Followinghis6ForahistoryofDominionistTheologysee,StephenieHendricks,DevineDestruction:WiseUse,DominionTheologyandtheMakingofAmericanEnvironmentalPolicy(Michigan:MelvilleHouse,2005).ThomasIceH.WayneHouse,DominionTheology,BlessingorCurse?(Massachusetts:MultnomahPress,1988).7“COLOREDMANISTOSPEAKHERE,”McKinneyDailyCourierGazette(Texas)23June1916.

workinthecentralwesternstate“thepresident,eightteachers,andawhite

physicianwereforcedtosevertheirconnectionswiththeschool.Subsequently,a

libelsuitwasfiledagainstChisumandsomefiveorsixotheractions.Inbutonecase

wasthefearlesseditorconvictedandthejudge,afterhearingtheevidencewasso

astonishedattheverdict,permittedChisumtobereleasedonthisown

recognizance.”8Whatthenmadeheroeswhowillingtogivetheirlivesforthe

commonvileblackhuman?Itwasthepowerinherentintheblacksocialgospel.Itis

notthatthesocialgospelwasdifferentbetweenblacksandwhites,betweenrich

andpoor;thedifferencewashowtheyreceivedtheRevelationofGodthatwas

beingheldfromtheirpreachingandteaching.

TheAngloAmerican-Europeansocialgospelhasatleasttwostrains.Onwas

articulatedbyliberalclergymenliketheradicalWashingtonGladden.JohnGarraty,

inTheNewCommonwealth1877-1890(1968)wrotethatGladdenrejectedsocialism

butunderstoodtheindustrialsystemwasfilledwithbenefitsthatcouldbespread

amongcommonpeople.ThroughaChristianpointofview“appliedChristianity,”

societycouldberegeneratedwhenAmericanslearnedtosharethewealth.He

appliedsocialsciences,economicsandreligiontoformasocialgospelofwealthand

missions.9Theother“traditionalEuropean”strandresultedfromablendof

sociologyandChristianity.InTheSocialGospelinBlackAndWhite(1991),Ralph

Lukerclaimedthatthefirstpersontousetheterm‘socialgospel’wasanobscure

pastorinMissouri,HarlanPaulDouglass,inhisbook,ChristianReconstructioninthe8Ibid.9JohnGarraty,TheNewCommonwealth1877-1890(NewYork:HarperandRowe,1968),321-322.

South(1909).LukeclaimedDouglass’ideasmirroredstronglythoseofGladdenand

themenofhisperiodbuthisproblemwiththeadvocatesofthesocialgospelinthe

ProgressiveErawasthattheyfailedtodoanythingaboutracism.Douglass’ideas

incorporatedblacksinAmerican-Europeansocialgospel.Luker’sbookincorporated

blackstoAmerican-Europeansocialgospelusingaseparatebutequalclassist

framework.

Luker’stheorywasthatthesocialgospelwasanextensionofhomemissions

andthesocialreformmovement.10Heisthefirsttowriteaboutwhitestakingtheir

principlesofsocialgospeltoblackenclaves.However,thecontentionofthischapter

isthattheirAnglo-American-Europeanbasedinstitutionalizedideasof“social

gospel”missedthemarkformenlikeChisumandwomenlikeSojournerTruth.The

blackgospelwaslinkedmoretotheovershadowingpoweroftheHolySpirit,the

partofGodthattookoverthehumanspiritandthenuseditasGod’sown.An

examplewouldbethePentecostalRevivalonAzusaStreetinLosAngeles,California.

Aholiness,ex-slave,blackpastorWilliamSeymour,beganarevivalmeetingonApril

9,1906thatlasteduntil1915.Evenearlier,theMethodistchurchesinIllinoisand

Indiana,whereSojournerhadpreached,experiencedsupernaturalactivity.God

spoketothespirit“withinher,”notneedingapreacherandbypassingsocial

structurescreatedbythedogmaofmainlinedenominations.

ThesestrandsofthesocialgospelfoundandanalyzedbyLukerandGarraty

werethensuperimposedupontheblackcommunity.Thiswhitedominantsocial10RalphLuker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite(ChapelHill:NorthCarolinaPress,1991),1-6.

gospel,soughttoinstillanAnglo-conservatismintoChristianityandtherebyreplace

the“spiritwithin”blacksfoundinthestrugglefortheirowndefinitionsof

personhood,fulfillment,andequality.AngloAmericanswantedtomaintaintheir

holdonpowerthroughthedominantnarrative.Afteryearsofpurposefully

misinterpretingBiblicaltextstoAmericanblackslavesandtheirfreeoffspringto

meetwhiteneeds,anideologyhadtobecreatedbyblacksinordertofillthevoid

thatliesaboutGodcreatedintheirlives.

Liberationtheologythroughthesocialgospeldealtwiththebasicchallenges

ofbeingblack.Grassrootsblacksparticularlyrequiredatheologythatrefutedthe

vilenessofblacknessandinferiority--theirownskin,music,hair,andbeing--that

blackshadbeentaughttobelieveaboutthemselvesinchurchteachingthathad

becomeapartofmainlineChristianity.11ThegapbetweenmainlineChristianityand

blackspiritualityremained.TheblacksocialgospelwasmorethanwhatLuker

perceived,justtakingDouglass’ideastomainlinepastorsinlargememberinner-

citychurches.Thedoctrinalproblemsremained.Theyencouragedseparate

churchesandseparatedialoguesaswellasdivisivelawsliketheMannAct,the

WhiteSlaveTrafficActof1910,lawsthatwereusedagainstChisum’schildhood

friend,JackJohnson,tostiflehimfrommarryingawhitewoman.UndertheMann

ActJohnsonwasjailedforcarryinghisfiancéfromonestatetothenext.12

11CeceliaBrooks,"Oklahoma'sFirstBlackGovernor":Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,"TheChroniclesofOklahomaLXXXII,no.1Spring(2004).ErmaThreattexplainedthatintheMethodistChurchwhereDr.Youngworshippednogospelwassungonlyhymns.12TheresaRunstedtler,JackJohnson,RebelSojourner:BoxingintheShadowoftheGlobalColorLine(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2012).134,135,160.

TheAnglosocialgospelexpressedbyLukerandGladdenonlymadeblacks

worthyofhelpbutnotpeopleworthyofequality.Thus,ifGodlovedeventhem,

blacksneeded,discovered,andadheredtoa“blacksocialgospel”thatspokebeyond

themainlineteachings.Sincetheirslavepasttaughttheywerelittlemorethan

animals,blackshadlackedaJesuswhocouldsavethemandtransformtheminto

beingtrulyhuman.SlavesweretaughtthatJesuswasamightywarriormuchlikean

overseer.Theyshouldobeyhim.Thatimagedidnotworkforthem.Slaves,their

children,andfreemenwhowouldnotcompletelyacceptwhatAnglostaught,went

insideoftheirbeings–searchingandfinding“aknowledgewithin”them.Therethey

foundtheHolySpiritasSojournerTruthdidinher“call.”Witnesstofaithwithin

tookonthesameformthatithadforcenturies–liberationfromfollowingthe

moresofthedominantculture.

Creatinganicheinrecentscholarship,Dr.GaryDorrien,ofUnionTheological

SeminaryinNewYork,contributedanotherstrandinrecentscholarshipbylinking

theblacksocialgospeltotheCivilRightsmovement.AccordingtoDorrien’sTheNew

Abolition(2015),priortohiswork,literatureontheblacksocialgospelexisted,but

nobookswerewritten.13RalphLuker’s,SocialGospelinBlackandWhite(1991)title

seemsincontentionwithDorrienbutitisnot.Luker’sthesiscommunicatedthe

sameoldsocialgospelthatusedEuropeanmotifs.14Dorrienfoundthatintricately

13GaryDorrien,TheNewAbolition:W.E.B.DuboisandtheBlackSocialGospel(NewHaven:YaleUniverisityPress,2015).,ix.14Luker,TheSocialGospelinBlackAndWhite,Luker’sbookfollowsthehistoriographyofthegospelinsteadofveeringtowardsablacksocialgospelwithblackheroes,blacktheology,andblackicons.HisresponseisthehistoriographyintheAmericanwhiteProtestantvenueofCharlesHopkins’TheRiseoftheSocial

wovenintotheblacksocialgospelwasapoliticaljusticemovement.15ItfitBellah’s

criteria.Inthemulti-dimensionalsocietycreatedbyracialseparation,blackshad

theirownheroes,wars,holidays,folklore,andliteraturethatlifteduptheir

strugglesagainstoppression.16

Dorriendevelopedhisideaoftheblacksocialgospelemphasiswhichhe

foundintherootsofW.E.B.DuBois’justicereformmovement.Dorrien,likeAugust

MeierwhowroteNegroThoughtinAmerica(1963),foundamysticsideinsideof

W.E.B.DuBois’lifeexperience.MeiercalledDuBoisascholar,aprophet,anda

mystic.17ThepoliticsofreformlinkedDuBoistoMartinLutherKing,Jr.’spartinthe

civilrightsmovement.Dorrienconcluded,“TheBlackSocialGospelemergedfrom

thetraumaofReconstructiontoaskwhata‘newabolition’wouldrequirein

Americansociety.Itbecameanimportanttraditionofreligiousthoughtand

resistance,helpingtocreateanalternativepublicsphereofexcludedvoicesand

providingtheintellectualunderpinningsofthecivilrightsmovement.”18While

DorrieninsistedthattheReconstructionnarrativeshowsenlightenment,the

GospelinAmericanProtestantism,1865-1915,(1940);FrederickJohnson’s,TheSocialGospelRe-Examined(1940);HenryMay’s,ProtestantChurchesandIndustrialAmerica(1949);andPaulAllenCarter’sTheDeclineandRevivaloftheSocialGospel,SocialandPoliticalLiberalisminAmericanProtestantChurches,1920-1940(1954.)15SeeRobertN.Bellah,BeyondBelief:EssaysonReligioninaPost-TraditionalistWorld.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1991),168.SeeGarySmith,“FaithandtheAmericanPresidency,”inChristianityToday99,onlineatChristianityToday.org.16Bellah,CivilReligioninAmerica,1.17AugustMeier,NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1995:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeofBookerT.Washington(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963).206.18Dorrien.,TheNewAbolition,297;KimButterweck,“GaryDorrienWinsReligionAwardforExaminationoftheBlackSocialGospel,”inNewsReligion,1December2016,atGrawemeyer.org

contentionofthischapteristhatthenewabolitionmovementwasnotnewbuta

continuingtraditionoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligiontiedtoblackworshipof

heroesasfarbackastheriseofToussaintL’Overtureinhissuccessfulbutbrutal

slaverevoltinHaiti.BothhistoriansandDorrienasatheologianoverlookthework

ofbordercharactersinthemovementsuchasSojournerTruthandMelvinChisum.

Byhismid-twentiesChisum,likeothers,functionedinthismodeoftheblack

socialgospel.Hewasnota“cometoJesusmissionary”ofthemain-lineAnglo

denominations.ChisumdidbuildhomesinNewYork,buthewasalsoacrusaderof

theblacksocialgospeljusticeidealthatfollowedthehistoricallydominant

Americanblackhistorynarrativeofan“ontheground”commonmanministry.

CarterG.Woodson’sbooksonblackhistory,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch(1921)

andTheNegroinOurHistory(1922),alongwithHoraceTalbert’sTheSonsofAllen

(1906),andClementRichardson’sNationalCyclopediaoftheColoredRace(1919),

amongotherbookswrittenandeditedbyblackscholarsoftheearlytwentieth

century,weretheonesthatsetforththeblacksocialhistoryparadigm.Themen

theyhonoredfoughtracismonthelevelofthespiritualwarfareandwere

recognizedbyC.VannWoodwardinhisbookTheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,notby

namebutbyhistoricalcontent.19ForWoodward,JimCrowwasademonofdivision.

Blackpeopleneededaspiritualweapontofightthisdemon.Thishadtobepresent

intheirheroes.Theyheldontomysticismfromtheirpast,mixturesofAnglo,Indian,

AfromythandlegendsymbioticallylinkedtoMethodistChristianity.Thiswasnot

19C.VanWoodward,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1955).

addedtothe“whiteJesus”butitaroseas“awitnesswithin”themselves.The

liberatingSpiritinJesus,God’sownHolySpirit,camealivewithinthem.Whatwas

ontheoutsidedidnotmatter.Intheirwitnesstoatranscendentdeitytheyfounda

GodbeyondmainlineProtestantteaching.

ScholarslikeGarraty,Luker,andDorrien,erredinnotunderstandingthat

blacksdidnottakeinalltheyweretaught.Theylearned“toeatmuttonandsay

nutton.”20Theyhadbeenliedtosomuch,thatblacks,especiallythosethatfollowed

theMethodistchurch,sawthehypocrisyofthechurch,whenhelearnedtoreadthe

Bibleasachild(likeJackJohnsonchapter3).However,theytookmostinformation

toheartinordertodealwithitatalatertime.MethodistschoolsexpelledJack

Johnsonforsayingthat“their”Godwasnotreal.Laterinhiscareerhefeltthatthe

mainlinechurchwas“fullofhypocrisyinitsmostdeplorableforms.”21Johnson

discoveredtherevelationofGodandtesteditinhispersonallife.ThoughChisum

believedinGod,hissonanddaughteremphasizedthathedidashepreached.Hedid

notparticipateeverySundayinorganizedreligion.

HowdidboysevenwhilebeingindoctrinatedbyMethodistpastors

understandthehistoricalcriticalmethodofinterpretingscriptures?Inmany

respects,they–asSojourner–hadacriticalunderstandingofthescripturesto

whichtheeducatedelitewhitemalesoftheirtimeadhered–butevenwhiteliberal

pastorstaughtacontrollingtheology.TheboysandSojourner(whowasilliterate)20ThiswasphrasewelearnedintheSouthernAmericanblackcommunityaboutkeepingourmouthsshuttodealwiththeissuelaterwhenaroundwhitepeople.21JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927),234.

lookedattheBiblicaltextcriticallytoallowforerrorsonthepartofitshuman

writers.TheybelievedtheBiblewasthe“WordofGod.”However,itswritershad

incorporatedpartoftheirhistoryintothework,justasslaveowners,malepastors

andAnglowomen,hadassimilatedtheBibletofittheirneeds.Theblackmainline

witnesscameafteryearsofindoctrination.Theirsocialwitnesscamefromawitness

deepinsidethemselves.Itwaslikebeingbornwithaveil,ortheseventhchild,ofthe

seventhchildoftheseventhchild.Thehistoryoftheknowledgeofone’sgiftwas

passeddownbywordofmouthandfinallymadeexplicitinSojourner’s

autobiography.ItwasaChristianmysticwitness.ThestoryofSojournerTruth

revealedthegenesisoftheblacksocialgospelandpossiblythegospelofthe

dispossessed.

TheseAmericanBlackCivilReligiousideals,setthestagetounderstand

MelvinChisuminaframeworkfortherestofthedissertation.Linkinghislifeto

Sojourner,andaddingtheliberationtheologyofRichardNeibuhr,clarifieswhoand

whatChisumwastoagenerationofleaderswhoneededanespionageagentwith

skillstoworkbetweenblackandwhiteworlds,inthephysicalandspiritualrealms.

ThedevelopmentwithintheblackworldofaAmericanBlackCivilReligionin

juxtapositiontoageneralAmericanCivilReligion,providesanarchetypeto

understandthereasonblackslikeChisumwerecomparedtoSojournerTruth,

ToussaintL‘Overture,whowereoutlawstoAngloAmericanCivilReligionbut

heroestoAmericanblacks.PlacingChisumbackintohistorynotasanantagonist

butasablackprotagonistofthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcenturyhelpsadd

toworksthatotherhistorianshavestarted.Inchapter4thisnewpresentationof

ChisumbroadensthevisionofwhathistorianShawnAlexanderdescribedinhis

bookAnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(2012).22

Alexanderhowevercouldnotcompletelyfinishhispremise.Heneededthe

characterofChisumastheglue,spy,orsecrettoolcarryingouttheworkofthe

“ArmyofLions.”ThisisseeninthemissionthatChisumundertookforBTWof

spyingontheOklahomagovernmentbecauseoftheplightofOklahoma’sblack

Indianfreedmen.TheresultingriskshetookatthesouthernschoolledChisumto

arriveathisownbeliefsandtransformedhimintoanewbeing.Thisrisktakingwas

becausehis“spiritwithin”ledhimasafaithfulwitnesstotheGodwithintotakeon

actionsoverandabovewhatwasacceptedasthenorm.Thissametypeofactions

mayhavehadhimmurderedintheWorldWarIIperiod(chapter8).

TheChristologyofIsabella’sJourneytobecomeSojournerTruth

Faithfulwitnesstakesonthesameformthatithasforcenturies–liberation

fromtheworldtoacloserrelationshiptoGod.Thisnewrelationshiphelpsonesay

yestoone’sauthenticcalling,whetherpreacher,teacher,barber,clerk,doctor,spy,

provocateur,governmentagentoranyothercallinginlife.Renewedrelationship

withGodwiththis“otherliness”leadstoapersonalministry.Themissionusually

climaxesinbecomingaliberatorforothers.Ittakestheformofsacrifice,humility,

vulnerabilityandrisk.ThecloserrelationshipwiththeCreatorbringsapridein

22ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2012),xi-xvii.

beingGod’sadoptedheir.Thevilenessofskincolorcouldnowbeputaside.Heirsto

theacceptanceofsocietalnormswerenolongercentraltothewitnessofthe

Christian.Thenewradicalrealmcreatedthroughtheatonementbetween

humankindandGod,wasacceptedascentraltothehumanlifestyle.Thisrealmwas

whereoneseekstheauthenticself–nottheorganizedchurchbuttheselfwithinor

withoutthechurch–iswherefaithfulwitnessbecomestheactionofriskingall,

includinglifeandliberty,tobringinGod’skingdom.

Thispowerofthecrosshasbeenthesameinthepastandintoeternity.Ithas

transformedthedispossessedsincethebeginningoftime.AsanAmericanblack

man,ittransformedMelvinChisumSr.torespondtolifegoalsthatincludedfighting

demonsofracism,sexism,andclassisminhiscountry.Anunderstandingofthis

faithfulwitnessthroughliberationcanbecomprehendedthroughincorporatingthe

ChristologyinthebookNarrativeofSojournerTruth(1875)withRichardNeibuhr’s

ideaofrevelationinhisbookTheMeaningofRevelation(1941).23God’spowerto

liberatebeyondhistoricalbondageisshowninthestoryofIsabellaor“Sojourner

Truth,”anAfricanAmericanslave.ThisnarrativeinterpretshowtheSpiritofGod

eternallydwellsinthechurch(notabuildingbutthebodyofbelievers),offering

eachpersonachancetobeavesseloffaithfulwitness,whenandifthepersonsays

yeswithhistransformedlife.Niebuhr’sdisclosureofrevelationhelpsinthe

23ThebookwaswrittendownbyOliveGilbertbutdictatedbySojournerTruth.OliveGilbert,SojournerTruth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife"(Boston:Publishedfortheauthor,1875);RichardNiebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation(NewYork:MacmillanPublishing,1941).

understandingoffaithfulwitnessinthepast,includingSojourner’slife.Itgivesan

understandingoftheformfaithfulwitnesstookintheworldduringtheProgressive

Era,CivilRightsEraandintomodernity.

Neibuhr’stheoryofrevelationsuggestsaChristologicalreadingofthehistory

ofSojournerTruth’sexperience.Thisstandsincontrasttorecentstudiesby

AfrocentricisthistoriansofnineteenthcenturyAmericanblackreligiousnarratives

likethatofSojournerTruth.ThesewritersplacetheexperienceoflifeasanAfrican

overandagainsttheperson’sChristology.SuchwritersasMolefiAsanteandPatricia

CollinsclaimthatwomenlikeSojournercannotfindtheirtrueself-hoodunlessthey

understandandabsorbtheirAfricanheritage.24Thesewritersinterpretthe

ChristianexperienceofpeopleofAfricanancestrythroughtheexperienceofAfrican

traditionalreligions.Thisinsistenceoverlooksthesharpcontrastbetween

ChristianityandAfricantraditionalreligions.ThenarrativeofSojournerisclearly

oneofChristocentricideascontextualizingintheAmericanblackexperience.

SojournercenteredherlifestoryonherexperiencesoftherevelationofGod

throughrealizingwhatthehistoricalJesusmeanttoherandallpeople.The

historicalJesuscanbeatheologicaltermlimitedtothehumanJesus;aliberal

theologicaltermusedtolimitthepowerofJesustobea“greatteacher”linkedtothe

“Beatitudes.”HereJesusisChristos.Heistherevelation,“theChrist.”25Niebuhrused

24MoleAsante,FacingSouthtoAfrica:TowardanAfrocentricCriticalOrientation(NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2014).1-2.MolefiAsante,"TheRoleofanAfrocentricIdeology"(paperpresentedattheCommittmenttoCivilSociety,Dakar,Senegal,2009);PatriciaCollins,"TheSocialConstructionofBlackFeministThought,"Signs14,no.4(1989).745-747.25ReinholdNiebuhr,NatureandtheDestinyofManI:AChristianInterpretation

termsdevelopedbytheologianKarlBarthinChurchDogmatics(1936).Godthe

fatheristheRevealer.26JesustheSoniswhatGodrevealedofGod’sself.TheHoly

Spiritworksthroughrevealedness,whichenablesanindividualtoknowthe

ChristosortheChrist,andinputsChrist’sblueprintintheindividualofhowtodo

God’sworkonearth.

Neibuhr’stheologyofrevelationisrootedinthedisclosureofrevelationof

GodinJesusChrist.Revelationoccursinhistorybytheeventsofthelife,death,and

resurrectionofJesusChrist.OnecomestoknowChristianityinthiswaythough

Christasknowninthescripture.ThegraceofGodgivesfaiththroughtheSpirit.The

SpiritgivesfaithinChristimmediatepersonalreality.TherevelationinChrist

becomesthestateofrevealednessthroughtheworkoftheSpirit.AfterChrist’s

death,resurrection,andascension,God’sownHolySpiritbreaksbarriersbetween

thehumanandGodbringingfaith,asknowledgeofwhoJesusis,tothosewhoseek

God.God’spowercanbeinhumansliketheChrist.FaiththenisfaithinChristand

ChristpointshumanitytoGod.Faithisparticipationinthedivinelifeandcreatesa

noeticpossibilitythatistheinnerwisdomorabilitytoknowGod.ThroughChrist

thehumancanactuallymysticallycometoknowGodthroughasenseofrevelation.

Thus,Godtouchesone’smoral,intellectual,andspirituallifethroughthisrevelation.

HumansareclothedinChrist,giventhesamechancetoliveashedidintheworld,

aswellasgivenpowertocreatethroughChrist.Therefore,revelationisaliveand

presentinhumanlife.Neibuhr’sconceptionofrevelationinChristcountersthe

HumanNature(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1941).144-147.26KarlBarth,ChurchDogmatics,Vol.1(London:T&TClark,1936-1977).16.

claimsofthecentralityofAfricanreligiousexperiencemadebyAsanteandCollins.

TocenterSojourner’slifeChristologicallythusshowsthemiracletherevelationof

theblacksocialgospelasGod’sownworkwithintheslavecultureintheAmerican

past.Niebuhr’sanalysisofrevelationshowshowrevelationcanbepast,present,

andfuture.Sojournerwasliberatedbyrevelationintosalvation,freedom,and

justice.ShewasliberatedtobringglorytoGod(notherself)inthisworldevenasa

black,awoman,andasaslave.SuchaChristologicalreadingofSojourner’s

autobiographyismoreaccurateorauthentictoherexperiencethanissuggestedby

givingcentralitytoAfricantraditionalreligion.

ThisChristologicalversionallowsforrevelatoryparticipationinthedivine

life.ThepowerofthewordofGodpermeatestheworldthatGodhasliberatedand

redeemedthroughJesusChrist.Thatworldovershadowstheworldbuiltbyhuman

hands.ItisessentiallyGod’sgracethatreachedSojourner.InitiallySojournersought

GodbutbackedawaybecausetheGodshefoundwasnotherown.Finally,she

decidedtogiveherselftoGod,ifGodwouldhaveher.ThroughoutherlifeSojourner

hadheardthescripturesreadandexplainedtoher.Butsheneverfelttheywereher

history;touseNiebuhr’sphrasetheywere“anexternalhistory.”Somehow,she

realizedothers’interpretationsoftheBible(orLogos-theWord)werenotadequate.

Shechosetointerprettheessentialmeaningofscripturefromthewitnessornoetic

reality“withinher”ratherthanlistentowhatministersandteacherstaught.In

regardtointerpretationoftheScripture,she:

...wishedtohearthe[scriptures]withoutcomment;butifsheemployedadultpersonstoreadthemtoher,andsheaskedthemtoreadapassageover

again,theyinvariablycommencedtoexplain,bygivinghertheirversionofit;andinthisway,theytriedherfeelingsexceedingly.Inconsequenceofthis,sheceasedtoaskadultpersonstoreadtheBibletoher,andshesubstitutedchildrenintheirstead….ShewishedtocomparetheteachingoftheBiblewiththewitnesswithinher,andshecametotheconclusion,thatthespiritoftruthspokeinthoserecords,buttherecordersofthosetruthshadintermingledwiththemideasofsuppositionoftheirown.27

Howdidthisilliteratewomanunderstandthehistoricalcriticalmethodof

thinkingaboutscripture?InmanyrespectsSojournerhadthecriticalunderstanding

ofthescripturestowhichmainlytheeducatedelitewhitemalesofhertime

adhered.ShelookedattheBiblecriticallytoallowforcontextualizationonthepart

ofitswriterswhowere“inspiredbyGod.”ShebelievedtheBiblewasthe“Wordof

God,”butitswritershadco-optedpartoftheirhistoryintothework,justasslave

owners,malepastorsandAnglowomenhadincorporatedtheBibletofittheir

needs.

Niebuhr’sdefinitionoftherevelationleadstoanunderstandingoftheaction

ofGodwiththemarginalized.TherevelationofGodinChristJesusisGod’sgiftof

graceforhumankind.ForSojourner,theGodofthedominantcultureisanabstract

andremoteGod.Hedoesnotenterherexperience.Incontrastthereisahistorical

Godthatdoes.Shefindsouttheyareoneandthesame.“HeisalwaystheGodof

history,ofAbraham,IsaacandJacob,ortheFatherofJesusChristandnotonlythe

27Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”108-109.

Godofabstractthought.”28ItremainstruethatChristianfaithcannotescapefrom

partnershipwithhistory.

BornintheUnitedStatesofAmericaasachildofslaveparents,Sojourner

knewGodonlyastheonethingtolookforwhenshewaslostandinpain.Her

motherhadsaidtolookintheskyifyouareeverseparatedandGodwillleadyou.

Thisshealsorelated,“IcanmemberwhenIwasalittlebiggerthanthisere,pointing

tohergrandson,howmyoldmammywouldsitouto’doorsintheeveninandlook

upatthestarsandgroan.She’dgroan,groan,groan.”29Godwastranscendentand

notdefined.Inherreadingandunderstandingapartfromtheinterpretationby

adults,shegaveherselftoGodasinnocentlyasthechildrenthatreadtoher.God’s

wordbecametherevelationanddwelledwithinher.

UndergirdingNiebuhr’swork,TheMeaningofRevelation,isastrongbeliefin

thepowerofsin.Sinvitiatedcreation.Creationwasgoodbutthroughthefall

thoroughlydismantledbysin.OnlyGodcouldrecreate,rectifythesituation,and

bringjustification.ThatnewcreationisinJesusChrist.OnlyinJesusChrist,the

secondAdam,istherestorationofthe‘imageofGod’increation.Beforethis

restorationhumanitywasnottransformingbutbuildingonthepast.Humanswere

growinglikeweeds,runningwildinsinbecausethefallofAdamdismantled

creation;sinwasanintrinsicpartofcreatedpeople.Religionwasfundamentally

28Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,31.29Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”154.UntilshemetthisGodSojournerparticipatedinseveralparaChristianreligiousactivities.

falsebecauseitbuiltoncreationthatwasdismantledbysin.ThroughGod’sworking

therevelation,thehuman-divineconnectionwasremadetorepairtheinitial

creation.InChristwastheneworrestored,‘ImageofGod.’JesusChristtakes

humansbacktocreationasGodintendedittobe.InJesusChristone’sverybeingis

transformed.HumanswhodidnotknowGodnowknowGod!OnlyinJesusChrist

caninnerredemptiontakeplace.OnlyinChristcanwholenesstakeplace.For

humankind,God’spresenceisdefinitelyexperiencedinJesusasthename

Emmanuel.JesusexplainsthecharacterofGodinthehistoricalactionsofJesus’life,

death,andresurrection.ThroughscriptureGod’sgraciousloveisrevealedto

humankind.Godisgrace.TosayGodisgraceistosaythatwhatisrevealedinJesus

ChrististhetruthofGod’sownself.SeeingthepresenceinJesusChristpreparesone

todiscovertheawarenessineveryactivityofGod.InSojourner’sexperienceone

seesthatthepresenceinJesusinherlifebecomesaguideforHispresencewith

others.Shelearnstoloveandforgive.

SojournerTruth’sstorydisplaystheintrinsicsinfulnessofacountrythat

allowedhumanstobeexploitedasanimalsinsteadofsistersandbrotherscreated

equallybyGod.WomenofAfricandescentinAmericawereatthebottomofthe

socialladder.TwentiethcenturywomensuchasMaryMcLeodBethunedeciphered

thestigmawithinblackwomanhood.“Shewasnotaperson,intheopinionofmany,

butathing–athingwhosepersonalityhadnoclaimtotherespectofmankind.She

wasahouseholddrudge,ameansfromgettingdistastefulworkdone;shewasan

animatedagriculturalimplementtoaugmenttheserviceofmulesandplowsin

cultivatingandharvestingthecottoncrop.Shewasanautomaticincubator,a

producerofhumanlivestock,beneathwhoseheartandmindmorepotential

laborerscouldbebredandnurturedandbroughttothelightoftoilsomeday.”30

Ablackwomanwastheepitomeofsininculture.Sojourner’ssinwas

intrinsictoherlivingwhencolonial,ReconstructionandProgressiveculturesaw

blackwomenasvile,degenerate,sordid,andbase.Hersinwasintrinsictoherbeing.

Throughoutherchildhoodshewasremindedoftheoffensivenessofbeingablack

womaninawhiteman’sworld.Thisparticularityisseeninherexperienceof

meetingJesus.Shelookedathercolortoseeifithadchanged.Ithadnot.So,she

reasonedthatcolorwasnotsomethingthatwouldseparateherfromGod.

LaterinherworkSojournerasksthequestioninregardstothesinofslavery

andreligionintheUnitedStates.“Andwhatisthatreligionthatsanctionsevenbyits

silenceallthatisembracedinthe‘peculiarinstitution’?Iftherecanbeanything

morediametricallyopposedtothereligionofJesus,thantheworkingofthissoul-

killingsystem,whichisastrulysanctionsbythereligionofAmericaasareher

ministersandchurches,wewishtobeshownwhereitcanbefound.”31Her

conversionbearssomeexamination.WhatdoesSojournersayaboutJesus?Howdid

shegettoknowit?WhatSojournerknewaboutJesuswasherrevelatory

interpretationofwhattheBiblesaysinregardstoherexperienceintheUnited

StatesasanoppressedandexploitedAfricanAmericanwoman.Thiswas30MaryMcLeodBethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,ed.GerdaLerner,BlackWomeninWhiteAmerica:ADocumentaryHistory(NewYork:RandomHouse,1972),578.31Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,"154.

interpretedbythe‘spiritoftruth’shebelievedlivedwithinher.Aftertheabolition

ofslaveryinNewYork,SojournerTruthtoldaboutherfirstintimatemeetingwith

GodthroughJesus.

An'Iturnedrightroundan'comeintothehouse,an'setdowninmyroom;for'twasGodallaroundme.Icouldfeelitburnin',burnin',burnin'allaroundme,an'goin'throughme;an'IsawIwassowicked,itseemedasefitwouldburnmeup.An'Isaid,'Osomebody,somebody,standbetweenGodan'me!foritburnsme!'Then,honey,whenIsaidso,Ifeltasitweresomething'likeanamberill[umbrella]thatcamebetweenmean'thelight,an'Ifeltitwassomebody--somebodythatstoodbetweenmean'God;an'itfeltcool,likeashade;an'saysI,'Who'sthisthatstandsbetweenmean'God?IsitoldCato?'Hewasapiousoldpreacher;butthenIseemedtoseeCatointhelight,an'hewasallpollutedan'vile,likeme;an'Isaid,'IsitoldSally?'an'thenIsawher,an'sheseemedjes'so.An'thensaysI,'Whoisthis?'An'then,honey,forawhileitwaslikethesunshinin'inapailo'water,whenitmovesupanddown;forIbeguntofeelt'wassomebodythatlovedme;an'Itriedtoknowhim.An'Isaid,'Iknowyou!Iknowyou!Iknowyou!'An'thenIsaid,'Idon'tknowyou!Idon'tknowyou!Idon'tknowyou!'An'whenIsaid,'Iknowyou,Iknowyou'thelightcame;an'whenIsaid,'Idon'tknowyou,Idon'tknowyou,'itwentjes'likethesuninapailo'water.An'finallysomethin'spokeoutinmean'said,'ThisisJesus!'An'Ispokeoutwithallmymight,an'saysI,'ThisisJesus!GlorybetoGod!'An'thenthewholeworldgrewbright,an'thetreestheywavedan'wavedinglory,an'everylittlebito'stoneonthegroundshonelikeglass;andIshoutedan'said,'Praise,praise,praisetotheLord!'An'IbeguntofeelsechaloveinmysoulasIneverfeltbefore--lovetoallcreatures.An'then,allofasudden,itstopped,an'Isaid,'Dar'sdewhitefolksthathaveabusedyou,an'beatyou,an'abusedyourpeople--thinko'them!'Butthentherecameanotherrushoflovethroughmysoul,an'Icriedoutloud--'Lord,Lord,Icanloveevendewhitefolks!'

"Honey,Ijes'walkedroundan'roundinadream.Jesuslovedme!Iknowedit--Ifeltit.JesuswasmyJesus.Jesuswouldlovemealways.Ididn'tdaretellnobody;'twasagreatsecret.EverythinghadbeengotawayfrommethatIeverhad;an'IthoughtthatefIletwhitefolksknowaboutthis,maybethey'dgetHimaway--soIsaid,'I'llkeepthisclose.Iwontletanyoneknow.'"

"But,Sojourner,hadyouneverbeentoldaboutJesusChrist?"

"No,honey.Ihadn'theerdnopreachin'--beentonomeetin.'Nobodyhadn'ttoldme.I'dkindo'heerdofJesus,butthoughthewaslikeGineralLafayette,orsomeo'them.32

SojournerTruthsaysthatJesusishermediatorbetweenherandawrathful

God.ShedefineswhatseparatesherfromGodas‘vileness’.Vilenessmeans

degeneracy,sordidness,orbaseness.Hersinisintrinsictoherbeing.Withthistype

ofdegradationoftheSpirit,thewomanisaprimecandidateforspiritualwholeness

thatcomesthroughGodwhovindicatestheoppressed.OnlyGodcanaccomplish

thisthroughJesusChrist.SheknowsshehasbeencleansedbecauseofGod’s

spiritualacknowledgmenttoher.Sheneedscleansingandsomeoneorsomethingto

bringherwithinGod’sreach.Jesus,theJesusofthe‘womanatthewell’,theJesus

whosegarmentboughthealingtothefilthybleedingwomanwoulddothisforher.

Jesuswhohaspassedtherealmofhumanity,wouldaccomplishthisforherthrough

resurrectionpower.

ShereferstoelementsofherownexperiencetoexplaintheentryofJesus

intoherlife.Therehasbeennoonetostandbetweenherandthetroublesofthis

world.TherewasnoonetomediateherneedtoGoduntilthisspiritualmeeting

withJesus.Shewasfreefromslaveryandfreefromotherpainsinaworldthathad

notchanged.Jesuswaslikeanumbrellaallowingcoolnessinadayofburningheat.

Hecooledlifeforherbetweenanewrealmofunderstandingandasocietyoffire.

JesusisamediatorbetweenherandGod,awrathfuladulteratedbridegroom;she

32Bethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,157-159.

hasbeenseparatedfromGodnotonspirituallevel.LikeinthetheologyofLuther-

Godisaroaringfirethatmayburnone-unlessthereisJesustokeepyoufromthe

flames.NolongerdidsheseeJesusasaLafayetteorasoldierbutsomeonewho

lovedherenoughtostandinthefireandbringherthrough,likeGodhaddonefor

Shadrach,Meshach,andAbednego.

ForSojournerknowingthatfreedominJesuswaslikeapailofwateratthe

endofworkingalldayinahotfield-ohsogoodandcooliswater,changingthe

temperatureofthebody,coolingathirstythroatforonewhohasnochoicebutto

workinslaverybecauseonecannotquenchone’sthirstuntilpermissionisgranted-

thisJesusislivingwater,waterthatmakesonethirstnomoreandempowersoneto

goonwardtolife’scallings.ThelightofJesusinherlifeshonethroughthedarkness

thatencompassedthelifeoftheslavewoman.Shewasfreeandwasvindicatedlike

Jesushadbeenvindicatedoverallthosewhohadpersecutedhim.Somehistorians

saythisparagraphisoneofliberationnotonlyfromslaverybutfromAmerican

history;andthehistoryofSojournerandhermissionproveitisliberationfrom

worldliness.

Sojourner’sspiritwasvindicatedthroughChristandinunionwithGod

throughtheSpiritofGod.SheisjustifiedthroughthegraceofGodthathad

somehoweludedheruntilshewasdirectlyspirituallytransformed.Themiseryof

beinghumanlivestock,theagonyofnotbeingabletoofferherchildrenarefuge,and

thevilenessofbeingablackwomanwereexonerated.Sojournerbecameanew

creation.Godlovedher!ThecurseofbeingasecondEvewaslifted!Shewas

liberated.Inhermemoirs,HarrietBeecherStowedescribesSojournerasacting

“withasuperiorwayabouther.”33StowehadmetandassessedmanyAmerican

Blackwomen.FromthisinformationwemaydiscernthatGodtransformed

Sojourner.Sheis“superior”toStowe.Godwasinher.Eventhoughshewalkedwith

acane,shefeltequaltoothersbecauseSojournerpossiblynolongerwalkedwith

herheaddownasblackwomenhaddone.Ataheightofsixfeettallandwithself

knowledgeofredemption,shemayhavehadsuperiorcarriage.Godisinher.She

cannotthinkofherselfas‘vile’andthuspresentedasuperiorbeingtothewriterof

UncleTom’sCabin.34

TheindwellingofGodinherwasanactofgrace.Sojourner’sheartbeganthe

noeticexegesis,meaningtoknowdeepertruthsuncoveredbyscripture,inher

processofreasoning.35Atfirst,shewantedtokeeptheloveandknowledgeto

herselfoutoffear,“ButonenighttherewasaMethodistmeetin'somewhereinour

parts,an'Iwent;an'theygotupan'begunfortotellder'speriences:an'defustone

beguntospeak.Istarted,'causehetoldaboutJesus.'Why,'saysItomyself,'datman

'sfoundhim,too!'An'anothergotupan'spoke,an'Isaid,'He'sfoundhim,too!'An'

33Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”157.34PatriciaHillCollins,BlackSexualPolitics(NewYork:Routledge,2004),59.CollinssuggeststheimagerycouldbeusedbyStoweinamannertocontrolthereader’sideasofTruth.35ReinholdNiebuhr,BeyondTragedy:EssaysontheChristianInterpretationofHistory(NewYork:CharlesScibner'sSons,1937),301-303.Sojourner’sGermanmysticismislinkedwithhernoeticexegesisoftheBible.SeePaulTillich,PaulTillichMoralityandBeyond(NewYork:HarperandRow,1963),72-76.

finallyIsaid,'Why,theyallknowhim!'Iwassohappy!36Shefoundacommunity

whoexperiencedthesamegiftfromGod.Revelationcameassherealizedshedid

notthinkofGodbyherselfbutGodthoughtofitfirst.Godwasjustwaitingforherto

askforrevelation.“Revelationmeansthatinourcommonhistorythefatewhich

lowersoverusaspersonsinourcommunitiesrevealsitselftobeapersonina

communitywithus.”37

NiebuhrexplainsinrelationtoanexclamationsuchasthesefromSojourner

Truththatfaith“cannotbeexpressedinimpersonalwaysofcreedsorother

propositionsbutonlyinresponsiveactsofapersonalcharacter.Weacknowledge

revelationpersonallyandspecifically,”notlikehermotherwhosaidthereisaGod,

butonlythroughaconfessioncomingfromthehumanheartsayingthattheGodof

Abraham,Isaac,andJacob“is”and“’ThouartmyGod.’”38Thehistoricalscripture

givenbyGod,readinaparticularcommunity,bringsrevelation.Thisisconsidered

anactofGodingrace.Asimpleexplanationisthattoparticipateinthecommunity

oftheRevealednessthehistoryofGodintheBiblicalnarrativecannotbea“my

story”orbelongtoonlyonepeople,e.g.,ofAfrica,Asia,orEurope.39Thoseinvolved

mustacceptandacknowledgetheBibleastheChristianstory.Thedominantsociety

doesnotacculturateeveryonetobecomelikethem.Norarethemarginalized

allowedtoostracizethedominantsociety.Sojournercanevenlove“dewhitefolks.”

TheAfricanbecomestheAfricanChristian.TheAsianbecomesAsianChristian.The

36Ibid.,157.37Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,112.38Ibid.,81.39Ibid.,xxiii.

AmericanBlackbecomesanAmericanBlackChristian.Thefirstwayof

interpretationleadstotheethnicidentitybecomingalowercase“g”forGod.The

secondleadstoacommunitywithacenterincludingGod’sgivenhistoryforGod’s

people.ThisisanactofgracethatisclimaxedintheresurrectionofChristthrough

newnessinbeing.TheScriptureGalatians3:28isappropriatehere:“(InGod’sgrace)

ThereisneitherJewnorGreek,neitherbondnorfree,thereisneithermalenor

female;foryeareaalloneinChristJesus.”JesusisGod’sgrace.Thehistoryofthose

inthechurchisthestoryof“ourfathers,”“ourmothers,”‘ourLord,”andtheactions

of“ourGod.”Thissameacceptanceisnecessaryforfaithfulwitnesstoday.

Sojournerdemonstratedthisrealizationinherministry.Shereasonedthat

peoplearealike.Inameetingforwomen’srightssheestablishedaprecedentfor

equality:

“’Well,chilern,whardarissomuchracketdarmustbesomethingouto'kilter.Itinkdat'twixtdeniggersofdeSoufanddewomenatdeNorfallatalkin''boutrights,dewhitemenwillbeinafixprettysoon.Butwhat'salldisheretalkin''bout?Datmanoberdarsaydatwomenneedstobehelpedintocarriages,andliftedoberditches,andtohavedebestplaceeverywhar.Nobodyeberhelpmeintocarriages,orobermudpuddles,orgivesmeanybestplace[andraisingherselftoherfullheightandhervoicetoapitchlikerollingthunder,sheasked],andar'n'tIawoman?Lookatme!Lookatmyarm![Andshebaredherrightarmtotheshoulder,showinghertremendousmuscularpower.]Ihaveplowed,andplanted,andgatheredintobarns,andnomancouldheadme--andar'n'tIawoman?Icouldworkasmuchandeatasmuchasaman(whenIcouldgetit),andbeardelashaswell--andar'n'tIawoman?Ihavebornethirteenchilernandseen'emmos'allsoldoffintoslavery,andwhenIcriedoutwithamother'sgrief,nonebutJesusheard--andar'n'tIawoman?Dendeytalks'boutdistingindehead--whatdisdeycallit?''Intellect,'whisperedsomeonenear.'Dat'sithoney.What'sdatgottodowithwomen'srightsorniggers'rights?Ifmycupwon'tholdbutapint

andyournholdsaquart,wouldn'tyebemeannottoletmehavemylittlehalf-measurefull?'

Andshepointedhersignificantfingerandsentakeenglanceattheministerwhohadmadetheargument.Thecheeringwaslongandloud.

"'Dendatlittlemaninblackdar,hesaywomencan'thaveasmuchrightsasman,causeChristwantawoman.WhardidyourChristcomefrom?'Rollingthundercouldnothavestilledthatcrowdasdidthosedeep,wonderfultones,asshestoodtherewithoutstretchedarmsandeyeoffire.Raisinghervoicestilllouder,sherepeated,'WhardidyourChristcomefrom?FromGodandawoman.Manhadnothingtodowithhim.'Oh!whatarebukeshegavethelittleman.40

Abridgeconnectsthehistoryofhumanity.Thisrevelationiswhatblacks

thoughttheRepublicanPartyunderstoodintheirstandtofreeslavesandwhenthey

madeAbrahamLincolnpartoftheirBlackSocialGospelnarrativeandplacedhim

andtheRepublicanPartyundertheumbrellaoftheBlackAmericanCivilReligion.

However,thisisnottheendofthemovementofrevelationorthe

RevealednessofGod’sSpirit.Tostayinthecommunity“theheartmustreason.”41

Neibuhrdescribestherevelationlikereadingadifficultbookandseekingtofollowa

complicatedargument.Sometimesonehastogoforwardandbackwardtoattain

understandingofthewhole.“Thespecialoccasiontowhichweappealinthe

ChristianchurchiscalledJesusChrist,inwhomweseetherighteousnessofGod,his

powerandwisdom.Butfromthespecialoccasionwealsoderivetheconceptsthat

makepossibletheelucidationofalltheeventsinourhistory.”Neibuhrwrote,

“Revelationmeansthisintelligibleeventwhichmakesallothereventsintelligible.40Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,54.41Ibid.,74.

Revelationmeansthepointatwhichwecanbegintothinkandactasmembersofan

intelligibleandintelligentworldofpersons.”42

Sojourner’sstatementalsoincorporatesNiebuhr’sideaoftheHolySpiritas

theRevealedness.InhischapterinTheMeaningofRevelation,‘TheStoryofOurLife’,

Niebuhrsetsupaplaceofinterception.Heportraysaninstancewhentherevelatory

eventcanbereceived.TheHolySpiritworksincommunitytoilluminatethose

gatheredinthedivineselfthattheyhavethehistoryofthescriptureincommon.

ThisisalsoanactofGodingrace.FaithtobelieveisalsoagiftofGod.Theymust

participateinahistorytogether.Howdotheyknoweachotherinthehistory?That

historyisknownbyaninnerknowledgegivenbyGodingrace.Theconfessionof

thiswitnessisadmittedlyesoterictotheChristiancommunity.Thehistoryofthe

innerlifecanonlybeconfessedbyselveswhospeakofwhathappenstotheminthe

communityoftheotherselves.43

Niebuhrdevelopstherelationshipbetweenwrongimaginationandright

reasonsoftheheart.HeunderstandsthatbyRevelationinourhistorywemeanthat

specialoccasionwhichprovidesuswithanimagebymeansofwhichallthe

occasionsofpersonalandcommonlifebecomeintelligible.Revelation,understood

inthisway,interpretsthepast,thepresentandthefuturebecausetheChrististhe

sameyesterday,today,andtomorrow,destroyingthewrongimaginationsofthe

heart.Everypersonisnomorethanan“immigrantintotheempireofGod.”Niebuhr

42Ibid.,69.43Ibid.,54,57.

believesonemustlearntorememberthehistoryofthatempireincludingtheirown

personaltraditionbutnotallowingthattooverridetheChristiantradition.

ThissetsaprecedentforapluralistsocietywithintheChristiansociety.As

immigrants,peoplecomeinallconditionssuchaswomanists,feminists,Afro-

centricists,Hispanics,Africans,Asians,--onecouldgoontotraceallthefactionsin

theChristianchurch.NeibuhrplacesJesusChristasthecenterastherevelationthat

everyoneknows.Peopleshouldworkouttheiridentityasachurchfromthis

Christologicalcenter.Chaosmayincurfromanyotherpositionthatdoesnothave

thepotentialofGodforrecreationofthecreated.Toomuchemphasisonexperience

leadstoanaturaltheologyofwhichhewasnotaproponent.Humansdonothave

thecapacitytothinkoftranscendentthingsontheirown.Theologiesofliberation

shouldnotbecenteredinexperiencesinceknowledgeofGodisnotderivedfrom

humanactivitiesbutinJesusChrist.

TheHolySpirit,whorevealstheworkofGodtotheworld,illuminatesa

communitytodiscernthattheyhavethehistoryofscriptureincommon.Sojourner

claimedthatsheknewtodothisbecauseofthe“spiritoftruthwithinher.”44

WithouttheinterventionofinterpretersSojournerrealizedtheirChristianhistoryis

herhistory.ButAnglosincommunitydonot.Women’ssuffragewouldnotinclude

theideaofthevoteforwomenofAmericanBlackancestry.Itwouldbemanyyears

beforetheinceptionofequalitywasreceivedbythelargercommunitywhich

surroundedSojourner.Sinwasstillpresent.Perhapsthatwaswhyherjourney

incorporatedsomuchtraveling.Shebecametheconduitofrevelationbygathering

44Shedevelopsherspiritualname“Truth,”fromthisidea.

communityasshewentonherinterracialjourneys.Haditnotbeenforthe

“sojourners”ofthenineteenthcenturywouldacommunityhavevotedinthe1860s

forequalrightsinthefourteenthamendmenttobeaddedtotheConstitution?

RevelationthroughChristisinthepast,present,futureandintoeternity.Godnot

onlyworksincommunitybutalsodevelopscommunity.

InthisrevealednessSojournerknewtherevelationofGod.Shereceived

transformationalpowerthroughtheWordofGod.Thishistoryisknownbyaninner

knowledgegivenbyGod.ThiscontinuesGod’sactsingraceincludingthefaithto

believe.ByparticipatinginthehistoryoftheBible,togetherwithpeopleallherlife

whohadclaimedChristianitybuthadnotbutnotparticipatedfullyinwhatitmeant,

communicateditselfbeyondthecolorandgenderlineforSojourner.Thisisnosmall

issueconsideringthatSojournerwasawomanofAmericanblackancestryenslaved

inAmerica.Revelationoffreedomcameasshewasalsolivinginatimethatwomen,

especiallyblackwomendidnothaveequalrightswithmen.Thenshebecamea

“sojourner.”

AfterastruggletobeaChristianinherhistoricalsituationdespiteAnglo

dogma,Sojournermadeadecisionandrespondedbygivingherlifenotonlyforher

peoplebutforallpeople.Shehadneverbeenfarthereastthanhercity.Nordidshe

anyfriendswhomighthelpher.ButshefeltcalledbytheSpirittoleaveandtravel

easttolecture.Afterputtingafewarticlesofclothinginapillowcaseaboutanhour

beforesheleft,sheinformedMrs.Whiting,thewomanofthehousewhereshewas

working,thathernamewasnolongerIsabella,butSojourner;andthatshe“was

goingeast!”45Hermissionwasnotmerelytotraveleastbutlectureasshedidso,

testifyingaboutthehopethatwasinher–exhortingthepeopletoembraceJesus

andrefrainfromsin,thenatureandoriginofwhichsheexplainedtothemwithher

own“mostcuriousviews.”46

Thisrevelationisopentomodernity.TobeinfaithfulwitnessforGod,each

Christianmustnotbecontentatanyjunctureinajourneyoffaith.Peoplemustbe

willingtoriskeverythingtofollowthemissionofthechurchofthelivingGod.

Therewerecertainlydifferencesintheblacksocialgospeltraditionfromthe

mainlinetraditions.WhereasAngloAmericansduringtheperiodfocusedonthe

Jesusor“Christos”asliberatorandmovedthisdogmaintoProgressiveErareform,

Americanblacksfocusedonthemysticalpowersofthe“Pneuma”ortheHolySpirit

oftheTrinity.Harlan’sreferencetoBTWas“blackJesus”inTheSecretLifeofBooker

T.WashingtonandreferencetotheimmoralityofhavingChisumasaspy,

contradictstheparadigmofAmericanBlackSocialGospel.Themetalanguageofthe

movementanswersthequestionwhichHarlandidnotunderstandwhenhewrote:

IfiteverseemedtoWashingtonincongruousforhimself,theconventionalandconservativeblackleader,theBaptistlayman,thepublicpurveyorofconventionalmorality,tobeinleaguewiththisplumplittlerogueinabullet-proofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingtheprivacyofothers,henevercommittedsuchanattitudetowriting.HisresorttohishumbleservantChisumisameasureofacertainmoralinsensitivityinWashingtonthatonedoesnotfindintheprivatelivesofhisopponentssuchasDuBoisorevenTrotter.ThoseHarvardgraduatesstartednearthetop.Washington,having

45Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”100.46Ibid.,101.

startedinslaveryandpoverty,wouldgagatalmostnothingthatpromiseddominance.47

Blackswererealspookslikethewitchesandshapeshiftersfromthestories

ofBrerRabbitbutgottheirpowerfromGodinJesusandthroughtheHolySpirit

(seechapter4).Mostoftheworkhappenedinthedark,behindbarsaswithPaul

whentheAngelvisitedhiminjailandsethimlooseinthebiblicalnarrativewithout

theknowledgeofthelargerworld.BlackChristianmysticismdevelopedoveryears

ofslaveryinthestoriesofanimals,Zuluwordsofpowerandwisdomlikethoseused

byMerrittTrammellinLimestone,Texas,andincludedAfricanandAmericanIndian

religioustraditions(seechapter4).However,theblacksocialgospelmovementwas

fluid.Severaldivisionsweremanifestinthepoliticalreligiousmovement.Whilethe

movementoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurch(AME)wouldwindupon

AzusaStreetinCaliforniain1906,Chisum’sAmericanblackbaptisminthesocial

gospelledtojusticethroughespionage.ChristianmysticssuchasHarriettTubman

andotherlessknown“undergroundrailroad”leaderswerealiveduringthisperiod.

UndertheleadershipofBishopWilliamDerrick,BishopAlexanderWalters,Bishop

ReverdyRansom,andIdaB.Wells-Barnett,aggressivereligiousmovementsbroke

outamongyoungMethodistsonwhiteandblackcollegecampuses.48

Researchingtheblacknarrativeoftheirownheroes,theAmericanBlackCivil

Religiontemplateincludedtheworkofslaveuprisings,BrerRabbitstoriesteaching

47Harlan,TheWizardofTuskegee,92;LouisHarlan,"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,"JournalofSouthernHistory37(August1971).48MethodistEpiscopalChurch,NorthwesternChristianAdvocate52(23March1904).

aboutsurvival,menofaffairselevatingtheirrace,andpeoplecarryingoutactsof

espionage.FrederickDouglassandAMEBishopssuchasWilliamDerrickand

AlexanderWalterspressuredthegovernmentforrightswithincommitteerooms.

AmericanblacksandtheiraccomplicessuchasJohnBrowntookviolentactionto

gainjusticeandusedanymeansnecessary.Theirnarrativeselevatedrebellious

blackssuchasToussaintL’Overture,CowTom(InterpreterandfirstblackCreek

IndianChief),MerrittTrammell(chapter3),IsabellaBaumfree(SojournerTruth),

UncleTom,BishopWilliamDerrick,andHarriettTubman,aswellaswhitessuchas

JohnBrown.49Theseblackslivedaspeoplecalledtobemissionarytricksterswho

savedpeople’sphysicallivesfromtheenslaverJimCrow.Sometimesthey

outmaneuveredwhitesupremacistpoliciesthroughundergroundrailroads,court

hearings,mutiny,andotherrebelliousacts.Sometimes,likeUncleTom,theyplayed

whateverpartwasnecessarytogainanoutcomebetterthantheirexisting

condition.Chisumfitintothisnicheofpeoplewhofacilitatedchange,justasW.E.B.

DuBoisandKellyMorganhadintheworldofthetalentedtenthorhighlyeducated

blackworld.Theyallplayedagamewithwhitesandevenwitheachother.Unlike

Harlan’sassessmentthatBTWwastheexception–BTWwasactuallythenorm.

Blackleadersknewthiswasagame.ChisumplayeditwithBTWand

outsiders.Forinstance,whileundercoverandspyingforBTWamongthe

NiagaraitesonJune1,1907,MelvinChisumwrotetoBTWtoupdatehimonhis49CarterG.Woodson,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch(WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,1921);TheNegroinOurHistory(WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,1932);HoraceTalbert,TheSonsofAllen(XeniaOhio:TheAldinePress,1906);ClementRichardson,TheNationalCyclopediaoftheColoredRace(Montgomery,Alabama:NationalPublishingCompany,Inc.,1919).

mission.HeexplainedthatAfricanMethodistEpiscopalBishopAlexanderWaltersof

theNiagaramovementsympathizedandapplaudedBTW’sadaptationofthis

accommodation(acceptingsecondclasscitizenshipwhilefocusingoneconomic

betterment).WaltershadnorealargumentwithWashington’swayofaccomplishing

reformeventhoughWalterswantedamoreaggressivepoliticalstance.Chisum

wrote:

Ihavebeenwithourmutal(sic)friendtheBishopTuesday,Wednesdayandtoday,andbegtoreport:“Heisalrightwithyou,butthinksyouaredispleasedwithhim.Hethinksthatsomebodymustkeepupthefightfortheradicalelementandfeelsthathecanbetteraffordtodosothanyou.Heremarkedtoday‘Dr.Washingtonisrightinhiscourse,itisforthethingmostneededwhichheisdoing–heisholdingfastthefriendshipofamostimportantelementofthewhitesthatwouldbeeternallylosttous,butforhistactandstatesmanship.’”50

ThefightforblackequalityintheUnitedStatescommencedin“all-out-war”

fromthestandpointofblacks.LikeEuropeanandglobalcounterpartsinwar,

Americanblacksusedthelucrativejobofspying.Theyadoptedthemindsetofthe

ancientproverbthat“theenemyofmyenemyismyfriend,”meaningopposing

partiescouldworktogetheragainstasharedenemy(chapter4).Whileblackssuch

asBTWandW.E.B.DuBoisheldintra-racialdisputesonhowtostrategizereform,

theystillhadthesameenemy,whitesupremacy,calledJimCrowlaws.Somelaws

werewrittenonplaquesandotherswereassumed.Blacksneverknewallofthe

50MelvinJ.ChisumtoBookerT.Washington,1June1907(BTWContainer344),inLouisHarlanPapers,Box41,Spies,Chisumfolder,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries.HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers,UMDLibraries.

assumedlaws.Theyparticipatedinaspirituallifehopingtobeledtoliberationby

theirpersonalwitnessoftheDivine.

AChristologicalvisionallowsforrevelatoryparticipationinthedivinelife.

ThepowerofthewordofGodpermeatestheworldthatGodhasliberatedand

redeemedthroughJesusChrist.ItisessentiallyGod’sgracethatreachedChisumand

JackJohnsonlikeitdidSojourner.InitiallythesetwoyoungMethodistboyswentto

GodbutwithdrewbecausetheGodtheyfoundwasnottheirown.Throughouttheir

childhoodtheboysMelvinChisumandJackJohnson,IsaacWilliamYoung,and

EmmettScott,heardthescripturesreadandexplainedtothem(chapter3).Butthey

wereneverledtofeelthescripturesweretheirownhistory.TouseNeibuhr’s

phrase,itwas“anexternalhistory”–aChristianhistoryforwhitesonly.Through

experiencetheyrealizedothers’interpretationoftheWordwasnotadequate.They

chosetointerprettheessentialmeaningofScripturefromthewitnesswithinthem,

asSojournerTruthsaiditcamefrom“withinher.”Thisdevelopmentoftermsand

mindsetsetsapartialstageforareadingofthelifeandwitnessofMelvinChisum,Sr.

CHAPTERIII

ITISNOTTHESIZEOFTHEDOGINTHEFIGHT;

ITISTHESIZEOFFIGHTINTHEDOG

“Ifeveryouneedarealgenuinepieceofsteelsendforme . . . [I]wasborn,reared,andraisedinTexas,andmayIbepardonedforsaying,thatnatureinputtingmetogetherforgottoputinfear.”1

---MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.toBookerT.Washington

MelvinChisumisrepresentativeofmenfromhisrace,class,and

socioeconomicgroup.Justtoexist,theyfoughtagainstracism,thepsychological

warfarewagedagainstblackness,andeconomicbarriers.Somedied.Otherswere

killed.Someexcelled.2Chisumwasoneofthefewtogainnationalprominenceinthe

1MelvinChisumtoBookerWashington,4October1904,LouisHarlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,ed.LouisHarlan,vol.7(Illinios:UniveristyofIllinois,1972).121.HereaftercitedasBTWP;MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,LeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,Delaney-BrowneLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity,hereaftercitedasOKCU.2Woodson,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch;TheNegroinOurHistory;Talbert;Richardson.ThesebooksgivebackgroundsofhundredsofblackmenborninthesameeraasChisum.Manyofthesemenfacedthesameburdensinlifeandtrodlikepathstosurvive.

FranklinRooseveltAdministrationalongwithAngloAmericanssuchasJamesFarley

who,thoughwhite,likeChisum,pulledthemselvesupbytheirownbootstraps.3

MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,revealedinaletterthathefeltforgedfromhis

birthtobe“TexasSteel.”Steelisrefinedfromimpuremetal.Unliketheprocessof

smeltingthatinvolvesachemicalchangetotherawmaterial,thefinalmaterialin

steelisidenticalchemicallytotheoriginalone,butitismuchpurer.Texaswasone

ofthemostdangerousplacesontheplanetforfreedmeninthe1870s.Theheritage

oflivingthroughReconstructioninTexasand,perhapsdespite,livingduringthat

periodforgedChisumintothe“Duke”thathisblackcolleaguesrespected.Inthe

1930sChisumreachedthezenithinhispoliticalcareer.Thischapterdescribesthe

earlylifeofChisum–asoneblackmanrepresentativeofmanyblackmenlikehim–

whostruggledtosurviveandfindhiswaypoliticallyandsociallyduringtheearly

partofthetwentiethcenturywhenblacksfaceddangerandinstability.Evaluating

thetorments,joys,andconcernsofhisfamily,friendsandmentorsinthefirstthree

decadesofhislifeassistsininterpretinghisunderstandingofrace,religion,andhis

practiceofaidingtheneedy.Itoffersalensintohisvaluesoflifeasafamilyman.

AtthepinnacleofhiscareerMelvinChisumwrotetwomorepertinentthings

abouthimselftoaboyhoodfriendandadultpoliticalally,Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,

presidentofLangstonUniversityinOklahoma.Inoneletterheclaimed,“Throughall

3JacksonandHarristalkaboutthepsychologicalwarfarewagedagainstblacksduringReconstruction.DavidJackson,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleagainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillian,2008).21-33;JoelChandlerHarris,UncleRemus(NewYorkAppletonandCompany,1880).xvii.

theyearsofmypublicexperience,Ihaveneveroncefailedafriend.Havealways

strivenarduouslytoservedisappointmentandmiserytomyenemieswithout

compunction,butfriendshipwithmeisasacredrelationandItreasureitasagiftof

thegods.”4Intheotherhestatedthat“whenIhadbutlittleexperienceandmy

influencewasnegligible,Iwentaboutservinganyandallmenatmyownexpense:I

donothavetodothatnow.”5ThelettersgiveglimpsesofhowChisumviewed

himselfandhislifeworkpsychologically,socially,andintellectuallyasafirst

generationfreedmanblack.Chisum’sonemajorantagonistinlifewouldbeonehe

couldnotoutrunandneveroutwitted–racism.BeinganAmericanblackwaslike

beingtrickedatbirth:Firstyouhavetorealizethereisatrick.Thenyouhaveto

admitthetrickisonyou.Thentosurviveyouturnthetrickbackonthetrickster.6

Oneneverletsdownhisguard.

FollowingthelifeofMelvinJacksonChisumfromtheearly1870sto1945is

likeplayingmoderngamesthatfollowuniquecharacterswhothoughever-present,

movearoundtheworldunnoticed.MelvinChisum,Sr.,cropsupbehindthescenesin

themidstofmajorAmericanhistoricaleventsandpersonagesintheUnitedStates;

fromtheSecondCivilWarinTexas,instoriesofrobberbarons,Pullmanporters,

BookerT.WashingtonatTuskegee,allthewayuptothroughWorldWarll.

4MelvinChisumtoDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,6September1933,OKCU.5MelvinChisumtoDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,14October1933,OKCU.6InterviewwithLeonBrooks,Mechanicsville,Virginia,23November2017,OKCU.AsanAmericanblack,BrookslearnedthepremiseinclassatthesegregatedVirginiaUnionUniversity,RichmondVAinthe1970swhenhestudiedtheUncleRemusTales.Inthe1990sBrooksbroughtsuitagainsttheVirginiaAirNationalGuardtohavetheConfederateflagremovedfromitsairplanes.Hewassoonletgo.In2018heisstillfightingforhisprivilegesfromtheVirginiaAirNationalGuard.

Chisumwasbornintheearly1870sinthelushTehuacanaHillsnearMexia,

Texas.Duringhisinfancy,ex-ConfederatesoldiersandotherAngloTexans

murderedhundredsofblackslivingintheheavywoodedlandalongthebanksofthe

NavasotaRiver.TheChisumfamilylookedtoGodfortheirsurvival,federalsoldiers

fortheirprotection,andmenofsteellikeMerrittTrammell(1832-1875)for

leadership.Trammellbecamethegrass-rootsleaderforblacksandpreachedwitha

loadedshotgunbyhispulpit.Anex-slaveoftheStroudplantation,hesnuckoutof

theMexiaarea,crossedtheregionbetweenLimestoneCountyandWaco,Texas,on

horseback,tobringaparticulartroopofUnionsoldierstoprotectAfro-Texansfrom

terrorists.

Asatoddler,ifnotlittlemorethananinfant,Chisumparticipatedinactsof

politicalandsocialintriguetoprotectAfroTexans.Onemustimagineasmallchild

withadarkcoffee-beancomplexion,whorolledhimselfsotightlyintoaballthatall

onecouldseewasthefluffofhisbabyhairbecausehishandscoveredhisfaceashe

washurledthroughtheairlikeaball.Chisum’sfirstmemorywasbeingpassedfrom

thehandsofoneUnioncavalrymantoanother.ThesoldiersinPrussianbluejackets

andHardeehatswererescuers.

ChildrensuchasChisumwerenotsafebuthandled,hunted,andtreatedlike

animals.Blackchildrenlearnedfromtheirelderstotransformtheirmindstofind

waystomanipulatetheirbodies,souls,andbeingstobecomeliketheanimalsin

UncleRemus’stale“PlantationWitch.”7Chisum’scontemporary,educatorMary

McLeodBethune(1875-1955),confessedthatblacks,particularlywomen,feltlike

animals,as“animatedagriculturalimplement[s]toaugmenttheserviceofmules

andplowsincultivatingandharvestingthecottoncrop.”WomensuchasChisum’s

twelve-year-oldchild-motherwere“automaticincubators,aproducerofhuman

livestock,beneathwhoseheartandlungsmorepotentiallaborerscouldbebredand

nurturedandbroughttothelightoftoilsomeday.”8Blackmenandwomenusedthe

stories,laterwrittendownbyJoelChandlerHarris,toteachsurvival.BrerRabbit

andhisassociateswereanextensionoftheirlivesandthestorieswerestoriesoflife

duringslaveryandReconstruction.

Thefirstcriesofyoungbabieswereprobablystifled,hushed,pushedbackin

theirmouthsbytheirmother’sbreath.Thesechildrenfrombirthweretaughttheart

ofdisguisingtheirinnerfeelingsandneedsinordertosurviveintheTexasworldof

whiteoppression.Sometimesintheblacklifeitisgoodtoliveoutthelowest

commondenominatoronecould,makingiteasytobecomeananimaloraball.

Chisum’sson,Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,(1921-2014),admittedhisfathertoldhimthat

beingpassedoffbetweensoldierswastheearliesteventhecouldremember:“Of

7JoelChandlerHarris,UncleRemus:HisSongsandHisSayings(NewYork:Appleton-CenturyCompany,1934),xvii.Harriswrote“UncleRemusdescribesReconstructionthroughhisstoriestotheyoungchildwhoisaproductofthatpracticalreconstructionwhichhasbeengoingontosomeextentsincethewarinspiteofthepoliticians.”8MaryMcLeodBethune,“ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,”n.d.,MaryMcLeodBethuneCollection,AmistadResearchCenter,TulaneUniversity;MaryMcLeodBethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,ed.GerdaLerner,BlackWomeninWhiteAmerica:ADocumentaryHistory(NewYork:RandomHouse,1972),580.

course,hewasayoungboyandhethoughtthatwasthegreatestthingintheworld.

Thatwasgreatfunasfarashewasconcerned.”ForMelvinChisum,“beingaball”for

thecavalrymen,wasaprivilegeandlifeforachildofReconstruction.Hekeptthem

occupiedandhiscommunitysafe.Inhismemory,heparticipatedwithlittlefearin

actsofvalortoprotectbothhisfamilyandthedisenfranchised–andwoulddoso

untilhisdeathin1945.

Beforehelearnedtoreadandwritehewastaughtsurvival.Asinthestories

ofBrerRabbit,inhisyouthBrerMelvinacedtheartofshapeshifting,reachingto

thebackofhisneckandpullingoutanotherpersonalitytofitwhateverprecarious

situationthatcamehisway.IntheUncleRemusstory“PlantationWitch,”witches

sometimesshiftedintotheshapeofanimalsbyreachingintothemselvesand

becomingwhatevertheyneededtobeinordertosurvive.UncleRemusdescribes

thetransition:“datwitchfokesisgotaslitindebackerdeneck,enw’endaywanter

changederse’f,deyjuspulldehideoverderheadsameezif‘twuzashut,endardey

is.”9AfricanandIndianloretaughtblackstheycouldchangeintoravensandflyif

necessary.Blackauthorsstillpassonthetalesaboutblacksandtheirabilitytoshift

intobirdsandotheranimals.InThePeopleCouldFly(2004)theauthortreatstheact

asreal.10AccordingtoVirginiaHamilton,theartofshapeshiftingdidnotdie;the

peoplejustgottoofarawayfromtheexperience.BrerMelvin,whoshape-shifted

intoaball,justlikeintheUncleRemustale,keptthegovernmentsoldiersoccupied

sotheywould“tarryawhile”inMexiaorperhapstheystoppedbecausehisfather9Harris,“PlantationWitch,”inUncleRemus,154.10VirginiaHamilton,ThePeopleCouldFly:ThePictureBook(NewYork:RandomHouse,2004).

wasagroomforacavalryofficer,ormerelythathewasaccessible;eitherwaya

childwhowasaballoffersanotherlinktoReconstructionhistoryinTexas.Atleast

helived,unlikesomeblackbabieswhowereusedasalligatorbait.11

SuchdetailsdevelopanunderstandingofwhatitmeantforMelvinChisumto

comparehimselfto“Texassteel”inthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Itwas

notjustanoutsidewarthatChisumfoughtbutaninnerstruggleindealingwithhis

blackness.AccordingtoDavidJackson,Jr.,inBookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggle

AgainstWhiteSupremacy,Chisum’sgenerationfoughtagainstwhitebacklash.

Jacksondescribeditasthecultofwhiteness,“afullscalepsychologicalwaragainst

blacksinordertomakethemhatethemselvesanddevelopaninferioritycomplex”

aboutthemselvesandaboutotherblacks.12MelvinChisumdevelopedaformulafor

successduringhislifetime.Menlikehimwhohadto“pullthemselvesupbytheir

bootstraps”or,ashewasknowntosay,menwhowenttotheschoolof“hard

knocks,”wererefinedbytheirendeavors.LikeTexasSteel,hechoseforaperiod,to

servemenathisownexpense.13ThelegacyofachildinReconstructionplacating

boredUniontroopswhiletheyprotectedAfroTexansuncoversthepsychology

11DominiqueFoxworth,“TheGut-wrenchingHistoryofBlackBabiesandAlligators,”TheUndefeated,22June2016.Theundefeated.com.Whilesomehistoriansclaimitneverhappened,Foxworthdatesthepracticeoffeedingblackbabiestoalligatorsbacktothe19thcentury.SharonDraper,TheCopperSun(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006).12DavidJackson,Jr.,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleagainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillian,2008),21.SeeGeoffreyWard,UnforgivableBlackness:RiseandFallofJackJohnson,(NewYork:RandomHouse,2004).DeborahGabriel,LayersofBlackness:ColourismintheAfricanDiaspora,(ImaniMediaLtd.BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication2007.)13MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,14October1933,OKCU.

Chisumdevelopedthatturnedhimintoanefficiencyagent,detective,notjustasan

agentandinvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministration,butalsoasamanfrom

whomGeorgeWashingtonCarveralwaysexpectedtohearnothingbutthetruth.14

Thus,psychologically,usinghisbodyforatoyisnotsofarawayfromusinghisbody

asabatteringram,asaninstrumentinthefightingringinordertosupportafamily.

ThischaptermoveswithMelvinChisumfromhisinfancyandthroughthenameshe

adoptedtofitthenicheswherehefoundhimself:fromMelvin,toJackChisum,to

TexasRosebud,andbacktoMelvinJacksonChisum;itwilldemonstratethathewas

refinedbyothers,butthathealsorefinedhimself.

Chisum’sUniqueLinkstoSlavery,ReconstructionandAfro-TexanHeroes

TheperiodinTexashistoryinwhichChisumwasbornissometimescalled

theSecondCivilWar.EventhoughtheCivilWarendedyearsbeforehewasborn,

racialbattlesspilledintoWacoandLimestoneCounty,Texas.AngloConfederate

soldiersreturnedfromwar,bitteraboutthelossoftheConfederacyandthelossof

land,sufferingfromangstaboutthefreeingofover4,000,000slaves,andthelossof

thewealththeyrepresented;theythenbecameenragedbecauseblacksgained

votingprivileges.Theyhadbloodontheirhandsandmurderintheirhearts.These

menspewedtheirfurytowardfreedmen.TheReconstructionnarrativeinTexas

takesonnewmeaningbyaddingthelifeofMelvinChisumandhisfamily.

14GeorgeWashingtonCarvertoMelvinChisum,3February1933,OKCU.

HistorianJohnHopeFranklindescribedthepubliclifeintheareaof

LimestoneCounty,Texas,ofwhichMexiawascarved,asbeinginthemidstofakind

of“guerillawarfare.”15SomeAfro-Texanstoleratedwhateverneededtobedonein

ordertosurvive.Blackfamilies,suchasJohnChisum’s,Melvin’sfather,liveddailyin

fearofbeingattackedandkilledbymurderers.Someblackssnipedbackat

Confederatevillainswithguns,usingguerillawarfarethemselvesastheybattledfor

theirlives,liberties,andfreedomagainstasystemofwhitesupremacyandviolence.

OtherblacksintheLimestoneCountyarea,alreadybadlybattered,wereoftenso

afraidofactsofvengeancefromreturningex-confederatesoldiers–historianJames

Smallwoodcalledthem“terrorists”–thattheybarredtheirdoorsandwindowsand

cuttheirlampsandcandleslowiftheyremainedintheircabinsatnight.Others

sleptinthewoods.Moreover,nopersonofcolorwassafe,eveningoingtotheriver

tofishduringthedaylighthours.ReturningsoldierSimp“Dixie”Dixon,rumoredto

bearelativeofoutlawandmurdererJohnWesleyHardin,madeanelderlyfreed

slavewomandanceasheshotather.Hetoldhertopray,thenassheprayedheshot

herinthebackofherhead.16

Underthesecircumstances,asaconcessiontomurderingblacktownspeople,

JohnChisumlookedonas“oneoftheUnioncavalrymanwouldhavehim[Melvin]

underhisarm,andanotherUnionCavalrymanwouldbeonahorsefacinghim.Then

15JohnHopeFranklin,FromSlaverytoFreedom:AHistoryofAfricanAmericans(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1994),249.JamesM.Smallwood,MurderandMayhem:TheWarofReconstructioninTexas(CollegeStation:TexasA.&M.UniversityPress,2003).16WalterCotton,HistoryofNegroesinLimestoneCounty(n.p.;n.p.),11,MexiaPublicLibrary,Mexia,Texas.

theywouldridetowardeachotherandpasshimoffbetweenthem.”17Throughhis

earlyexperiencesMelvinChisumprobablylearnedthedynamicsofsurvivalbut

learnedtheideaofinvincibilityfromAfricanAmericanstories.Laterinlifewanted

postersdidnothavehisnamebutsoughtamanwhothoughthimselfinvincible

enoughtorunthegamutofhelpingfieldworkers,guardedbyarmedmen,steal

awayfromthesouthernfieldsduringthelightofday.

ChildrensuchasMelvinChisumquicklylearnedtodowhatwasrequiredto

surviveinsituationsofwarfare.JohnChandlerHarrisinUncleRemusputinwords

whatyoungstersofChisum’stimeperioddealtwithdaily.Chandleragreedwith

historianDavidJackson,Jr.,whonotedthatwhitesupremacyandthecomingJim

CrowlawswereatypeofpsychologicalwarfareplayedonReconstructionAmerican

blackadultsandchildren.TotheAngloboytowhomUncleRemustoldthetale,Brer

Rabbitmayhavebeenatrickster,buttoAfro-Texansheborenobadgeastrickster

buttaughttheartofsurvival.WilliamTwine,anewcomertoMexiaintheearly

1870s,describedtheartofsurvivalonthepartofchildren:“They[children]were

strong,industrious,willingtopleasetoanyextremeandquieterthanmice,

educationwastheiropiate,journalismatoolforliberty.Itwasthevoicefromthe

abyssthatletothersknowtheirordeal.”18Storiesofterrorwerepassedacrossthe

state,mouthtomouth,andbythenewspapers.AccordingtoSmallwood’sresearch,17UtriceLeid,TheTwine,Twyne,GogginsFamilyReunion2013,(NewYork,unpublished)67;LindaTwine,Conversations:OklahomaTwinesCentennialCelebration,1891-1991,(Oklahoma:SelfPublished1991),3.18MuskogeeCimeter(Oklahoma),8May1915.TwinewasacontemporaryofChisumwhoeventuallymovedtoOklahoma.Hisnewspaperwaswellknown.HissonsstartedthefirstblacklawfirminOklahoma.Hisgranddaughter,GloriaTwine,latermarriedMelvinChisum,Jr.

terroristgroupsorganizedandroamedTexascallingthemselves“NiggerKillers.”

Theywouldkillafreedmanforseventy–fivecents.Inatleastoneinstanceablack

childwaskilledinhistracksjustbecausehehadhishandsinhispocketsanddidnot

standatattentionwhenagangmemberrodeby.Sometimesthesegunmenwenton

six-andseven-dayshootingspreeskillingblacks.19BrerRabbittaughthowtohide

inplainsight;childrenneededtoknowhowtoaccomplishthisfeat.

Thelinguistictermof“childhood”wasnotpartofslaveorearly

Reconstructionmeta-language.Ablackchildservedasaslaveorworker.Becauseof

thedestructionofthefamily,theneedforlabor,andtheuseofmenasbreedersat

thefirstsignoffemalepubertyduringslavery,childrenduringReconstructioninthe

LimestoneCountyareahadnoconceptofnewborn,infant,andtoddler.Asachild

begantowalk,heorshecouldworkandlearnedtechniquesofsurvival.Onegetsthe

impressionthattheageoftwelveseemedtobe“adulthood,”butactuallyitwas

simplytheaverageageoftheonsetofpuberty.Itappearsfromrecordsofmarriages

betweenthe1870sandthe1890sthattheageof“consent”forgirlstowedwas

betweentwelveandfourteenyearsold–againobviouslytiedtoageatpuberty.

MelvinChisumwasbornwhenhismotherwasbetweentwelveandfourteen,andas

atoddlerheworkedinthefields.Teachingchildrenthepossibilitiesforjustice

throughnewspapersandtheprovidenceofamightypowerknownasGodprobably

startedinwhatmodernitytermsnewborn.

19Smallwood,MurderandMayhem,47-49,99.NormanBrownandChuckParsons,ALawlessBreed:JohnWesleyHardin,TexasReconstructionandViolenceintheWildWest,(Denton:UniversityofNorthTexasPress,2013),29.

Anglo-TexannewspapereditorsplayedamajorpartintheTexasracialcivil

warfareduringReconstructionbypittingwhitesagainsttheirblackcounterparts.

DavidBlightinRaceandReunionobservedthat“inthemindsofmanywhite

Democraticeditors,racetheoryandracialfearworkedhandinhandwith

antiradicalpolitics.Republicanmisrule,wenttheargument,hadstolentherightsof

whitesanddisruptedthenaturalplaceofblacksinsociety.”20Blackslistenedto

preacherMerrittTrammellwhospokeofGod-givenvalorandpoweratMt.Zion,the

firstblackchurchintheLimestoneCountyarea.TheGodthatTrammelltaught

aboutwasdifferentfromthewhiteGodwholabeledthemslavesfromthecurseof

HamortheCalvinisticteachingthattheywerebornslavesandthereforecreatedto

remainsubservienttowhitemalelandowners.21

HowdidtheirlocalunderstandingofTrammellasaraceleaderandpreacher

pithimagainstwhitenewspaperswholabeledTrammellatroublemaker?Dr.Henry

Ponder(1928),educatorandpresidentofseveralblackcollegesanduniversities,

learnedthestoryofalioninhisyouth:“Thelittlelionwalkeduptohisdaddyand

said,‘Daddyifwearethekingofthejunglewhydoesthehunteralwayswin?His

fathersaidwhenlionsstartwritinghistorythelionswillwin.”Somewhereblacks

learnedthatnewspaperswereavehiclefortheir“voicefromtheabyss,”asTwine

describedit,tobeheardandtoletothersknowoftheirplight.InLimestoneCounty

20DavidBlight,RaceandReunion:TheCivilWarinAmericanMemory(Cambridge:BelknapPress,2001),101.21Basedon1674WestminsterConfessionoffaithCatechism#1,OfProvidenceV.andBaptismXXVIII.BornasGodhadchosen,slaveswerenotbaptizedintofreedom-“whomthesonsetsfreeisfreeindeed”(BibleJohn8:36)-butbaptizedintobeingthebestslavestheycouldbe.

blackssuchastheChisumfamilywaited,watched,andhopedfor,liberationfrom

theintrinsicevilintheircommunity,intheircountry.MelvinChisumwouldlearnto

write.

ChisumwasbornJanuary12,1873?(circa1870)intheTehuacanaHillsof

Texas.Hisfather,JohnChisum(1847/1854-1919),wasbornaslaveinMacon,

Georgia,andwasnamedafterhisownerJohnChisholm,acousinofJesseChisholm

wholaidouttheChisholmTrail.WhilelivinginGeorgia,JohnChisholmrealizedthe

SouthmightjustlosetheCivilWar.“Hemusthavebeenamanofsubstance,the

headofaprosperousfamily,”accordingtoDr.Chisum.“Hehadtheforesight,

strength,resourcefulness,andinitiativetoputhisfamilyandwhatpartofhis

personalpossessionshewasabletotransport,includinghisslaves,ontowagons

andmovethemtoTexaswhenheforesawtheSouthlosingthewar.”22Theowner

tookhispossessions,followedthetrailofotherslaveholdersfromArkansas,

Louisiana,andMississippiwhohadmigratedtoTexasattheoutbreakoftheCivil

War,andencampedintheTehuacanaHills.OtherslaveownerssuchastheStroud

familyinLimestoneCountyandtheHarlanfamilyinRobertsonCountyhadsettled

thereinthe1830s.AftertheCivilWar,someofthesegroupsofdisenfranchised

slaveowners,theirextendedfamilies,andreturningfightersdevelopedintothethe

gangsofmurderersinMexiaandsurroundingterritories.

TheMexiaEveningLedgerdescribedJohnChisum,Melvin’sfather,as“aquiet

peaceablecoloredcitizen”whichmeanthewasunlikehiswife’srelativeswho

22Dr.MelvinJChisum,Jr.,toCeceliaBrooks,21March2006,OKCU.

warredagainstwhitesinthe1870s.23JohnChisumlookedlikeamaturedcopyofhis

son,aboutfivefeetsix,dark,nappyheaded,openlyniggardlywhenhewantedbut

inwardlyclear-sightedandMachiavellian–theideal“DaddyBrerRabbit”tohisson.

Hedealtwiththeadversityaroundhimthroughmeanslearnedintheoppressionof

slavery.LookingbacktoatimeofguerillawarfareinMexia,JohnChisumdisplayed

cunninginallowinghissontobesowellrecognizedbythesoldiers.Thelegend

behindJohnChisumishardtoprovebutinteresting.AccordingtoDr.Chisum:

Severalyearsafterthewarwasover,PresidentGrantsentCavalrysquadronsdowntoTexastorepatriatethesesouthernerswhohadfledtogetawayfromthearmy.WhenthisparticularUnitedStatesCalvaryofficerhadfinallycaughtupwithJohnChisholm,hetoldJohnChisholmthathewasgoingtoconfiscatehishorserightthenbecausehehadaverybeautifulhorse.JohnChisholmreplied,“Well,ifyouaregoingtotakethathorse,takethatyoungboyrightthere.That’shisgroomandhe’stheonlypersonwhoknowshowtotakecareofthathorse.”Thatwasmygrandfatherandthatishowhetookonthismaster’sname.Iguesshewasfreedtechnicallyatthatmomentandhewenttoworkforthisarmycaptainwhotookthehorse.24

PossiblyitwasthisgroupofsoldiersthatMerrittTrammellenlistedtohelp

Afro-Texans.Thereismoretothestory.IntheMexiaareaformerslaveholders

refusedtofreetheirformerslavesaftertheCivilWarwasoverandevenafter

CongresspassedtheThirteenthAmendmentonJanuary31,1865,thenratified

December6,1865.Itstatedclearlythat“Neitherslaverynorinvoluntaryservitude,

exceptasapunishmentforcrimewhereofthepartyshallhavebeendulyconvicted,

shallexistwithintheUnitedStates,oranyplacesubjecttotheirjurisdiction.”Onthe

23MexiaEveningLedger(Texas),24June1899.24Twine,Conversations,3.

StroudplantationtheEmancipationProclamation(1863)wasreadinJulyof1865.

AccordingtoresearchbySmallwood,JohnChisholmwithdrewdeeplyintothe

confinesofEasternTexasanddidnotfreehisslavesuntilthenextyear.25Blacks,

thinkingtheyweresoldiersafterthewar,laboredforquartermastersand

plantationsinTexas.Smallwood’sresearchbridgesthetwostories.Itispossible

JohnChisumwasfreedyearsaftertheendofslavery.

AfterJohnChisum’sarrivalbackinMexia,hejumpedthebroomwithRachel

ArveliaHenderson(1858/1860-1904),afreedslavefromtheStroudplantation.

Thesedatesoverlap,givingMelvin’sbirthyearsomethreetofouryearsinquestion.

IncomparisontootherfreedgirlsintheareaduringReconstruction,twelveto

fourteenyearsofageseemedtobetheageofconsent.Smallwoodrecountsthat

manyadultwomenfromtheStroudandsurroundingplantationswere

psychologicallybatteredfrommandatoryrapeatpuberty,whichcontinuedinto

adulthood,andtheyhaddifficultywiththeideaofmarriageintheReconstruction

years.Slavenarrativesrevealthatwomentooyoungtohavehadsexsufferedfrom

shock,developedfearsofmen,andnevermarried.26Therefore,itseemsyounggirls

whocametopubertyafterslaveryended,suchasRachelandhercousinMittie,

marriedwithacleanslateortheymarriedquicklytokeeptheoldcodesforwomen

25JamesM.Smallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,1865-1874.”(PhDdiss.,TexasTechUniversity,1974).JamesM.Smallwood,TimeofHope,TimeofDespair:BlackTexasDuringReconstruction,(NewYork:KennikatPress1981),34.26SamJonesWashington,SamJonesWashingtonFortWorthTexas,manuscriptFromLibraryofCongress,BorninSlavery:SlaveNarrativesfromtheFederalWritersProject,1936-1938,https://www.loc.gov/item/mesnp164138/(accessedMarch11,2016);Smallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,”48.

atbay.JohnandRachellatertooktheritesofmatrimonyonSeptember15,1884,at

Groesbeck,Texas.

RayWalker,inAHistoryofLimestoneCounty,reported,“Noestimated

damagehaseverbeenmadeoftheatrociousactscommittedduringthese

troublesometimes,butitissafetosurmisethatliterallyhundredsofNegroeswere

murdered.Variousgroupsattemptedtodestroytherecordsandevidentlydida

goodjob;fewrecordshavebeenlocatedpriorto1874.”27MelvinChisumwasborn

toyoungparentsinthemidstof“anunrecordedreignofterror.”Hisepisodeof

“flying”depictedtheendofyearsofracialtensionthatgrewandexplodedinto

outrightracewarinLimestoneCounty.DuringtheCivilWarwhenwhiteswentto

fight,amixofilliterateblacks,whohadnotbeeninvitedtojointhewar,alongwith

“Impudentwhite[s]whodidn’tthinkenoughoftheSouthtofightforherduringthe

war,”remainedinLimestoneCounty.28

AnunbiasedaccountofwhathappenedinLimestoneCountyhasnotbeen

written.AccordingtoRayWalker,“areignofterror”beganwithCharlesCulver’s

appointmentbytheFreedman’sBureautoaidblacksingainingproperty.However,

WalkercitesthereadingoftheEmancipationProclamationontheLoganStroud

plantationasthemoment“whentherealtroublebegan.”29Walkermeantthatafter

thewarblackshadthepowertovote,andwiththeirvotestheyelectedAfro-Texans

27RayWalker,AHistoryofLimestoneCounty(Austin,TX:VonBoeckmann-Jones,1959),55.28Ibid.,62.29Ibid.,54;WalterCotton,HistoryofNegroesinLimestoneCounty(n.p.;n.p.),18,MexiaPublicLibrary,Mexia,Texas;Smallwood,MurderandMayhem,124.

intoprominentpositions.WhenhostilewhiteswhofoughtfortheConfederacy

returnedafterthewar,theareaflamedintooneofthemostraciallyintensezonesin

thecountry.MelvinChisumgrewupinwhatFreedman’sBureauagentAlbertEvans

calledavolatilearea.Texans’bloodflowedcrimsonintheriversfromthemurders

ofblacksandwhitesintentonredefiningtheirownershipofproperty,rights,and

racesuperioritythathadnotexistedpreviously.DuringReconstructionreturning

soldierscontendedwithblacks,whooncehadbeenslaves,withoutprotectionsof

Americancitizenship.Theseblacksnowclaimedtheirrightsoflife,liberty,and

justiceinplacesandspaces,tangibleandintangible,whichoncebelongedonlyto

whites.AprimaryproblemwasthataccordingtoJasonWarreninDrawdown,after

thewartheonlyorganizedrebelarmyleftoverfromtheConfederacywasin

Texas.30

MembersofMelvinChisum’smother’splantationfamilyplayedstarrolesin

theguerillawarfare.AtthereadingoftheEmancipationProclamation,Merritt

Trammellmadeapulpit,knelt,andprayedfordeliverance.In1870Trammellhad

“felttheurgetobecomeaministerandfoundedachurchandnameditMt.Zion.”31

Fromthepulpitofthefirstblackchurchinthearea,Trammellpreachedvalor,

Africancourage“ushujaa,”andAfricanZulu“amandla”power.32Hepreachedand

taughtmuchthesamemysticismthatMelvinChisumwouldfindinBishopWilliam

DerrickoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurchinthe1890s.Trammelbecame30JasonWarren,Drawdown:TheAmericanWayofPostwar(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2016),124.31Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,12.32BarryA.CrouchandDonalyE.Brice,TheGovernor’sHounds:TheTexasStatePolice,1870-1873(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2011),103.

“theacknowledgedleaderofNegroes.”MelvinChisum’smother,RachaelHenderson

Chisum,waslinkedtoTrammell.TrammelwasaHarlanfamilybastard.Hecarried

themaidensurnameofhisowner’smother.

LikeJohnChisholm,(thepriorownerofMelvinChisum’sfather),Logan

Stroud(1814-1911),wasoriginallyfromMaconCounty,Georgia.WhileChisholm

wasasmallslaveowner,StroudwasthelargestslaveownerinLimestoneCounty.

Stroud’swifewasJaneElizabethHarlan.Stroud,hisfather,andbrotherswere

amongthefirstpermanentsettlersin1837intheareathatbecameLimestone

County.Usingbetweenonehundredandonehundredfiftyslaves,theStroudsraised

cattle,corn,andcottononsixhundredacres.33

Afterthewarblacksgainedthepowerofthevoteandelectedmenfromtheir

ownraceintopoliticalpositionsfromlocalpoliceforcestoseatsinthestate

legislature.BytheReconstructionActs,someAnglosbecameRepublicans.

DemocraticAnglosweredisenfranchisedintheLimestoneCounty.RalphLong

becameaRepublicanPartyboss,butMerrittTrammellremainedthegrass-roots

leader.TammellbecameamemberoftheTexasStatePolice,anewgroupoflawmen

inchargeofenforcinglawandorderinTexas.NegroessuchasGilesCotton(bastard

oftheStroudfamilywhowasusedtoimpregnategirlsatpuberty),andDave

Medlock(bastardoftheStroudfamilywhodrovecropstomarketinGalveston),

bothilliterateformerslaves,wereelectedasstaterepresentatives.UncleBurk

33RandolphCampbell,AnEmpireofSlavery:ThePeculiarInstitutioninTexas,1821-1865(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1989).275.

SimpsonfromtheStroudplantationinterpretedtheracialenvironmentduring

Reconstructionthisway:

Itmustberememberedthatthese[Black]menwhowereelectedasrepresentatives,couldnotreadorwrite,neitherdidtheyhavetheremotestideaofconstitutionallaw,yet,thrustinstantlyintopositionsofgraveimportancewherebytherebuildingofawar-torncountryandtopromoteafriendlyrelationshipbetweenthetworacesthatweredestinedtolivesidebysideandworkouttheirownsalvation.Thesemeasureswereconsideredbythesouthern,whitemanasaslapinthefacewhilehewasdown,andtheregerminatedintohisbrainterrorizingorganizationstofrightentheilliterateNegroawayfromthevotingpollsaswellasafeartoattempttoholdapublicoffice.34

RalphLongwaspaidtolooktheotherwayasblackswerefrightened,

maimed,andkilled.Whiteshadplannedon“terrorizingorganizationstofrighten

theilliterateNegroesawayfromthevotingpollsandanyattempttoholdpublic

office.”35Trammell,MitchCotton,andanunnamedblackpoliceman,oneofatleast

threeblackpolicemeninPrecinct1ofLimestoneCounty,resistedwhitedomination.

Withoutthesupportfromlocalstodealwiththeoutrightviolentactsagainst

AfroTexans,MerrittTrammellsnuckoutonhorsebacktoWaco,returningwitha

companyofUnionsoldiersstationedinWacoandCorsicanacommandedby

SergeantAdamDesch.TrammellhelpedthecompanysurpriseSimp“Dixie”Dixon

34Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,25.GeorgeRable,ButThereWasNoPeace:TheRoleofViolenceinPoliticsofReconstruction(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2007);DavidMarkChalmers,HoodedAmericanism:TheHistoryoftheKuKluxKlan(CharlotteNorthCarolina:PawPrints,2008).35Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,25.

“inadesertedcabin,cuttinghimofffromhistrainedhorse.”36Hewasshot

attemptingtogetawayfromthesoldiers.TheUnionforcethendeputizedTrammell

andotherblacks.Intheaftermathofanotherhangingofablackmanbywhites,the

deputiesfollowedthemurderersintoasaloon.Twowhitemen,DanGallagherand

formermayorD.C.Applewhite,andthreeblackpolicemeninuniform,Trammell,

Cotton,andanotherunnamedblackman,hadashowdownatClark’sSaloonon

NavasotaStreetinGroesbeck,Texas.Applewhitewaskilled.Afterthepivotal“shoot

out,”onlyoneman’swordsrangacrossthestateabouttheincident.J.D.Parish,a

friendofApplewhite’s,claimedthatafterkillingApplewhite,theblackpolicemen

brandishedtheirsix-shootersandcalledoutinaloudvoicethatblackswouldhave

thetown“flowingwithwhitebloodbeforethemorning.”Bythefollowingmorning,

October1,blackswerereportedlyrallyingtoattackthetown.Intimeanillegal,

radical“RumpSenate”putthecountyundermartiallaw.Allblackpolicemenand

officeholderswereremovedfrompower.TrammellandCottonwereconsidered

outlawsinsteadoflawmen.

CottonmanagedtofleebecausetheAnglosdeterminedthathewasmortally

wounded.Theylefthim“onacottodieinthejail,”whiletheyhuntedTrammell.

CottonescapedacrosstheRedRiverintoIndianTerritory.Trammellchangedhis

nameandlivedinexile.RacialtensionsremainedhighintheLimestoneCounty-

WacoareasolongafterwardthatCottondidnotrevealhislocationtohisrelatives

until1926.Cottondiedin1929.Trammellwentrogue,buthedidnotgiveuphis

causeasleaderoftheblackcommunity.Instead,hebecamedescribed–asChisum36Ibid.,19.

inhislatteryearswouldbe-an“outlawbynatureandademonbypractice.”37He

movedintoacaveonthewestbankoftheNavasotaRiver,and“likealionatbayhe

foughtoffhisattackers.”38Thecavefrontwasprotectedbytheriverandplankedin

therearandonbothsides.Itwasafortressagainstinvaders.Trammell’sdemise

camethroughhisfriendshipwithM.D.L.Harcrow:“Awhiteman...whowasalso

afoulofthelaw,madeadealwiththeauthoritiesforhisreleaseinreturnforputting

Merrittonthespot.”39

WhileTrammellslept,Harcrowpoisonedhisfriend’swhiskey.TheDaily

DemocraticStatesmannewspaperwrotethatHarcrowthenfilledTrammell’sbody

withbuckshot.HetookittothesheriffinGroesbeck,remarking,“here’syour“n-----

.”Harcrowreceivedarewardof$300(somebookssay$500).Hopeofasatisfactory

ReconstructionEraendedforblacksinLimestoneCountyafterthemurderof

Trammellbyawhitecohort.Therewasnolongerhonoramongfriends.

NewAngloleadersinLimestoneCountyinstitutedblackcodesthatlimited

thelivesoffreedmen.Dixon’sdesperadofriendspulledjailedblacksoutintothe

streetsandhangedthem.RebelliononthepartoftheAfroTexansfailed.Therewas

littleelsetohopeforexcepteducationandtherailroadthatnowpassedthrough

Mexia.Thestruggletosurvivegavedignitytothechoicesblackshadtomake.There

37MaryHintz,EarlyHistoryofLimestoneCountyOrganizedAsAStudyForTeachingaLocalHistoryUnit,MastersThesis,SouthwestTexasStateTeachersCollege,1943.38Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,12.39DonaldBriceBarryCrouch,TheGovernor'sHounds:TheTexasStatePolice,1870-1873,(Texas:UniversityofTexasPress,2012).Leslie,FreedomAfterSlavery:TheBlackExperienceandtheFreedmen’sBureauinReconstructionTexas(Indiana:TraffordPublishing,2012),61,113.

wasnoperfectchoicefortheAfroTexansinLimestoneCountyorotherpartsofthe

South:Firstyoufindoutthetrickisonyou.Thenyouturnthetrickbackonthem.

Inaworldofseverelylimitedopportunities,economicdepression,andracial

oppression,whatdoesaslaveparentturntoinordertohelpachildidentifyhimself

intheworldwherehisdarkcolorspurshatred?Whatkindofideascanbegleaned

fromthehistoryofAmericanblackstosetastandardforachildtoachieve?How

doesonedefineoneself:bytheexternallabelsandlimitationstheworldsets,orby

thepower,themover,andmanipulatoroftheirworld,theonewhosilentlybut

surelyleaveshismarkuponhistory?Whatquietself-assuranceandskillswould

guideamantoclaimhimselfasachameleonandatricksterforhisowntime,the

manwhomakesandunmakesthepowerfulandwhostudiessituationsand

masterfullymovestheworldasifitishischessboard?Howdoesoneclaimthe

powerandnotgetentrappedbyitstrappings?AboysuchasMelvinChisumstrides

silentlyupontheworldstage.Hedrawsnotattentiontohimselfandhis

maneuvering.

Whilemodernitylooksbackinhorroratsuchwildhorrendousnarratives,

likethemysticalBrerRabbit,theoppressedlearnedtomanipulatesituationstogain

positiveresults.ThenaturethatdevelopedinmensuchasChisumwassurely

differentfromthatofthe“Negroresolve”indicatedbyRobertCrudeninTheNegro

inReconstruction,theblackswhojustwantedeverythingtobeequal:“Thatwehave

nofeelingofresentmenttowardourformerowners,butwearewillingtoletthe

pastbeburiedwiththepast,andinthefuturetreatpersonswithkindnessand

respectwhoshalltreatuslikewise.”40TheTexaskindofoppressiondevelopeda

needforblackstobecometricksters(survivors)andledtotheirworkasvaluable

politicalWarwicks.WarwickwasapoliticalmanipulatorinEnglandinthefifteenth

centurywhowasthepowerbehindthethrone.SomemenlikeWarwick,learned

thatmakingkingsratherthanbeingthekingofferedjustasmuchpowertothat

individual.Thispartofhistoryseemstohavebeenpasseddownfromfathertoson.

LeavingMexia:FindingAWayOut

Whatdoesonedowithaquick-witted,fast-thinkingblackyouthoutsideof

thefieldandranchwork?InthecontinuingSecondCivilWarinhishometownof

Mexia,onecanspeculatewhyattheageoffourwithonlyhiswit,hisstrength,family

backing,andcunning,MelvinChisum’sfamilysenthimonajourneywitha

Methodistcircuitrider.InsteadoflaboringinMexiaunderthetutelageofhisteacher

WilliamTwineandworkingasasharecropper,Chisumwouldreceivethegiftofan

education,amajorsteptowardpsychologicalandphysicalfreedom.PerhapsRachel

Chisumhadnotlearnedtotreathersondifferentlythangenerationsbeforeher.

AccordingtoSmallwood,duringslaverycompulsorybreedingruinedrelationships

betweenmothersandtheiroffspring.Mothershadnotimewiththeirbabiesand

40RobertCruden,TheNegroinReconstruction(EnglewoodCliffs:NJ:Prentice-Hall,1969),4.

weresentdirectlyintothefieldsafterbirthlettingolderfemalestocareforbabies.

Inthiswaytherewasnotalotoftimeforbondingbetweenmotherandchild.41

Educationwasthepanacea–akindofmagicportion–fortheilliteratewar-

torncommunity.Theybelievedthatperhapseducationcoulddestroyracism,deliver

themfromtheburdenoftheirslavepast,andopentheirlivestosuccess.Education,

likethetreeoflife,wasdeniedtotheminslaveryandoutofslavery.

Educationbecamethecentralthemeinthestruggletosurvive,orasJames

ConereferstoinTheGodoftheOppressed,“thebeliefthatthereismeaninginlife

thatextendsbeyondthestructurescreatedbytheoppressors.”42TheChristian

dialecticorcontentionwasthatGodentersintothesocialcontextofhuman

existenceandappropriatestheideasandactionsoftheoppressedasGod’sown.

Cone’stheoryhelpsshowthattheplightoftheblackfamilyintheReconstruction

narrativewasthesameplightofBrerRabbit,andthatbothweresameastheplight

ofamannamedJesus.BrerRabbit’sfreedomwascomparedtoJesus’sbiblical

resurrection.Blacksfoughtforeducationthatledtofreedomandjusticebecause

theirfuturewasgroundedinthestruggleforliberation.Achurch-centered

educationwaslikemagic.MagicwasthespiritofGod’sliberation.TherewasGod’s

spiritinthebooks,inlearning,inothers’histories,anditcouldbeappropriated.In

education,blacksdevelopedtheirowngenreofChristianityandwouldfindwhat

41Smallwood,BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,JamesSmallwood,"BlackTexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874"(TexasTechUniversity,1974).48;FrancisHunter,“SlaveSocietyontheSouthernPlantation,”JournalofNegroHistory,VII,January22,1922.42JamesCone,GodoftheOppressed(NewYork:OrbisBooks,1975),96-97.

theyneededinahistoricalfaith.Methodism,withitsprevenientgraceanddialectic

ofchoice,appropriatedthatfaithasfarbackasthecreationoftheAfricanMethodist

EpiscopalChurch(AME),whichgrewoutoftheFreeAfricanSocietyin1787.

AsMelvinChisum,nownicknamed“Jack,”traveledhisjourneytoan

education,allthestoriesaboutanimalsandtheirmagicalways,andofcourse

survival,probablystayedinhismindnightandday.Hehadtosurvive.Perhapshis

lifewaslikethegenerationsofchildrenbeforehim.Historydoesnotrevealthe

routeChisumtookonhisjourney,orthenamesofthepeoplewhoaccompanied

him.Perhapsoneorbothparents,oranothermemberofthelocalblackcommunity,

orarepresentativeoftheMethodistschool,wentalongwiththeyoungboy.

Whatevertheanswerstotheseunknownsmaybe,theirstoryandhisareprime

examplesofaspirationalbravery.

Thequestionoftheeducationofthefirstgenerationoffreeblackchildren

plaguedtheSouthduringReconstruction.Itwasdifficultenoughtoestablishand

maintainschoolsforwhites,muchlessdevelopschoolsforblackchildren.However,

thedutyofthegovernment’sFreedman’sBureauwastogather“theneglectedand

perishingorphansofcoloredUnionSoldiers,scattered,lostasdyinginthestreets,”

andplacethemintoschools.43TheMethodistChurchNorthexperimentedwith

educationofblackchildrenacrossthecountrythroughtheirownFreedman’sAid

Society.Theybelievedthat“whoeverfurnishedtheeducationofapeoplecontrols

43W.D.Goodman,GilbertAcademyandAgricultureCollege,WinsteadLouisiana:SelectionsfromaJournal(NewYork:Hunt&Eaton,1892),49.

thecurrentofthought,andmoldsfuturegenerations.”44Thechurch’sgoalwasto

selectthemostpromisingblackpupils,placetheminthenormalschools,and

preparethemasrapidlyaspossibletoprovidethecountrywithwell-qualified

guidesandeducatorsforblackpeople.45

NochildlaborlawsexistedinTexas.InTexas,planters,withfewexceptions,

viewededucationofblackchildrenasathreattotheraciallaborsupplyonwhich

theirlivelihoodsdepended.Blackcodesmandatedthatblacks,evenchildren,who

werenotworking,werevagrantsandsubjecttojailorlabor.Planterswere

pragmaticintheiraimstostopyoungchildrenfrombeingeducated.Fromthemid-

tolate-1870s,thelandownersdominatedandcontrolledstategovernmentsand

virtuallyfrozetheex-slaves’educationalopportunities.Theysuppressedtaxes,

opposedcompulsoryschoolattendancelaws,andblockedpassageoflawsto

strengthenpubliceducation.“Force,ratherthanrationalfreechoicewasthebasisof

theSouth’spoliticaleconomy.”46Aboyhadtohavecunningtoremainfreeduring

theperiodandhavewitenoughtostayoutofbondagetogetaneducation.

AccordingtohistorianEricFonerinAShortHistoryofReconstruction1863-1877,all-

44Freedmen’sAidSociety,AnnualReportoftheFreedmen’sAidSocietyoftheMethodistEpiscopalChurch,(Cincinnati:WesternMethodistBookConcernPress,1869),7.45Ibid.,8.46JamesAnderson,TheEducationofBlacksintheSouth1860-1935(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1988),22-25.

whitepoliceenforcedcomplexlaborregulations,criminallaws,andjudicialsystems

called“fencelaws”tokeepblacksdisenfranchised.47

BookssuchasJamesBrawley’s,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern:Bondage,

FreedomandtheEducationofBlackPeopleshowstheconscious,intentional,effort

onthepartoftheNorthernMethodistchurchtodealwiththewholebeingoftheex-

slavesandfirstgenerationoffreedmen.48InhisprefaceBrawleywrote:

Therewasaneedforself-discoveryasFreedmeninanewsocietyandself–appraisalaspersonswithlargehumanpotential,ratherthanchattelpropertyorinferiorbeingsinasocietyofso-calledsuperiors.TheFreedmenhadtoberehabilitatedfromtheannihilatingravagesofpersonalityofslavery,andtocreateself-confidenceandgroupconsciousness.Theyhadtoovercomeconditioningexperiencesandstigmaofacasteclassification,designationaschattelproperty,andthelabelofinferioritywithoutabilitytolearncomplexlessons,consignedtoa“place”insocietyasonly“hewersofwoodanddrawersofwater.”49

ThelivesofyoungsterssuchasChisumandhisfriendswereactuallyanythingbut

simple.Gaininganeducationwasmorethanjustgoingtoschool.Aslittlemorethan

toddlers,youngboys(rarelyyounggirls)wereturnedovertowhite,itinerate,

northernMethodistpreachersforaneducationunderthechurchesFreedman’sAid

Society.Thechurchactedmuchlikethegovernment’sFreedman’sBureauunder

majorGeneralOliverO.Howard.TheFreedman’sBureaucoveredfreedmenand

47EricFoner,AShortHistoryofReconstruction1863-1877(NewYork:HarperandRow,1988),95.48JamesBrawley,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern:Bondage,Freedom,andEducationofBlackPeople(NewYork:VantagePress,1974).49Ibid.,2.

refugees.Toestablishtheirschoolsandexperimentwithblackeducation,thewhite

Methodistdenominationmovedaroundthecountrylookingforsmartboyswho

couldbeleaders.Chisumfellintothisclassification.Barelyfreefromthehandsof

soldierswhotossedhimbetweentheirhorses,ChisumwascarriedtotheDallas

areatobetrainedtofunctionasaleaderinAmerica.

ReverendGeorgeWarrenRichardson,aredhaired,fire-and-brimstone,

MethodistNorthministerfromMinnesota,whohadalamearmandaheartfor

Christianity,hadnocompunctionintakingboysintohistravelingschool.

RichardsonwasborninErieCounty,NewYork,in1824.Hewasamanofstrictpiety

andardentlyopposedslavery.HehadservedasalinkintheUndergroundRailroad,

chaplaintothe7thU.S.ColoredArtilleryRegimentatFortPickering,Tennessee,

duringtheCivilWar,andcontinuedhiseffortstosupportthefreedmenasa

Methodistpreacherandteacher.WhilehistorianJohnHopeFranklindescribes

manycarpetbaggersaspreoccupiedwithbuildingallianceswiththebusiness

communityandtheRepublican-controlledgovernment,Richardsonconcentratedon

servicetothecommunityandinstillingtheChristianethicandeducationinyouth.50

St.Paul’sMethodistEpiscopalChurchinDallas,Texas,beganinabrusharbor

nearaslavecemeteryinanareacalledFreedman’sTown.Theattractionofthejobs

associatedwiththeHoustonandTexasCentralandtheTexasandPacificRailroad

companiesledmanyblackstothearea.WiththeaidofRev.Richardson,black50JohnHopeFranklin,ReconstructionaftertheCivilWarSecondEdition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1961,1994),102-103;JamesD.Richardson,“MyJourneytotheCrossroadsofRace,FaithandFamilyinAmerica:TracingmyAncestor’sFootsteps,”AliciaPattersonFoundation,http://aliciapatterson.org.

preachersCharlesMadison,MackHenson,JeremiahWebster,H.Boliver,and

WilliamBushestablishedthechurchandschoolinashabbily-built,cold,wood-

framebuilding.Studentspaidonedollaramonthintuition.Underharshconditions,

livingintimatelywiththeirteachers,dayinanddayout,students“masteredhigher

elementsofEnglish,literarycriticism,highermathematics,Latin,Greek,philosophy,

tradesandotherculturalbranches.”51InAprilof1876theKuKluxKlanburned

downthechurchandschool.AccordingtoRichardson,“Ourscholarsstoodaboutus

cryingbecausetheycouldnotgotoschoolanymore....Weassuredthemthatwe

wouldnotleavethem.”Workingwiththechildrenandtheblackcommunity,“we

pressedintoserviceeverycoloredmanthatcoulduseasawordriveanail.Thatwas

abusyafternoon.Thesoundofhammersdidnotceasetill9o’clock,thenwecarried

theseatswehadsavedfromthefireandourbuildingwasreadyfordedication.”52

Theschooleventuallygrewtoonehundredandtwentystudents,butChisumdidnot

finishhiseducationintheschool.DuringthisperiodJimCrowenteredthegeneral

churchandtheMethodistEpiscopaldenominationsegregatedintoblackandwhite

conferences.Between1877and1878theschoolandthechildrenbecamemobile,

movingfromnortherntosouthernTexas.Therationalebehindthis,accordingto

Richardson’ssonOwen,wasthattheschoolfacedbacklashbecausethey“upstaged

thewhitepupilsinDallasinacitywideexhibitionoflearningskills.”Soonafterthe

exhibition,theschoolsystemappropriatedatestforallteachersthatblackscould

51Brawley,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern,99.52Richardson,“MyJourneytotheCrossroads,”18.

notpass.Thereafter,theDallasPublicSchoolSystemclosedtheSt.Paul’sSchool.

Thechurchremained,buttheschoolmovedtoHoustonandthentoAustin,Texas.53

Fromagefourtoapproximatelytwelveyearsold,MelvinChisumtraveled

thiseducationalnetworkacrossTexas.Throughhisschooling,hemetand

befriendedafirst-yearstudent,“Jack”Johnson(1878-1946),whowouldlater

becomethefirstblackheavyweightboxingchampionoftheworld,whileChisum

becamealocalpugilisticlegendinDallas.Chisumalsometotherswhowould

becomelifelongfriends,EmmettScottandIsaacWilliamYoung.Littleinformation

existsonblackschoolsorthechildrenwhoattendedtheminthearchivesofTexas

Methodisthistory.54Historicaldatadoesnotinformspecificallyhowandwhenthese

menmeteachother.However,theywereallinthesamenetworkoftheblack

MethodistWestTexasConference.Intheirprofessionalcareers,theyadmittedin

letterstoknowingeachotherfromchildhood.WhileScott’sandYoung’sfamilies

hadmeansofsupportfortheirboys,ChisumandJohnsonliterallyfoughttheirway

outofTexas.

WhiteMethodistsattemptedtosteerblacksawayfromincidentssuchasthe

guerillawarfareinMexia,Texas.TheFreedman’sAidSocietysetupduringthe

ReconstructionwassupposedtoprovidefundsforMethodistministerstoaidinthe

developmentofyouththroughMethodistprinciplestobecomeleadersinthe

53Ibid.,20.Richardson’snamedoesnotappearinotherhistorybooksonTexas.Attheendofhiscareerheliterallyranforhislifebecauseofhisendeavorsintryingtoeducateblacks.54WalterVernon,MethodistExcitementinTexas:AHistory(Dallas:TexasUnitedMethodistHistoricalSociety,1984).

church,andtosteerthemawayfromcivildisobedience;theyweretrained“to

toleratecertainthingsforexpediency.”Dr.MatthewDugan,presidentofthe

historicallyblackWileyCollegeinTyler,Texas,explainedthatblackMethodist

“youthweretrainedtobediscreetleadersandrecognizecertainthingshadtobe

toleratedasameansofexpediencywiththehopeofgainingguaranteedrightsinthe

end.”55Thus,inasense,ChisumlearnedtheprinciplesandstrategiesofNiccolo

Machiavelli(1469-1527),anItalianRenaissancepolitician,historian,and

philosopher,whosecomplexmoralandethicalbeliefsareperhapsbestknown,in

thesimplestofterms,byhisstatement“theendjustifiesthemeans.”Healso

cautioned,“Allcoursesofactionarerisky,soprudenceisnotinavoidingdanger(it’s

impossible),butcalculatingriskandactingdecisively.”56Thislanguagewaslinked

totheidealtricksternarrative.Machiavellianprinciplescouldbelikenedtotheslave

survivalphilosophy:tellpeoplewhattheyneed—dowhatmustbedone.They

solidifiedtheanticsofBrerRabbit,BrerFox,andothercharactersinthestoriesof

survivalthatchildrenheardatthefeetoftheirblackmentors.

Usingidealsoflife’sfulfillmentthatJohannPestolazzitaught,theseblack

studentsweretrainedinthestructureandmethodofoperationtobepolitically

active,tocreatehighereducationresources,toenableAfricanAmerican

communitiestoovercomeinjusticeandpoverty,andtoattaineconomicpower.

Therewerenorepetitivememorygames.Pestolazzi’stheoriesinvolvedlearning

55WarmothT.Gibbs,PresidentMatthewW.DuganofWileyCollege:ABiography(Marshall,TX:Firmin-Greer,1936),41.56NicolloMachiavelli,ThePrince,trans.LuigiRicci(London:GrantRichards,1903),71,91.

throughsenseperception,theemphasisofideasaboutthings,andtheuseofmoral

powersintheprocessofeducation.Histheoryinstilledthemesofmorality,thrift

andindustry,economicindependence,andmaterialsuccess.Theeducationleftmen

wrestlingwithwhatitmeanttohavealife“fulfilled.”Blackyouthwere

indoctrinatedwithspecificprinciplesofhowtofulfilltheirpublicandprivatelives.

TheseweretheprinciplesChisumstruggledwithmostofhislife.Thisdissertation

willshowthatsomehekept,whileothersheletride.

Blackyouthsalsoweretaughtthesacrednessoflifeandtheimportanceof

the“useofone’slifeasbeingassacredaslifeitself.”Perhapsthissacredness

resonatedinChisum,becausehislifehadbeenusedforhispeoplesinceinfancy.The

philosophyunderlyingthisemphasismadeexplicitthatlife’sfulfillmentcomesin

theusemadeofone’slife.57Theireducationpreparedthemtoentercollegesin

theology,teachertraining,medicine,dentistry,orlaw.Throughhisstudies,Chisum

becameintriguedwithamanofEnglishhistory,theDukeofWarwick,Richard

Neville(1428-1471)whoservedKingEdwardIVasa“manofaffairs.”Somewhere,

daydreaming,ChisumdecidedhealsowantedtobeakingmakerlikeTheDukeof

Warwickwhomhestudiedaboutinschool.ChisumdiscoveredthatNevillewas

knownas“WarwicktheKingMaker,”atitlethatcamewithlargeestatesandhelped

tomakehimoneofthemostpowerfulmeninEngland.ThroughNeville’s

manipulationsin1461,EdwardIVachievedthethrone.Later,in1470,Warwick

helpedthedeposedHenryVIregainthethrone.Hissignificantpoliticalinfluence

andwillingnesstochangecamps–orplaybothsidesatthesametime–inorderto57Ibid.,99.

maintainpowermadeWarwickpowerfulEnglishLord.Nevillewasamaster

strategistnegotiatingforhisnuclearfamily.Amanofaffairstookcareoftheking

andexercisedthepowerofthethrone.TheMethodisteducationalsystemsomehow

tooktheformofindoctrinationtomakeChisumnotwanttobetheking,butthe

powerbehindamanofinfluence.Warwick,then,forblacksinpoliticsisthesameas

“UncleTom”forblackpersonsinsociety.

ProbablytheunderstandingthatChisum’sfamilyneededhimtohelpthem

getoutofMexiawasalwaysinhismind.Accordingtothewritingsofmostblack

historiansontheblackfamily,theChisumfamilywasdifferent.InTheBlackFamily

inSlaveryandFreedom1750-1925,HerbertGutmansurmisedthatthebondageofa

pastinslaverymadeblackfamiliesshirkfromseparationofanykindforfearof

neverreuniting.58ThiscalculationprovedincorrectfortheChisumfamily.They

deliberatelysenttheirsonfirsttogainaneducationandthentofindthemaplaceto

settle.WhentheMethodistchurchrenegedonpromisesoffinancialsupportforRev.

Richardson’sschool,becomingeducatedtooknewtwists.

ForallthegoodintentionsoftheMethodistFreedman’sAidsociety,

Richardsondidnotreceivethemoneyaspromisedbythegeneralchurch.Thus,

studentsnotonlyhadtoallowtimeforclassinstruction;theyhadtoworkfortheir

educationandforsomesendmoneyhometosupporttheirfamilies.Exceptfor

newspaperclippingsaboutChisum’svisitshome,littleremainstoshowhowhe

survived.AshortbiographyofJackJohnsoncanbeusedtoillustratethelifestyleof58HerbertGutman,TheBlackFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom1750-1925(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1976),436-437.

theyoungblackMethodistyouthsduringtheirschoolyears.Itisclear,fromthe

informationbothprovided,thatJohnsonandChisumgrewupinthesamestreetsin

Texas.ForboyssuchasJohnsonandChisum,thesojournwasnotallschoolwork.In

theseyearstheirexperiencesincludedworkingonthedocks,breakinghorses,

gambling,andfightingwithfistsformoney.59

Boxingdevelopedasasportineighteenth-centuryRegencyEngland.Itwasa

gentleman’ssport,displayingself-defensethatsignifiedmasculinehonorandaless

lethalformofdueling.ForthemostpartinEngland,upper-classmensponsored

working-classmentofight,bettingontheoutcome.Thegamblingaspectburdened

thesportwithfixedfightsandcorruptionfromthebeginning.Thoughthesportof

boxingwasillegalinTexas,inthe1880stheboysearnedhatsfullofmoneywhen

theyfoughtforspectatorsinthestreetsandpainwhentheyfoughtforhonor.60

JackJohnson(1878-1946)claimedhehad“roaminginstincts”whilein

school.Hisfamily,likeChisum’s,includedbothparents.HenryandTinaJohnson

wereformerslaves.BothwereMethodists.Henryworkedforthewhiteschool

districtasacaretakeroftheschoolbuilding.Theyhadninechildren;Jackwasthe

secondandthefirstson.HeandChisum,evenwiththeirsix-yearseparationinage,

ranaroundtogetherandfoughttogetherinthestreetsofGalvestonwhentheywere

lads.FromdescriptionsinJohnson’sautobiographyandletterstoChisum,the59JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927).TheauthorattainedthisworkbycourtesyofJamekaB.Lewis,Guthrie,Oklahoma.60AmyLouiseWood,LynchingandSpectacle:WitnessingRacialViolenceinAmerica,1890-1940(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2009);Freeman(Indiana),22July1899.

youngstersfoundalottodo.Accesstotrainyardsyieldedmobility,andusually,if

theywereslyenough,theboyshidinboxcars.BlackPullmanporterswhospotted

themdidnottaketheirfreetravellightly.Theyliterallypickedthemupandused

theirfeettokickthemoffthetrains.ThereweretimeswhenJohnsonwoundupwith

bruisesandsorespotsfromhisattempts.61AtagetwelveJohnsontraveledtoNew

Yorkonhisown,usingbothtrainsandships.Therehefoundthatworkingonthe

dockandgamblingprovidedasourceofincome.

MelvinChisum’sindoctrinationintofightingmayhavebeenmuchlike

Johnson’s.Fightinginthestreetsprovedlucrative.Hatswouldbe“brimming”with

moneyaftertheirbrutalbattles.Ifso,thenonewaytheylearnedtofightwasby

fisticuffsatthedocks.ThisisJohnson’stale:

Thementhereweretoughandhardboiledmen.Fightingwasoneoftheimportantfunctionsoftheirexistence.Theyfoughtuponeveryoccasionandonanypretext.ItwasuptometoholdmyownwiththemandIenteredintotheirlivesandoccupationswithasmuchenergyasanyofthem.AlthoughIwasoneoftheyoungestinthisroughandaggressivegroup,Ihadtodomyshareofthefighting.Itwasnecessaryformetofightyouthsmucholderandlargerthanmyself.Isufferedmanybeatings,butevidentlyascapableofstandingmuchpunishment.Iwonmanyoftheroughandtumblebattles,andbecauseoftheill-matchedaffairsinwhichIengaged,Iattainedmoreorlessareputationasafighter.ItwasatthistimethatItookupboxing,notwithanyintentionofengaginginitasaprofession,butbecauseitseemednecessaryformetolearnsomethingofthescienceinordertopitmyselfagainstthefightinggroupswithwhomIassociated.62

61JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut.(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927),28.62Ibid.,32.

UnlikeChisum,JohnsondidnotlastinFreedman’sAidSocietyschools.Even

asachildheobservedthesubtlechangetowhiteradicalismandridiculedtheshift

inteachingthattaughtblackstoacceptsecondaryrolesinsteadofleadershiproles.

JohnsonwasexpelledfromMethodistschoolsforsayingGoddidnotexistandthe

churchwantedtocontrolpeople’sminds.Laterinlifehewrotethathefoundpeople

inthechurchmoredishonest“intheirconductthanallthecare-free,thoughtless

andirreverentspiritsintheworldofsportandquestionableliving.”Johnsonwas

proofofthesuccessoftheMethodistexperimentineducatingboys.Withonlya

partialnormalschooleducationunderhisbelt,Johnsoncouldreadbooksinthree

languagesEnglish,French,andSpanish.LikeChisum,hiseducationwasextensive.J.

B.LewiswrotethateventhoughJohnsonwasexpelledfromgrammarschoolhewas

“conversantwiththeworksofShakespeare,andcandiscussandquoteplaysofthe

greatestofallEnglishwriterswithaneasewhichrevealsthathehasdelveddeeply

intohisvolumes.”ItamazedmanythattheMethodistexperimentworkedwithblack

youth.LewisstoodastoundedthatJohnsonwastrainedearlyinlifeindignity.“The

classicsarequitetohislikingandhenotjoys[enjoys]inhearingthefinest

compositionsoftheoldmasters,butheplaystheircompositionhimself.”63Some

forceotherthanbrutalitywouldhavetochallengeagroupofeducatedblackmen,

withpowerandprowess,withtheideathattheycouldsucceedinAmericabeside

theirbrothersofthesamehumanspeciesbutadifferentskincolor.

Theboys,ChisumandJohnson,alsometotherswhowouldbecomelife-long

friends,IsaacWilliamYoungandEmmettScott.WhenJohnsonwasapproximately63Ibid.,6.

fifteen,hestartedhisheavyweight-fightingcareer.ForatimeheandChisum

traveleddifferentpathwaysthantheotherfriends.Butastheymovedaroundthe

countryandtheworldthroughouttheirlives,theircareerswouldinterminglein

Chisum’sashepursuedhisgoals.

LikeChisum,IsaacWilliamYoungchosethesamedaytocelebratehis

birthdayinJanuary,1872,buthegrewupquitedifferentlyonaplantationin

Glencoe,Louisiana.HewasbaptizedintomembershipoftheMethodistEpiscopal

Church(M.E.)ateightdaysold.64Younggarneredoneofthebesteducationsablack

couldfromthegovernment’sFreedman’sAidSocietyatBaldwinAcademy,in

Louisiana,whichmayhavereceivedmoneyfromtheGeneralBoardoftheMethodist

Church.65Inthe1900censusYoungreferencedhisfather’sancestryasFrench.

FamilylegendandBaldwinaccountingrelatethatYoung’sbiologicalfather,a

shipper,paidforhiseducationthroughdonationstoBaldwinAcademy.While

Chisumusedhisbodyinprizefightinginthemid1890s,Young’sbiologicalfather

senthimonaworldtouronhisfleetofshipsbeforeheenteredmedicalschool.

YoungplannedonteachingLatin.ButwiththeoutbreakoftyphoidinLouisianahe

chosetogointomedicine.However,Youngdidhaveafatherfigureinthehomeby

agefour,afterJosephD.BrownmarriedYoung’smother,abeautifulCreolewoman,

ElizabethYoungheadoptedYoung.ThroughhisstepfatherYoungwasintroducedto

politicallife.AfterReconstruction,theDemocraticPartyinLouisianacontinuedto

useblacks,andJosephBrownwasappointedtohisfirsttermasmagistrateoverthe64H.T.S.Johnson“LifeSketchofDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,PresidentofLangstonUniversity,”(OklahomaCityOK)BlackDispatch,10May1923.65Goodman,SelectionsfromaJournal,49.

thirdwardofLouisianain1881.LocatedinSt.Mary’sParish,theareaincludedthe

FranklinandtheSaintJosephdistricts.Astheyearspassed,blacksgraduallylost

groundandweresubjectedtoincreasedsegregationandlossofpoliticalinfluence.66

YetYoungdevelopedatasteforthepoliticallife.Itseemsthetransitionofthe

Methodistexperimentonblackyouth–fromleaderstokingmakers-neverreached

BaldwinAcademy.Youngwantedtobeaking,notakingmaker.

ThroughtheMethodistschoolsandmeetingsandtravelingsomeofthesame

roadsinTexas,MelvinChisummetEmmettScott(1873-1957),whowouldbecomea

centralpoliticianintheemergingeducationandpoliticalmovementsforAmerican

blacksinthenationalarenainthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Thesonof

HoraceandEmmaScottattendedMethodistFreedmanschoolsforatime.Whilehis

biographersemphasizetheWileyNormalSchoolinhisletterstocolleagues,Scott

admittedthatheandChisumwereschoolladstogether.In1887-1888Scottcarried

mailfortheMarshall,Texas,postofficetoWileyNormalSchool,amileandahalf

away.Healsoheldseveralpositionsfortheschool,includingfeedinghogsand

choppingwood.Accordingtolegend,Scottsharedhisearningswiththeother

childreninthefamilyandeventuallyleftschool,sothatotherfamilymemberscould

attend.ScottbeganwritingfortheHoustonDailyPostbetween1891and1894,

whileChisumwasdrawnintothelifeofpugilism,travelingontrainsaroundthe

country,andgettingahighschooleducation.ScottalsohelpedestablishtheHouston

TexasFreemannewspaperandediteditfrom1894to1897.

66MauriceThompson,TheStoryofLouisiana(Boston:D.LothropCompany,1888),264.

Astheoldestson,in1887MelvinChisumreturnedhomefrom“education”to

workandallowothermembersofhisfamilytogetaneducation.Hisfoursiblings

wereWilliamWoodruff(1882),SamuelSylvester(1883),Benjamin(1884),and

Clarisse(1885).LikemanyblacksstuckintheheatofTexasracismandduringthe

post-Reconstructionyears,thefamilydreamedofmovingNorth.Chisumalsohada

namechangewhilehewasaway.HewasnolongerknownjustaslittleMelvin

Chisum,butbyashortenedversionofhismiddlename,Jacksonto“JackChisum.”He

alsohadacquiredastreet-fightingname,“TexasRosebud.”

TheappearanceofGeorgePullman(1831-1897)inChisum’slifeinthemid-

1880sposesthequestionofwhetherPullmanhiredChisumentirelyasaporteror

alsoasafighter.Pullmanwasanengineerandindustrialistwhodesignedand

manufacturedtheluxuryPullmansleepingcars.HetouredtheSouthlookingfora

specialkindofpersonalityinyoungblackboystohireforhisburgeoning

businesses.MuchlikeChisum’splight,Pullmanhadstoppedhisformaleducationat

theageoffourteenandwasaboutthesameageasChisumwhenhestarted

supportinghisownfamily.By1853Pullmanhelpedmovebuildingsawayfromthe

ErieCanalinordertowidenthewaterway.HelatermovedtoChicagoandformeda

partnershipwithBenjaminFieldwhooperatedsleepercarsontheChicagoAlton

andGalenarailroads.In1880heconstructedacompanytownintheCalumetregion

ofChicago.Hislife,likeJackChisum’s,wasforgedintheschoolofhardknocks.

SomethinginChisum’sstatureandcharacterhadgivenhimawayoutof

Texas.PerhapsPullmanwasdrawnnotonlytoyoungman’spersonality,butalsoto

hissize,leanness,andspeed.PullmanalsohadhisownfightingringintheChicago

yards.Accordingtosourcesandlegend,PullmanpersonallytalkedtoChisum’s

familybeforehiringhimasarailroadporter.67

DidPullmanchoosehimbecausehecouldfight?DidPullmanusehisporters

asfighterstoraisemoneyordidheallowthemtofightfortheirpleasure?WasJack

Chisumanexception?DidPullmanknowthatChisumwasastreetfighterthrough

theporterswhokickedhimofftrains?Thereisnoanswertoanyofthesequestions,

butitiswelldocumentedthatChisumwasclearlyaPullmanmanbythe1920s,

especiallyinarticleswrittenabouthiminnewspapers.MostbooksaboutPullman

portersaddresstheintimatepersonalrelationshipbetweenChisumandPullman

afterPullmanhiredhimasaporter,andparticularlyinChisum’sfightagainstunions

inthe1920s.68

Porterswerepersonalservantstopassengersonrailwaysystems.They

madetheirwagesfromtips.PullmanstartedhisPullmanPorterPalaceCompany

justaftertheCivilWar.Heestablishedastandardforcomfortabledeluxetrain

travel.Asaporter,Chisumworkeddirectlywiththecustomers:hereceived

passengers,carriedtheirluggage,attendedtotheirrooms,servedbeveragesand

food,kepttheguestshappy,andmadehimselfavailabletopassengersatallhours.

Healsocameintocontactwithpowerfulwhitesandinfluentialblacks.Littleis67WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977),15;BethBates,PullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925-1945(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001).68RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior:TheLifeandTimesofRobertS.Abbott(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),263-264.

writtenaboutthepersonalrelationshipsbetweenportersandtheirattendees,buta

specialrelationshipwasforgedbetweentherichmenandtheirpersonalporters

whosawindiscretions,lookedtheotherway,andprotectedthereputationsoftheir

clients.AsChisum’spublicimagegrewintheearly1920s,theserelationshipswould

helphimsupportTuskegeeInstituteandotherphilanthropicendeavors.The

Roosevelts,Vanderbilts,Fords,Morgans,Carnegies,Harrimans,Goulds,Fricks,and

theirfamiliesrodeinluxurycars.Agoodporterandbodyguardwasremembered

formanyyears.

FromPullmanPortertoPugilisttoJournalist

ThePullmanCompanyalsomadeitpossibleforporterstoacquirean

educationbyprovidingthemwithemploymentthroughthesummermonths.69The

HarlanschoolofresearchrecordsthatChisumattendedtheBostonSchoolof

Technology,theChicagoTheologicalSeminary,andtookclassesatColumbia

UniversityinjournalisminNewYorkCity.Healsotrainedinhisvocationinthe

newspaperbusinessasadaylaborer.Heengagedinanothercareerthatbrought

himfameacrossthecountryandaroundtheworld,aswellaspain.Hebecamean

actorforThomasDruryforhisgenteelneeds,butalsodonnedhistights,usedhis

fistsatfirst,andthengloves,tobecomeatitledpugilistforincome.

69WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37,(Illinois:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977),53.

Thoughitwasadangeroussport,Chisumcontinuedboxingbecausehewas

goodatitanditcarriedwithitbothsocialandfinancialrewards–quickmoneyand

fame.ChisummadehisdebutasaboxerintheDallasOperaHouseinTexasas

“TexasRosebud.”Asbrutalashischallengers,Chisumeventuallyboxedhiswaytoa

NewYorkinternationaltitlematch.

DuringhisschoolyearsChisumfoughtinthealleyways,streets,anddocks

withotherboyssuchasJackJohnson,gainingnotonlyaneducationbutknowledge

inthepracticeofpugilism.SomeofhisfirstfightstookplaceonasandbarintheRio

Grande.70WithinfiveyearsofleavingMexia,Chisum’snameappearedin

newspapersinthestatesofIllinois,Texas,Ohio,NewYork,andKansasasapugilist

orboxerofsomemerit.71AsChisumbeganhisfightingcareerduringthelate1880s

andearly1890s,boxingrulesshiftedfromusingbareknucklestousinggloves,and

wrestlingwasomitted.Roundsweretimedatthreeminutes.Regularrestperiods

wereinstituted,andadeterminedlengthofroundswassetinsteadoffightinguntil

oneofthetwomencouldnotcontinue.Theideaof“ringgeneralship”wasinstituted

forthebestmanwithall-aroundfightingskills.

As“TexasRosebudofDallas,”Chisumtooknomercyonhisopponentsnor

theyonhiminthering.“TexasRosebud”wasTexassteel,hardandunmerciful,

attunedtomakingmoneybyusinghisbody.Theboxinglifewasbrutalforboth

70MelvinChisum,“DefendsTheSouth,”DallasMorningNews(Dallas,Texas)13August1900.71InterOcean(Illinois)13August1893,FortWorthDailyGazette(Texas),4July1891,5July1891,2July1891.DailyNews,(Texas)2July1891,8July1892,Freeman(Indiana),24October1891.AustinAmericanStatesman(Texas),2July1891.

Chisumandhisopponents.Someofthegreatestboxersofalltimecameofage

duringtheperiod.In1891therewerenoJimCrowstatutesinthering.InJuly,1891,

the(colored)TexasRosebudofDallasbeatthe(white)TommyDentonofHot

Springsinfiverounds.ThetwomenfoughtsohardandinearnestthatDentonfailed

torespondwhenthefifthroundwascalled.TexasRosebudalsowentnineteen

brutalroundswithTonyHollis,onlytohavethematchdeclaredadraw.Mostof

Chisum’sboxingmatcheswereunderMarquisofQueensburyrulesformen

weighing135poundsorless,andthewinnertookthepurseof$100and75percent

ofthegatereceipts.72Mostboutstookplaceinprivatefieldsorhomesandwerenot

coveredbynewspapers.

WhileChisumusedhisfistsandbodytoraisecash,continuedhiseducation,

actedonstage,andworkedinrealestateinNewCityandNewJersey,his

schoolmateandfriendEmmettScottcontinuedhiseducationatWileyCollegein

Tyler,Texas,editedanewspaper,andworkedwithalocalpoliticianinHouston.

IsaacYoungcruisedaroundtheworldonhisbiologicalfather’sfleetofships.As

thesemenattemptedtousetheirbodiesandmindstofindjusticeandfairnessinthe

UnitedStates,theyranintosituationstheycouldnotfightwithglovesorwiththeir

UncleJimCrow,disguisedasthestates’lawsthistime,swoopeddownon

Chisumandhiscolleagues.Itdidnotmatterhowhisnamechangedortowhatpart

ofthecountryhemoved.JimCrowlawsslowlymaneuveredtheirwayintothe

72“TheColoredLight-Weights,”ForthWorthDailyGazette(Texas)5July1891.

boxingworld.VannWoodwardtalksabouttheJimCrowlawsasiftheywereanevil

spiritenvelopingAmerica.Themovementproceededtodimthelightofsportsfrom

declaringthebestinsportsinAmericaracialsuperiorityinAmerica.Woodward

wroteinhisbook,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,that“Its[theoryofJimCrow

whitesupremacy],spiritisthatofanall-absorbingautocracyofrace,ananimusof

aggrandizementwhichmakes,intheimaginationofthewhiteman,anabsolute

identificationofthestrongerracewiththeverybeingofthestate.”73Likefeudal

laws,JimCrowlawsassignedblacksafixedlowerstatusinallthingsAmerican.

Theconstructofwhitenesscausedthedegenerationofblackness.Itfinally

triumphedoverthe13th,14thand15thAmendments,eventhoughtheMethodist

experimentprovedthatracialequalityworked.TheReconstructionEraendedin

late1877.WiththeSouthbackingcongressionalpolicyby1895,anationaltrendof

“JimCrow”wassetagainstthepossibleupwardmobilityofpeopleofcolor.By1877

theintegraleconomicrationalebehindtheCivilWar’sgenesisismoreapparentthan

simplyafightagainstslavery.Thewarwasafightoverslavery,yes,butalsoafight

overtheeconomicbasisofslavery—land,labor,andcapitalism.Theendof

ReconstructionopenednewperspectivesforlowersocioeconomicgroupsofAnglo

Americans,butonlyifsomeothergroup’scivilrightswereconstricted.The

experimentsoftheMethodistchurchshowedarecurringproblemwithblackson

theAmericanstage.Theslavepastshowedthatblacklaborcouldindeedfulfillthe

needsoftheAmericanlaborshortage.Theycouldexcelphysicallyandmentally,but

73C.VannWoodward,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1974),108.

asGlendaGilmoreprovesinherbook,GenderandJimCrow,blacksinthe1890s

failedtofindtheir“place”insociety.74Thesamelanguageof“place”inthemindofa

killergotachildmurderedfornotsalutingapassingriderasa“NiggerKiller.”The

understandingof“place”hadschoolboyspeltedwithdirtandkickedoffofsidewalks

inDallasbecausetheydidnotwanttogettheirclothesdirty,andtheir“place”was

nowbecominglawinAmerica.However,theblackhistorian,Brawleywrotethat

oneofthetasksofMethodists’schoolteachingwastobreaktheunderstandingof

“place”insociety.75

JimCrowsegregationgavethegenerationofEuro-Americanimmigrantswho

wereonlythenbecomingincludedinAmericannativism,includingJewishrefugees

fromRussianviolence,achancetomaketheirmarkonAmericawithoutthe

competitionofpeopleofcolor.ForexampleJewishimmigrantsmovednearAtlantic

Cityandotherareas,settingupfarmsandschoolsinvillagesassecuritynetworks

fortheirrace.However,Jewishpeoplewouldconvertintowhiteness,leavingbehind

theirenclavesforblackssuchasJackChisum’sfathertoinhabitattheturnofthe

century.Blackscouldneverbecomewhite;onlyafewmulattoeswouldpassfor

white.

Inaperiodofnationaleconomicdepression,inthe1890s,thestate

governmentsslowlyinstitutedJimCrowcodestotakeawaytherightsofAmerican

blacksinsports,industry,andsocialareas.Theyearsweremalevolentandtheir

74GlendaGilmore,GenderandJimCrow:WomenandthePoliticsofWhiteSupremacyinNorthCarolina1896-1920(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1996).75Brawley.2.

civilrightswerealwaysquestionable.YoungblacksofChisum’sgenerationfaceda

degenerationoftheircivilrightsandthesuffocatingpsychologicalblanketofthe

cultofwhiteness.ThenFrederickDouglass,theblackreformleader,died,leaving

themwithoutanationalleaderinthemidstofanoutrightpushforpersecution,

pogrom,andslaughter.TheNegroworldneededhope.DavidRoediger’sbook,The

WagesofWhiteness:RaceandtheMakingoftheAmericanWorkingClass,challenges

oldernarrativesonthegrowthoftheideologyofwhitesuperiorityintheUnited

States.76Theconceptofracismintheformof“whitesuperiority”forthehistorian

doesnotwhollypiggybackonEuropeanprejudicesfrompriorcenturies.The

divisive,demonicconcepttookitsshapefromwithinthedevelopingworkingclass

astheystruggledwithclassidentity.

Underconditionsofaneconomicdepressionthecountryexperiencedaneed

forlaborers.Theriseofcorporationsandbigbusinessunwillingtosupportthe

workingclasswithwageshighenoughtomaintainaconventionalstandardofliving,

ledtohugeviolentstrikes.Underthesecircumstances,itseemstherulingclassused

racismtoquellwhitelaborunrest.Theworkingclassmadetheirownchoicesand

perpetuatedtheidea.Theyalignedthemselveswiththedominantethnicgroupand

abusedpeopleofcolor.AsDavidJacksonsuggestsinBookerT.Washingtonandthe

StruggleAgainstWhiteSupremacy,theworkingclassperpetuatedallthenegative

attributesascribedtopeopleofanyAfricandescentinacultofwhitenessorracial

76DavidRoediger,TheWagesofWhiteness:RaceandtheMakingoftheAmericanWorkingClass(NewYork:Verso,1991).

superiorityinordertofitintothedominantwhitesociety.77The“cultofwhiteness”

wascreatedtoslowdownorstopblacksfrombecomingsuccessful.

Inordertodampenlaborcompetition,whitelaborersmadeblack-skinned

people“anti-citizens”–enemiesofasocialcontract–inordertomakethemselvesfit

intoanewwhiteculture.TobroadenJackson’spoint,laborerswhotooka

whitenessmentalityearnedakindofpsychologicalcompensation,eventhoughthey

earnedlowwages;atleasttheyhadracialclassprivileges.Theywerenot“black”but

white.Therefore,whitenessmatteredeconomicallyandsocially.Theideaof

whitenesswasnotimposedonwhites.TheBritishdidthesamethinginIndia.

Whitenesswaslinkedtocapitalismoraneconomicsystem:non-whiteswere

automaticallybarredbecausetheywereunqualifiedtoparticipateinthenewly

orderedsocietywithatypeofsocioeconomicwhitenessasthekeyelement.In

Oklahomainorderforblackstoreceivetheirmoneyfromoiltheyneededwhite

guardianstocontrolthefunds.78InTheFirstBlackBoxingChampions,ColeenAycock

supportsthisidea.Shewritesthattheriseofblackpugilistsupsetthewhitestatus

quobecauseblackprowessinthering“directlychallengedideasofwhite

supremacy.”79

77Jackson,JacksonIntheRingandOut,20-21.78AngieDebo,AndStilltheWatersRun:TheBetrayaloftheFiveCivilizedTribes(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1940).OklahomaFoot-LooseandFancyFree(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1949).104-105.MartinHauan,Oklahoma'sLeglaGraft,IllegalGraftandJustPlainStealins(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma:MidwestPoliticalPublications,1993).75-95.79ColeenAycockandMarkScott,TheFirstBlackBoxingChampions:EssaysonFightersofthe1800stothe1920s(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2011),xiv.

Evenwiththechangesinlaborandwithracismenteringtheboxingring,Jack

Chisumboxedhiswaytothetopinonefight.Recordsarehardtolocate,butthe

GalvestonDailyNewsreportedthatbyAugust8,1892,M.J.Chisum,knownas“Texas

Rosebud,”washailedasthecoloredlightweightchampionoftheSouthwest.

Afterwardhewasinundatedwithchallenges.Themoneyrolledintohiscoffers.M.J.

Chisumassertedthat:

Thechallengeinyesterday’snewssayingIwouldfightTonyHollisifhewouldputup$150dollarswasamistake.IftheDallasamateurathleticclubwillhangupthepurseof$150Iwillwhiphimforit.Ihaveknockedhimoutonce,asIcanwinnoreputationbywhippinghimagainImusthavethecashornochin.TexasRosebud:thecoloredlightweightchampionoftheSouthwest.80

Onehundred-fiftydollarsin1892wasworth$2509in2018.Hollis

respondedwitha$100purse;Rosebud’schoicewasasidebetof$50or$100.

However,TheWichitaBeaconreportedinAugust,“TheRosebudofTexas”willnever

bloominWichita.”Ina“rattlingfight,”theRosebudwasheraldedasahardhitter,

neverwhipped,andastopperofchampions.ButevenusingtheleftjabChisumwas

knownfor,hewasknockedoutinfourroundsbyDenverJack.Aswiftright-hand

swingtoChisum’sneckknockedhimoutforafullthreeminutes.Afterlosingthe

fightwithDenverJack,Chisum’snextdisplaywasinChicago’sPullman’sCity.81

Perhapshewenthometohealorrest.Orwereheandotherfighterscalled

hometoprotecttheirgodfatherGeorgePullman?Pullman,likeaplantationowner,80“SportingNews:RosebudandHollis,”GalvestonDailyNews(Texas),8August1892.81InterOcean(Illinois),13August1893.

ranhiscityasifhisworkersweresharecroppers.Chisumwasthenhisfavored

handyman.DepressionloomedovertheUnitedStatesintheyearsof1893-1894.

Pullmansystematicallylaidoffworkersandcuttheirwages.TheAmericanRailway

UnionledastrikethatshutdownPullmanCity.TheInterOceanNewspaperof

ChicagoonAugust13,1893,reportedthatJohnHolmesat118poundsandTexas

Rosebudat130poundswereanxioustomeetanybodyathisweighttofightat

PullmanCity.ItisinterestingthatthefighterswerealsogatheringaroundGeorge

Pullmanwhenhisownutopiancitywasinanuproarandworkerswerepreparing

forastrike.OnMay11,1894,threethousandPullmanworkerswentonstrike.

PerhapsChisumwasanegotiatorwithhisoldbuddies.Theepisodemusthavemade

animpressiononhim,ashebecameanti-unionandwouldfightagainstA.Phillip

Randolphinthe1920sandbeagainstunionizingblacks.82Theboycottwasbroken

inJulybyuseofaninjunctionupheldbytheU.S.SupremeCourt.Therelationship

betweenChisumandPullmanatthatpointisnotwelldocumented,butfortherest

ofhislifeChisumhonoredandsupportedtheentirePullmanfamily.83

Likeaboltofspirituallighting,BookerT.Washington’s(BTW)callforAfrican

Americansto“casttheirbucket”togetherasabrotherhoodmusthavebeenlike

findingcoldwaterinthemidstofahotsummerday.Chisum,EmmettScott,andI.W.

Youngattendedthe1895CottonStatesExpositioninAtlanta,Georgia,andheard

BTWdeliver“TheAtlantaExpositionSpeech”encouragingblacksto“castdownyour

bucketwhereyouare.”Togethertheyheardhiscallforaccommodation.Hisspeech82EricArnesenHarris,BrotherhoodsofColor:BlackRailroadWorkersandtheStruggleforEquality(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2002),91.83Harris,KeepingtheFaith,54-55.

wasinaccordwiththeindoctrinationoftheFreedmanSocietyschools,suggesting

“tolerationasameansofexpediencywiththehopeofgainingguaranteedrightsin

theendandtogaineconomicpower.”Theyfollowedhim.

FormanyblackswhofelttheAmericanlegalsystemwasstranglingthemand

holdingthemunderwatertodrown,hearingthewordsoftheAtlantaExposition

speechofferedhope.AndChisumfoundthatforthefirsttimehisdreamhada

chanceofbecomingreality.Blackshadaking.Hecouldbecomea“ManofAffairsfor

theKingofBlackAmericans.”ScottalsowascapturedinBTW’sweb.Theyoungman

fromHoustonhadmoretoofferthanjusthisskillsasanewspapermanandhis

politicalworkforGalvestonlaborleaderNorrisW.Cuney.Scotthadaphotographic

memory.Aloyalmanwiththeabilitytoremembernamesandvastamountsof

informationwasanassettoanyleader.By1897,Scottmaneuveredhiswayinto

beingBTW’sconfidante,personalsecretary,speechwriter,andghostwriter.As

Scott’slifechanged,sodidChisum’s.

TexasRosebudhadearnedhisglobalboxingID546553in1897.Hefought

onefightundertheworldnumberinAprilof1897againstAlbertGriffith,a.k.a.

“BlackGriffo.”TherewasnosoldierinUnionbluetocatchhim.YoungGriffo,a

world-classpugilistfromAustralia,knockedoutJackChisuminNewYork’sArena

Clubboxingtournamentinoneminuteandfiftyseconds.Griffowouldgoontobe

beatenbypossiblythegreatestlightweightorheavylightweightchampion,ofthe

worldofthattimeperiod,JoeGans.

SeveralotherblowswouldknockJackChisumintothinkingaboutchanging

hislifefromthedangeroussportofboxingtoeducatinghisraceandrearinga

family.ThatyearChisum’sbacker,friend,andmentorGeorgePullmandiedatsixty-

sixyearsold.However,hislinkstothePullmanfamilywouldcontinuethroughhis

personalrelationshipwithPullman’sdaughterFlorence(1868-1937)andbotha

politicalandpersonalrelationshipwithherhusbandFrankOrrenLowden(1861-

1943),whotookoverthePullmanempire.Lowdenwouldlaterbecomegovernorof

IllinoiswithChisum’shelp.Chisumgaveupthelifeofboxingforapositionas

assistanttoBishopWilliamDerrick;healsobecameanewspaperwriter,realestate

developer,andhotelmanager,andfulfilledthefamilyresponsibilitiesofson,

brother,andhusband.

Inthewinterof1898,Chisum’sbrotherWilliammovedtoNewYorkwith

him.Subsequently,brothersBenjaminandSamuelfollowed.Thebrothersaided

Chisumintherealestatebusiness,ashotelclerksanddoormen.In1899,Chisum’s

fatherJohnveryquietlysoldhisrestaurantinMexia,sailedoutofGalvestonharbor,

andmovedwithhiswifeanddaughtertoNewYork.84JohnChisumfoundworkasa

doormaninaNewYorkhotel.HoweverafterheandMelvinwerealmostkilledina

NewYorkriotinSeptember1900,hemovedawayfromthecityandstartedaturkey

farminanoldJewishenclave.85MelvinChisumsettleddowninanapartmentwith

hiswife,whocamewithhisfamilyfromMexia,andwithapartmentmatesPauland

84MexiaEveningLedger(Texas),24June1899.85SeeW.H.Brooksetal.,“StoryoftheRiot,”(NewYork:Citizens’ProtectiveLeague,1900),16.Whenleavingwork,awhitemobchasedChisum’sfatherinanattempttokillhimbecauseablackmanhadkilledpoliceofficer.

AliceDunbar.OtherthaninformationgarneredfromChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers

andGiveUsEachDay:TheDiaryofAliceDunbar-Nelson,littlecanbeexposedonthe

Chisum-Dunbarepisode.86Aswell,littleisknownabouthiswife.Whatisknownis

thatby1921Chisumwasdivorced.

JackChisumgaveupthename“TexasRosebud”toclaimhisrealname

“MelvinJ.Chisum.”In1900MelvinChisumwroteanexposeonhimself:

Afewyearsago,whenexhibitionsofthestrenuousartofself-defenseandfisticattackswereallowedunderTexaslaw,therewasayoungNegropugilistinDallasknowntoringfameasRosebud.HemadehisdebutintheringintheDallasOperahouse.Pugilismbeingdiscouragedhere,RoseBudmovedtoNewYork,abandonedtheringforthemorepeacefulpursuitofmanagingahotelandwritingforthepapersunderhisrealnameMelvinJ.Chisum.87

Withthisacknowledgment,M.J.Chisum’scampaignto“defendthegood

peopleoftheSouth,thecountrywhichfromwhichIhailandwhichIlove,”shows

hisemergenceintothenewspaperfieldandwhathelaterbecomesasacultherofor

poordestituteblacks,Indians,andplainwhitesfrom1914untilthe1930s.His

journalisticcareerstartedwhenChisumlashedoutattheragingbrutalwrathof

MississippiwhitesagainstblacksinJulyof1899.Chisumlashedoutatblack

newspapersthatassumedthatthelynchingofSamHoseinGeorgiawasjustified.

Challengingtheirconservativeeditorialsandreports,hechargedthattheymust

stopmakinghastyconclusionsandadmittherealcrimeamongblackswas

conservatism,insteadofdefense.Hewrote,“Conservatismisanexcellentqualityin86GloriaHull,GiveUsEachDay:TheDiaryofAliceDunbar-Nelson(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,1984),120.87MelvinChisum,“TheSpecialNeed,”Freeman(Indiana)22July1899.

theabstractandtherearecertainspheresofactivityinwhichwecannotwellhave

toomuchofit.Butthisisnotoneofthem.”AsanoutsiderinNewYorknot

connectedtotheTuskegeemachinebutonewhohadfeltthestingofterroristsinhis

homevillageofMexia,Chisumpushedthepresstotakeactiontodefendsouthern

blackslivingunderthesiegeofhatecrimes.88

Inhiswritingwasamountingfrustrationabouttheblackpress.Hewentone

stepfurthertoadmonishamanwhowouldbecomefriendandfoe,T.Thomas

Fortune.ItseemsFortuneblamedthesouthernracewarsonthedemeanorofthe

blackslivingthere,callingthem“lowelements”oftherace.Chisumexplainedto

Fortune,ashavemodernhistoriansJacksonandRoediger,that“Thecommon

lumberofthewhiterace,likethatofourown,issofarinexcessnumericallythat

whentheirbrutalwrathisragingtheyareunsafe,irresponsible,anduncontrollable

citizens.Itisanestablishedfactthatpoorwhitesofthesouth,whoownnothingand

representless,areourbitterenemies,regardlessofhowwellbehavedand

progressivewemaybe.”89Withintherace,asocioeconomicdivideamongblacks

becomesapparentintherhetoricofnewspapersattheturnofthetwentieth

century.ThedivisiontakesplaceoutsideoftheBTWnetwork.Openingupthislifeof

MelvinChisumshowsthathedidnotimmediatelygotoBTWforwork,but

88MelvinChisum,“TheSpecialNeed:AmongtheNegroes-ThePressandItspowertoSurpress[sic],AtrociousCrimesoftheSouth-viewedbyMelvinJ.ChisumofNewYork-Aliens-TheNegronotontheList-FactsPlainlyStated,”22July1899;M..J.Chisum,“T.T.FortuneCriticised,”NewYorkTimes(1857-1922),10June1900.Retrievedfromhttp://argo.library.okstate.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.argo.library.okstate.edu/docview/96003408?accountid=41189Chisum,“TheSpecialNeed,”Freeman(Indiana),22July1899.

attemptedtostartaschoolforblacksonhisowninNewYorkwithouttheaidofthe

Tuskegeemachine.

Sometimein1900-1901,theMelvinJ.ChisumTrainingSchoolforColored

Servantsopenedforbusinessat414West36thStreetinNewYork.Chisumandhis

familyplannedtotrainandfindemploymentforblackmaidsandmanservants,

mentorthem,andwatchoverthemastheyenteredprivatehomestowork.He

admittedinaletterthathewasnota“missionarybutdoingtheworkinorderto

gainanhonestincomeandelevateblackpeople.”Itwasnotsuccessful.

AsChisumwiththeaidofhisfamilytriedtostarthisownschoolforcolored

servants,afterBTW’sAtlantaExpositionspeech,andafterBTW’sacceptanceby

PresidentTheodoreRooseveltastheleaderofblacks,othermovementsin

educationtookplace.InMarch,1897,W.E.B.DuBois,KellyMiller,FrankGrimke,

JohnCromwell,JohnLove,andWalterB.HaysonestablishedtheAmericanNegro

AcademyinWashingtonD.C.Thisgroupofsophisticatededucatorsattemptedto

fosterblackscholarlyandculturalendeavors.Theirstancewastomoveawayfrom

theemphasisonpropertydevelopmentandpullingoneselfupbyone’sbootstraps

tomorelearnedendeavors.ThegroupwasmoreincompetitionwithChisumthan

BTW.However,thedeathofCromwellslowedtheirmission.DuBois,whofollowed

Cromwell,didnothavethepanachetoleadthegroup.NotuntilArchibaldGrimke

rosetoaleadershiprolein1903didtheacademygrowpositivelywithitspapers

andsessions.

ManyothergreatAfricanAmericansgatheredinNewYorkduringthistime,

includingChisum’sfriends,JamesWeldonJohnsonandhisbrotherJ.Rosamond

Johnson,co-authorsin1900ofLiftEveryVoiceandSing.Thetheaterwasfilledwith

theleadersofNewYork’sAfricanAmericansocietyfortheperformances.Chisum

alsobefriendedactorsBertWilliamsandGeorgeWalker.AtthesametimeChisum

alsocontinuedatradehelearnedattheAndrewsNormalSchoolthroughhiswork

fortheCompositePrintingCompany,atheatricalandcommercialprintingconcern

locatedat121West40thStreetinNewYorkCity’sTheaterDistrict,remainingthere

anumberofyearsasheaddedajournalismcareertohisrepertoire.Chisum’sworld

tookhimwhereverthetrainswouldrun,fromDallastoChicagotoNewYork.From

aboyhislifewasmobile.Inthesameperiod,anotheryoungjournalist,whowould

laterfactorinChisum’slife,wasmakinganameforhimselfinChicago.HaroldIckes,

anup-and-comingRepublicanpolitician,wasajournalistlikeChisumandworked

fortheChicagoRecordandtheChicagoTribune.90

AfterChisumbecamequitewellknownacrossthecountryforhisboxing

feats,healsodevelopedareputationasbodyguardforBishopW.B.Derrick,oneof

themosteminentmenoftheraceandabishopoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopal

Church(AME).DerrickwasborninAntigua,WestIndies,in1843.Derrick’sstyleof

preachingblendedcultureandfaithinaunionwithmodernmysticism.Derrick’s

backgroundincludedheroism.DuringtheCivilWar,DerrickservedintheU.S.Navy

ontheflagshipMinnesotaduringthebattleoftheMonitorandMerrimac.According90HaroldIckes,TheAutobiographyofaCurmudgeon(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1943)27;JohnMazeandGrahamWhite,HaroldIckesoftheNewDeal:HisPrivateLifeandPublicCareer(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1985),32-34.

totheAMEChurchReview,Derrickwasaninspirationtoyoungpeoplebecausehe

talkedtothepossibilitiesofhisraceandwasuncompromisinginhisdemandsfor

freedomandjustice.91PresidentWilliamMcKinleydescribedhisfriendDerrickas

oneoftheforemostcitizensoftherepublic.Hesaidtoablackaudience,“Yourrace

hascontributedtothiscountrysomeofthebestmenwithinitsconfinesanditwill

pleaseyoutoknowW.B.Derrickisoneofthem.”92MelvinChisumbraggedthathe

meteverypresidentfromMcKinleytoFranklinD.Roosevelt.Inarolesuchas

bodyguard,hisboastingseemslegitimate.Chisum’srelationshipwithDerrickand

thedeathofGeorgePullmanseemedtomovehimawayfromalifeofusinghisbody

forsurvivalandpushedhimtomoveindifferentcircles.

ThelivesofChisum,Scott,Young,Twine,andJohnsonrevealthebackground

andnatureoftheblackpoliticianswhowouldforgethetideforcivilrightsinthe

1930s.Throughtheirliveshistorianscantracethetrialsthataccommodationput

beforeagenerationofmenseekingreforminanintolerantsystemthatdidnotkeep

itspromisestoblacks.Theirinterconnectedstoriesshowhowandwhyblacksbegan

creatingtheirownmeterorplumlinefortheirracetomeasurejustice,equality,and

moralitytoultimatelygaincivilrightsoutsideoftheestablishedAmericanmodels.

DuringtheProgressiveErayearsfrom1900-1917theylikeotherscontinuedtheir

searchforrecognitionasAmericansintheirnativeland.

91AMEChurchReview,October1893.92NewYorkTimes,30May1896.

CHAPTERIV

THESTROKEOFAPEN

THEVILLAINIZATIONOFMELVINCHISUM

IfiteverseemedtoWashingtonincongruousforhimself,theconventionalandconservativeblackleader,theBaptistlayman,thepublicpurveyorofconventionalmorality,tobeinleaguewiththisplumplittlerogueinabullet-proofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingtheprivacyofothers,henevercommittedsuchanattitudetowriting.HisresorttohishumbleservantChisumisameasureofacertainmoralinsensitivityinWashingtonthatonedoesnotfindintheprivatelivesofhisopponentssuchasDuBoisorevenTrotter.ThoseHarvardgraduatesstartednearthetop.Washington,havingstartedinslaveryandpoverty,wouldgagatalmostnothingthatpromiseddominance.1

---LouisHarlan,TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915

LouisHarlancreatedaMelvinChisumcaricature.Heoverdrewthemuscles

anddidnotinsertthebrain.Harlandidso–notsomuchtoshowwhoChisumwas–

buttoshoreuporjustifywhathethoughtofBookerT.Washington(BTW).Several

aspectsoftherealMelvinChisumandhislifeneedelucidation.Thetruthisthat,in

retrospect,ifHarlanhadnotdevelopedChisum’scharacteras“Washington’smost

1LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983),92.

activespyandeventuallyBTW’sspyandprovocateur,Chisummayhaveremained

anunknowncharacterinAmericanhistoryinsteadofheadingtheA-listfor

America’s,andpossiblytheworld’s,topAmericanblackspies.Chisum’sworkin

blackespionageisnowonflashcardsandintheglobalclassroomthankstoDr.

QuintardTaylor.TayloristheScottandDorothyBullittProfessorofAmerican

HistoryattheUniversityofWashington,Seattle.Theblackprofessorisalsothe

websitedirectorofBlackPast.org,toutingitselfas“theOnlineReferenceGuideto

AfricanAmericanHistory.”Thewebsitepostsfifteenthousandpagesonblack

history.Anotheronlinesite,Textarchive.ru,offersTaylor’slectureson“Twentieth

CenturyAfricanAmericanHistory”inadownloadablePDFformattobeusedby

teachersaroundtheglobe.Fortunately,TaylorincludesChisumas“Washington’s

mostactivespy.”Unfortunately,Taylor’sonlineclasslecture,“Washingtonianand

EspionageandAccommodation,”isbasedonHarlan’sbook,BookerT.Washington:

TheWizardofTuskegee.Harlan’sconclusionsarethusTaylor’sconclusions.Taylor’s

conclusionforsomeintheworldistheonlyknowledgetheypossessofChisumand

BTW’snetworkofespionage.BecauseChisumisestablishedworldwideasaspyand

aniconofblackspyhistory,hislegacyneedsclarificationandupdatingbecause

currentlythroughthedistortedinterpretationnooneisabletoseetherealChisum.

ThoughHarlancomparedhisuseofthesubtitle“TheWizardofTuskegee”to

contemporariesofBTWsuchasTheWizardofOz,hismetaphorgoesbeyondthe

EmeraldcitytoCamelot.Inthebook,TheWizardofTuskegee,Harlanused

metaphorssuchas“hehadtheuneasinessofeveryheadthatwearsacrown”

associatedwithKingArthur.1HarlanattemptedtouseEuropeanworldstandards

setbytheWesternChurchforSaintsandthemedievalknightstojudgepeople

strugglingforjusticeandsurvivalinaworldofwhitesupremacy.BeforeHarlan’sin-

depthresearchinthe1960smostbooksaboutBTWwereautobiographies.2

Chisum’scloseassociateswroteabouthim.Harlan’sarchetypeforChisumwasthat

ofthegenieinthebottle–thespiritofaccommodation.Ageniewascontrolled.

In,TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,Harlansuggeststhatnomatter

whatheuncovered,BTWwasstillonlyaman.Hispointseemedtobethatmost

historianswantedBTWtobeaSirGalahadwhoshouldhavegainedtheHolyGrail

forblacks.TothewhiteworldintheearlytwentiethcenturyBTWwastheperfect

leadertoregaintheHolyGrail(asmuchasthewhiteworldwouldallowablackman

tohaveapowerfulvesselthathealedsickness,renewedtheland,andsatisfiedthe

wantsofpeoplewhodrankfromit).ForpeopleinvestinginBTW’sblackleadership

theideaofBTWbeingaSirGalahad–amilquetoastkindoffigure–hadbeenideal.

TheidentityofGalahadwasfilledwithaccommodationmetaphors.Galahaddid

whattheKingsaid.HewentwheretheKingsent.Healwaysgavehislifefullyforthe

king.Thoseweretherightstandardsforasubservientmanbutwrongstandardsfor

BTWandChisum.

WhatHarlanfoundintheBookerT.Washingtonpaperswereblack

MachiavelliansbeforewhomevenBrerRabbitwouldhaveblushed.BTWwasnotSir1Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Vii.2LymanStoweEmmettScott,BookerT.Washington:BuilderofaCivilization(NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Company,1918);BookerT.Washington,UpfromSlavery(NewYork:Doubleday,1901).

Galahadtheknight.HewastheWizard,hewasaMerlinsuperimposedoverArthur,

agreatleaderandengineerofalltheblackpeoples.Merlincouldnotbecontrolled.

AsBTWdidnotknowhisfather;likewise,Merlindidnotknowhis;legendhadit

thatMerlinwassiredbyanincubusandamortalwoman.Whiletherewasnogenie

inKingArthurthelegendisthatwizardscastspellsanddirectedgenies.Harlancast

ChisumasBTW’sgenie.3Well-behavedgeniescanonlyworkmagicwhenthemaster

tellsthemtodosoandonlyasthemastertells.Perhapsusingsuchmetaphors

HarlansubconsciouslyattemptedtokeepChisumundercontrol,inalamp,instead

ofrelatinghisentirelifestory.

HarlanunderstoodthatsurvivingJimCrowtookadifferentsetofoperating

mechanismsinblackculturebutfailedtoestablishtheminhiscritiqueofBTW.He

worenomask.BTWrepresentedtheoldblackleadergivenlittledignityinAmerica

history.NotonlydidHarlandiscoverBTWwasUncleTombutmostUncleToms

wereWizards.BTWlikeChisumshouldhavebeencomparedtoToussaintL

’Overture,leaderoftheHaitianRevolution,JohnBrown,Americanabolitionist,

visionaryandmartyr,orSojournerTruthabolitionistandwomen’srightsleader.

ComparingBTWandhislieutenantswithEuropeanstandardsinsteadofattempting

toplacethegroupintotheirownarena,asdidhistoriansShawnAlexanderinAn

ArmyofLions(2012)orDavidJacksoninBookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggle

AgainstWhiteSupremacy(2008),doesnotwork.4Harlanusedhisownwandtocast

3Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.93.4Jackson,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleAgainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912.ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,

BTWandChisuminCamelot.Heshowedthattheystruggledwithanotherworldly

powerthatonlyaholygrailcouldrectify.Theirstrugglewasdiscountedwhenthe

dignityofthosewhowentthroughitconsciouslyorsubconsciouslywereperceived

throughapurelyAmericanCivilReligionlens.Whenthejusticesystemallowed

violence,injusticeandeviltoreign,newstandardsshouldhavebeensetwhen

writingaboutblackleaderslikeBTWandChisum.Blackminorityleadersemployed

differentstratagemsinachievinggoals.Theycreatedtheirownrealmsbyadding

theirownblacksocialgospel;theychangedAmericanCivilReligiontoanAmerican

BlackCivilReligion(seechapter2).5Livingtheremeant-beinginakindof

inbetweeness–residinginadifferentrealmthanthemainstreamUnitedStates

culture.

HarlansawthisdifferentstratagemofblackAmericanreligiousculture

withinChisum’scharacter.Itwasnotsimpletounderstand.HowdidHarlanjustify

theactionofalearnedman,suchasChisum:aneducator,spy,provocateur,

journalist,arealestateentrepreneur,banker,whoranlooseallovertheSouthern

countryside,actinglikealowlyUncleTomorfieldworker,whoputhislifeatrisk–

freeingpeopletiedtotheeconomicsofagriculture?Harlan’sunprocessedarchival

collections,whichheusedtowritebooksandarticles,areheldattheLouisR.Harlan

Papers,SpecialCollectionsUniversityofMarylandLibraries.Unearthingthose

2012.)5Thereisnoonehistoricalconsensusonwhenthesocialgospelmovementbeganorended.ForAmericanCivilReligionseechapter2Bellah.SeeJeanJacquesRousseau,TheSocialContract:OrthePrinciplesofPoliticalRights,trans.RoseHarrington(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1893).EmileDurkheim,TheElementaryFormsofReligiousLife,trans.KarenFields(London:TheFreePress,1912).

papersdisclosesthatwhilehavingwell-researchedinformationonChisum,itseems

thatHarlanpurposefullychosethestrandsofChisum’sbackgroundthatclearlyfit

thelifeofavillainousspy.Trueenough,vilifyingChisum’scharactertofitChisum’s

secondarycareer,asaspywasnomajorleapininterpretation.Chisumentrapped

journalistBruceGritbyusingthenewspaper,theImpendingConflictasa

“strawman”fortheTuskegeeMachine,anddidoddspyjobsforTuskegeeuntil

1915.6However,HarlanwroteintheWizardofTuskegeethat“After1906

WashingtonfoundlessuseforChisum...andhisspyingforWashingtonceased,”

andin“TheSecretLife”that“after1906Chisumengagedinasuccessionofsmall

businessenterprises.…”Harlanusedmetaphorsfromtheworldofwizardrywhen

hecontinued,“Chisumremained,ashesaid,Washington’s‘obedient,humble

servant,’butthemasternolongerrubbedthelamp.”7Thisassessmentsteeredthe

audiencedownthewrongroad.ForHarlan’sandTaylor’sstudentstherestof

Chisum’slegacyremainsnotonlyanticlimacticbutalsoslightlydeceitful.Thetruth

wasthatChisumworkedforBTWrightuptoWashington’sdeath.AfterBTW’s

death,Chisum,alongwithotherlieutenantsorsocialandpoliticalactivistsincluding

EmmettScottandRobertRussaMoton,continuedtheBTWlegacyuntiltheirdeaths.

6Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915;"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington.";CeceliaBrooks,"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker"(OklahomaStateUniversity,2014).7Harlan,WizardofTuskegee,1901-1915,93.

Wizards,GeniesandJimCrow:HarlanRedrawsChisum

WhatmusclesdidHarlansuperimposeoverthecharacterandbeingofthe

originalMelvinChisuminordertodeveloptheChisumcaricature?Theexaggeration

ofChisum’svillainyincludedchangesinhisappearance,statue,andachangein

name.HarlanalsooverdevelopedtherelationshipbetweenChisumandBTWduring

theperiodthatChisumspiedfortheTuskegeeMachine.ThentostigmatizeChisum

asaspyandprovocateur,HarlanattributedaccessoriesandbrashnessChisumused

inhisworkasagovernmentagentinthe1930stodevelopChisum’spersonaof

“spy”intheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury.

Asreferencedinthepreface,Harlanmanipulatedhisreader’smindsby

choosingthedescriptionofChisumprovidedbyG.W.A.Scottinaninterviewin

1968,insteadofchoosingtodevelophischaracterfromthenotesofhis

researcher(s)forthecorrectunderstandingeraoftheBookerT.Washington–

MelvinChisumrelationship.HarlanchosetodescribeChisumas“amanofno

particulardistinction”and“resemblinganarmadillo...short,stubby,ugly...witha

bigbelly.”8Harlanhadatleastthreechoicesindevelopingthephysicalstatureof

Chisum.Inbox41oftheunprocessedHarlancollection,afilecitedas“Chisum,”one

ofHarlan’sresearcherspresentedadescriptionofChisumfroma1915handbill.The

personwrote“[sic]photographofMelvinM.Chisum[sic]onahandbillforaspeech

hewastogiveinDallas,presumably,((1915))[sic]...heisahandsome,oval-faced

8LouisHarlanandRaymondSmock,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Volume7,1903-4(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970),219.HereaftercitedasBTWP.

Negroofyoungmiddleage,billedasofBaltimoreandpres(sic)ofthenational

NegroPrssAsso(sic).”9HarlanalsohadadescriptionfromWendellPhillips

Dabney’sbookChisum’sPilgrimage(1927).Chisumwas“cladinsouthernattire,five

feetsixinchesinheight,superabundanttissueun-corseted,complexiondecidedly

brunette,andhairtruetonature...whiteflannelpantsandcoat,whitesilkshirt,

softcollar,flowingtie,largePanamahatsombrerostyle.[He]wasanimposing

personality....Everyonewith“whomChisumcameincontactwithrendered[him]

homage.”10Thethirddescriptioncamefromtheoralhistoryinterviewdonein1968

byamanwhoadmittedhedidnotlikeChisum.OfthethreedescriptionsHarlan

chosethemorevillainousonetodevelophisinterpretation;hedidsotoplayoffthe

ideaofWashington’s“moralinsensitivity”intheparagraphthatrevealedmoral

depravityinBTW.Usingthelanguageofaknownantagonist,thenrevisingthequote

asa“plumplittlerogueinabulletproofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingthe

privacyofothers”inTheWizardofTuskegee,isartistry,butthedescriptiongivesthe

writingflavorandatteststoChisum’sandBTW’svillainy.However,thedescription

isnotonlyanachronistic,itisfalseevidence.Deconstructingthisanalysisbrings

otherinterpretationsofHarlan’sunderquestion.Didhehaveaproblemwithpeople

whostartedinslaveryandpoverty?

9HarlanPapers,Box41,UMDLibraries.10WendellPhillipsDabney,“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb,”inNegroCaravan,ed.SterlingAllenBrown,ArthurPaulDavis,UlyssesLee(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941).Dabney’sChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers(1927),notedinHarlan,WizardofTuskegee,81-94.

Withnosourcecitedforhisresearch,Harlanwrotethatin1900Chisumwas

a“plump,possumshapedyoungTexan.”11Washingtondiedin1915whenChisum

wasayouthfullookingmanoratmostasuavemiddle-agedone.Thedescriptionby

Harlan’sresearcherseemsthemostaccurateofthethree.TheHarlancollection

includesthefulloralinterviewwithScottonNovember7,1968byoneofHarlan’s

students,historianPeteDaniel.12IntheinterviewDanielseemedtohintatwhat

valuesheneeded.RememberingChisumasasortof“secretserviceman,”the

elderly,Tuskegean,G.W.A.Scott,underthescopeofthewhiteinterviewer,admitted

thattherewere“nodata”behindhisdescription.Yet,whenledonbythe

interviewerusingthequestion,“DescribeChisum.Dr.LouisR.Harlanwroteapaper

andmentionedthatChisumlookedlikea‘possum.’Doyouagree?”Theinterviewer

pushedScottwiththequestionof“HowbigwasChisum?AboutthesizeofJackie

Gleason?”Consequently,Scottrecantedthesizeissuewith,“Nonotthatbig.He

mighthaveweighedasmuchas225poundsandwasabout5’6or5’7.”Neither

Harlannorhisstudentsattributedtheprejudiceinarticlesorbooks.Accordingto

thetranscriptoftheinterview,Scottpausedtospeaktohiswifebeforehetalkedto

theintervieweraboutChisum.ThenScottprefacedhisdescriptionwiththewords

“Yes,IknewChisum.ButanythingIsayabouthimwillbeprejudiced.”Inhis

memory,hedubbedChisum“likeanArmadillo”becauseofhisbulletproofvest,

11Harlan,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington.”405.12SundiataDjata,BlacksattheNet:BlackAchievementintheHistoryofTennis,(NewYork:SyracuseUniversityPress,2006)7.DjatadescribesScottasatenniscoachatTuskegee.

adding,“Hewasshort,stubby,andugly.Hehadabigbelly.”13Duringtheinterview

ScottallegedthatChisumcarriedapistolallthetime.14

ChisumcarriedagunwhenheworkedfortheUnitedStatesGovernment.

WhenChisummetScottintheTuskegeeUniversityparkinglotinhemid-1930s,

thoseyearswerethezenithofChisum’scareerandpowerintheDemocraticParty.

AtthatpointChisumwastheonlyblackmanworkingforthePublicWorks

Administration(PWA)fortheNewDealAdministrationasaninvestigatorfor

SecretaryoftheInterior.ThePWAwascreatedasapartoftheNationalIndustrial

RecoveryActinJune1933asaresponsetotheGreatDepression.Inhisownsphere

asagovernmentagent,ChisumwasaspowerfulafigureinhisspecialtyasOscarDe

Priestwasinpolitics.Chisumhadpowerandprestigeoverpeoplethatneededhim

topasstheirclaimsthroughthePWAinordertoprocuregovernmentpayoutfor

theirprojects.Hemadeanequalsalarytowhitesinthesameposition.Hewasused

tosuppressproblemsintheblackworldoftheUnitedStates.Heessentiallywasthe

topblackspy,detective,orinvestigatorinthecountry.15

Becauseofthischangeinpartyaffiliation,hebecametheapowerful

AmericanBlackinpolitics.Inthe1930sHaroldLeClairIckes,asSecretaryofthe

Interior,wroteinhisoriginaldiarynotes,foundattheLibraryofCongress,that13HarlanPapers,Box43,envelope,UMDLibraries.14Ibid.15HaroldIckes,"Diary,"inHaroldL.IckesPapers,ed.ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress(WashingtonD.C.:LibraryofCongress,1937),Box29.OnMarch15,1937IckessentChisumtoclearthewayforblackJudgeWilliamHastie’sappointment.ReferencestoChisumhavebeentakenoutofIckesautobiographyandbooks.SeethesamedateinHaroldIckes,TheAutobiographyofaCurmudgeon(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1943).

Chisumwasoneofhisinvestigators.HenamedanddescribedChisumas“aclever

Negro”whoknewhiswayinworkingwithblackpeople.Ickesdescribeddispatching

Chisumtogetlawyer,WilliamHastie,appointedasthefirstblacktoFederalDistrict

CourtintheVirginIslands.Ickeswroteseveralotherpositivecommentsaboutthe

workChisumdidforhim.16

G.W.A.Scotttoldhisinterviewerthisstory.Scottwaswashinghiscarat

TuskegeeandsomehowgotwateronChisum’scarbymistake.Healsosplattered

Chisum’sshoes.ForbothDr.Chisumandhisfather,shoesweresomewhatsacred.

ChisumandScotthadwords.ScottdescribedChisumasgettinginto“awildbulldog

rage.”ThenChisumpulledhisgunonhim.Scottthreatenedtothrowapailofwater

onChisum.Thematterrested.WhenScottcomplainedtoRobertRussaMoton,

principalofTuskegeeUniversity,“Dr.Motontookupforhim[Chisum],andtoldme

howmuchChisumhaddonefortheschoolandhowvaluablehewastotheschool.…

OnthisvisittoDr.Motonhewas,ashehadbeeneversinceourfirstmeeting,very

fatherlyinhisattitude.Hegavenoindicationwhateverofhostilitytowardmefor

whatIhaddone.”17HarlanusedScott’sdepictionofChisuminhiswritings.

Chisum’ssondidnotdenythathisfathercarriedagunwithhiminthe1930s

whenheworkedforthePWA.Nordidheclaimhisfathercouldnotbemean.Melvin

Chisum,Sr.,himselfsaid,“Throughalltheyearsofmypublicexperience,Ihave

neveroncefailedafriend.Havealwaysstrivenarduouslytoservedisappointment

andmiserytomyenemieswithoutcompunction,butfriendshipwithmeisasacred16Ickes,“Diary,”Box29.17Ibid.,HarlanPapers,Box41,Chisumfile,UMDLibraries.

relationandItreasureitasagiftfromGod.”18Readingthebiographiesofblacksby

blackauthorsthisideaofservingdisappointmentonenemiesisnotnewtoChisum.

SeveralAmericanblackleaders,includingWilliamChase,feltthesameway.19There

weretimeswhentheyhadtobemeaninordertogettheirworkdone(chapter7).

HadHarlandoneanoralinterviewwithChisum’ssonitispossiblehewould

havegottenabetterportrayalandtimelinetojudgeMelvinChisumSr.Though

HarlanknewofDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,becauseofthearticleintheNegroBulletin,

withinthecollection,nocorrespondencewasconductedwithalivingrelativeof

Chisum.Chisumdescribedhisfatherwithalacrity.“Iwasalwaysamazedbythe

similarityinthephysiquesandphysicalmovementsofmyfatherandtheHollywood

actor,EdwardG.Robinson.Dadwasdignityandsuavitypersonified.Hehadthe

appearance,theapproachofthetechniquesofadiplomat.”20MelvinChisumSr.’s

pictureappearedonthefrontpageoftheMinneapolisMessengerin1922,the

WashingtonEaglein1927,andtheLouisvilleLeaderin1928.However,whenandif

Chisumworeasuitwithagun,heprobablyacteddifferentlyaroundTuskegeethan

intheprofessionalrealmsofhisjob.

Accordingtohisson,Chisumcarriedagunandworeavest.Manyofhis

picturesfromyouthtoadulthoodhavehimdressedinsuitandvest.Hisdangerous

occupationcausedhimtocarryapistolwithhimwhenhetraveled.Inthe1930s

18MelvinChisumtoIsaacWilliamYoung,6September1933,LeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,OklahomaCityUniversity.HereaftercitedasOKCU.19InRichardson,NationalCyclopedia,seeWilliamCalvinChase,P.B.S.Pinchback,ToussaintL’Ouverture,andothers.20Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor,April13,2007.OKCU.

Chisum’sworktookhimtotheSouthbyautoandbytrain.“ThentheSouthwasa

moredangerousplaceforblackpeoplethanitistoday.Iwasaccustomedtoseeingit

(thegun)inhissuitcase,”Dr.Chisumwrote,“Icannotrecallhiseverhavingtoldme

thathehadoccasiontouseit,butherecalledoneoccasionthattheytalkedaboutthe

SomeoftheprojectsonwhichheworkedasResidentEngineerInspectorwhenhewasemployedbythePublicWorksAdministration,tookhimtothedeepSouth.HedescribedanepisodewhenhewasworkinginAlabama,maybeontheMusselShoalsDam.Itwashisjobtobecertainthatthematerialandspecificationsrequiredinthespecificationsforthesegovernmentworkswerebeingmet.This,ofcourse,didnotalwayssitwellwiththecontractorswhowerelocalpeopleandsometimesinclinedtocutcornersinordertoincreasetheirprofitonajob.Whatismore,theywereunaccustomedtoablackmaninauthorityinthefirstplace.Dadheard“bythegrapevine”thatthewhitefolkshaddecidedtoridehimoutoftownonarailthenextday.Soearlythatmorning,hewenttotheshopofthelocalgunsmith,toldhimhewantedtobuyapistolandindicatedtheoneintheshowcasethathewishedtopurchase.Theshopkeeperaskedhimifhehadalicensetocarryagun.Theoldmanthrewhisgovernmentcredentialsonthecounterandtoldhim,“Thereismylicense.”TheshopkeepersoldhimthegunandDadlefttheshop.Ofcourse,hehadhisownpistolwithhim,buthewantedthetown’speopletoknowhewasarmed.Heknewthattheshopkeeperwouldinformthemofthepurchase.Heneverheardanymoreabouttheattemptstorunhimoutofthattown.Hehadseveralsimilarstories.Thatisthekindoflifeheled.Itwasdangerousandhebelievedinbeingprepared.21

However,asamedicaldoctor,thelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,ofPhiladelphia,

Pennsylvania,hadastrongunderstandingofhisfather’scharacterandbuild.He

provedtobeausefulresource.DuringtheperiodthatChisumknewBTWhewasin

21MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.

hislatetwentiesandearlythirties.Chisum’sappearancesuggestsamoderate

height,clean-shaven,successfulblackbusinessmanwithpiercingeyes.22Asheaged

hebecamestouter.WhenDr.Chisumwasbornhisfatherwas49yearsold.“I

rememberhimbeingaboutfivefeeteightinchesinheightandweighingbetween

210and215pounds,”hissondescribed.“Hewasmoremuscularthanfat–-whatwe

asphysicians,wouldcallameso-endomorph.”Hewasstocky.Tolookathispictures

withJackieGleasoninmind,heandChisumhadsimilardimensionsinthe1930sbut

ScottneveradmittedthatideatoDaniel.

Dr.Chisum’sdescriptionexplainswhatjournalistandauthorWendell

PhillipsDabneywroteinashortstory.Dabney,editoroftheUnionnewspaper,

wrotethatChisumwasinfineshape“financiallyandphysically”inhis1927

publicationofChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers.23Dabneyonlypublishedonehundred

copiesandgavesignedcopiestofriends.InthestoryChisumtookDabneyoutfor

theday.Arrivinginalimousinewithmoneytospend,ChisumenticedDabneyto

ridewithhimtothegravesiteofChisum’sdeceasedroommatePaulLaurence

Dunbar.Theadventureiscomical.ChisumalienatesDunbar’smotherandis

practicallythrownoutofherhouse;butwithoutaglimmerofremorse,hecontinues

thejourney.

TwodefinitedescriptionsofChisumwithagunaregivenbyanenemyand

thenbyChisum’sson.However,thedescriptionbytheresearcherwholookedupa22MissouriMessenger(KansasCity),14January1922.23ThisdissertationisnamedChisum’sPilgrimageIIinresponsetotheoriginalbook.WendellPhillipsDabney,Chisum'sPilgrimageandOthers(Cincinnati:SelfPublished,1927).

pictureforHarlanofChisumin1915istheclosesttohowChisumwouldhave

lookedduringthetimeoftheTuskegeeMachine.ItispossiblethatHarlansetthe

stageforhisvillainousportrayalbyfindingsomeonewhoknewthevillainousside

ofChisum.However,theanswertohowChisumlookedduringtheperiodheworked

withWashington(1903-1915)isclearlythathelookedlikeayounggentlemanof

upwardmobility.PossiblythearticlesthatcirculatedaboutChisumbeingchased

outofOklahomawithachargeoflibelpromptedtheneedforhavingChisumlook

villainous.Whateverthecause,lookingatresearchfromHarlan’sownfilesshows

thatHarlanchosethevillainousapproachovertherealChisum.

Harlan’sdescriptionregardingtheepisodesBTWusedChisumtoagainst

BruceGritandtheNiagaraMovementneedrevision.Duringhisearlyperiod(1895-

1900)ChisumwasnotjustapawnoftheTuskegeeMachine.Themachinedidnot

reallyformuntiltheearly1900swhenEmmettScottjoinedtheteam.Duringthe

periodofthelatenineteenthandearlyinthetwentiethcenturyChisumattempted

todevelophimselfintoareformerandabusinessmaninhisownright.Hetriedto

startaschoolforservantsatthesametimeinNewYorkthatW.E.BDuBoisand

otherssoughttodevelopaschoolforthetalentedtenthinWashingtonD.C.The

schoolhadnothingtodowithTuskegee.Actingonhisown,Chisumattemptedto

fosteravocationaltrainingschoolforblacks.Itwasanefforttomakemoney.Hedid

notwanttoberegardedasa“missionary.”24Neithermanfulfilledtheirdreamswith

theirschools.However,EmmettScott,Chisum,andW.E.B.DuBoisallultimately24MelvinJ.ChisumtoMadam,18March1901,HarlanPapers,Box40,UMDLibraries.

formedrelationshipswithBTW.DuBoisformedhisrelationshiponanacademicand

professionallevel,whileChisumstruggledtogetBTW’sattentionthroughhis

childhoodfriendEmmettScott(chapter5).

AsHarlandocumented,duringthelastfewyearsofthenineteenthcentury,

Chisum’schildhoodfriendEmmettScottdevelopedaplacewithintheBookerT.

WashingtonadministrationatTuskegeeInstitute.TogetherbothBTWandScott

developedtheTuskegeeMachine.ThegenesisoftheTuskegeeMachinebeganwith

ScottwhobroughthistrainingfromHouston,Texas,toTuskegee,Alabama,as

Washington’sspecialassistant.Amongotherjobsuntil1897,EmmettScott,

Chisum’schildhoodMethodistfriend,workedunderNorrisWrightCuney(1846-

1898),apowerfulRepublicanPartyblackleaderinHouston,Texas.TheTuskegee

MachinewaspartiallypatternedaftertheCuneypoliticalmachine.Thelikelihood

thatChisumworkedunderScottinHoustonisverypossibleconsideringthetimes

ChisumwashomeinTexas.

PhilipMinorCuneyownedNorrisCuney’smotherduringslavery;Norriswas

hisson.PhilipeducatedhissonasEnglishLordseducatedtheirnaturalchildren.

ThoughbornaslaveinTexas,NorrisCuneywasemancipatedbyhisfatherat

thirteenyearsofageandreceivedapreparatoryeducationatWylieStreetSchool

forblacksinPittsburgh,Pennsylvania.CuneyreturnedtoTexasandthroughhis

whitefamily’sconnectionsbecameoneofthemostpowerfulblacksofhistime.

GovernorEdmundJ.DavisoftheRadicalRepublicanReconstructionPartyinTexas

supportedCuney.IntheHoustonareaCuneyliterallycontrolledthevoteofblack

people.Throughpartyalliancesandthestudyoflaw,Cuneybecameablackboss.He

becamepresidentoftheGalvestonUnionLeaguechapterandlaterservedasthe

RepublicanParty’snationalcommitteemanfromTexas.In1883,hewontheposition

ofaldermaninGalvestonandfoundedtheNegroScrewman’sBenevolent

Association,acollectivebargainingassociationforAfricanAmericanlongshoremen

whoworkedthedocks.25Somehow,Scottbecamehispersonalassistant.Chisum

sometimesworkedthedocksalongwithhisfriendJackJohnson.Possiblyheknew

CuneyandhedefinitelyknewScott.Cuney,Scott,andChisumparticipatedinsome

ofthesamefraternalorganizations,PrinceHallMasonsinTexas,KnightsofPythias,

OddFellows,andtheMethodistChurch.26

EmmettScott,abrilliantyoungmanbyanystandards,recognizedthathe

wouldneedanotherpositionin1897whenCuneylayillanddying.Scott,

resourcefullikeRichardNevilletheKing-Maker(1428-1471)plottedhisnextmove.

HeinvitedBTW,therisingleaderofAmericanblacks,tospeakatahallinHouston,

Texas.ScottshowedWashingtonhisworkupclose,howhesupportedCuney,and

howhecouldsupportBTW,andmakehima“king.”Scotthadaphotographic

memory.WhilecorrectinhisdescriptionofScottas“asmall,ratherdelicate-looking

yellowmanwithapince-nez”Harlan’sstatementthatScottheldoutfortwoweeks25MaudCuneyHare,NorrisWrightCuney:ATribuneoftheBlackPeople(NewYork:Crisis,1913);VirginiaNealHinze,“NorrisWrightCuney,”Master’sThesis,RiceUniversity,1965;PaulDouglasCasdorph,"NorrisWrightCuneyandTexasRepublicanPolitics,1883–1896,"SouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly68,no.4(April1965):455–6;ErnestObadele-Starks,BlackUnionismintheIndustrialSouth,(CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2000);DouglasHale,ASouthernFamilyinWhiteandBlack:TheCuneysofTexas(CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2003).26JohnandEthelynM.Collection,MA8:3-5Box2folder1.

isdeceivinginthiscriticaltwo-pagenarrativeofhistory.27Yes,Scottsawthecoming

ofanewstarwhenhebroughtWashingtontohisownarenainHouston,Texas.

Washington,observingandacknowledgingwhatScottcoulddoforhim,knowing

Scott’sMethodistpassiontobe“amoonratherthanastar,”orakingmaker,wooed

the24–year-oldScottthroughhisletters.

Inordertogainasasecretaryoneofthemostbrilliantblackpoliticiansinthe

country,BTWin1897hadtomeetScott’sterms.Scottneededtofinishthebusiness

leftinhishandsbyCuney.Scottdestroyedmuchofhisownmanuscriptcollection;a

fewmanuscriptsleftbyhisfamilyweredepositedinMorganStateUniversity.When

hewasaboy,Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,rememberedtakingletterstothemailboxfrom

hisfathertoScottalmostdaily.However,notoneletterremainsinScott’s

manuscipts.Scottprobablydidthedestructionhimselfashewastaughttodosoby

Cuney.Inthemeantime,withfewresourcesathishands,BTWalsohadtooffera

decentsalarytoonesuchasScottthe“kingmaker.”28AftertheynegotiatedScott’s

salary,theresultwasatrainedAmericanblackProgressiveErateamthatdeveloped

politicalpowerinthedeepSouth.TheTuskegeeMachinebeganwithEmmettScott

andBTWandmethodsinstilledinleadersoverhundredsofyearsbyMachiavelli,

BrerRabbitwit,andCuney’straining.

PerhapsChisumcarriedoutmissionswithScottundertheCuneyregime.No

informationexiststoverifythisassertion.ScottadmittedthatheandChisum27HarlanLouis,BookerT.Washington:TheMakingofaBlackLeader(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1972).261.28EmmettScotttoBTW,2July,6August,and4September1897,HarlanPapers,Box41,UMDLibraries.

remainedfriendsfromchildhood.Thepossibilityremainslikely.However,in1897

whileScottremainedbusybuildingtheTuskegeeMachine,Chisumremadehimself

intoafreelancenewspaperwriter,assistanttoBishopWilliamDerrick,andwent

intotheprofessionalboxingringforthelasttime.

EventhoughMelvinChisumunderstoodhimselfasTexasSteel,afteraperiod

oftimethebrutalpunishmentofthebodyledhimtochangehisoutsideappearance

evenashisinsidebecamemorejaded.Whilebeingthepugilistearnedhimfameand

incomeintheearlierpartofhiscareer,TexasRosebudrealizedonApril19,1897,

thatthereweretougher,moreaggressivepugilists.ThePittsburgPressclearly

reportedthatsuchwasthecaseonRosebud’sfirstandlastdayintheprofessional

boxingringwhenhefoughtanAustralian.Rosebudwasoutofhisleaguewhen

comparedtoworld-classpugilists.Ormaybehehadenoughofthe“strenuouslifeof

self-defense.”PerhapsinarevelatorymomentlikeHarriettTubman’s,afterbeing

hithard,hemadeadecision.Duringoneminuteandfiftysecondsintheringof

“alleged”fighting,Rosebudcaughtthefatalblowofhisboxingcareerbetweenhis

shoulderblades.Rosebudstoppedhis“blind”gallopingaroundtheringandsank

down.Notunconscious,“stillinpossessionofhissenses,theRosebudrefusedtoget

upinsidethetimelimitandGrifforeceivedthedecision.”29Heputasidethevocation

ofboxingforeducationinlawandprintingand“themorepeacefulpursuit”of

managingahotelandwritingforthepapersunderhisrealnameMelvinJ.Chisum.

Outoftheringheworkedasanexus,amanofaffairs,determinedtomakeitinthe

businessarenawithhismuscle,Machiavelliantechnique,andeducation.Chisum29PittsburgPress(Pennsylvania),19April1897.

attemptedtopatternhisworklikeoldermenfromBTW’sgeneration–journalists

WilliamBruceandT.ThomasFortune.Chisumhadfightleftinhimandhechoseto

fightforrightsnotonlyagainstthewhitesupremacybutagainstblacksintellectuals

whocaredlittleaboutgrassrootsblackpeople.Hestudiedinfreedmen’sschools

andtheatre;nowhechosetoworkinthefourthestatetocontendagainstthe

gentrifiedblackcultureoftheUnitedStates–thatwas–togathersouthern

grassrootspeopletodisputetheculturalaspirationsofestablishedblacks.However,

healwaysremainedopentomissionsforcash.

ChisumnevermovedbacktoTexas.Inthelastdecadeofthenineteen–

century,NewYorkwashisprimaryheadquarters.In1898hisbrotherWilliam

joinedhim;by1900hiswholefamilyleftMexiaundercoverofdarkness.Whenhis

father,mother,andsistercametheyalsobroughthiswifefromTexas.Thereareno

indicatorsastowhen,where,andhowChisummethisfirstwifeMaeJohnsonor

marriedher.However,researchshowsthatChisumandhisfirstwifeMaesharedan

apartmentwithfriendsAliceandPaulLawrenceDunbar.Maewaseducatedinthe

tradeofcosmetology.Inhisleisuretime,ChisumactedwiththeTheodoreDrury

Company,anmixedraceactingcompany,playingseveralpartsincludingOthello.

Withoutthelucrativecareerofboxingsupplyinghisneeds,Chisumengagedinother

commercialandindustrialbusinessaffairs.Hisfamilydependedonhimforfinances,

security,andguidanceinNewYork.HeandhisbrotherWilliamstudiedlawand

rentedapartments,andmanagedahotel.Chisumallegedlymanagedablacktheatre

company.HewrotefortheColoredAmericannewspaper’s“GreaterNewYorkGossip

Column.”Chisumtriedtofindhisplaceinthegenerationofthosewhohadbeen

slavesandwerethenfree.LikeW.E.B.DuBoistoBTW,ascrabsinabasket,manyof

theblackleadersfoughtforrecognitionandwerewillingtopulleachotherdownto

gainit.ThroughScott,Chisumsoughthiswayintothemostpowerfulblack

communityinthecountrybybeingwhoeverorwhateverBTWneededhimtobe.

BTWneededaspy.

ChisumTheEntrepreneur

TheTuskegeeMachineneededChisumtobeaprovocateuragainstjournalist

JohnEdwardBruce“BruceGrit”(1856-1924).Brucewasaformerslavewho

throughconnectionwithMissouriSenatorThomasBentongainedacareerin

journalismasamessengerfortheassociateeditoroftheNewYorkTimes.In1884

hispennamebecameBruceGrit.30HeandChisumhadanantagonisticrelationship

asearlyas1898.GritbroughtChisum’smanagementofWilliamBarker,anactor

fromPortauPrince,Haiti,undersuspicion.ChisumadvertisedthatBarkerwasan

actorfromthePortauPrinceTheatre,hadbeentrainedintheAcademeofHaiti,and

wassupportedbyablackcompanyunderthemanagementofChisum.Eventhough

Barkerreceivedastandingovationandencoresforhispresentation,BruceGrit

revealedtotheworldthattherewasnoPortauPrinceTheatreandnoAcademeof

Haiti.Barker’sbackgroundwasfraudulentandChisummadeupthelie.Onthefront

30RalphL.Crowder,JohnEdwardBruce:Politician,Journalist,andSelf-TrainedHistorianoftheAfricanDiaspora(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2004);WilliamSeraile,BruceGrit:TheBlackNationalistWritingsofJohnEdwardBruce(Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,2003.)

pageofTheColoredAmericanonApril16,1898,BruceGritchargedChisumwith

goingtoofarbycreatinga“fictitiousreputation”forBarker.31Chisummadeno

response.Hecontinuedmovingaroundthecountry,stillapugilisticcelebrityforhis

communityinTexas,buthenowhadanantagonistoutsideofthering.

Chisumfoundhisnicheinthenewspaperworldbyrespondingasan

antagonisttoarticleswrittenbyblackmenaboutthecrisisintheSouth.Hestroveto

steadilydevelopaniche,centeringontheethosofbeinga“Negro”fromtheSouth

concernedaboutprotectinghispeopleandtheirrelationshipwithwhites.Not

unlikeGritwhouncloakedChisum’santicsbeforeallNewYork,Chisumattacked

journalistT.ThomasFortune(1856-1928)forhislackofunderstandingaboutthe

relationshipbetweengrass-rootblacksandplainwhites.Chisumprobablyhadno

ideahehadsteppedoutagainstoneofBTW’smostintimatefriends.Heperhaps

knewFortunealsoco-foundedthemoreradical,sometimesmilitant,NationalAfro-

AmericanCouncilin1898.32BishopDerrickheldsharesinthenewspaperFortune

edited.OnJune4,1900,asblacksgatheredtocelebratetheanniversaryofJohn

Brown’sRaid,Fortune’sspeechstartledsomeintheaudiencethatincludedChisum

whenhecalledforretaliationagainsttheSouthfortheirattacksonNegroes.Chisum

wrotethatthelight-skinned,firebrandFortunelectured,“Youmustorganizeand

keepyourpowderdryandbereadytodemandaneyeforaneye,afootforafoot;

31ColoredAmerican(Washington,D.C.),16April1898.32EmmaLouThornbrough,T.ThomasFortune:MilitantJournalist(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1972).

thereiscomingagreatcrisisfortheNegrointhiscountryinwhichmuchbloodmay

beshed.”33

Fortuneeditedthreenewspapers—theNewYorkGlobe(thatlaterbecame

theNewYorkFreeman),andtheNewYorkAge.Fortune’spoliticalandjournalistic

careerlandedhimonbothmajorsidesofthereformmovement.Uptolastthe

decadeofthenineteenthcenturyhewasaproponentofintegration.However,

duringthesameperiod,likeotherblacksas“enemiesofthesameenemies,”he

workedcloselywithBTWandW.E.BDuBois.34HisworkpointedtoMalcolmXofthe

twentiethcentury.Athismostextreme,FortunecalledforAmericanblackstofight

backagainsttheirwhiteenemies.ChisumreportedinalettertotheNewYorkTimes

thatFortunesaid:

ThereisbutonewaytoputaperiodtotheforceandviolenceofaBourbon–usemoreforceandviolencethanheuses.Ashebelievesinbruteforce,herespectsit,evenwhenitisusedbythosehehatesandstabsinthedark....Letthecoloredmanstandhisground.Thereisfarmorehonorindyinglikeafreemanthanlivinglikeaslave.35

33NewYorkTimes(NewYork),4June1900.34SeeAugustMeier,NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1915:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeofBookerT.Washington(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963).EmmaLouThornbrough,T.ThomasFortune:MilitantJournalist(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1972);AlexanderShawn,T.ThomasFortunetheAfroAmericanAgitator:ACollectionofWritings,1880-1928(Florida:UniversityofFloridaPress,2008).35NewYorkGlobe(NewYork),10November1883.Thefirstestatewastheclergy(prayer),thesecondestatethenobility(fighters),thethirdestatecommoners(workers).Thetermfourthestatewascoinedin1837toshowtheincreasingpowerofthepress.

Inonearticle,TheVirtueofAgitation,hewrote,“Webelieveindissatisfaction;

webelieveinthemanifoldvirtuesofagitation.”36Harlancalledthephenomenathe

“dividedmindoftherace.”37WhetherChisumwroteattheinsistenceofBishop

Derrick,oronhisown,ChisumrespondedtoFortune’sspeechbothonJune4and

June10intheNewYorkTimes.ChisumclaimedthatFortunegavea“firebrand

speech”whichcouldhurtSouthernblacks.HereprovedFortunebysayingthat

Fortuneneededtomovetothehouseofconservatismand“keepquiet”because

Fortune’swordsas“BigNiggerfoolishness”hurtgrassrootsblacks.38Chisum

developedananti-revoltagendaasapowerfulblackmanfromtheSouth.Hewrote,

“WeknowthatFortuneisamanoflargeexperience.Hehasmadegreateffortsin

variousways,butinitishistoryofthatgentleman’sownmakethatalmost

everythingthathehasbeenlefttorunhasturnedafailure,notforlackofearnest

prosecutionbutuseofbadjudgmentinstead[sic].”39InaconservativeeffortChisum

attemptedtoquellthestormofanxietyinwhitesouthernersintheDallasarea

aboutanuprisingofblacksagainstthem.Chisumwrote,“Mr.Fortune[,]riotand

pillagearenotatallfeasible.”Heexplainedthatitwasnotthedepravityofblacks

thathadwhitesturningonthembut“poorwhitesareenemiesofblacksinthesouth

regardlessofhowwellbehavedandprogressiveblacksmightbe.”40Chisum’sarticle

intheFreemannewspapercalledfor“SpecialNeed”inregardstotheSamHose

36NewYorkGlobe(NewYork),18August1883.37Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.,39.38NewYorkTimes(NewYork),10June1900.39DallasMorningNews(Texas),13August1900.Thewordingisaswritten.40NewYorkTimes(NewYork),10June1900.

murder.41AnAnglo-Americanmobincludingmen,women,andchildreninPalmetto,

Georgia,hadburnedHosealiveforallegedlykillingandrapinghisbossandwife,

chargesthatwereneverproven.Thewhitecrowdcheered,cutHose’sbodyinto

pieces,andsoldthemassouvenirswithintheircommunity.

ThreemonthslaterChisumchargedthatalltheblacknewspapersassumed

Hose’sguiltinsteadoflookingforthetruth.There“wasnotasingledoubtexpressed

inanyofthepaperswhichIreadastoHose’sguiltoroutrage,noteventothepoint

ofusingtheterm‘allegedoutrage,’butitseemstomethatthecoloredpapertookit

forgrantedthatHosewasguiltyofallthatwaschargedagainsthimandwereonly

sorrythathedidnotgetatrialbyalawfulcourt.Whateverelsetheymaymeanthis

isthegeneralcensus[sic]ofopinionformedoftheirconservativeeditorialsand

reports.”Chisumaskedforinvestigationsintoreportsonblackcrimeinthe

newspapers.Hewrotethat“Conservatismisanexcellentqualityintheabstractand

therearecertainspheresofactivityinwhichwecannotwellhavetoomuchofit.But

thisisnotone.”42Chisum’sidentityattheturnofthetwentiethcenturywasthatof

bodyguardforBishopWilliamDerrick,conservativejournalist,realestateman,

holdingappetitesfortheartsincludingthesport,theatre,andmusicbutknownonly

toScottasaspy.

CorrespondencebetweenChisumandBTWintheBookerT.Washington

PapersrevealedthatChisum,muchlikeotheryoungmenofthetimeperiod,was

41Freeman(Indianapolis),22July1899.42Ibid.

captivatedbyBTW’sphilosophiesofinterracialpeaceandeconomicopportunityto

thepointofheroworship.43

ThetermBookeritewasaplayonBTW’sfirstname.Chisum’sphilosophyof

work–baseduponChristianprinciplesofeconomicopportunitiesforblacks–was

refinedbyBookeriteprinciples.Churchaffiliationwasfluid.TherewasoneLord,

onefaithonbaptism.MostleaderslikeChisummovedfromdenominationto

denominationwithlittleproblem.Heheldnoallegiance.Churchdenominationwas

treatedasabusiness.Hefoundworkfromtimetotimeinchurcheschecking

credentialsforpastorsthatwerecalledtothepulpit.Theoverarchingidealsof

AmericanBlackCivilReligioncenteredonwhotheenemywasforallblacks.Their

enemywasthesame.BTW’sphilosophyofreformwasgrassroots-bottomup-not

topdown-Machiavellianism–“flylikeabutterfly,stinglikeabee.”Tellthemwhat

theyneedtohearandformanundergroundnetworktocareforthedispossessed

usingtheirpatronage.WhileonthesurfaceitseemedthatBTWadvocated

accommodationonthepartofAfricanAmericanstoAngloAmericansintheUnited

States,hisworkfitintotheparadigmofblackcivilreligionandthesocialgospel

movement.Totheworldhisparadigmofreformincludedarationalethatblacks

shouldavoidpoliticstopursueaprogramofeducation,business,andself-reliance,

butunderthecoverofeducationhesupportedpoliticalandsocialreform.BTW’s

ideawasthatblackeconomicself-improvementwouldleadtosocialelevation.He

believedthateconomicmarketforceswouldeventuallyunderminediscrimination

43RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),6-7.

andprejudice.Heperseveredinthemodeofwhateverittakes,doit,aslongasyou

donotpointtome.WitnessingfirsthandthebuildingofBTW’snetworkofpower

andhissocialgospel-pragmaticapproachtoreform,Chisumlikeotheryoungblack

menofhistime,believedthatBTWwasaherowhocametosavetheblackrace.44

UncleTomworeacrown.BlackshadfinallymadeaplaceinAmerica.Itwasin-

betweenworldsbutitwastheirplace.WitnessingfirsthandthebuildingofBTW’s

networkofpowerandhissocialgospel-pragmaticapproachtoreform,Chisumlike

otheryoungblackmenofhistime,believedthatBTWwasaherowhohadcometo

savetheblackrace.45

WhileHarlanquestionedthemoralityofBTWbybeinginleaguewithChisum

ashishumbleservantheneglectsthehistoryofthesignature“yourhumble

servant.”InthefirstletterdatedOctober1,1904,fromChisumtoBTW,Chisum

acknowledgedthathewasadiscipleofBTWbeforethegovernmentdecidedto

makeBTWthespokesmanforblackAmerica.46Chisumwrotethathewasnota

“recentconverttotheprinciplesoftheWizardofTuskegee.IamanoriginalBooker

44LouisHarlan,andRaymond.W.Smock,eds.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,OpenBookEdition,1979,Volume8:1904-1906(onlineatUniversityofIllinoisPress,1979),77.InOctober1904ChisumsentalettertoBTWexpressinghisadorationfortheblackleader.SeealsoOttley,TheLonelyWarrior,6.AbbottworshippedWashingtonandconsideredWashingtonhishero.45LouisHarlan,andRaymond.W.Smock,eds.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,OpenBookEdition,1979,Volume8:1904-1906(onlineatUniversityofIllinoisPress,1979),77.InOctober1904ChisumsentalettertoBTWexpressinghisadorationfortheblackleader.SeealsoOttley,TheLonelyWarrior,6.AbbottworshippedWashingtonandconsideredWashingtonhishero.46RobertWiebe,TheSearchforOrder1877-1920(NewYork:HillandWang,1967),58.

Washingtonite.”47ChisumwasconvincedthatWashingtonwastheonlymaninthe

blackAmericawhowasactually“workingfortherace...millionsofusloveyou,

worshipyournameandacceptyourcounselinthefullestmeasure.”48WhileHarlan

belittledtheideaofhumbleservitudethatChisumshowedwhenheendedtheletter

“fromyourobedienthumbleservant,”itwasasincereaddressandalsooneusedby

manywhostudiedEuropeanliterature.49Classicalstudy,includingthewritingsof

AbrahamLincoln,showsthatthesentimentisinorderforoneasChisumwritingto

BTW.Outofregardforhisphilosophy,Chisum,asaneophyte,offeredBTWhislife

touseasdesired.“Ifeveryouneedarealgenuinepieceofsteelsendforme...mayI

bepardonedforsaying,thatnatureinputtingmetogetherforgottoputinfear.…”50

Whilethephraseseemssarcasticbytwentieth-andtwenty-firstcenturystandards,

andnowarchaic,itwascommonlyusedinpoliticallettersbypresidentsandother

personages.Chisum’suseoftheterminologywasatestamentofhimbeingan

educatedman,yethumbledtobeakingmaker.Bytheturnofthecentury,racial

tensionsflaredhigh,andJimCrowlawswerebeinglegislatedthatlimitedAfrican

AmericanfreedomsbyreplacingReconstructionstatuesthathadguaranteed

politicalandcivillibertiestoblacks.

47MelvinChisumtoBTW,1October1904,inHarlanandSmock,BTWP,Volume8,77.48Ibid.49Ibid.PatrickHenrytoRobertPleasants,18January1773,inRobertMeade,PatrickHenry:PatriotintheMaking(Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1957).HenrywrotealettertoaQuakercorrespondentusingthesameaddress,“Yourhumbleservant.”50MelvinChisumtoBTW,1October1904,inHarlanandSmockBTWP,Volume8,77;MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.

BlackjournalistsservedasfreedomfightersduringtheProgressiveEra.

Theyfoundthesupporttheyneededfromoutsideoftheblackworld,bypublishing

informationfortheworldtosee,believingliberalwhiteswouldreadtheirpapers

andhelp.By1903,Chisumenteredthepublicstageasajournalist.Hehadthe

traininginprintingfromhisearlierschoolyears.Hiswritingskillswereonparwith

hisadversariessuchasThomasFortune.Hisworkandknowledgeofjournalismwas

wellreceivedwithintheNewYork,Boston,andWashingtonpublishing

communities.BlacknewspapermensuchasWilliamTrotter,whograduatedfrom

Harvard,trustedhimandinvitedhimtocovertmeetingsandplanningsessions.

TheseblackleadersdidnotrealizethatChisumwasapaidspyfortheTuskegee

Machine.Inthebusinessofnewspaperediting,Chisumwasonparwiththebest

journalistsandnewspapereditorsinthecountry.Healsohadothermissionsgoing

onforBTWandpossiblyforothersoutsideofTuskegeeatthesametime.By1903

ChisumlefttheemployofBishopWilliamDerrick(1814-1913)topursuehisown

entrepreneurialendeavorsandattemptedtoworkcloselywithBTWthroughScott.

TosayChisumwasanassistantandbodyguardtoBishopDerrickbeforehis

workwithBTW,wastosayhewasmakingpoliticalconnections.Originallyfromthe

WestIndies,asachildofaplanterandslave,BishopDerrickhadanextensive

Moravianeducation.BishopDerrick,becameanaturalizedAmericancitizenduring

theCivilWar.HeservedasintheNavyandfoughtinthebattleoftheMonitorand

Merrimac.DerrickworkedwiththepresidentialcandidateGovernorWilliam

McKinleyasBTWworkedwithvicepresident-to-beTheodoreRoosevelt.Hisfriend

EmmettScottingratiatedhimselfwithoneoftheupcomingblackleadersinthe

UnitedStatesbyworkingwithBTW.Chisumfoundhimselfanationalicon.Hisyears

withBishopDerrickgroomedhispoliticalcharacterandambitions,missionary

fervor,hisstyleofdress,andhismodeofcarryinghimself.LikeBTW,BishopDerrick

ownedseveralnewspapers,includingpartownershipoftheGlobe.51

WithsomuchemphasisondifferingreformmovementsbetweenW.E.B.

DuBoisandBTW,thehistoriographyoftheriseoftheAMEChurchinpoliticsdoes

notreceiveitsequitableplaceinpoliticsinthelastquarterofthenineteenth

century.FrederickDouglass’smantledriftedinthefirstyearsafterhisdeath.

ConstructiveleadershipwasvacatedintheAmericanblackworld.In1895when

BookerT.WashingtonspokeattheAtlantaExpositionhedidnotimmediatelytake

onthetitleofthenationalleaderofblacks.PriortoBTWbecoming“the”national

blackleaderthroughPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt’sactions,BishopDerrickwas

thecenterpieceforblackpoliticsunderPresidentWilliamMcKinley.McKinley

handedDerricktheprivilegeofappointingseveralpatronagepositionsforblacks

duringhisadministration.52AspowerfulasDuBois,BishopReverdyRansomand

BishopAlexanderWaltersalignedthemselveswiththeNiagaramovement.Their

namesgavethemovementcredibility.53However,withPresidentMcKinley’sdeath,

thepowerstruggleforthetopblackleaderended.

51FrankThomasMarthaSimmons,PreachingwithSacredFire:AnAnthologyofAfreicanAmericanSermons1750tothePresent(NewYork:W.W.Norton&CompanyInc.,2010).257-261.52ColoredAmerican(Washington,DC),8February1900;IowaBystander,(DesMoines),28August1900;Freeman(Indiana),6March1897;ColoredAmerican(Washington,DC),9August1900;Recorder(Indiana),29August1900.53RalphLuker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite(ChapelHill:NorthCarolina

ChisummayhavelearnedfromDerricktoswitchcampswhennecessary.In

Virginiapoliticsinthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury,BishopDerrick

switchedpartiesandidealswhenhefounditnecessarytobenefithispoliticsand

beliefsforhisrace.BishopDerrickwithmanyotherAmericanBlacksjoinedthe

ReadjusterParty.Theycollectedtaxestopaythewardebt.Theyalsoabolishedthe

polltaxes,eliminatedthewhippingpostforpunishmentofblacks,andcreated

VirginiaStateUniversity.Inthe1880ssevenblackReadjusterswonseatsinthe

UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives.AttheendofReconstruction,whenDerrick

foundhimselfnotonlyonthelosingendofapoliticalbattletoConfederatessuchas

GeneralFitzhughLeewhobecameGovernorinVirginiabutthathewasinharm’s

way,ofVirginianswhowantedtokillhim,BishopDerrickandhissecondwifewent

onalongvisittohishomeintheWestIndiestowaitthepoliticalclimatetocalm

down.Later,hereturnedtoministryinNewYorkStatewherehemetandarranged

forChisumtobeabodyguardandassistant.

WhileBishopDerrickwasliberalaccordingtoexcerptsintheBookerT.

WashingtonPapers,DerrickandBTWdidnotconsiderthemselvesatodds.The

relationshipwastumultuousthough.InhislaterletterstoBTW,itseemedChisum

mayhavebeenpaidtospyontheBishopafter1906whentheNiagariteswere

forming.However,becauseofthecrypticlettersitishardtoconcludewhetherit

wasBishopWaltersorBishopDerrick.WhilebothAMEbishopsjoinedtheNiagara

movement,theycontinuedarelationshipwithBTW.DerricksupportedBTWinthe

Press,1991).173-176.Frazier.33,35,37.C.EricLincoln,TheBlackChurchSinceFrazier(London:UniversityofLiverpool,1974).148.

NewYorkGlobe,butasreportedbyWilliamAndersontoBTW,behindthescenes

DerrickfoughtforamoreradicalmovementagainstJimCrow.54

WhileChisumallowedScotttousehisfirstnewspaperforespionage

purposes,itwasalegitimateentitysupportedbysubscribersalloverthecountry.

ChisumwrotetoScottinJulyof1903thathewoulddohisbestasaTexantopaythe

billswhentheycamedue.“YouunderstandthatIhaven’tamillion,youunderstand

alsothatIamaTexasNegroandkeepmypromises,andwhensalariesareduethey

willbepaid,millionornomillion;andthe‘ImpendingConflict’,Ihope,through

observingourTexasprinciplestogivealifeofusefulness.”55Scottsupported

Chisum’suseoftheImpendingConflictnewspaperinordertofurtherBTW’sagenda

againsthispoliticalenemies.ThereislittleevidencethattheTuskegeeMachine

helpedsupportthepaperatall.AtthebeginningoftherelationshipScottwroteto

Washingtonin1903,“OurNewYorkfriendcanuseChisuminanywaythatwe

desire.”56Thenewspaperwasoneofthestrongestweaponsblacksusedinthe

defenseoftheirrace.Thewrittenwordwasalsoapowerfulinstrumentofespionage

whenusedasamanipulatorofpublicopinionwithintheblackcommunity.Editors

“achievedlittlemonetarysuccess,and[newspapers]wereprimarilyvehiclesforthe

editorstoexpoundtheirviews,punishopponents,andadvancetheirpersonal

politicalambitions....Journalismwasadistinctivelyunprofitableventure.”57

54HerbBoyd,"TheBlackPress:ALongHistoryofServiceandAdvocacy,"Crisis98,no.3(March1991).55MelvinChisumtoEmmettScott,23July1903,inHarlanandSmock.BTWP,Volume8,222-223.56EmmettScotttoBTW,28July1903.BTWP,Volume8,272.57Ottley,TheLonelyWarrior,86-87.

However,likethepreachers,newspapereditorswereconsideredleadersinthe

blackcommunity.BlackleaderssuchasFrederickDouglass,A.PhilipRandolph,

WilliamTrotter,andwomensuchasIdaB.Wells-Barnettalleditednewspapers.

UsingthenewspaperseemsChisum’sfirststeptoestablisharelationship

withBTW.Utilizingthestrugglingnewspaperasa“strawman,”Chisumattempted

towaylayeditorJohnEdwardBruce,orBruceGrit,intoBTW’spoliticalcampby

trappinghimintosigninganagreementthathewouldnotwriteanythingnegative

aboutBTW.58GritwrotepositivearticlesaboutBTWandTuskegeeuntil1900.But

havingbeenpaidbyanadversaryofBTWinApril1903,Gritcondemnedaprogram

BTWheldatMadisonSquareGardenintheRichmondPlanetcallingBTWa“political

pariah.”59GritandChisumhadapastandGritwassmartenoughtokeephisoptions

open.So,Gritcoveredhisback.Inordertowritewithouttheburdenofpolitics

dictatinghisagenda,Grittookonfull-timeworkattheNewYorkPortAuthority.

ThisworksupportedhiscontinuedattacksonBTWwithoutworryofhavinghis

financescutoff.Essentially,Gritsoldhiswritingskillstothehighestbidder,ignoring

hiscontractwithChisum.“Brucewasforhire.Andforthisreason,Brucedemanded

additionalmoneytocompensateforwhathiscolleaguesmightwelldenounceas

inconsistenciesandopportunism.”60ThoughBrucetookChisum’smoney,asGrit,he

58Harlan,"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington."405.HarlandescribesChisum’spaperas“ashakylittleNegromagazine.”Manysmallblackandwhitepaperswereshakyduringthattimeperiod.59PeterGilbert,TheSelectedWritingsofJohnEdwardBruce:MilitantBlackJournalist(NewYork:Arno,1971),1-9.60RalphCrowder,“FrederickDouglass,BookerT.Washington,andJohnEdwardBruce:TheRelationshipofaMilitantBlackJournalistwiththeFatherofCivilRightsand‘theWizardofTuskegee’,”Afro-AmericansinNewYorkLifeandHistory22,no.2

lackedtheintegritytostandbyacontracthesignedwithChisumto“notpublishnor

causetobepublished,anylettersorarticleswhatsoever,thatcanbe,evenremotely

constructedasbeingantagonistictoDr.BookerT.Washington.”61

ChisumfoundoutthattobeforhireundertheTuskegeeMachinewasnot

thesameasbeingapartofthemachine.ThoughChisumusedthenewspaperasa

strawmantofightforBTW,theTuskegeeMachinedidnotsupporthisnewspaper’s

finances.Chisumputhismoneyfromotherjobsandhisnameonthelineforthe

TuskegeeMachine,buthegainednomoresupportthanthefeeshewaspaidforthe

spyingjob.AftertheabruptclosureoftheImpendingConflictinFebruary1904,

Chisumfacedbacklashfromthesubscribers.IttookChisumthreeyearstorepayall

thesubscribers.AdmittingintheYonkersStandardthatthe1903foldingofthe

ImpendingConflictruinedhim,the“well-knownrealestateoperator”MelvinChisum

kepthisgoodnamebypayingbackeveryonewholostmoney.62

Insteadofsupportinghimafterheaskedforfinancialhelp,theTuskegee

Machinerespondedbyaskingfornamesofsecretsocietymembersforwhichthey

werepayinghim.BTWorScottaddeda“congratulations”forrepayingformer

subscriberswiththesubscript:“thisisanactofhonestythatveryfewwhitepeople

everperform.Iamgoingtogiveyoubroadcirculationtothefact.Ishalluseyouin

asmanypapersasIcan.Yousetahighexampleinthedirectionofstraight

(31July1998),6;onlineatProquestEthnicNewsWatch.61MelvinChisumtoEmmettScott,23July1903,inHarlanandSmock,BTWPVolume7,222-223.SeealsoCrowder,JohnEdwardBruce,89.62“Mr.ChisumMakesGood,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),12September1907.

forwardnessandhonestytotheentireraceinthismatter.”63Harlanmustbe

correctedonthismatter;theImpendingConflictdidnotserveasacoverforspying.

ItwasalegitimateeffortonChisum’sparttoestablishabusiness.Ittookfouryears

forhimtoregainhisname.Yet,ChisumdidcontinuetodoworkforBTWafter1906.

Hediversifiedfromundercoverspyandprovocateurtoothercovertwork.

LikehisroommatePaulLawrenceDunbarandhiswife,itseemsthatChisum

andhiswifeMaestruggledduringthisperiod.Hiswifebecameahairdresserto

supplementhisincome.Chisumdidnotwanthiswifeworkingbutgaveinto

necessity.Chisumdidnotchangetobecomeafamilyman.Hecontinuedtotravel

extensivelyandatwillashedidbeforehiswifebecameapartofhishome.Chisum

alsoworkedasaspecialrepresentativeoftheEquitableLifeAssuranceSociety,

publishedandsoldTheTeachYourselfHowtoPlayEitherOrganorPianoBook

authoredbyProfessorTheodoreDrury,becamealeasemanagerfornewlyopened

apartmentsforblacksinNewYork,andbecamealicensedrealestatebrokerto

negotiateandarrangerealestatetransactionsforblacks.

AsforHarlan’snegativeterminologyofChisumasspy,asfarbackassomeof

thefirstoftheJudeo-ChristianBiblicaltexts,spieswereashonoredaswarriors.

SpiesplayedcriticalrolesintheCivilWar.64WhileChisum’sidentityinLouis

Harlan’sbooksandarticlescontainedonlythenegativespectrumofChisum’scareer

asspyandprovocateur,hislabelingofotherfacetsofhislifeasmainlyacoverfor63BTWtoChisum,18October1907,HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder,UMCLibraries.64ThomasRyan,Spies,Scouts,andSecretsintheGettysburgCampaign(California:SavisBeatie,2015),xxi.

hisspyingendeavorsisastretch.Harlan’sownexcellentresearchnotesonChisum

attheUniversityofMarylandshowthatChisum’sspyingdidnotpay.Unlikeother

warsandbattles,Chisum’sworkwasdonerelativelyintheopen.Ifhewasdetected,

thespyingended.Chisum’scareerasboxer,bodyguard,newspaperman,andrealtor

couldnotbeseparatedintoseparateidentities.HewasnotlikeaClarkKentwho

hadasecretidentityasSuperman.Hecouldbeeasilyidentifiedinthemarketplace

inNewYork,NewJersey,andWashington,DC.

ChisumwasdoublyundercovernotonlyfromNiagaraites(forerunnersof

NAACP)butalsofromBookerites.ChisummadecontractswiththeTuskegee

Machinefordeliveryofinformationasonlyoneoftheirdetectivesinthenorthern

partoftheUnitedStates.Chisumhadanetworkofhenchmen.Hisdetectivework

crossedracial,political,economic,andsocialbarriers.Hisbusinesswasabout

makingmoneyforhisenterprise,payinghisworkers,takingcareofhisfamilyas

wellashelpingpeopleinhiscommunitybasedfromTexastoNewYork.

Harlan’sworkonChisum’slifeduringthefirstquarterofthetwentieth

centuryseemedtoimplythattheterm“spy”wasunacceptableamongpoliticians

andwarriors.Spying–itsimplementationofstrategyandtacticsfortherightcause–

canbeperceivedashonorable.Whoishonoredwasascertainedbywhocomesout

thewinner.IfW.E.B.DuBoiswonthecampaignagainstBTW,thenChisum’slifewas

nothonorable.However,theBTWandDuBoissituationwasnotthatsimple.

Washingtondiedin1915.Hislieutenantscontinuedhisworkof“civilization

building”fromwithin.EmmettScott,Chisum,andothersworkedwiththeUnited

Statesgovernmentuntil1940.Withinthattimeperiod,1915-1940,W.E.B.DuBois

andothers–evenblacksocialists,“enemiesofenemies”-beganworkingwith

Bookerites.Bythe1930sevenDuBoiswouldthrowinhishatwithBookerites.65

Washington’ssecretlifewasnottheexceptionbutthenormofonewhogota

chancetoexcelandbecomeanationalleader.Therewereallinthebriarpatch

together,ditchingthenooseandthefryingpanthatcamewithgettingcaught.Unlike

someotherblacksduringtheirlifetime,SamHose(1875-1899)wasnotonlysetup

byhistown’speople,butlynchedinCowetaCounty,Georgia,hisbodywasfriedin

public,choppedup,sold,andhandedouttohiswhitecommunityforbeinga

successfulblackman.Harlanwaswrong.Washingtonwasneverjustamaninhis

timeperiod.Amanwithoutdignitytostandforjusticewasnotaman.Hehadto

remaincloakedinmysteryandhandlehiswandmightily.Thefightforequalityin

theUnitedStatescommencedin“all-out-war”fromthestandpointofblacks.Like

Europeanandglobalcounterparts,inwarAmericanblacksusedthelucrativejobof

spyingwhileadoptingthemindsetandancientproverbthat“theenemyofmy

enemyismyfriend,”meaningopposingpartiescouldworktogetheragainsta

sharedenemy.MelvinChisumwrotetoBTWtoexplainthenuancesofthegrowing

NiagaramovementthateventuallybecametheNAACP.Intheletterhelinksthe

psychologyofblackstothetimeperiod.Forsomereasonthemissivewasnotused

inanyofHarlan’slectures,articles,orbooks.Theletterinterpretstheblackmindset

recognizedinthebooksofblackauthorsincontrasttothewayHarlanandother

65DavidLeveringLewis,W.E.B.Dubois:TheFightforEqualityandtheAmericanCentury1919-1963,vol.2(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,2000).

historiansinterpretedtheDuBois-BTWconflictduringthefirstquarterofthe

twentiethcentury.

RefittingChisum’scharactertothetimeperiodandshowinghisrelationship

toBTWservesthepurposeofopeningthelensesofhistorytoseehowblacks

manipulatedchangeinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Theymaynothave

wonmajorcampaignsintheProgressiveErabutasaunittheymanipulated

outcomes.AsShawnLeighAlexanderdescribedinhisbook,AnArmyofLions

(2012),blackfactionscametogethertofight,usepropaganda,tolobby,toboycott,

andtoemployothermeansasearlyas1906inthecivilrightsstruggle.66Yet

Alexanderdidnothaveaspecificcasetoexplore,becauseoflackofsomeonesuchas

Chisumtobridgethetheory.However,understandingthatChisumworkedwith

BTWlaterthan1906helpsdelineatewhathappenedintheMidwestduringthemid-

teens.Activatingaspy-cum-journalistwhoworkedforbothliberalsand

conservativesintheMidwestmadeadramaticdifferenceintheoutcomeofthe

blackstruggleforcivilrightsacrossthenation.

ShawnAlexanderconcentratedonthepre-NAACPera.Addingtheworkof

undercovermensuchasChisumtohisbookdevelopsaclearerpicture,and

exploringthepost-NAACPperiodduringthelifeofBTWilluminateshowthese

factionsstillcarriedouttheworkofanarmyoflions.WithaspylikeChisum,meta

language,andanunderstandingofAmericanblackcivilreligion,blackleaders

achievedbreakthroughsinjusticebyactinglikecatswhochasedamouse,quietly66ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012),xii.

andconservatively.ChisummadewavesinstateslikeOklahomathatultimately

changedthefaceofpoliticsacrossthecountry.Chisum’sundercoverworkinthe

Midwestchippedawayatthegood-old-boys’networks.Thisisthepointthat

historianNancyWeisspickedupinherbookFarewelltothePartyofLincoln.67

TheseeventsalsogiveinsighttothelargernarrativeofChisum’slifeasan

entrepreneurandbusinessmanstrugglingtomoveintotheTuskegeeMachineand

theeconomyofhistimeperiod.Chisumattemptedtokeepworkasareformerinthe

early1900s.Blacksunderstoodthatdividedtheywouldfail.Duringthefirstquarter

ofthetwentiethcenturytwodivisions–segregatedbythefunctionofvocationor

education–emergedasthecentralorderofreformbuilding.Onefactionincluded

whitesocialists,includingtheJewishpeoplewhosupportedW.E.B.DuBois’andhis

developingNAACP.Theotherfaction’sfollowedPresidentWilliamMcKinley’s

supportofBishopWilliamDerrickandPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt’ssupportof

BTWasnationalleaders.SometimesoverlookedbecauseoftheissuesbetweenBTW

andDuBois,theAfricanMethodistEpiscopal(AME)churchwasalsoapowerful

entityinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.68

67NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),3-33.Brooks,"Oklahoma'sFirstBlackGovernor":Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung.";"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker.";MaceoCrenshawDailey,WhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScottandtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(ElPaso,Texas:SweetEarthFlyingPress,2013).DaileyroundsouthisstudybyexplainingthenuancesoftheBookeritecommunity.68Luker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite,158-190.Frazier,TheNegroChurchinAmerica,41-48.C.EricLincoln,TheBlackChurchSinceFrazier,(London:UniversityofLiverpool,1974),135-152.

Duringthisperiod,agreatmigrationofAmericanandforeignblacksflowed

intoNewYorkCityandFlushing,NewYork.AccordingtoFortune’snewspaper,the

NewYorkAge,thearrivals“withinrecentyearsfromallpartsoftheSouth[have]

madeitpossibleforagreatnumberandvarietyofbusinessenterprisestobe

controlledandoperatedbymenandwomen.”69Asinotherpartsofthecountry,the

availabilityoflandwascentralindevelopingthelandscapeforblacks.Severalblack

realtycompaniescameintoexistence.Notabletosecurelargecapitalforoperating

purposes,severalofthemattainedplacesofdistinctioninfinancialcircles.The

MetropolitanRealtyCompanyownedover$100,000ofrealestateandboastedof

$15,000worthofmercantilebusinessannually.TheAfroAmericanRealtyCompany,

withPhilipPayton,Jr.,aspresident,foundsitesforblackhomesinlocalitieswith

lowcrimeandoutsideoftenementdwellingsinNewYorkandothercities.Emmett

Scottsatontheboardofdirectorsthatownednineofthebuildingsandcontrolled

seventy-fiveNewYorkCityapartmenthousesvaluedatover$900,000.Fortune

wroteintheNewYorkAge,thatothermenwhowereaggressiveintheirventuresas

brokersincludedM.A.Simmons,JohnMosley,MelvinJ.Chisum,andJ.P.Bourkeand

Son.70

Chisum’sventureintotherealestatemarketprovedbothpositiveandfatal.A

lettergleanedfromthePeabodypapersinthefileoftheHarlancollectionshows

thatduringthisperiodChisumcontinuedworkingformissions,ontheside,forthe

69NewYorkAge(NewYork),28February1907.70Ibid.

FrankDoubledayandG.F.Peabodyfamilies.71Thesemensupportedhimwhenhe

sufferedproblemsintherealestatemarket.TheGreaterNorthernRealtyCompany

wasincorporatedat308West119thStreetinNewYorkCitywithcapitalstockof

$20,000sharesat$5apiece.ThegoodnameofthepresidentoftheGreater

NorthernRealtyCompany,MelvinChisum,landedthecompanymajorsupport.

Anothernameheldprestige,AMEBishopAlexanderWalters.However,thepowerof

theblackpressreareditsheadagainstclergymen“takinganactivepartinthe

variousfinancialconcerns.”BishopWaltersresignedwiththewords“Theonly

reasonforhavingconsentedtogointoyourandotherenterpriseswastohelpthe

raceandsofarasmymoneygoesIshallcontinuetohelpthoseIbelievetobe

worthy,forIbelieveinthiswayonlycanoldermenofourracehelptheyounger

ones.”72Itisapparentthattheenterprisewaslegitimate.However,inthetime

periodChisumwasundercoverandspyingontheNiagaramovement.Chisum

reportedtoBTWconversationsthathethoughtworthyofBTW’sknowledge.

Chisum’sinfluencegrewinNewYork.Thehousingmarketboomedand

ChisumoperatedinLongIsland,NewYork,representingtheGreatNorthern

Company.OnSundayOctober6,1907,thecompanylaunchedapubliccelebration

fortheerectionofa“colony”ofblackhomes,arowofimprovedhomesforupwardly

mobileblacks.Heproposedcombiningthesavingsofworkingblacks.Togetherthis

groupwoulderecttheirexclusiveneighborhoods.TheyboughtlotsonForest

AvenueinFlushing.Theworkonfivehousesstarted.AMEpastorRev.Dr.WilliamH.

71HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder,UMDLibraries.72“BishopWaltersResigns,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),5March1908.

Lacey,(1869-?)whopastoredatFlushing,NewYork,purchasedthefirststockfor

$450.AnunidentifiedFlushingcontractordevelopedtheplansandcontractsto

buildthehomes.However,beforethehomeswerebuilt,thehousingboom

collapsed.Theworkonthehomesstopped.Thecontractorwentbankruptandleft

FlushingforNewJersey,andwassubsequentlykilledinacaraccident.Chisum,

underduress,triedtokeeptheprojectafloat,buttonoavail.Ultimatelythe

investorssuedChisumpersonallyinsteadoftheGreatNorthernRealtyCompanyfor

theirinvestments.

CHAPTERV

CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEINOKLAHOMA

WHERETHEWINDCOMESSWEEPINGDOWNTHEPLAINS

“MyfathertoldmethatBookerT.Washingtonwasawarethatthepoliticiansand officials of Oklahoma were stealing much of the money the U.S.Government was spending in the region for the care and upkeep of theIndians.WhyBookerT.WashingtonwasupsetaboutthisIdonotknow,buthewantedtoexposethisfraud,misappropriationoffunds,andthievery.Hesent my father to Oklahoma City with the instructions to establish anewspaperwhoseprimaryfunctionwouldbetopublicizethissituation.”1

---Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.toAuthor

ThereisasayinginOklahomathat“ifyoudon’tliketheweather,waitfifteen

minutes,itwillchange.”Inthemiddleoffirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury,

predictingpoliticaloutcomesforAmericanBlackOklahomanswasasturbulentas

predictingtheweather.Awintrymixcameinthesummerof1914whenMelvin

JacksonChisum,thenaslender,nappy-headed,charismaticbutshrewdespionage

agent,acceptedamissiontofindoutwhatwasgoingonwithIndianmoneyfor

BookerT.Washington(BTW)whohadchargeofaportionoftheIndianwork

1Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor29November2006heldinauthor’snotebook.

ofthenationalgovernmentthroughTuskegeeInstitute.1However,Chisumwound

updeposingtheAmericanBlackleaderinOklahoma,InmanPage.Chisum’s

interlopinginAfroOklahomapoliticsbecameacatalystforpoliticalchangeinthe

countryoverthenextfiftyyears.HisrashundercoverworkinOklahomaelevated

RoscoeDunjeefromatruckfarmertoanewspapereditor.Inthe1940sDunjee

becamenationallyknowncivilrightspolitician.Chisum’sworkalsopositionedDr.

IsaacWilliamYoungintobecominganAmerican“FatherofBlackDemocracy”inthe

1920sandintothe1930s.

In1897theTerritorialBoardofEducationopenedthefirststatesegregated

collegeforblacks,OklahomaColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity(Langston)

inLangstonCity,Oklahoma.Rev.JohnDunjee,BaptistmissionarytoOklahoma,

adeptinpoliticalprotocol,helpedestablishLangstonandotherblackcollegessuch

asShorterBaptistCollegeinWestVirginia,HamptonInstituteinVirginia,and

SpellmanUniversityinGeorgia.UsinghisshrewdnessDunjeemanipulatedthe

OklahomaRegentschoiceforpresidentofLangston.Underhisguidancetheir

choice,JeffersonDavisRandolph,declinedthepositionattheverylastmoment

leavingtheregentsnooptionbuttohireInmanPage.In1897Pagewastheother

giantinAmericanBlackeducationinthecentralwestverysimilartoBTWat

TuskegeeInstitute.Pageperformedastheblackpoliticalandsocialleaderin

Oklahoma.

1Chisumhadthesametightcurlpatternthathisfatherhad.Blacksrefertoitasnappy.

Thirtyyearsaftertheemancipationofslaves,nineyearsaftertheendof

Reconstruction,Page’smissionincludedthedevelopmentofsocialreform,

establishmentofideologicalfoundationsandinstallationofaneconomicstructure

forblacksinthestateofOklahoma.Pagewassoonrecognizedasthe“Giantof

UniversityHill.”UnderPage’sguidancestudentsofLangstonformedaleadership

classofAmericanBlackssometimesdefinedasthe“TalentedTenth.”Slowlyhe

guidedhiselementarygraduates,collegegraduatesandcertifiedteacherstobecome

trailblazersinOklahoma.Inspiteofhissuccess,insteadofcelebrationofhis

accomplishments,seventeenyearslaterasquickasaflashoflightingacrossthe

prairiesky,inAugust1915,InmanPagewasnolongerpresidentofLangston!What

happened?TheGuthrieDailyleaderreported:“Pageresignedofhisownvolition

statingthathewassickandtiredofcombatingthecontinualattacksmadeonhimby

politicalenemiesofhisownraceandinhisownschool.”2TheTulsaStarreported

thatPagewasundergravechargesandthathe“resignedtoavoidadealof

unpleasantnotoriety.”3Hislawyer,MoormanPruiett,stated“thedevilishworkthat

hasbeendonetoinjurePresidentPagemaybechargedtoagroupofblack

Democratswhowanttogetridofhiminorderthatsomeofthemmaysucceedhim

atLangston.”4TheHarlow’sWeeklyreported:

2“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute:PresidentInmanPageWillNowGoAfterEnemiesWhoPersecuted,”GuthrieDailyLeader(Guthrie),1September1915.3“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedTheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.4“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.“SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedtheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3

OklahomahadaverysuccessfulNegroschoolatLangston.TheBoardofEducationfoundtheDuBoisideahadbeenadopted.DuBoisheldthattheNegroesdevelopedbyattainingpoliticalandsocialequalitywiththewhiterace.InmanE.PagecouldnotbeconvincedoftheinapplicabilityoftheideainOklahoma.Itwasnecessarytoremovehim.ThenewpolicyfollowstheteachingofBookerT.Washington.5

Mosttwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturyhistoriographyfollowedZellaPatterson’s

non–controversialevaluationinher1970sbookLangstonUniversity–Page

resigned–tobecomePresidentofMaconCollegeinMissouri.6Herhistoriography

stretchedthetruth.

Whatwasthetruth?Afterseventeenyears,whywasInmanPagesoabruptly

letgofromLangston?Whatweretheattacksandunpleasantnotorietyhe

complainedof?HowdidtheBoardofEducationfindouthisideologicaldifferences

fromBTW?WasitconspiracyorthecodeofAfroTexanstocareforeachother?The

TuskegeeMachine,anationwidenetworkofinstitutionsincludingbanks,

newspapers,businessesintheblackcommunitycontrolledbyBTWatTuskegee

Institute,inAlabama,wasnotatthecenterofPage’sdownfall.MelvinChisumnever

reallybecameapartoftheinnercircleofTuskegeeuntilafterthedeathofBTW.

PagewasaliberaleducatorindirectcontentionwiththeconservatismofBTW.

FromhisarticlesintheTribunenewspaper,ChisumattackedPageforwhathe

consideredunacceptableconditionshefoundatLangstonUniversity.Itcanbe

September1915.5Harlow’sWeekly,(OklahomaCity),3June1916.6ZellaPatterson,LangstonUniversity(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979).32.

questionedifChisumhadmoreofanagendathanBTW’smissiontocheckonthe

welfareofIndiansandtheirincomewhenhewenttoOklahoma.Chisumseemedto

havehisownagenda.Researchhasuncoveredthattheremayhavebeenafamily

relationatLangstonUniversity.Perhapshesawachancetodevelophisideaof

vigilantejournalismbasedoftheplightofIndians;howevernoevidenceabouthis

mindsethasbeendiscoveredexceptthearticleshewroteintheTribune.

InNovemberof1914,MelvinChisummademovesrelatedtohisespionage

effortinOklahoma.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,whowasmayorofBoley,welcomed

ChisumtoOklahoma.Youngintroducedhimtomembersofthecommunitythrough

thenewspapertheBoleyProgress.In1914Chisumwasalreadymakinghishomein

OkfuskeeCounty,Oklahoma.7Hewasnotnewtothearea.Heparticipatedinpast

eventswithhischildhoodfriendDr.Young.In1911ChisumhelpedYoungsecurea

railroadcarandorganizearailroadcaravantoArkansas.Thepartytraincaravan

traveledtoBTW’sLittleRockArkansasforNationalNegroBusinessLeague.8

SupportnetworksofBookeriteslikeDr.YoungwerealreadysettledinOklahomaby

1914.9InOklahoma,Chisum’sjournalisticandbusinessreputationprecededhim.

7BookerT.WashingtontoMelvinChisum,14December1914,vol11,BTWP.Alsoarticle“Washington,”DailyOklahoman,(OklahomaCity),19November1905.TherewasconsiderablerivalryamongtheblackleaderstoentertainWashington.InmanPageintroducedBTW.E.I.Saddlerwasthetoastmaskeratthebanquet.8BoleyCommercialClub,BoleyOklahoma,FactsAboutBoleyOklahoma:TheLargestandWealthiestExclusiveNegroCityintheWorld,(Boley:BoleyProgress,1911).6.9E.I.Saddler,alaborerwhoalsoworkedasalawyer,wasoneofWashington’sfirstagentsinthestateofOklahoma.J.W.AdamsmovedtoOkmulgee,IndianTerritoryin1904.C.W.Perry,amachinistandbrakemanfortherailroad,settledinBoley,Oklahoma’slargestblacktown.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,medicaldoctorandphilanthropist,“castdownhisbucket”inOklahomain1908.YoungalsostealthilymovedintothepositionofmayorofBoley.Theyattemptedtoimplement

Evenwhitesacceptedhimas“oneofthebestinformedNegroesinthecountry.”10

ThroughWashington’spolitically-positionedmenandsupportivenewspapers

ChisumquicklygainedastronginfluenceamongOklahomansincludingbutnot

limitedtoDr.IsaacYoung,mayorofBoley,E.E.McDaniel,ofSouthMcAlester,E.I

SadlerofGuthrie,CoodyJohnsonofWewoka,B.DouglasRussellofLangston,W.H.

TwineofMuskogee,M.A.SorrellofVinita,J.D.SpringerofArdmore,E.OTylerof

Kingfisher,J.D.RandolphofOKC,C.T.TaliferroofPerry,John–ofPawnee,Charles

YatesofEnid,andJohnHogan,mayorofLangston.11

TheBoleyProgressnewspaper,thatYoungsupportedfinancially,published

anarticlethatstatedChisumwasaleadingjournalistinthecountryandwelcomed

inBoleybytheeditorandmayor.12BTWhadaspecialplaceinhisvisionofBoley.

BoleywasanallblacktownthatBTWinvestedinheavily.13WashingtonsentYoung

toBoleyin1901tolookaround.UnderBTW’spersuasion,Youngrelocatedhis

familytherefromAlexandria,Louisianain1908.He“laiddownhisbucket”and

openedthelargestcottonginBoleyeverhadin1908.14AsmayorofBoley,Young

championedChisumthroughthenewspaper.15Youngwassuccessfulasamedical

Washington’splansofbuildingbusinessesandtradesamongBoley’speople.10“ChisumMakesLeapforFreedom;Captured,”TheLeader,(Sentinel)6April1916.ThearticletalksaboutChisumasaleadingblackjournalistinthecountry.11DailyOklahoman,(OklahomaCity)August8,1906.12BoleyProgress(Boley)5April,1908.13NormanCrockett,TheBlackTowns,(Kansas:TheRegentsPressofKansas,1979)157-163.14BoleyProgress(Boley),5April1908.15Ibid.

doctor,philanthropist,andcalledtheleadingblackRepublicaninthestate.By1912

YoungwasBoley’smayor.16

BecausetheBoleyProgresswasaleadingblacknewspaperinOklahomathe

editor’sandmayor’sacceptanceofhimgaveChisumthecatalystthathelpedsethim

upforhisassignment.TheBoleyProgressreportedthatChisumtraveledaroundthe

stategainingacceptanceforthepaperandsupportforhiseffort.Inthespringof

1915ChisumstartedtheTribunenewspaperinOklahomaCity.InAugust1914,

Chisum,nowconsideredanOklahoman,waselectedpresidentoftheNationalNegro

PressAssociation(NNPA).Thiswasapowerfulindicatoroftrustfromhisfellow

newspapermenandahighhonorforOklahoma.Thenewspaperwashisweaponof

choice.ItseemsthatitwasintheCentral-WestthatChisumdevelopedhistechnique

ofusingnewspapersforespionage.Chisum’svisionwasto“makehisadministration

standoutasadistinctivepromoterofcloserrelationsbetweenthepressandplain

people.”17

Whatseemsatrapwassteadilylaid.TheAugust15,1915issueofthe

TribuneexplainedthatwithintheNNPAastrategywasdevisedforblackeditorsto

beapartofanationalvigilancecommittee.18Thegroup’spurposewastoinform

affluentwhitesofthehorrorscommittedagainsttheblackcommunitybyblack

16BoleyProgress(Boley),30July1915;BoleyProgress(Boley),16July1915;BoleyProgress(Boley),6August1915.17Freeman(Cincinnati),3October14.18“NationalNegroPressAssociation,”TheTribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.Eachmemberoftheexecutivecommitteewasamemberofvigilantecommittee.TwopapersinOklahomalinkedH.W.TwineinMuskogee,andA.J.SmithermaninTulsa.

leaderssothatwhitescouldstepintostopcorruptionofblackleadershiptowards

theirownrace.Theirmissionwasto“provideameanswherebyafavorable

commentbypress,telegramorlettermightreachalargebutsilentclassofwhite

menwhobelieveinfairplay.”19Apparentlytherewassomevaliditytothisprogram.

NewspapersnamedasmembersoftheNNPAincludedtheTulsaStareditedbyA.J.

Smitherman,andtheMuskogeeCimetereditedbyW.H.Twine,acceptedthe

programalongwithotherpapersacrossthecountry.Blackleadersharmingtheir

ownracemusthavebeenanationwideproblem.

ANewArmyforBlackIndiansInOklahoma

TheChicagoDefender’s,March14,1914,headlineaboutSarahRector,

“ColoredGirlKidnapped?NotAtTuskegee:RICHESTCHILDOFTHERACE

MYSTERIOUSLYDISSAPPEARS”servedasafuse.Thischaptercontendsthat

TuskegeeleaderEmmettScott’ssignatureonthearticlewasacovertcallfor

nationwideattentiontofocusonOklahomapolitics.Itsuggeststhatjustasthe

assassinationofArchdukeFerdinandservedasoneofthecatalystfornationsto

combineinwaragainstanenemy,inthesamewayScott’ssignatureonthearticle

alertedthecountrythatitwastimetoformaringoffirearoundOklahomato

containexploitationofmixed-black-Indianracechildrenandfreedmen.20

19“NNPAVigilanteCommittee,”Tribune,(OklahomaCity),20August1915.20MixedblackIndianraceasadesignationcontainstheideathatnotallIndianchildrenhadoncebeenslaves.Freedmenwerechildrenofslaves.MixedblackIndiansweresometimesofotherrelationshipsbetweenIndiansandblacks.

WhileJimCrowseemedanoverwhelmingadversary,Americanblackswere

notcompletelyhelplessintheschemeofthings;theyplayedhighlycovertgamesin

gettingwhattheywanted.AsShawnAlexandercritiquedinanArmyofLions(2012),

civilrightsactivistscrossedlinesofcontentiontoorganizeevenwhentheyheld

opposingbeliefs.21SupportingblackOklahomans,blacksfromaroundthecountry

soughttoaiddispossessedfreedmenandIndianswhoinheritedoilrichlandsbut

werebeingswindled.Sourcesfromblacknewspapers,letters,andmanuscripts

confirmhowblackleadersorganizedinracialsolidarityinanattempttostopwhite

andblackflagrantmisuseofpolitical,socialandeconomicpoweragainstblackheirs

towealthyestatesinOklahomabetween1913and1915.

TheTuskegeeMachine,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColored

People,(NAACP)andotherfactionsorganized:BookerT.WashingtonatTuskegee,

AMEBishopsWilliamDerrickandAlexanderWalters,IdaB.Wells-Barnett,Mary

ChurchTerrell,MaryTalbert,ArthurSpingarn,WilliamPickens,andCharles

ChesnuttoftheNAACP;TuskegeepatriotsEmmettJ.Scott,HenryHunt,J.Rosamond

Johns,andJamesWeldonJohnson;NiagaraitesCharlesBentley,L.M.Hershaw,and

MasonHawkins;andeducatorsKelleyMillerandLucyLaneytorectifyblack

problemsacrossthenationthroughinterventionandorganization.Nationalleaders

understoodthatblackIndianchildrenbecamejustanothergroupofblacksinthe

ProgressiveEra.Thisgroupofblacksusedtheirbesttools–newspapers,national

meetings,andacetrickstersandspiessuchasefficiencyagent,realestatedeveloper,21ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).Thisisthegeneralthesisofhisbook.

andnewspapermanMelvinChisum.Theydidnotwinovertlybutintheircovert

waystheychangedtheoutcomesofthelivesofmanyIndiansandfreedmen.

Oklahomapoliticsandnetworksprovedtoostrongaforcetobreak.Yet,they

establishedanetworkprominentenoughtoletOklahomaandtheUnitedStates

governmentknowtheywerebeingwatchedandjudgedbyotherAngloAmericans.

By1914Chisum’sspyingbackgroundwasknownamongthehigherechelons

orleadersoftheblackcommunity.Thisgroupofblacksusedtheirbesttools,

newspapers,nationalmeetings,andacetrickstersandspies,suchasrealestate

developer,andnewspapermanMelvinChisumtotacklenationalproblemsofthe

blackrace.ThelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,wrotethathisfathertoldhimthathis

missioninOkmulgeewasto“exposetheexploitationofIndianandFreedmen.”22It

wasrareforblackstoovertlywinagainstJimCrow.EvenwithMelvinChisum,inthe

longrun,Oklahomagreed,politicians,andnetworkswithinthefederalgovernment

provedtoostrongaforcetobreak.Yet,thecommunityofleadersestablisheda

network.TheworkhedidinthisperiodbecamepivotalforChisuminthefollowing

years.Forthefirsttimerecorded,Chisummovedfrombeinganeophyteandhe

turnedoneofBTW’smissionsintoapersonalmission.Duringtheperiodhe

attackedInmanPage,thepresidentofColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversityin

Langston,Oklahoma(Langston).LouisHarlanshouldhavewrittenthatthegenieleft

thebox.

22Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,15August2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.

InsteadofcomingtoOklahomaasBTW’sespionageagent,Chisumusedhis

presidencyoftheNNPAashiscover.ChisumwasonthegroundinOklahoma,

workingwithotherBookeritenewspapermen.Already,theowneroftheBaltimore

TribuneinMaryland,ChisumboughttheOkmulgeeLightnewspaperandallegedly

movedtoMuskogee,thehomeoftheIndianBureau.Eventhoughhewasmarried

Chisumhadnorealhomebutroamedthecountry.BythisperiodChisumwas

estrangedfromhiswifeMaewholivedinMarylandandworkedasahairdresser.

HundredsofmilesawayfromMarylandChisumestablishedanewnewspaperin

Oklahoma.TheOkmulgeeLight’smottowas“TheBestforHim:FightingFabrication

inChurch,StateandBusiness.”The“non-denominationalandunbiased”newspaper

cameintoexistenceinMayof1914intimefortheNationalNegroBusinessLeague

meetinginAugust.23ArticlescoveredmostlynationalnewsfromtheTuskegeenews

services.WhileChisumstartedanewspaper,astheCrisiseditor,newspaperofthe

NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),W.E.B.

DuBoisandhissleuthandlawyerpummeledOklahomanswithletters,andthelocal,

state,andnationalnewspaperskepttheirwatchonOklahomaheiressSarahRector.

BTWalsoremainedinvolvedinOklahomapoliticsbymovinghisNational

NegroBusinessLeaguemeetingtoMuskogee.Blacksfromalloverthecountry

convenedinMuskogeeforthelargestgatheringofblacksinAmericathatyear.

MelvinChisum,thejournalistandBaltimoreTribuneeditor,waselectedpresidentof

theNNPA,amajorpartoftheTuskegeeMachine.InDecember1914MelvinChisum,

spyandprovocateurtoBTWandefficiencyagentforotherswhopaidhim,and23OkmulgeeLight(Okmulgee),3May1914.

formerassistanttoabishopoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopal(AME)Church,came

toOklahomaonwhatseemedlikeamissionofretribution.Hewasthebestcovert

blackspytheblacknationhadtodealwithdifficultissuesofraceintheJimCrow

South.WilliamHarriswrotethatChisumwasoneofmanyblackmenwhodidsecret

missions.24WendellDabneywroteaboutChisum’scapacityforshiftingcharactersto

meettheneedsofthecommunity.25InChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers,Dabney

describedChisum’spredilectionforsavingtheneedy.26TheeditoroftheFreeman

newspaperinIllinoiswroteinhis“ShortFlights”columnthatChisum,presidentof

theNNPAandeditoroftheBaltimoreTribune“hadsomethinguphissleevesand

wouldsurprisethecountrysoon.”27

AccordingtoinformationpublishedintheOklahomaCityTribune,theNNPA,

undernewlyelectedMelvinChisumaspresident,startedacampaignin1914totake

careofplainpeopleorpeoplewholivedasimplewayoflife.Chisumandmorethan

seventyothereditorsacrossthenationformedavigilantecommitteetofightcrimes

committedbyblackleadersagainstplainpeoplearoundthecountry.Theeditors

wouldfindand“informaffluentwhitesofthehorrorscommittedagainsttheblack

communitybyblackleaderssothatwhitescouldstepintostopcorruptionofblack

24WilliamHarris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-47(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977).25WendellDabney,Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens(Cincinnati,OH:DabneyPublishingCompany,1926),122.26WendellDabney,Chisum’sPilgrimageandOther’s((Cincinnati,OH:DabneyPublishingCompany,1927),7.27Freeman,(Indianapolis),28November1914.

leadershiptowardstheirownrace.”28TheagendahadtwoprongsinOklahomafor

ChisumtheblackIndianinvestigationhedidforBTWandhisownvigilanteworkfor

undertheauspicesoftheNNPAatLangstonCity,Oklahoma.

TheDawesCommissionallottedtomanyoftheCreek,Choctaw,Seminole

blackIndiansandfreedmenlandthatwasunfitforagriculture.Inthelongrun,these

blacksseemedtoprosperbecauseunderatopsoiluselessforfarmingtheiracreage

wasrichwithnaturalgasandoil.Itturnedoutoilwasseepingoutoftheground.

AllotmentwasacolonialpolicythatforcedCreekstoreducetheirnationhoodtoa

carveduppieceofland.ForhistorianDavidChang,“imperialwhitenesswastheir

inbornnatureofstealingland,remainingonitandgoverningtheland.”29Blacksand

Indians,andblackIndians,becamerichovernight.Someofthemdidnotevenknow

oftheirwealth.Oklahomaseemedaperfectvenueforusingthenewvigilantetools

ofcrimefightinginstitutedbytheNNPA.

AcrypticcodewassentoutbyScotttoblacksandtheirsupportersaround

thenation.TuskegeeleaderEmmettScott’ssignatureonthearticle,“BlackGirl

Kidnapped?”servedasacovertcallfornationwideattentiontofocusonOklahoma

politicsregardingblackIndiansandfreedmen.Whatagencydidblackshavetofight

againstthegovernmentduringJimCrow,“lily-white”politicalpartiesinCongress,

andblatantracismandoutrightcrueltyagainstblacksandIndianstohelpbring

justicetothesenon-AnglosinOklahoma?Anetworkofnationalblackleadersarose

28“NNPAVigilanteCommittee,”Tribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.29DavidChang,ColoroftheLand:Race,Nation,andthePoliticsofLandownershipinOklahoma,1832-1929(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010).81.

toemploythemostpowerfulweaponstheyhad–thenewspaper,theirhonor,

subterfuge,andtheirspies–todilutecrimesofpolitical,social,andeconomicnature.

ThisgroupofblackleadersusedtheiragencyinthetimeofJimCrowtofight

powerful,sometimesdishonest,governmentforces,seekingpowerandmonetary

gaintohelpmixed-raceIndiansandfreedmenmaintaintheirinheritedfortunes.

RufusLoganwrotealettertotheeditoroftheProfessionalWorld,anIndiana

newspaper,in1914statingthat,“InnostateintheUnionhaveNegroesbeen

robbed,actuallyrobbedwithimpunityandopenly,asinthisState(Oklahoma),and

todaywhitemenareworthmillionswhohavebuiltuptheirfortunesbythievery.”30

HislettermimickedwordssentfromMuskogee,Oklahoma,totheWashingtonBeein

November1913.31Hegainedinformationthroughanetworkonlydescribedas

“Muskogee,Ok”andthedate.Thenewspapersource,whichgeneratedthe

information,remainedunnamed.Blackleadersandnewspapersfoughttogether,

bombardingtheworldwithinformationaboutOklahomapoliticswhenblacksheld

noothertangibleweaponbutthewrittenword.Wheredidtheygettheinformation

-from“AnArmyofLions”-withaspywhosettledinOklahomanearthelandsofthe

freedmenandIndianslinkingtheplainpeoplewiththejusticeleague.

Nowrittenrulesofhowblacksreceivedvariouspropertiesremain.Itseems

thatfullbloodormixed-racewhiteIndianswhounderstoodthevalueoffarming

hadachoiceinselectingtheirland.However,otherhistorians,throughoralhistory

andinterpretation,haveuncoveredvagueideasabouttheIndianallotmentprocess.30ProfessionalWorld,(Illinois),14December1914.31“NegroesRobbed:DemandforFairPlay,”WashingtonBee(WashingtonD.C.),29November1913.

HistorianofOklahomaIndians,AngieDebo,wrotethat“therichvalleylandaround

Muskogeewaslargelytakenbyfreedmen,whohadsettledinthatvicinitywhen

theirmastershadfledfromNorthernarmiesduringtheCivilWar.”32StacyPatton’s

viewwasthatthe“thewhitesettlersreceivedthemoreideallandforfarmingwhile

therockyandhillylandswereallottedtoIndiansandfreedmen.”33Howeverthe

allotmentsweredistributed,manymixedbloodblacksgainedoilrichlands.Inthe

Crisis,W.E.B.DuBoisrepeatedinformationfromtheMuskogeeCimeteraboutthe

landofDannyTucker,aten-year-oldboy.The160acresallottedtohimforfarm

purposesis“rockandhilly,notenacresslantingthesamewayandisvirtuallyunfit

forfarming.”Indianlandwasablessingandcurseforundereducated,

underprivileged,indigentland-poor,mineral-richblackswhocouldnotpaytaxeson

theirlandandhadlittlelegalknowledgeoftheirrightsinOklahoma.DuBoisended

theSeptember1914articlewiththesewords,“[I]tisneedlesstoaddthatawhite

manhasbeenmadeDannyTucker’sguardian.”

Inordertofiltermoneyintothemainstreamandallowwhitestoprofitfrom

Oklahomalandsandwealth,in1912thefederalgovernmentgrantedtheOklahoma

statecourtsjurisdictionandtheabilitytodeclareallotteesincompetentandto

appointcaretakersforprotectionoftheirproperty.Oklahomapoliticiansusedthe

positionsofguardianshipaspartofthepoliticalpatronagesystem.Accordingto

AlexandraHarmoninherbookRichIndians(2010),politiciansembracedtheritual

ofguardianshipaspartoftheirpayoff.AccordingtoHarmon’svastresearchof32Debo.98.33StaceyPatton,"TheRichestColoredGirlintheWorld:SarahRector'sUnusualTaleIsaSingularStoryofRaciallyMotivatedGreedandCorruption,"Crisis2010.

FederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI)records,UnitedStatesHouseandSenate

reports,andcourtdocuments,theFBIfilesshowedthatlegalpredatorswerenot

abovemurderingIndiansfortheirmoney.Harmonexplainsthattheidiom“federal

guardianship”becamenomorethanatacticbetweenwhites“tolimitfederalpower

inordertosiphonoffIndianwealthforthemselves.”34Thisunderstandingof

guardianshipwasusedasapoliticalandeconomictoolinOklahomacommunities

forprivateguardiansandlawyerstomakemoneyoffrichIndiansbydeclaringthem

incapableofhandlingtheirwealth.Itwasalsotheexhibitionofwhites’beliefintheir

entitlementintheageofprogress.Asdidwhitesacrossthecountry,whitesin

Oklahomabelievedintheirracialsuperiority.BlacksandIndianswerelesser

membersofthespecies.

ArthurSmitherman,editorofaMuskogeenewspaperandlatertheTulsaStar

wrotethatwhiteguardians,sanctionedbyMuskogeejudges,usedmoneyfrom

SarahRector,anheiress,andLutherManuel,atwelve-year-old,mixed-race,black

Indianboy,tobuildsegregatedapartmentblocksandbusinessdistrictsin

downtownMuskogee.Theareaswereindistrictsinwhichthechildrencouldnot

shopbecauseoftheirblackness.Forthesewhitesupremacists,peopleofcolordid

notdeservetohavewealthwhenwhitesremainedpoorinthesamestate.However,

intheirview,minoritywealthcouldbeusedtosupportwhiteprogress.35

34AlexandraHarmon,RichIndians:NativePeopleandtheProblemofWealthinAmericanHistory(ChapelHill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolina,2010).196-197.35ArthurSmitherman,“SegregationGetsSolo-PlexusBlow,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),23September1915.

Skimmingmoneyfromtheircharges’accountswastooeasytoresist.

Harmondescribestheexploitationas“blatantandcruellyillegal.”In1925awitness,

GeorgeHewitt,admitted,“TheGuardianshipbusiness...wasoneoftheinstitutions

oftheStateofOklahoma.”36AngieDebo’sbookAndStilltheWatersRun:The

BetrayaloftheFiveCivilizedTribes(1940)corroboratesHarmon’sreferences.Debo

wrotethatforgery,embezzlement,criminalconspiracy,misuseofnotary’sseals,and

otherformsofswindlingoccurredwithregularity.Thecourtsremained

overwhelmedwithguardianshipfraudsontheirdockets.SometimesOklahoma

courtsshortenedjailsentencesforcriminalguardiansbasedonlettersfrom

communityleadersandtheGovernor.However,severalattorneysweredisbarred

andotherssuspendedformalpracticeoftheirguardianshipduties.37IntheTulsa

Star,editorArthurSmithermanrecountsthatnotonlywhiteguardiansbut“some

Negroguardiansonaccountoftheirdislikefortheartofbookkeepinghaveafforded

examplesthatnecessitatedtheirbeingsenttoMcAlestertosplitrocks.Yet,allthe

same,thereareafewNegroesinMuskogeewhocouldtakepropercareofthe

Rectors,Manuels,andotherestates.”38

Severalheirsoffreedmenbecameentangledintheweboffortune-hunting

whitesandtheOklahomagovernment.StaceyPattonobserves,“Oklahoma’snewly

electedstateofficialsquicklyrecognizedthatthepresenceofthousandsofland-

owningchildrenofcolorsuchasSarahRectorrancontrarytothewhite

36Harmon,RichIndians,198.37Debo.312-314.38Smitherman,“SegregationGetsSolo-PlexusBlow,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),23September1915.

fundamentalideasaboutAmericancitizenshipandracialhierarchy.Therewastoo

muchlandandmoneyatstaketoallowthefederalgovernmenttomaintain

‘protective’policiesthatwouldallowsomanyblackchildrentocapitalizeonthe

resourcesandbecomefull-fledgedcitizensoncetheyreachedtheirageofmajority.

ThestrategiccontrolofblackIndianchildrenandfreedmenwasunderstoodasa

necessarystrategy“inafluidpoliticalsituationwithtopsy-turvyracerelations

threateningtotheireconomicsuccessandindependence.”39Thispaternalistic

controlwouldpitatleastoneOklahomaguardianagainsttheplansmadeforSarah

RectoratTuskegee.SarahRectorwasadescendantofslavesownedbyCreeksat

thebeginningoftheCivilWar.In1914,shewasoneoftherichestwomenin

Oklahomaifnottherichestwomanintheworldwithanincomeof$112,000–

118,000ayear.Shehad160acresofoilrichland.

SarahRector’splightasablackIndianwithrootsfromslaverymadeherthe

perfectcandidateforMargaretMurrayWashington’sprogramforreformingyoung

womenatTuskegeeInstitute.TheNationalFederationofAfroAmericanWomen

choseMrs.Washingtonasitsfirstpresidentin1895.BookerT.Washingtonchose

herashisthirdwifein1893.Mrs.WashingtonservedasdeanofwomenatTuskegee

Institute.Shealsoorganizedwomen’sclubs.Anactivistaroundthecountryon

severaloccasions,Mrs.Washingtonspoketoaudiencesfromthepodiumafterher

husbandfinishedhisspeeches.TuskegeeInstitutewasthepremierblackcollege

withthepremierblackcoupleinAmericaduringtheProgressiveEra–thepolitical,

beautiful,educatedleadersoftheblackrealm.BTWmadeitclearthataspresident39Patton,"TheRichestColoredGirlintheWorld,”34.

oftheNationalColoredWomen’sClubs,hiswife,asthefirstladyofblackAmerica,

wouldbeamentorforSarahRector.“ItisthedutyofthenationalFederationof

Women’sclubs,”thenewspaperarticleasserted,“ofwhichMrs.BookerT.

Washingtonispresident,toseeasfaraspossibletheparentsofthislittlegirlisnot

“boneyed”withanyloveaffairsbybankersorgrafters,butthatontheotherhand,

thatshebecomeswelleducatedandencouragedtomarryoneofherownrace.”40

InMarchof1914,keepingtrackofSarahthroughblacknewspapers,the

worldapplaudedthemovingoften-year-oldCreekFreedmanmillionaireSarah

RectorfromlivinginashackinMuskogee,Oklahoma,toresidewiththemost

influentialblackleadersinAmerica.41Buttherewasahitch.Notwillingtoletthe

heiressoutoftheirsight,T.J.Porter,SarahRector’scourt–appointedwhite

guardian,andherparentsswappedanunnamedchildforSarahRectoratTuskegee.

Peoplearoundtheworldbelievedforoveramonth,asAmerica’spremierblack

couplebelieved,thatTuskegeehoused,fed,andtutoredthe“richestcoloredgirlin

theworld.”Exceptfornewspaperarticles,noevidenceremainstoexplainhowor

whentheWashingtonsrealizedtheyhadbeentricked.TheheadlineintheChicago

Defender,writtenbyEmmettScott,themastermindbehindtheTuskegeeMachine,

alertedthecountrythatOklahomanshadattackedTuskegeeleaders.

40BlacknewspapersassociatedwiththeTuskegeeMachineranthisarticleoriginallypublishedbytheMuskogeeCimeter(Muskogee),3April1914.SeeChicagoDefender(Illinois),4April1914.41WashingtonBee,(WashingtonD.C.),7March1914;ChicagoDefender(Illinois),14February1914.

IfSarahRectorwasnotatTuskegee,andanothergirlmasqueradedinher

stead,thentherewerequestionsthatneededansweringbyherguardians,the

nation,andworldfromOklahomapoliticianswhohadcontroloverthe

guardianship.HadsomeonekilledRector?Hadshebeenmarriedofftothehighest

bidderorintothefamilyofherguardian?Thebannerheadlinemeantthatanswers

neededtobemadetoaworldwideaudiencewhichwaswatchingOklahomapolitics

andpracticesthroughthelensoftheblacknewspapers.

MoreinformationpouredoutofOklahomaintothenationalnewspapers

abouttheplightofIndiansinOklahoma.SarahRectorwasnottheonlymixed-blood

blackIndianwhosestoryhadtobepublicized.ZekeMoorewasaquitedestitute

fourteen-year-oldCreekfreedman.Homelessandhungry,ZekeandhisbrotherGabe

Mooreresortedtotheftin1903inordertosurvivefromdaytoday.Capturedfor

stealingfoodGabewasheldintheMuskogeecityjail.Lessthanaweeklaterhis

brotherZekefollowed.Prisonsofferedfreelaborforfarmersandstateauxiliary

departments.AccordingtotheMuskogeeDailyPhoenix,aweekafterGabewasjailed;

AlToddplacedarewardfor$50fora$45saddlestolenfromhisporch.Mr.

Hendricks,aworker,placeditthere,andthenextmorningitwasgone.Hesuspected

theblackIndianfreedmanZekeMooreofthetheft.Followinghishunch,Todd,and

HendrickstrackedZeketoablackman’shouseinDirtyCreek.

Arrivingattheshantythetrackerssawthestolensaddlehangingonthe

porch.Thoughtheblackman,Mayberry,deniedthatZekewasthere,thewhites

bulliedtheirwayintothehome,foundMooresleeping,andarrestedhim.Moore

repeatedlyexplainedtothementhathehadtradedforthesaddleinMuskogee.

Pitifully,onthewaytojailsomeonerecognizedthehorseherodeasbelongingto

thelocalmedicaldoctor.FiveyearslaterMoore,livingouthissentencefortheftin

theLeavenworthpenitentiary,wasdeclaredtherichestmaninOklahoma.42

Publicitybynewspapershelpedprovehewasswindledoutofhispropertywhilea

minorinjail.However,whilecatchinggraftersintheirworkanddisplayingthe

problemsinOklahoma,blackmobilizationdidnotstoptheflagrantabuseofIndian

blacks.However,theirworkopenedissuetotheworldduringtheProgressiveEra

andatthebeginningofWorldWarI.

MelvinChisumversusInmanPageatLangston,Oklahoma

TheconceptofthevigilantecommitteealsosetthestageforChisum’sattack

onPage.ThefollowinginformationisrepeatedfromtheoriginalTribunearticle.No

othernewspapersdisputedthefactsabouttheincidents.WhenanAfro-Texangirl,

RebeccaJohnson,alertedChisumthatPageandhiswife’streatmentofthepoorest

socio-economicclassesofblacksattheLangstonschoolseemedunacceptable,

Chisumwillinglyputhiscareerasanewspapermanatrisktouncoverthetruth.

42“CaughtWithProperty:AnotherofaGangofHorseThievesLandedinJail,”MuskogeeDailyPhoenix,(Muskogee,Oklahoma),5December1903;“CaseOfZekeMoore’sDisputedLeaseswillComeUpBeforeJudgeLawrenceTomorrow,”MuskogeeTimes-Democrat(Muskogee),17June1907.

ElevenissuesintohispublicationoftheTribuneadamningbackpagearticle

followed:43

Acareful–impartialinvestigationofconditionsatLangstonUniversitydisclosesthefactthattheCommonwealthofOklahomahasbeenforyearsbeingdupedandthecoloredpeopleoftheStatehavebeenandarebeingviolentlywronged,whiledecencyandmoralitylieprostratebeforethosegiantcursesofChristianity,LustandGreed....ThedecentselfrespectingNegroesofthisstateoweittothemselvestodoaswehavedone,takethetimetogotoLangstonUniversity,lookatthedilapidatedconditionofthings,observedthefilthintheMessHall,inthekitchenthebrokenandbatteredfurniture,standinghereandthereinthehallwayinthebedrooms....visitedthepowerhousenoticingthatsmokewasrisingfromthecoalbin.Thecoalbecameignitedbyspontaneouscombustionandtheyhadnotbeenabletoputitout.44

Chisummadeapersonal,socialandpoliticalattackagainstInmanPage.

ChisumdidnotthinkPage,asablackleader,wasadmirablyservinghiscommunity.

WhetherthedisputewasoverPage’slackofsupportfornationalblackcauses

remainsobscure.PerhapstheattackcamebecauseitwasChisum’sownpaybackto

PagefortheembarrassmentsurroundingSarahRector’sswapatTuskegee.Another

interestingpointwasthatRebeccaJohnsonfromTexas,agirlwithhiswife’smaiden

name(chapter3),alsohadpersonalissueswithhertreatmentattheschool.Using

thenewspaperashisweapon,MelvinChisummobilizedaviciousattacknotonlyon

theculpritswhostolefromandkilledinnocentIndiansbutonOklahoma’sblack

powerstructure.

HecreatedtheOklahomaTribunenewspaperinOklahomaCity.Fourteen

monthslaterhisarticlesintheAugust15,1915andSeptember1,1915editions43Ibid.44Ibid.

attackedPage’santi-Bookeritephilosophy,Page’streatmentofstudentsandhis

neglectofpoorblacks.BecauseofthevigilanteapproachPagewasfired/resignedin

September1915.WithinsevenyearsDr.IsaacWilliamYoungtookthepositionof

presidentor“KingontheHill”establishinghisown“bullypulpit’atLangstonin

1923.Conversely,therewasoneverysignificantincidentneithertheBookeritesnor

MelvinChisumforesaw.WhileMelvinChisumtheespionageagentslewthe“Giant

onUniversityHill”–MelvinChisumthe“kingmaker”madeaking.Ayoung,truck

vegetablesalesmanrosefromthestreetsofOklahomaCitytofightbackatMelvin

ChisumusingChisum’sownconfiscatedequipment–RoscoeDunjee.Dunjeewrote

“in1915theBlackDispatchwasbornwithitsarmsupfightingagainstChism

[Chisum]andhispoliticalassociateswhowerethenforthefirsttimeinthehistory

ofOklahomatryingtomakepoliticalfootballofLangston.”45Dunjeewassold

Chisum’sconfiscatedequipmentwhenChisumwasrunoutoftown.PerhapsDunjee

forgotabouthisfather’sgamepoliticalfootballinhavingInmanPagehiredinstead

ofJeffersonDavisRandolph.

Newinformationrevealsthattheissuesandoutcomewerenotassimpleas

folkhistorian,CurrieBallard,wroteaboutaLoganCountyjuryfindingtheTribune

editor,MelvinChisum,guiltyof“libel”forattackingPage.46ThefactthatChisumwas

givenunconditionalpardonbyGovernorM.E.Trappin1916forthecourtruling

opensupthecase.AlackoflegaldocumentsaboutPages’sideoftheepisodeleave45RoscoeDunjee.“MelvinChisumformerOklahomaCityNewspapermanGetsViewsonOscarDePriest.”BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),2March1933.46CurrieBallard,"Page,InmanEdward,"TheEncyclopediaofOklahomaHistoryandCulture,www.okhistory.org,(accessedSeptember23,2015).

questionsontheexactvalidityand“politicaltrickery”newspapersmentionedinthe

courtcase.47MissingpaperworkonthelegalproceedingsbetweenChisumandPage

(StateofOklahoma)fromLoganCountyarchivesleadstoquestions.Theoriginal

recordsofthecourtcaseshowsthecriminallibelchargedidnotsticktoChisum.

OnlythepaperworkforthechargesforbailandcourtcostsforChisumremainin

LoganCountyCourtrecords.Researchishamperedbecausetherearenorecordsof

thestudentsoftheclassesintheyearsPagewaspresidenttofollowuponthe

incidents.DuringthecourtcaseallfileswereturnedovertoLoganCountycourtsin

Guthrie,Oklahoma.Theyarenotaccessible.Evidencethatremainsfromtheepisode

isoverwhelminglyinfavorofMelvinChisum’sgeneralchargesagainstInmanPage.

ToscrutinizethislegendaryepisodeinAmericanhistoryistolookattwo

menfightingforcontrolofblackreforminAmerica.Understandthatasaleaderand

educator,InmanPagewasapowerfullegendaryfigureintheProgressiveAge.

LangstonhadthepotentialofbecomingasgreatasTuskegeeInstitute.Pagehadhis

newspapers,businesses,andbackersacrossthecountry.Itcomesdowntoataleof

thetwomenInmanPageandMelvinChisum.InmanPagewasaprofessor,exslave,

purportedtobetheslave-grandsonofPresidentJohnTyler,theonetimepresident

ofLincolnInstitutewhobuiltaregionalcollegeforblacksdoinghisbesttomoldand

reformblackpeopletosucceedagainstinhumaneodds.Theotherman,Melvin

Chisum,workedasabusinessman,journalist,andaheroofsortsfor“plainpeople.”

Asarisingpolitician,kingmaker,andaracemanheattemptedtobeawatchdogfor

47“ChisumPardonedbyTrappisRe-Arrested,”OklahomaLeader(Guthrie),7September1916.

thepoorblacksagainstthepowerandenergyofthetalentedtenthandpowerful

blackmenwhowouldharmthem.Chisumattemptedtostopblatantpracticesof

dehumanizationofthepoor.HewasanespionageagentfortheTuskegeeMachine,

andotherswhopaidhim.

In1914attheNationalBusinessLeagueConventioninMuskogee,Oklahoma,

sponsoredbyTuskegeeInstitute,andmembersoftheNationalNegroPress

Association(NNPA)electedChisumastheirpresident.Newspapermenfromover

thirty-sixstatesandsixothernationsrespectedtheposition.Newspapermenand

womenendorsedChisumas:

…aleaderofsturdyinitiative,readyresourcefulnessandfar-seeingvision.Helearnsofthepast,andguideshisstepstowardsthefuturewithwisdom,courageandconstructiveforce.Hebelievesinforwardpoliciesandgivesearnestsupporttomenandwomenwhoseembestfittedtocrystalizethosepoliciesintoactualities.48

ChisumfoundacauseatLangston,orhepossiblytookouthisfrustrationon

nothavingmuchinfluenceontheIndiansatLangston.Blacksinthenewspaper

gamehadapenchantforattackingblacks(chapter3).ItseemsChisumheardthat

blackOklahomanswerenotsatisfiedwiththeLangstonschool.Chisumwrotethat

peopleknewofactivitiesattheschoolwherePagehadsuchpowerthatbutwere

afraidofhisLangstonnetworkorthe“wonderfulpoliticalpowerofthegiantof

UniversityHill.”Chisumwillinglyplacedhislifeandreputationonthelineforsaving

livesofthepoorandneedyinhis“campaignofdecencyversusImmorality.”Hewas

48R.W.Thompson,“ShortFlight,”Freeman(Cincinnati),22August1914.

notaneasymantobefooledbyyounggirlsoroldmen.Chisumstatedthathisattack

wasnotonPagebecauseofpoliticsasPagecontinuedtotellthecommunity.He

pushedtheagendabecauseChisumwantedpeopletoknowwhatwashappening.

“Fromthebeginningwithus,”hewrote,“itwasthesafety...ofourraceandforthat

honorwearewillingtosufferandifneedbe,todie.”49Perhaps,itLangston’s

leaningtowardsupportingthetalentedtentheducationalreforminsteadofBTW’s

educationandvocationsthatwastheproblem.

In1914InmanPagewasthefirstpresidentofoneofthe“leading”Colored

AgriculturalandNormalUniversitiesinthecountryatLangston,Oklahoma.50He

wasbornaslaveDecember29,1852inWarrenton,Virginia.Afterheandhisfamily

ranthroughUnionArmylinestofreedomheworkedintheFreedmen’sBureau

underGeneralO.O.Howard.Pagewasaconstructionworkerintheerectionof

HowardUniversity.LaterheattendedtheallblackHowardUniversityfortwoyears

studyingindustrialeducation.HethentransferredtopredominatelywhiteBrown

University,inProvidenceRhodeIsland.In1877Pagegraduatedwithabachelor’s

degreeinliberalarts.Becauseofhismagnificenceasaspeakerhewaselectedthe

classoratorinhisgraduatingclass.Itwasthehighesthonorforoneoftheonlytwo

blackAmericansintheclass.AsaconsequenceofhisorationPagewasinvitedtobe

theonlyblackwhotaughtatNatchezSeminaryinMississippi.

PagemarriedZeliaBall,agraduateofWilberforceUniversity.Whileontheir

honeymooninWashington,D.C.PagereceivedaletterfromLincolnInstitutein49Tribune,(OklahomaCity),7September1915.50Harlow’sWeekly,(OklahomaCity),3June1916.

Missouri.“Theletterrevealedthatthetrusteeswereanxioustomakepresidenta

manofcolorwhocouldprovehisadministrativeabilitybyservingfirstasvice

president.”51TogetherheandZeliamovedtoLincolnInstituteinJeffersonCity,

Missouri.LincolnInstitutewasestablishedin1866throughpensionmoneyofblack

veteransofthe62ndand65thRegimentsoftheUnitedStatesColoredTroops

InfantryoftheCivilWar.Pagewastheonlyblackfacultymember.Assoonashe

becamePresidentPageinstitutedhisownagenda.Hereplacedthewhiteworkforce

withNegroteacherswho“wouldserveagreaterinspirationtoNegroyouth”in

1888.52

Page’slongtimefriend,Rev.JohnDunjee,wassentbytheBaptistMissionary

societytoOklahomaTerritoryinOklahomain1892.HesettledinChoctawjust

outsideofOklahomaCity.BlackTownshipsandcitiesroseovernightinthe

OklahomaTwinTerritories.Yet,OklahomahadnoAmericanblackleaderforits

Negropeople.ThroughpoliticalconnivancehisfriendRev.JohnDunjee’sin1897

InmanPagehadtheopportunitytobuildhisowncollegefromscratchinaterritory

thatwasripewithpromiseforhimtodevelophisownreformmovementforNegro

Americans.

AseriesofrelatedincidentsledtotheestablishmentoftheColored

AgriculturalandNormalUniversityinLangstonin1897.AccordingtoOklahoma

historians,WillisBrownandMarkLyons,regentsreferredtoastatementbyBTW’s

51ZellaPatterson,ZellaBlackPattersonCollection,OklahomaHistoricalSociety,Folder3.52Ibid.,21.

AtlantaExpositionspeechwhenponderingOklahoma’smandateforablack

university.Theybelievedinthequote“separatefingersonthesamehand.”Afew

monthsafterthePlessyvsFergusondecision,inthesummerof1896,ablackfemale,

CynthiaWarewasdeniedadmissiontoenrollintheNormalSchoolinEdmond

(UniversityofCentralOklahoma).“TheTerritoriallegislaturenowfacedwitha

choiceofintegratingorcreatingseparateinstitutionsfortheraces,optedforthe

later.”53ThebilltoestablishauniversityatLangstonwasadoptedMarch12,1897.

Oklahoma’sTerritorialBoardofEducationdidnotrealizetheyplayed

“politicalfootball”whentheyhiredPageaspresident.Territorialleadersassumed

PagewasaBookerite,givinghim“blanketpowertoactashesawfittingandproper

andintheschool’sbestinterest.”54TheBoardofEducationmeantthistohappen

undertheauspicesofBTW’sparadigm.TheregentsrecognizedtheAmericanBlack

InmanPageforhisraceandnotrealizingthedepthofeducationandcolleaguesPage

acquiredovertheyears.Pages’classmatesfromBrownUniversity“became

prominentintheaffairsofthenation....politicians,educators,andprofessional

menofthehighestrank.”AtLangston,hewouldreinas“GiantontheHill,”since

Langstonwasbuiltonahilltop.AstheeditorofHarlow’sWeeklylaterreferredto

Page’sadministrationatCA&NU-Langston,thatPagewasanassimilationistlike

W.E.BDuBois.TheybelievedthatthetalentedtenthoftheAmericanblackrace,

53WillisBrown,andMarkLyons,LangstonUniversity:ItsHistoricSocio-PoliticalCircumstances1897-1986,(OklahomaCity:SelfPublished,2000),12.54ZellaPatterson,LangstonUniversity:AHistory,(Oklahoma:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979),31.RoscoeDunjee’sfatherandRandolphplannedtogetPageintooffice.

mustbeseparated,trainedandguidedtoleadthemassesinracereform.55

Educationledstudentstowantequalityimmediately.Sometimeshastyequality

causedthemtoexploitothers.

Duringsegregation,thebruntofpoliticalpowerandthepowertoreform

blacksinOklahomawascenteredinthehandsofthepresidentofOklahoma’sonly

stateuniversityforblacksatLangstonCity.By1914Pagewasknownasthe“Giant

onCollegeHill.”Otherprivateblackcollegessurvivedinblackcommunitiesin

Oklahoma,however,thelegislatureandgovernorspokedirectlytothePresidentof

thestateuniversity,Langston,foravisionofreformforthetwopercentofthe

populationinOklahoma,whichwasblack.WhenPagecametoOklahomatherewas

nosetpatternforblackreform.PageplannedasystematLangston.56

IntheearlyyearsPagefelttheavenuesthatofferedthegreatestinducements

werethoseoffarmers,stockraisers,blacksmithsandcarpenters.57Langstonwasno

bigcityin1897whenPagecametotheTwinTerritories.OtherthantheCatholic

Church,thebestbuildingLangstonCityhadtoofferwasthePresbyterianChurch

thatwaslittlemorethanaframehouse.Atitsinceptionin1891whites,blacks,and

IndianslivedinLangston.Whenawhitemannamed,Coylewasrefusedthebuilding

ofabusinessinLangston,hearrangedfortherailroadtogothreemileseastof

LangstonCity,andallthewhitefamiliesfollowedhimtoestablishthecityofCoyle.

55W.E.B.DuBois,“TheTalentedTenth,”fromTheNegroProblem:ASeriesofArticlesbyRepresentativeNegroesofTo-day(NewYork,1903).InformationonPage’sbackgroundfromthePlaindealer(Kansas),26March1911.56Ibid.57ZellaBlackPattersonCollection,HistoricalSociety,folder3,25.

ItbecameanallwhitecommunityandLangstonanallblacktown.Thecollege

startedinawoodframedchurchbuildingdonatedbythecommunity.Pageandthe

facultyhehiredrodeonhorsesandhorsedrawnbuggies,surreys,gathering

studentsandfundsthroughoutthestate.WhenPagewashiredtheschoolwasmore

anideathananactualplace.“Intheearlyyearsresidentswhohelpedfoundthe

universityhad“paternalisticinterestinitsdevelopment.”

OklahomaCity’sblackpoliticscoveredaforty-mileradiusfromOklahoma

CitytoLangston.WhileAfricanAmericanlifeinTulsa,Oklahoma,centeredonan

upcoming“BlackWallStreet,”ablackenterprisecomparedtothefinancialdistrict

ofNewYork–blacksinOklahomaCitywere“sleepinginOklahomaCity,un-

thoughtful,unpreparedfortomorrow,disorganizedandconfused.”58Theircenter

wasLangston.AshehadinMissouri,Pagelearnedtousethestatelegislaturetohis

advantage.HecontinuedhispoliticalexpertiseinhispositioninOklahoma.He

graduallyworkedwithlawmakersinthestatecapitalinGuthrie,Oklahomauntilhe

gotnewbuildingsandsupportforthegrowinguniversityatLangston.Three

studentsfromoutofstate,NolanPrytle,MaryPrytleandThomasSlaughterallof

OhiowerethefirsttoreceiveBachelorofSciencedegreesfromtheUniversity.Page

increaseduniversitylandholdingsfromfortyacrestothreehundred.Inhis

administrationtheschoolbuiltPhyllisWheatleyHall,adormforwomen,Marquess

Hallformen,thefirstpresident’sresidencewasbuiltandafullyequippedindustrial

plant.Theschoolwentfromheatingwithcoaltosteam,addedalibrary,a

58BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),21September1917.

farmhouse,amuseum,dairybarnandinfirmary.Thefacultyincreasedfromfour

professorstothirty-five.

ForseventeenyearsPage’spoweroverpolitical,socialandeconomicreform

inOklahomawascomparableonlytothatofBookerT.Washington’spowerfor

reformnationally.UnderPage’sguidancetheuniversityformedhisleadershipclass

tothinkofthemselvesas“thetalentedtenth.”AstheirinfluencegrewfromLangston

inthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury,thisgroupwrestledpoliticalpatronage

positionsfromblue-collarworkers,controlledthedevelopingschoolsandmanaged

postalpositionsaroundthestate.59Afailingfarmeconomydrewpeoplefromrural

areasintotheOklahomaCityArea.Insteadofthetalentedtenthbeingleadersofthe

growingmassesofilliteratepoorinLangstonandOklahomaCity,thetalentedtenth

begantodespise,andrejecttheminhopesofunitingwithwhites.

Theseupwardlymobileblacksarguedthattheunculturedoftheirracekept

thetalentedfromreachingtheirgoalsinracerelations,prosperityinhousingand

acceptancebywhites.60ThepointsthatMelvinChisumwouldpersecutePagewith

startwiththisagenda.InordertogettherightblacksinplaceChisumbelievedthat

Pagedeniedthepoorestblacksanicheforupwardmobilityandusedsomeblacksas

steppingstonesduringatimewhensocialrelationswithwhiteswaschangingfor

thebetter.Chisumbelievedthatheusedthemaspawns.61Overtheseventeen-year

59RoscoeDunjee,“RegentsAppointed,”BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),18April1919.Inhiseditorial,hestatedblue-collarworkerswerethewrong“sort”ofblackstoworkwithwhites.60BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),18April1919.61Tribune,(OklahomaCity),15August1915.

periodatLangston,likeatLincolnUniversity,Pagefacedpoliticalandsocial

obstacles.

Astheeducatedcommunitygrewaroundthem,indicationsofinnerracial

conflictcamefirstfromwithinthecommunityatLangstonCitywiththeformation

ofaneweducatedmiddleclass.AttheinceptionofLangstonUniversity,thecitythat

donatedthelandcommunityhad“strongrapport”withPageandhisideas.

However,aseparationoccurredas“bitterresentment”oftheoldsettlersatbeing

“leftout”ofcollege“activitiesandaffairs”asPage’stalentedtenthgroupcameof

age.62By1903citizensfromLangstonCitywantedPagefired.Athisreappointment

somepeopleintheLangstonCitycommunityburnedpublicpropertyinanguishand

protest.However,Pagehada“strongbackbone”andfoughttobringachangetothe

blackcommunitiesinOklahomaparticularlyinLangston.Pagecontinuallyputupa

“stifffight”againstlocalswhodidnotwantchangeandotherswhowereambitious

tosucceedhim.63TheoBraughmanwroteinApril1915,thatduringhisseventeen

yearsPage“didnothavetheco-operationofsomeofourpeoplethatheisentitledto

andmanylittleknockershavetriedtoimpedehisprogress;buthehasbeenequalin

emergencyandhavingrightonhissidesuccessfullymarchedon.”64Theideathat

Democratsattemptedtotraphimappearedinnewspaperreportsbutlittlecanbe

foundtosupportfortheargument.

62MozelleC.HillandThelmaD.Ackiss,“CultureofaContemporaryAll-NegroCommunity,(Langston:LangstonUniversity,1943),8.63OklahomaStateRegister,(Guthrie),22July1915.64TheoBaughman,“AlongtheColorLine,”TopekaPlaindealer(Kansas),16April1915.

DidChisumhaveaplanpriortocomingtoOklahomaagainstthe“Gianton

UniversityHill?”IncodeTheoBaughmanwroteinJuneof1915.

ThenumerousfriendsofProf.InmanE.Pageregrettonotethatthewatershavebeenmademuddyandatthiswritingthingsdonotlookveryrosate[sic]forhimbeingattheheadofLangstoncollegelonger.ThewiseoneshaveitthatacommissionhasbeenappointedtostudyTuskegeemethods.Whoeverisappointedtofillhisplacewillcertainlyhavetonotbea“Snipe.”ItseemsthatmayorJohnR.HoganofLangstonteacherofHistoryatLangstoncollegeisthebiggestinOklahomaandwhathecannotdo,withthepowersthatbeisbecauseBro.Hogandoesn’tcaretodoit.CatchmeSteve?ThisoldtimerreceivedhispoliticaltrainingdowninTexasandhe’smostlikelytoputoneoveratmostanyoldtime.65

Chisummusthaveknownthatthedilapidatedpremisesattheblackcollege

wereaproductofJimCrowpolitics.Thecausewastheracisminherentin

segregationpoliticsoftheProgressiveAge,notjustinPage’slackoforganizational

skills.Oklahoma’sonlyblackuniversitylackedequitablefundingbytheBoardof

EducationandLegislatureofOklahoma.AppropriationsfortheCA&NUwereone

quarterofthoseoftheAgriculturalandMechanicalCollegeatStillwater(OSU).Yet,

allblackscouldonlyattendtheonesegregatedschoolinOklahoma.Theothermore

comparablewhitenormalschoolsatEdmond,Alva,Ada,Weatherford,Durantand

NortheasternOklahomawereallallocatedmorethantheoneblackuniversity.66

65TheoBaughman,SpecialScribe,“BusinesswithColoredPeopleonFirmFoundationOklahoma,”18June1915.66SessionLawsoftheStateofOklahomaPassedbytheRegularSessionoftheNinthLegislatureofOklahoma,HarlowPublishingCompany,OklahomaCity,Oklahoma.SpeechJ.WilsonPettus,“ProblemsoftheNegroSchools,”DeliveredbyJ.WilsonPettusbeforeCountyTeachersAssociation,Stillwater,March1923,BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),5April,1923.Thewhiteschoolshadseventy-sevencountysuperintendents,astatesupervisor,andthreeassistants.Theblackschoolshad

Lessthanonethousanddollarswasallocatedforsupportandmaintenanceother

thansalaries.Racialsegregationallowedfordiscriminationinschoolexpenditures.

ThelongdrawnoutcourtfightbetweenChisumandPagewouldbeoneof

thedirtiestinthehistoryofOklahoma.67PagechargedChisumwithcriminallibel

becauseoftheattackonhiswife’sandhisownreputationintheAugust20,1915

issueandinformationintheSeptember1issue.PagefoughtChisumwiththecharge

oflibelthat“wasaweaponintheintensewarwithintheAmericanblackracefor

politicalandsocialdominance.”68BTWhadusedthelegalsystemagainstTrotter

andotherswhowroteinflammatorywordsabouttheblackleaderinblack

newspapers.69ChisumreportedthatPageallowedstateteachersexamquestionsto

beopenedearlierthanscheduledandstudiedpriortotestingforhisstudentsto

keepupwithwhitestudent’sscores.70ThereisnoquestionthatChisumknewthe

legalriskofbeingjailedfor“criminallibel”inattackingInmanPagethoughthe

Tribunenewspaper.OnSeptember16,1914thedistrictAttorneyinWashingtonnone.“WhentheruralNegrochildentershisclassroom,heisbroughtfacetofacewithwantonpenury,niggardliness,repulsivesurroundings,andinmanyinstancesgrossincompetency,aspartofteachersforchildrenoftodayarenotthefoolsweoncewere.Manyofthemindisgustquitschoolratherthanendurethegloomandmonotonyoftheirschoolsurroundings.”In1915thestateofblackschoolsinOklahomawasadisgrace.TheOklahomabudgetforeducationevenin1920was$22,826,481.Ofthissumwhitesreceived$22,028,000;blacksreceived$798,431.Foreverywhitechildofschoolageinthestate,$31.50wasexpendedforeveryblackchild$14.05.Ofthetotalexpended,thewhitesreceived96.5%andtheblack3.5%.Inotherwordstwoandonehalftimeasmuchwasspenttoeducatethewhitechildaswasbeingspenttoeducatetheblackchild.67OklahomaStateRegister,(OklahomaCity),9March1916.68StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston,WilliamMonroeTrotter,(NewYork:Athenaeum,1970).68.Harlow’sWeekly(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma),2October1915.69StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston,54,55.70TheLawandExaminations,”Tribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.

D.C.,“struckatellingblowforcleanjournalisminthenation’scapital”whenan

editorialina“localsheet,”perhapstheSunnewspaper,publishednegativepersonal

informationonblackCitizensofthecity.Theoutcomewas:

Menandwomeninthepubliclifemayexpectcriticismofcourse.Itmustbepresentedonlinesofdecencyanddevoidofmaliceandunjustifiableassaultsontheircharacterorintegrity.Theprivateaffairsofpeoplearesacredandthelawdoeswelltoprotectthemagainstvandalsandvampireswhoseektofrightenthetimorousandplaycheaptheirfearsforfinancialprofitortoaccomplishamaliciouspurpose.71

Theoutcomeoftheincidentwas“asimilaroutrageperpetratedagainstany

first-classmanorwomaninthistownwillleadtoproceedingsincriminallibelor

prosecutedunderthecorruptpracticesact.Weareapproachingthebeginningofthe

endofdirtyjournalisminthislong–sufferingtown.72Chisuminterviewedboththe

editoroftheSun,T.ThomasFortune,andassociateeditorontheweekofOctober3,

1914.Thus,heknewbeforehandtheriskshewastakinginOklahoma.

Chisumdidnotstophisinflammatorywork.TheSeptember1,1915issueof

theTribune,insinuatedthatPageflimflammedthelegislatureandinsinuatedthathe

preparedthepoorercollegegirlsforprostitution.AshorteditorialrevealedPage

wasafollowerineducationaltrainingofDuBoisandnotBTW.InJuneof1914BTW

appointedacommissiontostudyTuskegeemethodsintheLandGrantcolleges.

Langstonfellintothiscategory.InmanPageknewtheweatherwaschanging.

71R.W.Thompson,Freeman(Illinois),3October1914.72Ibid.

TheepisodeofChisum’sviciousattackagainstPageleavesoverarching

questionsunanswered.WhywouldanationalleadersuchasChisum,justelected

presidentofthemostimportantblacknewspaperfraternityinthecountry,riskhis

reputation,hispositionasagovernmentefficiencyagent,bypresentingalietothe

world?Accordingtoothersourceshewasnotavindictiveman.Hewasabout

“Service,Service,Service”tothepoorandneedy.Duringthisperiodofthetrialhe

wasriskinghislifemovingpoorsouthernersnorthtoOhioandNewJersey.Whyisit

soimportantforhistorianstomakeOklahomahistorysoonedimensional,without

rifts,andproblemsamongblacks?Reconstructingevidenceofthetimeperiod,with

newsourcesincludingtheonlyremainingsetoftheOklahomaTribunenewspapers,

showsChisum’sattackonPagewasawayofdemandingreformforeducationfor

thepoorblacksinOklahoma.

SinceInmanPagehadservedforseventeenyearsasthefirstpresidentof

Langston,Oklahomansralliedaroundhim–whetherthearticlesweretrueornot.73

Hisnewspaperfriendshelpedhimbuthisbackersfromotherstatesandhiscollege

alumniremainedquiet.Theyear1915TheClevelandGazette,TheTopeka

Plaindealerandothernon-Bookeritenewspaperscarriedspecialstoriesonhowwell

PagewassucceedingattheLangstoncampus.However,hedidnotkeephisposition

atLangston.HisleavecameaftertheSeptember1issueoftheTribune.Theday

Pageleft,thestateBoardofEducationtookchargeoftheschool.Lessthanaweek

aftertheirinvestigation,insteadofreinstatingPage,ProfessorI.W.McCutcheon,73OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity),9September1915;GuthrieLeader(OklahomaCity),14November1915;OklahomaGuide(OklahomaCity),21October1915;OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity)7October1915.

formerprincipaloftheblackschoolsatAtoka,wasnamedhissuccessor.Mrs.E.E.

McDanielwasappointedaschaperone,companion,confidentialfriend,andmatron

forthegirlsoftheuniversity.74

AspredictedbyChisum’seditorialthemechanicalbuildingburnedtothe

ground.75AccordingtoSmithermanoftheTulsaStartheappointmentof

McCutcheoncameasashockto“leadingcoloredpeopleofthestate.”76Thiswasso

notbecausetheywantedPagebackbuttheywantedsomeonefromtheoutsideof

OklahomawithbetterqualificationsatLangston.Pagewasledtobelievethathe

couldhavehispositionagainifhehadChisumimprisoned.77Someoneplayedhad

liedtohim.

SeveralOklahomapapersreportedPage’sdepartureasaresignation.Their

reportsoffereddivergentaccountsofthesituation.TheGuthrieDailyleader74“PopularMcAlesterWomanChaperonsLangstonGirls,”MuskogeeStar(Muskogee),23October1915.75“LangstonUniversityMechanicalBuildingBurned,”OklahomaGuide(OklahomaCity),6September1915.76“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstmanwhostartedTheSchool17yearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.Smitherman’sreferenceprobablydoesnotrepresentPage’ssupporters.HewasmemberofChisum’sNationalNegroPressAssociation.Politicsmayhavebeenatplay.SmithermanwastheleaderoftheDemocratsfrom1917untilYoungsteppedinin1919.77“PagewillStayInLangston,”OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity),10September1915.SeealsoStateofOklahomaversusMelvinChisum,Answer,March24,1916,E.I.SaddlerAttorney.ThebrieftoldthateveryonethoughtifChisumwasincarceratedthatPagewouldgethispositionbackatLangston.TakingacloserlookattheblackpoliticalsceneinOklahomain1915-1917--thedensecommunityofAfricanAmericansrepresentedabouteightpercentofthetotalpopulation.In1910,26.9percentofOklahomaNegroeslivedintownsandcitiesaftertheendofthewarandintotheearly1920ssthepercentagerosetoapproximatelythirty-twopointpercent.Censusreportsof1910showedthatinelevenpointsixpercentoftheurbanpopulationofOklahomawasAfricanAmerican.

reported:“Pageresignedofhisownvolitionstatingthathewassickandtiredof

combatingthecontinualattacksmadeonhimbypoliticalenemiesofhisownrace

andinhisownschool.”78TheTulsaStarreportedthatPagewasundergrave

chargesandthathe“resignedtoavoidadealofunpleasantnotoriety.”79Chisum’s

ordealwasnotover.Washingtonwasdying.TheTuskegeeMachinewasin

shambles.ThepoliticalandjudicialsystemsofOklahomaralliedbehindInman

Page.AcourtdatewassetforGraham,Chisum’sprinter,whowasaccusedofasking

Pageforfourhundreddollars“hushmoney”todestroythepapersor“suppress”the

article.80Hewasarrestedandchargedwithattemptedextortion.81

LawofficialsfromseveralcountieswoveanetaroundChisum.Ifheentered

theircounties,hewouldbeprosecutedinsomewayrelatedtothecaseofcriminal

libel.82TheGuthrieLeaderreportedthatOkmulgeelawyer,DaveWallace,andthe

countyattorneyofClevelandCountyhadchargesagainstChisumofsubordinationof

perjuryandoutstandingbonds.NorecordsofanychargesagainstChisumareinthe

filesofthesecourts.InsteadthesemensentsignalstoChisumthathewasnotgoing

torunaway.TheGuthrieDailyLeaderwaspro-Pageinreportinginformationabout

78“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute:PresidentInmanPageWillNowGoAfterEnemiesWhoPersecuted,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.79“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhostartedTheSchool17yearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.80“GuthrieNegroisChargedWithAttempttoExtort,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),9September1915.81“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,”GuthrieDailyLeader(Guthrie),1September1915.“SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedtheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.82GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.

thesuit.“ChisumisBadRisk:WantedElsewhere”headlinedastorythatwas

completelyfictitious.83Thepaperprintedseveralotherpro-Pagearticles.According

toJohnC.Leftwich,editoroftheWesternWorldNewspaper,publishedinKingfisher

fortheOklahomacommunity“theTerritoryClaimsPageasherown.”84

Thetrialstartedoutinabizarreway.ChisumwasinDallas,Texas,collecting

moneyfromhisuncleforhisdefenseonthemorningofOctober28,whenhistrial

started.Hesentatelegramtohislawyer,E.I.Saddler,informingSaddlerthathe

missedhistrain.HeplannedonreachingOklahomaatfiveintheevening.Chisum’s

trialcontinueduntiltheevening.Meanwhile,approximatelyonehundredandfive

peopleshowedupintheGuthriecourttowitnessthetrial.WhenChisumdidnot

arriveintime,thejudgeturnedtotheGrahamcase.AsthecaseforGrahamstarted,

afightbrokeoutbetweenthetwolawyers.Moorman(Moman)PruiettofOklahoma

CityattemptedtointimidateE.I.SaddlerofGuthrie.

Pruiettwasknownforhistheatricsinacourtroom.TheChisum-Grahamtrial

wouldbenodifferent.Pruiettwasan“ex-convictandmoralandmentalpervert...

wasjustasliabletopunctuateapointwithabulletasanepigram.”85Pruiettwas

usuallycalledforquestionablecasesthatneededunethicalskill.Itwashighly

unusualforhimtostepintoatrialbetweentwoblackpeople.Pagehiredamanwho

“vouchedforpersonschargedwithfiendishcrimeswhentheevidenceoftheirguilt

83“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,"GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.84WesternWorldNewspaper(Shawnee),9December1915.85Berry,HeMadeItSafetoMurder,14.

wasoverwhelming.”86Pruiettbeganthetrialbyattemptingtointimidatetheblack

lawyer,E.I.Saddler,aBookerite,bybrandishingaBarlowknifeathim.87Ashe

walkedtowardsSaddler,Pruiettranhisthumbalongthebladesaying,“Fellow,right

hereandnowI’mgoingtocutoutyourblackspottedNiggerheart!”88

Saddlerwasnottheatrical.Hewasalaborerwhoalsopracticedlaw.Saddler

whiskedoutaMexicanMoochabladeandsaid,“Lethimcome;Icallhisbet.”People

intheaudiencerippedoutknivesoftheirowninthemidstofthecourtroom.89

Therewasaswishastheoveronehundredbystandersinthecourtroompulledout

theirknives.BeforeanythingcouldhappenPruiettasked,“Isn’tanybodygoingto

holdme?”Atthispointthesheriffanddeputiessteppedintostoptheruckus.90

SaddlerwasdubbedtheonlymanfromwhomPruitteverbackedaway.

AfterdeliberationsGrahamfacedahungjuryandChisumwasfinedone

thousanddollarsfornotappearingincourt.Anewcourtdatewasset.Chisum

arrivedonFridaymorningat5a.m.BeforeChisumcouldgettothecourthouse,

studentsfromLangstonwhospiedonhimtoldthesheriffChisumhadarrivedin

86Ibid.,11.87“PruiettSeekstoCarveoutHeartinCourt:TensemomentinGrahamTrialWhenUglyKnivesFlash,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),29October1915.InformationhadtobetrumpedupbecausethereisnorecordofChisuminOkmulgeeorClevelandCountyfilesforarrestsorinacourtcase.88Berry,HeMadeItSafetoMurder,11.89Ibid.,11.90“PruittSeekstoCarveoutHeartinCourt:TensemomentinGrahamTrialWhenUglyKnivesFlash,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),29October1915.ThereisnorecordofMelvinChisuminOkmulgeeorClevelandCountyfilesforarrestsorinacourtcaseduringthisperiod.

town.Thesherifflockedhiminthebackofthejail.91Theactionwasinviolationof

thecourtrulesbutfewpeopleknewabouttheincident.Itseemedjustpaybackfor

hisworkagainstPage.“He[Chisum]wasputinjailtosatisfytheprosecuting

witness,whohadbeentoldthatunlesshe[Page]hadChisumputintothe

penitentiarythathewouldlosehisjobatLangston.”92Chisumhadnoaccesstohis

lawyerorofficersofthecourtfordays.Hewasfinedanothertwothousanddollars.

Chisum’strialwascontinueduntilMarch16,1916.SwankrepresentedPage.

TwonewspapersreportedonlythatChisumwasfinedandreleasedpending

appeals.Afteraten-day-trialhewasfinedtwohundredandfiftydollars.Hehad

overfivethousanddollarsoutstandinginbonds.Nojailsentencewasgiven.Trial

recordsdonotexistthatsubstantiatethecriminallibelcharge.Chisumsoughtnew

trialsbutnojudgeallowedhimtoforfeitureofthebonds.Chisumtriedtoescape

Oklahoma.HebookedaticketontheRockIslandTrain.WilliamHarrison,aspyfor

PageandcovertfriendtoChisum,toldtheauthoritiesthatChisumwastakingthe

RockIslandTrainonTuesdaynightApril4,1916at9:30.WhenChisumrealizedthe

sheriffwasafterhim,hejumpedfromthemovingtrainintothelocalyards.“Deputy

SheriffFateSanders,afterashortsprint,recapturedtheNegro.”93

Perhapstheanti-Chisumnewspaperswerehostilebecauseoftheworkhe

diddealingwiththeIndianagenda,andaswelltheycouldhavebeensupportersof91IncidentreportfromfilesofDistrictCourtofLoganCounty,StateofOklahomaversusMelvinChisum,M.W.Wright,J.W.Conrad,1916.NolongeraccessibleasofJuly2018inLoganCountyfiles.Acopyfromresearchin1999existsinauthor’sfiles.92Ibid.93“ChisumMakesLeapforFreedom:Captured,”GuthrieLeader,(Guthrie),6April1916.

InmanPage.TheypostedfalsedatasuchasChisumwaswantedfornothavingpaid

histwohundreddollarfine.However,Chisumdidnothavetopaybecauseofthe

pendingappeal.Technicallyhecouldhavelefttown.However,heranbecausehe

fearedforhislife.HehadLangstonUniversitystudents,Pages’friendsand

supporters,andpolicemenalloverthestatewhowereupsetwithhisreportsabout

policemenandsheriff’sdepartmentsparticipatinginaprostitutionringfrom

GuthrietoTulsa.Chisumwasarrestedoncemore,booked,andchargedbail.After

beingfreedthelasttimebyhislawyer,Chisumdidnotgobackbytrainbutbytrail.

HemadethelongarduoustripfromGuthrietoMuskogeeonhorseback.Therehe

metfriendsandcaughtatrainoutofOklahoma.Hislasttrialforthebondswasin

Mayof1917.Whenhegotoffthetrainhewasputintojail.Thechargewasthathe

hadtopayoutstandingbondsoftwothousanddollarswithinninetydays.Finally,

GovernorM.E.Trapp,gaveChisumunconditionalpardon.Thedefendantwas

releasedfromjailthegripsofOklahomalawmen.HeleftGuthrielikePaulandSilas

leftDerbe–veryquickly.

InmanPageleftOklahomaforawhilebutwouldreturninthe1920storun

OklahomaCityblackschools.J.SmithermanaDemocraticleaderandeditorofthe

StarnewspaperinTulsaquestionedPage’smotivesforresigningandleaving

Langston.“IfthechargesweretrueMr.Pagedidtherightthingtoresign;ifthey

werenottruewhyshouldheresign?”94HoweverHarlow’sWeekly,thepolitically

savvy,newspaper,andamainstayofwhiteOklahomans,explainedPagehada

termination–notaresignation.ThatwasthereasonheleftLangston.94“LangstonUprising,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),17September1915.

Perhaps,itwastheChisum’stimetospreadhiswings,leavetheshadowof

BTW.ChisumwrotetoBTWexplainingtheconditionsatLangston,andhisresponse

tothesituationinthemannerofanhumbleservant.Histonechangedfromservility

toequality;toareportfromacolleague.Chisum’sfinallettertoBTW–locatedinthe

BookerTWashingtonPapersintheLibraryofCongressnow–wasdatedNovember

10,1915.BookerT.Washingtonmayhaveneverreadit.HediedonNovember14,

1915.95EmmettScottprobablypackeditawayashedidNorrisWrightCuney’sfiles.

OneonlywonderswhathedisposedfromtheBookerT.WashingtonCollection.

95LouisHarlanPapers,UniversityofMarylandCollegeParkMaryland,HarlanPapers,unprocessedcollection,Box39.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,10November1915.

CHAPTERVI

SERVICE,SERVICE,SERVICE:CHISUMINTHE1920s

“Thiswriterhasbeeninthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,highbindersandmoralreprobatesformorethan20years.Thiswriterhasbeensued14timesforlibelbythissamelitterofratsandhehasneverdoneadayinanypenitentiaryforhisexposingofthevastcrowdoffakersineightdifferentstates.”1

---MelvinChisumSr.PittsburgCourierNewspaper

Itisstillimpossible,withallthedigitizeddocumentsandestablished

manuscriptcollections,tofindoutaboutMelvinChisum,Sr.’s,fourteenlawsuitsand

workof“exposinghisvastcrowdoffakersineightdifferentstates[UnitedStates].”

However,thereareenoughprimarysourcestoverifyhisclaimforexposingfakers

inOklahoma,Alabama,andChicago.ThelistincludesInmanPage(1853-1935),at

LangstonUniversity,whosuedChisumforlibel.Hemayhaveincludedexposing

WilliamMonroeTrotter(1872-1934)inBostonforBookerT.Washingtonandhis

workagainstthenationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople

(NAACP)whenitwasstilltheNiagaraMovement.2Itcouldalsoinclude

1MelvinChisum,PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),12April1924.2Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.44-47.

theOklahomagrafterswhostolefromtheAfroIndians,chapter5,“Chisumin

Oklahoma,”andtheproposedlibellawsuitagainstChisumbyRobertMaysin

Chicagoin1925.1Chisumwasnotaneasyindividualtoclassifyorunderstandinhis

owntimemuchlessnowinthetwenty-firstcentury.PercivalPrattis’description

thatreferencedtheword“operators”establishedaclue.2ForChisum,amandoing

missionsandcommissionsforpay,thelabelan“operator”intheunderworldcould

havebeenahitmanforagangster,mobboss,businessmanorrescuerofaman’sson

fromabadloveaffair.Thischapterlooksatthesecondhalfofthefirstquarterofthe

twentiethcenturygrowthofMelvinChisum,Sr.,inpolitics,familylife,personal

entrepreneurialendeavors,andshowshowhisworkintheteensaddedtothe

structureoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligionmakingChisumaherotothosethat

followedhisantics.Itdevelopsalenstointerprethisabilitytocollectblackvotes

acrossthecountry,thusmakinghimapotentialpoliticiantobenoticedandusedby

NewDealDemocratsinthe1930s.

Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,whoneverbelievedhisfatherwasactuallyaspyuntil

thisresearchrevealeddocumentation,explained,“Daddescribedhimselfas‘an

efficiencyexpert.’Ilearnedthistomeanthatifsomeonewantedtogetsomething

doneanddidnotknowhowtodoithewasyourman.Thiswasbecauseheknewthe1JohnHopeFranklin,MyLifeandEratheAutobiographyofBuckColbertFranklin(Louisiana:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1997).53.BuckFranklindescribedhisunderstandingofChisum’sworktoremoveInmanPage.Alsotheresearchiscoveredinaconferencepaper;seeCeceliaBrooks,"SkeletonsintheCloset:AtWhatCost?HearingtheCallforHelpWhenAfricanAmericanLeadersOppressedTheirOwn1914-1915,"inAssociationfortheStudyofAfricanAmericanLifeandHistory,ed.TracieMayesStewart(Atlanta,Georgia,2015).2LouisHarlanPapers,UniversityofMarylandCollegeParkMaryland,HarlanPapers,unprocessedcollection,Box39,(HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers.)

peopleorpersonwhohadtobepersuadedtoco-operateinyourendeavor,heknew

howtoapproachthemwithyourproblemandhowtoconvincethemtodowhatyou

wanteddone.Hehadthe‘knowhow.’Hewasamostuniqueindividual.In

accomplishinghisends,heruffledmanyfeathersasyouhaveseen.”3Whenasked

whyhethoughthisfathernevertoldhischildrenabouthisworkasaspyand

provocateur,Dr.Chisum,dark,charismatic,withtwinklingeyeslikehisfather,took

timetothink,andadmitted,hedidnotknow.

Severalpivotalmomentspriortothe1920srefinedthe“TexasSteel”to

becomeadetectiveandpoliticianofworth.First,whenRobertRussaMotonbecame

principalofTuskegeeInstitute,afterBookerT.Washington(BTW)died,Moton

allowedChisumtosupporthisadministrationasmorethanaspy,butasMoton’s

politicalbackersandphilanthropistknew,Chisumhelpedhimleadthepowerful,

politically–situateduniversity.Chisum’sworkfortheDepartmentofLabor’sU.S.

EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomicsduringWorldWarIfitsthis

paradigm.

WhileLouisHarlanportrayedChisumandBTWasclose,friendly,gangsters,

thesittingonbenchesdevelopingplanstofoiltheirfoeswastrue:however,the

perceptionthattheywerepersonalbuddieswouldbealongwayfromcorrect.

Chisum’sletterschosenfortheHarlan’s,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,pulledout

andsortedalongwiththosenotpublished,showsChisum,asaneophytealways

3Dr.MelvinChisumtoauthor23June2005,MelvinChisumPapersintheLeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,Delaney-BrownLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity.HereaftercitedasOKCU.

longingtopleaseorbean“humbleservant”notonlytohismasterbuttoBTWasa

worldrenownmaster.PeoplefromIndia,Africaandothercontinentsalsoreached

outtoBTWforadvice.Earlyontheresearcherorinterpreterseesthatitwas

EmmettScottwhohired,associatedwithChisum,andhelpedChisumandBTWtrust

eachother.ScottintroducedChisumasusefulbecauseheknewChisum’spotential.

FollowingthelettersinvolumesevenofBookerT.WashingtonPapers,thesequence

showsthatChisum’snewspaperwasbeingusedbyScottatleastamonthbefore

BTWaskedaboutwhoMelvinChisumwasandcheckedhisbackground.4

HarlanmisleadsthereaderbyrelegatingChisumasalieutenantofTuskegee

duringtheBTWyears.BeforeMotonbecameprincipaltheTuskegeeunderEmmett

Scott,BTWdidnotsupportChisum’spersonalventures.WhileChisummayhave

actedasifhewasBTWdeniedChisum’spresenceasaTuskegee“man.”Harlandid

havesomeresemblanceoftruthwhenhewrotethatafter1906themasterdidnot

rubthelampforChisumtodancetohistune.However,bythenChisumseparated

himselffromthecommunitytoseekhisownentrepreneurialendeavors.Because

Chisumwasself-employedasadetective,realestateagent,bodyguard,amongother

positions,theTuskegeeMachinepaidonlyaportionofhisincome.Hewasalways

lookingformoremissions.DuringtheProgressiveErahefoundlucrativestartups.

AccordingtoaletterwrittentoBTW,threeyearswentbybeforeChisumsaw

WashingtonandScottorventuredtoTuskegee.Chisumdistancedhimselffromthe

TuskegeeMachineforthreeyearsbetween1907and1910hedidnotgotoAlabama

4Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.219-228.

orfollowBTW’snetwork.5InthattimeheprovedScott’sdescriptionofhimin1903

as“notabrainyman”asanincorrectevaluation.Thoughnotalwayssuccessful

Chisumcontinuedhisrealestateventure,startednewspapers,andbankswithout

thesupportoftheTuskegeeMachine.Hedidhoweverusehislinktothemfor

introductions.ItispossiblethatChisumlearnedoftheduplicityoftheTuskegee

Machineinregardstohim.HisboyhoodfriendfromTexas,EmmettScott,remained

Chisum’sdearfriendandhecontinuedtoofferhisworktoBTWforinvestigations.

Butsomethingchangedbetweenthem,orperhapsitwasinthereportsoftheir

relationshipinhistoriographicalrecordsthatblindsresearcherstocertaincrucial

facts.Scottdestroyedhisrecords.Chisum’sarchivescontinuetobebuilt.

ChisumandScottdiffered,notonlyinlooksbutalsoincalling.Chapterthree

introducedChisumandhisMethodistcolleaguesI.W.Young,EmmettScott,andJack

Johnson.JohnsonandChisumtaketheideologysetbySojournerTruthofalways

takingrisksandpositionsanti-establishmentwhileYoungandScottleanedtoward

JohnGarraty’sNewCommonwealth.Whilethereisnoindicationinwritings,

perhapsskincolormadethedifference.YoungandScottgainedunderstoodthey

hadupwardmobilitybecauseoftheirlightcomplexions.WhileChisumandJohnson

couldpulloffanticswithlowerclassesofblacks;YoungandScottcoulddealwith

thosewhofeltskincolormeanttheyweremoreapartofthewhitecommunity.

ChisumandJohnsonweredark,sturdilybuilt,blackmen,whileScottandYoung

weremoremixedwiththeyellownessintheskinassociatedwithAnglobloodlines.

Whereas,ChisumwasaltruisticintheblackcommunityScottwasdedicatedto5MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington28July1913.Box42.HarlanPapers.

becomingawealthycapitalistratherthanbeingself-sacrificingfortherace.6Chisum

andJohnsonstrayedfromorganizedreligionasadultsfortheChristologyofthe

blacksocialgospel,theyassociatedmorewiththeAfricanMethodistEpiscopal

Church,YoungandScottweremainlinechurchmen.TheMethodistEpiscopal

Church(North)remainedtheirbaseforsocialandpoliticalneeds.7MuchofYoung’s

climbtofameinOklahomacamefromwhitechurchmemberswhosupportedhis

politics.8HischurchwasmainlineandtheonlydifferenceintheirserviceatQuayle

andSaintLukeUMCinOklahomaCitywasthecolorofthepeople.9Youngtendedto

movebetweenworldswhenitwasnecessarytogainthevote.HewasMachiavellian.

YoungcarriedthemantleofBTWtomaintainhisfaçadetothewhiteleadershipof

Oklahoma.10

AnotherLookAtEmmettScott

LookingatScott’srelationshiptotheblacksocialgospel,hisworkismore

relatedtothesocialgospelasexpoundedinJohnGarraty’sTheNewCommonwealth,

6Dailey.WhentheSaintsComeHobblinIn.178-180.7Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”37-40.WhenDr.YoungfoughtforlibertiesforblacksinOklahomatheMethodistChurchsupportedhim.AnglomembersinSt.Luke’sMethodistChurchinOklahomaCityhadhimhiredanttheYMCAandsupportedhisworkintheblackhospital.BeforethedivisionofblackandwhiteintotheMethodistChurchinthe1930sYoungsatontheBoardofEducationinthe1904GeneralConferenceasadelegateandalsointhe1920sand1930s.8Ibid.,37-39.9InterviewErmaThreattandAuthor,3April1999,OKCU.10Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”45.

orRalphLuker’s,TheGospelinBlackandWhite.11Scottdidnotsacrificegoalsfor

himselfevenforhislong–timefriendwhomheconsideredhonorablebutwasnot

verybrainy.12ItseemsChisumhadtoprovehimselftoScottbutScottneverlethim

intothenesteggatTuskegee.However,afterBTWdied,Chisumsharedthe

accomplishmentsofScott’sprogress.13PerhapspartofthereasonBTWhadtomeet

withChisumonbencheswastobypasstheevasivenessofScott;however,withouta

writtenrecordthatinformationmayneverbeknown.Whatcanbeisseeninseveral

episodesrecordedintheHarlancollectionandMaceoCrenshaw’sbook,Whenthe

SaintsGoHobblinIn,thatScotttookcareofhisowncoffersfirstbutChisum

eventuallybecameaclosercolleagueafterScottleftTuskegee.14

AccordingtolettersbetweenChisumandScottChisumtookonthefinancial

burdenofproducinganewspaper,theImpendingConflict.HeusedittoaidBTWby

stoppingBruceGrits’criticismoftheblackleader.However,Chisumheldtheburden

ofreimbursingsubscriberswhenthepapercollapsed.Afterwards,Chisumhad

boardmembers,FredMoore,andRev.ChasMorris,F.H.Gilbertamongothers

supporters,willingtorevivethepaperunderanewname,whichwouldhave

alleviatedChisum’sfinancialproblems.Moorewroteinaletterunpublishedinthe

BookerT.WashingtonPapersthat“Iamoftheopinionthat…thiscanbeputinto

11Inchaptertwo,adescriptionoftheblackgospelnarrativewasgivenwithcomparisonsofAmerican–Europeansocialgospelandtheblacksocialgospel.12EmmettScotttoBookerT.Washington28July1903,HarlanPapers,Box41,UniversityofMaryland,CollegeParkMaryland.(HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers.)13TheNegroEconomicsJobinWWIandtheSunShipbuildingpositioninthe1930swerebothgottenthroughScott’sinfluence.14Afterdecades,theScottmanuscriptcollectionisstillnotaccessibleatMorganStateUniversity.SeeDailey.WhentheSaintsGoHobblinIn,178-80.

operationandmadeasuccess....”15However,Scottdeniedtheireffortofhelpto

Chisum.Heplannedtosecurehisownneeds.HisresponsetoMoorewasnohe

wouldnothelpChisum.“IhavejustenteredintoanagreementtoserveasAssociate

Editoronanewpublication.”Scottdidnotwanttoworkwithanewspaperovera

longdistance,andbecauseofa“substantialincreaseinsalarythatJanuary”hemade

thedecisiontostayatTuskegeeinsteadofseekingotheremployment.Hehadplans

forgrowingwealthyatTuskegeeUniversity.Headvisedhisfriend,“Surelythere

mustberoomformorethanoneataplacelikethiswheretherearesomany

opportunitiesforservice.”16

SeverallettersofinquiriescametoScottaskingforlettersofreferenceabout

Chisum.WhileChisumhadaletterofreferenceheusedfromTuskegeetoshow

perspectivesupporters,continuallyBTW’sorScott’sdecisionwasnottosupport

Chisumpersonalentrepreneurialadventures.Theyredirectedrequestsforgiving

ChisummoneytogivingthemoneytoTuskegeeUniversity.BTWstatedthatall

mattersofendorsementsconcerningmoneyshouldcomethroughhimandnotgoto

otherswithouthisapproval.17Consequently,becauseofalackofendorsements

fromtheTuskegeeMachine,ittookChisumfouryearstorepaythesubscribersof

theImpendingConflictforunfulfilledsubscriptions.Harlanwrotethenewspaper

hadbeenastrawmanfortheTuskegeeMachine;insteaditwasChisum’spersonal

financialburden.Hefrettedabouthavinghisnametarnished.Chisumdidnot

15FredR.MooretoE.J.Scott,8December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers16E.J.ScotttoFredMoore14December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.17EllenCollinstoBookerT.Washington26November1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.BookerT.WashingtontoEllenCollins2December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.

becomeanopenmemberoftheTuskegeeMachineunderBTWandScott.Perhaps

thereasonwasthatacloserelationshipwithChisumwouldhaveexposedthe

espionageChisumdidforthemearlierinhiscareerandtheydidnotwantthe

TuskegeeMachinenametarnished.

ChisumandhisbrotherWilliamdevelopedasuccessfulrealestatebusiness

inNewYorkcalled“ChisumBrothers.”Theyrentedapartments,foundpeople

positionsinhotels,andwerecaretakersforapartmentcomplexes.Astherealestate

marketforblacksboomedduringthegreatmigration,theybranchedoutbyworking

withseveralotherblackbusinessmenandclergyinformingtheGreaterNorthern

RealtyCompany.ScottsatontheboardofacompetingcompanyinNewYork,the

Afro-AmericanRealtyCompany.ItwasassociatedwiththeTuskegeeMachine.

Afteradeclineinthehousingmarket,combinedwiththedeathofChisum’s

businesspartner,andcontractorinacaraccident,Chisumasthedirectorofthe

“GreaterNorthernRealtyCompany”waspersonallysuedbyhisinvestors.Thistime

ChisumsoughttheassistanceofwhitephilanthropistsandEllenCollinsofNew

York.CollinswaslinkedtoTuskegee.GoingfurtheroutsideoftheTuskegee

Machine,Chisumfoundwhitephilanthropists,WilliamBuckleySr.(1881-1958)and

GeorgePeabody(1847-1936)toaidhim.Havingwitnessed“hishonesty,persistence

andabilitytogatherlargenumbersofpeoplefortheirbenefit”BuckleyandPeabody

bailedhimout.However,EllenCollinssentalettertoTuskegeeaskingfor

referencesaboutChisumandabouthischaracter.Theletterrevealedtwothings.

FirstthiswasnotthefirsttimeEllencontactedtheTuskegeeMachinetoinquire

aboutChisum.Secondly,whenChisumdesperatelyneededmoneyTuskegeechose

nottosupporthisefforts.ThefirstlettersfromEllenwerein1903.TheTuskegee

MachinerespondedtoEllen“tokeepclearofhim[Chisum].AsfarasIcanrecollect

hisnamewasNegro.”18Ellenrepeatedthisinformationinher1908letterto

Tuskegee.ButtherewasnoletterinresponseintheHarlanfiles.

ScottandBTWknewChisumdesperatelyneededcashbecausehehad

recentlypaidhisdebtstoImpendingConflictsubscribers.Theyhadlettersfromhim

andtheinformationofChisum’ssuccessfulrepaymenttoallhissubscriberswas

printedinnewspapers.KnowingChisumwasindireneedofhismoneywhenwrote

forhispay–amissionofgatheringover100namesofpeopleinsecretsocieties–

theTuskegeeMachineattemptedtodefaultonthemuch-neededpaymentsfor

services.19Perhapstheytoolackedmoney.Perhapstherewasabreakdownin

communications.WhateverthereasonChisumhadtopickhimselfupbyhisown

bootstraps.Overall,thelettersintheHarlancollectionthatwerenotusedinthe

publishedcollectionoftheBookerT.Washingtonpapers,showthatinsteadof

allowingChisumtobecomeapartoftheTuskegeeMachine,BTW,andScottplayed

MachiavelliangameswithChisumtokeephimfrombecomingabusiness

entrepreneur.20ChisumseparatedhimselffromtheTuskegeeMachineoverthenext

18EllenCollinstoBookerT.Washington,19June1908.Box41.HarlanPapers.“NameNegro”isasluronChisum’scharacter.19WilliamL.BuckleytoGeoFosterPeabody,9March1908.Box41.HarlanPapersHarlan’sresearchersfoundthisinformationinthePeabodyCollection.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,22May1908.Box41.HarlanPapers.20Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.

twoyears.Chisumworkedmissionsforrichmenandinturnsoughtthemtoaidhis

causes.

WilliamBuckleysupportedChisuminacquiringthe$5,500topayhisdebt.

FromtheLouisHarlancollection,theletterBuckleywrotetoGeorgeFosterPeabody

reads:

ThechiefreasonwhyItakeinterestinthematteristhis:Mr.Chisumthroughhiscandorandunquestionedhonestyhassucceededingettingtogetheralargenumberofpeople,possiblyahundred,whooutoftheirsmallmeanshavecontributedtowardtheinaugurationoftheGreatNorthernRealtyCo.,andtheyweregettingdowntothebusinesswhenthefinancialcrashcamelastOctober.ThefailuresoftheCompanywouldcosteachoneonlyafewdollarsloss,butthegreaterdamageisinthelossofconfidenceinbusinessundertakingsbytheirownpeople.IbelievethatMr.Chisum’shonestyandpersistencewouldwinout,ifhecouldgettheencouragementhedesires.21

Chisum’sbusinessesbecamestable.Againin1910hesoughtworkfromthe

TuskegeeMachine.HecontinuedtoqueryBTWaboutothermissionshecoulddofor

pay.Electedin1914,asthePresidentoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation,

(NNPA),Chisum’slastandgreatestmissionforBTWoccurredfarawayfromNew

YorkinOklahoma,thelastoftheSouthernstates.However,thecorrespondence

betweenChisumandBTWseemedcoded,seechapterfive,ChisuminOklahoma.

OnthebackcoveroftheHarlanbookTheWizardofTuskegee,wasanexcerpt

fromtheJournalofSouthernHistory,thatanalyzedHarlan’s“combiningsympathy

21HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder;Wm.L.Buckley,PrincipalofP.S.80,BoroughofManhattan,toGeorgeFosterPeabody,8March1908,Box1,G.P.PeabodyPapers.HarlanPapers.

andcriticaldetachmentwithasureeyeforcomplexityandambiguity”intheBTW

character,onlyonehistorian,MaceoCrenshawDailey,hasbrokenthecodeofthe

heroworshipofEmmettScott.22InWhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScott

andtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(2013),DaileyuncoversScott’scharacter

flaw.Scotthadaselfishpreoccupationwithbusinessopportunitiesratherthana

deepcompassionforpeople.DaileysurmisesthatevenW.E.B.DuBoisattacked

ScottforthelackofcompassionaboutsoldiershewaspaidtocareforduringWorld

WarI.DaileydescribedScottbyusingwordsofW.E.B.DuBoisintheCrisis,a

magazineoftheNAACP.Hewrote,“IntheMay1919issueofCrisis,DuBoistook

Scotttotaskfornotusinghispositiontobettertheconditionsofblacksoldiers:Was

ScottawareofthetreatmentofblacksoldiersinFrance?Ifnotwhydidhefailtofind

out?Ifheknew,whatdidhedoaboutit?”23Scottdestroyedmostofhispapers

beforehedied.TheEmmettScottCollectionwaspilferedandclosedatMorganState

Universityforyears.Daileyconcludedfromwhatprimarysourceswereavailable

thatScottwasmoreacapitalistthananaltruist—and,thoughDaileydidnotsayit,

howmuchScottwasunlikeChisumwhenitcametobeingaheroforthedestitute.

Tuskegeechanged.Washingtondiedin1915andRobertRussaMotonwas

appointedPrincipalofTuskegeeInstitute.EmmettScottandMotonhadan

antagonistrelationship.Afteryearsofrivalryoverleadership–Scotthadbasically

runthecollegeunderWashington–Scottleftin1919forHowardUniversityin

22Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Thiswasoneofseveralexcerptsfromreviewersthebackofthepaperbackcopy,1983edition,oftheWizardofTuskegee.23Dailey.162-165.

WashingtonD.C.AccordingtoDailey,Scottwasoverlookedforthepositionof

Principalbecausehestayedsecond-in-commandsolong.Duringtheperiodof

WorldWar1,ChisumacquiredapositionofefficiencyagentfortheDepartmentof

Labor’sU.S.EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomics.Alreadygood

acquaintances,RobertRussaMotonandMelvinChisumbecameclosefriendsand

businessassociates.WhileAlbonHolseywasMoton’ssecretary,Chisumbecamea

personalaidtohimandperformedthetasksthatwereoncecarriedoutinthe

TuskegeeMachinebyScott.

Chisum–ACultHero?

Chisumchanged.HispersonalsuccesspairedwithhisworkinOklahoma

openedafloodofaltruistfervorinChisum.Thisfervorwasbolsteredbyhis

experiencesasagovernmentappointedefficiencyagentduringtheWWI.He

regainedtheinvincibilityfromyouthhehadwhenhewasusedasaballpassed

betweenUnionSoldiers.Havinganintimateinsightintotheexploitationby

employersofthousandsofsouthernblacksthe“tothedegreeofslavery,”Chisum

shape-shiftedoncemore;hecombinedaBrerRabbitmentalityofinvincibilitywith

histrainingasagentleman,entrepreneurtobecomeanefficiencyagent–a“fixer”in

postwartimesforbusinessesandthegovernmentandaheroformany.24

24HenryGudza,"LaborDepartment'sFirstProgramtoAssistBlackWorkers,"MonthlyLaborReview,no.June(1982).41.

AswellasbecomingalaboragentChisumachievedanotherstepinbecoming

atypeofbold,bravefreedomfighterinthewayofSojournerTruthorHarriett

Tubmanbytakingunheardofriskstosavepeoplehedidnotknowpersonally;to

savethemfromtheirplightashumanagriculturalorbusinessimplementswithout

choiceorvoiceovertheirplight.However,asalaboragentChisumwentfurther

thanotheragents.Heaidedinescapesduringdaylighthoursfromfieldsandcoal

minesbypeopleguardedbymenwithguns.Heplayedthe“UncleTom”torescue

blacksfromtheSouthduringtheperiodofWorldWarI.25Accordingtofamilylegacy

bynighthebecame“ahandsome,tall,thin,lightskinnedNegro.”26Chisum’sfriend

andcolleagueWendellDabneywroteaboutChisum’sambiguousworkinthat

“someonehadtorunthegauntletanddoseductivemissionaryworkbelowthe

Mason-Dixon’sline,andnoonewasbetterfittedinappearance,dramaticability,

diplomacy,andintellectualequipmentthanMelvinJ.Chisum.”27Dabneywrote,“At

firstChisumworkedlikeSojournerTruthandLeviCoffinand[the]great

‘undergroundrailroad’”heroesoftheantebellumdays.Theyhelpedtheslave

NegroescomeNorth.Theslavetradeended,butnooneknewhowmanyAmericans

stilllivedinslave-likeconditionsintheSouth.

WhileworkingfortheDivisionofNegroEconomicsasanefficiencyagent,

ChisumwasalsoalaboragentforNorthernbigbusiness.InRobertRussaMoton’s

autobiography,MakingaWayOut,heexplainedtheterm,“efficiencyman,”using

25WendellPhillipsDabney,Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens;Historical,SociologicalandBiographical(Ohio:NegroUniversityPress,1926),19626LindaTwine,Conversations(Oklahoma:SelfPublished,1991),OKCU.27Dabney,Chisum’sPilgrimageandOthers,1-10.

Chisumasanexample:“…thereisatendencytowardgreaterconsideration,

especiallyonthepartofmanylargemanufacturingestablishments,forthewelfare

oftheircoloured[sic]employees.Intheseplantsmaybefoundwhatareknownas

‘efficiencymen,’whosebusinessitistolookafterthemoraleofcoloured[sic]

workers.”28AccordingtoWilliamWayneGiffin,inAfricanAmericansandtheColor

LineinOhio(2005),ChisumandJosephLyons,establishedalabor-recruitingcenter

inOhio.Throughtheagencytheyrecruitedthousandsofsoutherners–atonedollar

apiece–whowentnorthtoworkin“manufacturingandmunitionsplants.”29

Chisumwassupposedtogointobusinessesandidentifyhowtomake

workersandbusinessesharmonizemoreefficientlybutChisum,beingChisum,

workedbothsidesofthelabormovementandputhisownmoneyintotrainfares.

Duringtheday,hewentintofactoriesandworkedwithSouthernbusinessmen;all

hisothertimesChisumliterallyroamedthefieldsofsouthernstatesincluding

Louisiana,Mississippi,Alabama,andriskedhislifeto“free”Negroessotheycould

receivebetterlivingconditionsintheNorth.In1916ChisumwentSouthintothe

fieldsasoneofthemfrompickingcottontotobacco,fishedwithlongshore-menand

28RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Company,1922,281-282.29InthetwentyfirstcenturymorebooksmentiontheworkofMelvinChisumasalaboragent.See:WilliamGiffin,AfricanAmericansandtheColorLineinOhio,1915-1930(Columbia:OhioStateUniversityPress,2005).11-12;JamesGrossman,BlackWorkersintheEraoftheGreatMigration1916-1929,BlackStudiesResearchSources:MicrofilmsfromMajorArchivalandManuscriptCollections(Maryland:UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,Inc,1985).Chisum,MelvinJ.,RG183,BureauofEmploymentSecurity,0708,Container14,Reel16,andCharlesPayneandAdamGreen,TimeLongerThanRope:ACenturyofAfricanAmericanActivism,1850-1950(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2005),281.

livedwithplainblacksandpoorerwhitesgatheringlaborfornorthernindustry.30

Dabney’sstoryofthousandsbroughtoutofservitudeconditionsiscollaboratedby

Chisumfamilyhistory,CarterG.Woodson’sbookonmigration,andDepartmentof

Laborpamphletspublishedintheyears1916and1917.Whiletherearenorecords

orstatisticstheNegroLaborpamphletreferredto“largenumbersleft”duringthe

periodChisumworked.ThevolumeofmigrationseemedtogoupbasedonChisum’s

movements.31

Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.’s,storyofhisfathercontinuesthetaleofDabney’s

writingsandtheeffortsoftheNegroefficiencyagents.Hetoldthestory.“Dadwas

alsoinvolvedineffortstogetblackpeopletomigratefromSouthtoNorth.He

workedforJudgeGary(1846-1927)atonetime.JudgeGarywasthemanwho

operatedifnotwhoownedtheUnitedStatesSteelCorporation.”Gary,Indiana,was

namedforhim.HeexplainedthathisfatherwouldgodowntotheSouth,during

WorldWarIandaskblackpeopleiftheywouldliketogo“upNorth”forjobs.The

reasonmanyblacksstayedintheSouthwasbecauseofalackoftransportation.

“Dadwouldtellthematsuch-and-suchatimethereisgoingtobeatrainatsuch-and

–sucharailroadandyoucangetonthattrainanditwilltakeyoutoDetroit,orthat

trainwilltakeyoutoChicagoasthecasemaybe.”Dr.Chisum’snarrativecorrelates

withinformationprintedintheBroadAxe,anewspaperin1928.32Thefrontpage

30WendellDabney,CincinnatiColoredCitizens,122.31T.R.SnavelyR.H.Leavell,T.J.Woofter,"NegroMigrationin1916-1917,"inDivisionofNegroEconomics,ed.U.S.DepartmentofLabor(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1916-1917),52-65.32JuliusTaylor,“Col.MelvinJ.Chisum:FieldSecretaryoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation,WidelyTraveledknowstheBigMenoftheNationinPoliticsandin

spreadoftheAnglonewspaperexplainedhowChisumhelpedanorthernrailroad

ownerwhohadgivenuphopefindenoughmeninordertogetastalledtrainstation

backonthetracks.

WiththeunderstandingofagreaterSpiritwithin,Chisumattemptedand

achievedsupernaturalfeats.ItispossiblethatwithoutBTW,asblackleader,Chisum

felthehadtodosomethingtangibletoaidpeopleintheProgressiveErawhenbig

businessandtheneedforwarmaterialsseemedtorecreatetheageofslavery.His

workaidedpoorerblackAmericanstobecomeapartoftheprogressivezealin

society.Laboragentsboughttheideaofa“progressiveera”downtothecommon

human.ItgavetheclassofAmericansachancetoparticipateintheexcitementof

thetimeofreformandnationalgrowth.Dr.Chisum’sconversationcontinued,“This

wasthewaymanyoftheworkerswererecruitedtooperatetheindustrialbaseof

thenationduringWorldWarIandalsohowmanypeoplecamefromMississippi,

Georgia,AlabamaandLouisianaandwenttoCleveland,Detroit,Chicagoandother

placesintheNorthtotheindustrialheartland.”Chisum’s“peopleraids”were

dangerous.Chisumevenhadabountyonhim.Dr.Chisumacknowledgedthat,“Dad

saidthatthiswasadangerousbusinessbecausenaturallythesouthernersknew

thatitwasgoingonandtheywerenotatallanxioustoseethesepeoplewholived

andworkeddownthereandwhowerealsoanimportantpartoftheireconomy

leave.So,itwasadangerousthingandithadtobedonequietlyandsecretively.And

Business,”TheBroadAxe,(SaltLakeCity),20October1928.

that’swhathedid.”However,asintheBrerrabbittales,Chisumdidnotcompletely

escapewithoutatrace.Therewerebountiesfortheunknownsuperman.

UnlikeChisum’srelativeMerrickTrammell(chapter1)literallybackstabled

byawhitecolleague,theChisumfamilystoriesexplainedthatawhitereporter

helpedwithChisum’sescapades.Dr.Chisumexplainedthat,“Therewasonewhite

reporterwhoknewthatDadwasinvolvedinthisbusiness.Hesaidtohim,‘Chisum,

youcangetkilleddoingthis.WhatcanIdotohelp?’”Dadsaid,“Describeme.Tell

themthatI’matall,thin,lightskinnedNegro.”ThedescriptionofMelvinChisum

duringthisperiodisveryimportantinthestoriesofAmericanBlackCivilReligionin

ordertotellthehistoryofblackrebellion.Dr.Chisumrecalledhisfather’sstory.

“Dadsaidthatiswhathisfrienddid.Thereporterwroteanarticleaboutarecruiter

ofblackmenfortheindustryupNorth.Hewasdescribedinthepaperasa

handsome,tall,thin,lightskinnedNegrowithamustache,whichwasaboutasfar

awayfromMelvinJ.ChisumSr.asyoucanget.”AtthatpointDr.Chisum

rememberedastoryfromlate1950’sorearly1960’swhenanincidentoccurredin

thehospital.

IwastalkingtomypatientinahospitalroomatMercyDouglassHospital.

Themanwhosharedtheroomwithmypatientinquired,

“IsyournameChisum?

“Ianswered,“Well,mynameisMelvinChisumandtheonlyotherMelvinChisumI’veknownismyfather.”

Hesaid,“Oh,I’mcertainlygladtomeetyou.Yourfatherwasagreatman.Hecamedowntotheeasternshoreandstartedabank.Wefarmersweredownthereanddidn’thaveanywaytoborrowmoney.Nobodywouldloanusany.Mr.Chisum

camedownthereandstartedabank.Ihaveneverforgottenhimforthatreason.HeloanedmethemoneyandIdidn’tlosemyfarm.”33

IntheMiddleAtlanticStates,MelvinChisum,Sr.,establishedthein1912

HoustonSavingsBankofSalisbury,Maryland,“intheheartofoneoftherichest

farmingsectionsoftheMiddleAtlanticStates,surroundedbyblacksofwonderful

possibilities,”ontheEasternShoresofMarylandandVirginia.34In1910Chisum

incorporatedtheBrickhouseBankingCompanyinNorthamptonCounty,Virginia.

LivinginNorfolkatthetime,hehelpedorganizeandservedasthefirstpresidentto

HareValleyBankwithotherofficersfromsurroundingcounties;ReubenUpshur,

JacobGriffith,CharlesBrickhouse,TaylorJefferson,PeterBivins,andB.T.Coard.

TheBaltimoreSunnewspaperreportedthatwhilecelebratingEmancipation

ProclamationDayinSalisbury,MelvinChisum,whoatthattimewasstillpresident

oftheHareValleyBankinHareValleyVirginia,sawthepossibilitiesofabankin

Salisbury.WithouttheaidoftheTuskegeeMachinein1910,Chisumfoundfinancial

backingtoestablishthebankfromthreedonors;S.T.Houston,Rev.P.O’Connelland

Rev.R.G.Waters.BackedbyS.T.Houston,ChisumestablishedtheSalisburybankin

Decemberof1910.35HewrotetoBTW“P.S.Mybankhereisabigsuccess....”36

33Twine,Conversations,3-5,OKCU.34MonroeWork,NegroYearBook:AnAnnualEncyclopediaoftheNegro(Alabama:TuskegeeInstitute,1913),177.EdwardReuter,TheMulattointheUnitedStates(Boston:GorhamPress,1918),296.MelvinChisum,PresidenttheBrickhouseBankingCompanyExmore,Va.toBookerT.Washington,8April1910.HarlanPapers.35NegroBankforSalisbury:ProgressiveCityGetsFirstofaKindinitssection,TheBaltimoreSun(Maryland)8December1910.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington27December1911.Box42,HarlanPapers.

Chisumprovedhimself.Depositsfromsecretsocieties,churches,andindividuals

thatwhitebankerswouldnotaccepthelpedmakethebanksfortheblack

communitiesthathestartedasuccess.

GuardiansusingmoneyfromblackIndiansandNativeIndianstobuildTulsa

fueledOklahoma’sProgressiveErareform,whileblacksontheeasternshoreof

MarylandandVirginiahadthemoneybutnoProgressiveEraleadertoestablish

newreformsuntilChisumcrossedoverthehorizon.Hisresumeincludedworking

forBookerT.Washington(BTW),workinginrealestateinNewYork,pugilism,a

successfuljournalistcareerandheidentifiedhimselfwithvariousphilanthropists.

LiketheindividualinthehospitalwhowouldspeaktoDr.Chisum,theyunderstood

ChisumasafolkherowhoswoopeddowntoliftthemoutoftheclutchesofJim

CrowracismjustatthepointwhentheycouldhavegivenupProgressiveEra

restructuring.Inmodernity,itseemsfinanciallyfeasiblethatsomeonewouldstarta

bankforblacks.However,blacknessremainedacurse,likethemarkorstainon

Cain’sforehead,forblackcommunitiesthatneededfinancialinstitutions.Chisum

wasnotafinancierbuthewasanentrepreneurwillingtotakeachanceonblacksin

atimeofsocialreform,atimesooverwhelmedwithideasofSocialDarwinism,

racisthistoriography,andledbyPresidentWoodrowWilsonwhosteadilytook

awayprivilegesoftheblacknationbybringingracistideologybackintothe

36MelvinChisum,publisheroftheTriStateNewstoBookerT.Washington,27December2010.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,27December1910.Box41,HarlanPapers.

presidentialadministration.Chisumpulledblackcommunitiestogetherbygiving

Forthoseinblackskin,hewaslikeawizard,genieoramanwithaHoly

Spirittochangethings,theonewhosawwhatothershadandthoughitmaynot

havematchedthestatuequoinmagnitudeorbeauty–theirBrerRabbit–made

suretheyhadthesameopportunitiesonascaletheycouldhandle.Whiteshad

newspapers.Hedevelopednewspapersforblacks.Whiteshadbanks;hemadesure

blackshadbanks.Hereversedthecurseofhavingblackskinbygoingintotheblack

communityfindingtheblackswhocouldleadandgivingthemthechancetobein

chargeoftheirowninsteadofhavingtowaitforwhitestoopentothemontheir

terms.AfterChisumsettledtheirbanks,heleftthemintheirhandsandmovedto

anotherplace.Brerrabbitnotonlybroughtcarrots;heboughtthecarrotseeds

home.DuringtheperiodChisumalsopublishedTheColoredMannewspaper(1914),

TheTriStateNews(1911),theTriStateTimes(1913),BaltimoreTribune(1912)the

OkmulgeeLight(1914),andTheOklahomaTribune(1914).

DuringWorldWarI,hisbrotherWilliamWoodruffChisumjoinedthe15th

NewYorkNationalGuardRegimentthatbecame369thInfantryregimentnicknamed

“theHarlem-HellFighters.”Asefficiencyagent,whenChisumworkedforthe

TennesseeCoalandIronCompany(TCI),theChickasawShipbuildingCompany,and

theFederalShipBuildingCompany,asubsidiaryofUnitedStatesSteelhisworkat

TCIhelpedstop“someofthemoreflagrantabusespracticed.”37However,practices

37MelvinChisumtoGeorgeHaynes,5October1918,file8/102a.MotonPapers.

ofthebusinessestowardsblackandpoorwhiteworkerseventuallygrewsoharsh

evenChisumcouldnothandletheracialsituationwithoutdevelopingasortof

reverseMachiavellianplan–somethingBrerRabbitorToussaintL’Overturewould

haveappreciated.Evenworkingasagovernmentofficial,Chisumcoulddolittleto

helppeopleagainstthemoneybehindtheunitedsouthernindustries’politicalforce.

HealertedGeorgeHaynesabouttheproblem.HayneswasthefirstAfrican

AmericantoreceiveaPh.D.fromColumbiaUniversity,andwhowasappointedhead

oftheDivisionofNegroEconomics.HayneswenttoAlabama,calledthenational

chairtodealwiththewhitebusinessownersbutHaynes’wordsfellondeafears.

HaynescontactedthewhiteAssistantSecretaryofLabor,LouisPost,todealwiththe

issue.

AfterSecretaryPostvisitedTCI,ChisumwrotetoHaynes,explainingthat:

Mr.Post’svisitheredidalotofgoodinthematterofputtingastoptosomeoftheinjusticespracticedagainstcoloredlabor.IdonotmeantostatethattheseSoutherngentlemenhavecomeovertotheLord’ssidebyanymeans,buttheyhavedesistedfromsomeofthemoreflagrantabusespracticed.Ibelievedthewordwaspassedaroundthatcertainthingshadbetterslackoffabitandtheydid.ThecoloredgentlemenwhometMr.PostweregreatlyencouragedbythebroadmindedwayMr.Posttreatedthem.Theyhadneverbeforemetawhitemanwhowouldtreatthemastheywererealmen.38

Despitehissuccesses,Chisumgrewdisillusionedabouthisworkasan

efficiencyagent.DidChisumrememberthehelplessnessofthe1870swhenthe

whitemanDixieplunderedandkilledblacks?TheblackheroMerrittTerrillcould

notfightwithoutthewhiteCavalry.Hehadtofindaneffectivewaytodealwith

38MelvinChisumtoGeorgeHaynes,5October1918,file27G-C,MotonPapers.

laborleadersandhewasdevelopingrelationshipstousethepowerofsympathetic

whites.HewrotetoRobertRussaMoton,apersonalconfidanteandpresidentof

Tuskegee;thathewas“thinkingofwithdrawingfromthelaborbusiness

permanentlyandstartingahograisingbusinessonmyEasternShorefarm.Ihave

nofurtherpersonalinterestsinthebusinessotherthantheraceinterestwhichwill

causemetokeepaneyeuponthislaborsituationforthegoodImaybeabletodo.”

Therewaslittlehecoulddotostoptheexploitationofblackworkers.InMossPoint,

Mississippi,Chisumwrotethathe“sawatleastonehundredwhitemenloafing

aboutthestreetsandsittingupongoodsboxeswhittlingsticks,whilethepolice

wereherdingcoloredmentothejusticeofthepeace’sofficeasloiterers.”39

BrianKellyarguedinBeyondtheTalentedTenth:BlackElites,BlackWorkers

andtheLimitsofAccommodation(2002)thatthefundamentaldivisionwithinthe

AfricanAmericancommunitywasnotbetweeneliteadvocatesofprotestand

accommodation,butbetweenblackworkersandmiddle-classraceleaders.He

lashedoutatChisuminhisbook.KellywrotethatafterhisworkinBirmingham,

Chisumwentontoaratherdubiouscareersecuringblackstrikebreakersfor

northernindustrialemployersduringWorldWarI.40WhileKellylookedatChisum

throughthemoralityofthepost-CivilRightsmovementexpert,JohnRoberts,ablack

historian,wrotethat“Deviationfromcertainnormsmayoccurnotbecausetheyare

rejectedbutbecauseagivensituationmayaccordprecedencetoothernorms.39MelvinChisumtoR.R.Moton,12July1918,file191CA-C1,MotonPapers.40BrianKelly,BeyondtheTalentedTenth:BlackElites,BlackWorkersandtheLimitsofAccommodationinIndustrialBirmingham,1900-1921(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2002)onlineSchoolofModernHistory,Queen’sUniversityofBelfast,1-14.

Normsespeciallylegalnorms,maybeneutralized....Mostifnotallnormsinsociety

areconditional.Rarely,ifever,aretheycategoricallyimperative.”41Thus,itwas

possibleforslavestorationalizetheirneedtolie,cheatandsteal.Thesamecouldbe

saidforsouthernblackworkerstryingtosurviveundertheharshandonerous

conditionsoftheJimCroweraintheSouth.TofighttheCrow,Chisumhadtoshape

shiftintoaninvinciblesuperhero.

Certainly,Chisum’sworkethicsforTCIweresometimesambiguousand

questionable.Ontheonehand,ChisumworkedforTCIasanefficiencymanand

attemptedtohirenon-unionlaborforthecompany;hediscouragedworkersfrom

joiningunions,andinsteadencouragedthemtobecontentintheirworkforTCI.On

theotherhand,heacceptedpayforhisworkandthenfinancedblacksandpoor

whitepeople’spassagetotheNorthtoworkfornorthernindustrialistswhowere

willingtoofferthembetterwagesandabetterwayoflife.Chisumfilledtwovoids

withhisactions.HeassistedinkeepingseveralmajorAmericanindustriesrunning

duringthewarandaidedpeopleingettingpositionsoutsideoftheSouth.TheJim

Crowlawsweredesignedtolimitanddenyblacksbasiclegalrights.When

employersresortedtophysicalcoercionandviolencethatweretheequivalentof

slavery,thevehicleforsendingblacksandpoorerwhitesNorthforbetterworking

conditionshadbeenlaid.ChisumusedthesametracksthatgothimoutofMexia—

therailroad.InhisdisillusionmentChisumdevelopedanaggressiveplanthatwould

freesouthernblacksandpoorwhiteswhilemakingmoneytosurvive.

41JohnRoberts,FromTrickstertoBadMan:TheBlackFolkHeroinSlaveryandFreedom(Philadelphia:UniversityofPhiladelphiaPress,1989),182.

ThisisonlyaglimpseofChisum’santicspriortothe1920s.Fromhiswork

aroundthecountryChisumdiddevelopanationalfollowing,areadership,intothe

1920s;hebecamesomethingmorelikea“culthero”forpoorNorthernersthana

journalist:JamesAnderson,thefounderoftheNewYorkAmsterdamNews,reported

thatsavingpeoplefrominjusticewasChisum’sforte:“Service,Servicetotherace

seemedtobetheonlyacecardChisumheld,anditwasn’tuphissleevebyany

means.Theonlytimewesawhimfrownwaswhenaninjusticetohispeoplewas

mentioned.”42

AfterWorldWarI,duetohissupportofRepublicans,Chisummanagedto

becomeakindofwalkingdelegateinCongressduringtheWarrenG.Harding

administration.EvenwithoutapoliticalpositionsuchasRepublicanleadersLincoln

JohnsonandPerryHoward,blackpartyleadersfromMississippiandGeorgia,

Chisumgainedleveragetosellpatronagepositions,andsitinonpresidential

conferenceswithblackleadersintheHardingadministration.Whathisleverage

wastoacquiretheprestigetomoveintocongressionalhallsduringtheperiodisnot

clear.ItcouldbelinkedtohisworkasefficiencyengineerduringtheWorldWarI.

ThispartofChisum’slifeinvolvesthewaypoliticiansusedpatronagetorewardthe

faithful.Chisumwaskneedeepintheprocessuntiltheprocessbecame“lily-white”

whenJimCrowtookovertheRepublicanparty.ForChisumpersonally,thekeywas

helostasourceofincome.

42“MelvinJ.Chisum,Benefactor,”AmsterdamNews(NewYork),1July1925.

Thepatronagesystem,andpatronagebrokersoperatedthusly.Inorderto

acquireapositioninsegregatedsociety,anapplicantneededtogethisvitaebefore

therightcongressmanorpolitician.Asa“selfstyleddelegate,”Chisumwouldbring

suchinformationbeforetherightperson.Iftheapplicantobtainedthepositionit

camewithacostpaidtoChisum—thatis.Hewasapatronagebrokerhelpingjob-

seekersfindingaposition.Chisumstartedmakingcontactsearlyin1920.Aletter

fromChisumtoRoscoeDunjee,theblackRepublicanleaderinOklahoma,advised

theeditoroftheBlackDispatchNewspaper“Youarerunningapaper.Youarean

ablespeaker.Youhaveasplendidchanceforadvancementinthenextgovernment,

whichwillgointopoweratWashingtoninMarch1921.Beadvisedbyafrienduse

someofthespacewhichyougiveawaytowardbackingupDr.Moton.“43Chisum

attemptedtogainthepossibilityofmakingattheleast$500dollarsperpersonby

contactingpossiblequalifiedcandidatestogetinlineforpositionsmonthsin

advance.Chisumwasnotanelectedofficial.Hisactivitywasnotdiscoveredandhe

continuedsellingpatronagejobsaspartofhismissions.

Heobtainedpaidcommissionsbuttheywereirregular;withoutRepublican

spoilsandpatronagework,hisincomewasunsteady.Patronagewaspaidin

increments,andnotallatonce.Theymadeforsteadyincomeiftherewasa

percentageofitcomingineverymonth.Chisum’ssecondchild,Anne(Jr.,),wasborn

onAugust8,1923.Withagrowingfamilytosupport,heneededastableincome.His

anti-unionstancesometimescausedhimnottogetjobs.HisdaughterAnne

43MelvinChisumtoRoscoeDunjee,9September1920.MCJSR.MotonPapers.

rememberedhimsaying,“Nobody’sgoingtotellmewhattodowithmymoney,”

whenhiswifesuggestedapositionthathadtiestoaunion.

Dr.MelvinChisumJr.recountedwhatheknewofhisparent’smarriageand

theirearlydays.“TheymetinBaltimore,wheremymotherwasworkingasthe

officenurseofadentist.MotherwasagraduateoftheFrederickDouglassNurses

TrainingSchoolinPhiladelphia,classof1916.TheyweremarriedinBaltimorein

early1921,butIknownothingofthedetailsoftheircourtship.Theymovedto

Philadelphiashortlyaftertheirmarriageandlivedinrentedroomsonthethird

floorofaroominghouseinSouthPhiladelphia“whereIwasbornlaterthatyear,

andmysisterAnne20monthslater.WemovedtoWashingtoninlate1923or1924

andresidedat253NStreetN.W.Itwasmyunderstandingthehemovedto

WashingtontoworkasalobbyistforElbertGaryoftheU.S.SteelCorporation.Then

itwasprobablyin1925thatwemovedtoGlencoe,Illinois(about19milesnorthof

Chicago).”HemadethatmoveinordertoworkforSamuelInsull,thegreatutility

magnate.

MuchofthetimewelivedinGlencoe,Daddywasawayfromhome.Letterstohiswife,orsonordaughtercamefrequently—fromD.C.orfromTuskegee,orfromN.Y.C.orfromanynumberofcitiesintheSouth,whichseemedlikefascinatingplacestomysisterandmebecausewereceivedlettersfromhimfromthere.MysisterandIenjoyedourchildhood.Itdidnotbotherusthatourfatherwasawayfromhomemostofthetime.Weknewnootherway.Mymotherseemedtotolerateitsoitwasnoproblemwithus.Welovedourparentsdearlyandtheyobviouslylovedus,solifewasbeautifulinoureyes.AnneandIwereclosetoourmotherandifwehadsensedanydistressinher,Iamcertainwewouldhavesharedit.”44

44Dr.MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor30April2012,OKCU.

ToChicago:Chisum,OscarDePriestandSamuelInsull

Thus,Chisumfoundanincomethatmorethanmadeupforhislostincomeas

apatronagebroker.AsChisumJr.noted,in1925,thefamilymovedtoGlencoe,

IllinoissoChisumcouldworkforSamuelInsull.Inthe1920s,Insullwasoneofthe

mostpowerfulmeninChicagowithmorethantwotothreemilliondollarsinvested

inelectricandotherutilities,includingnaturalgas.Hisorganizationprovidedten

percentofthenation’selectricalpowerandservedfivethousandcommunitiesin

thirty-twostates.InsullwasoncesecretarytoThomasEdison.Insullwasespecially

hospitabletotheblacksinChicago.

OscarDePriest,ablacklocalpoliticianwhowasonceanAldermanin

Chicago’sWard3,continuedtoflounderasapoliticianashehadfromtheearly

teens.45However,in1923,DePriestlandedwhatseemedastablejobwithelectrical

magnateSamuelInsullinChicago.Duringthe1920s,Chicagopoliticiansrealized

thattheblackvotewasbecomingvaluable.InsullhiredOscarDePriesttobean

efficiencyman,akingmaker,tomaketiesbetweenblacksandcandidatesfavorable

totheutilitiesmagnate.PartofDePriest’sproblemsinpoliticsstemmedfromalack

ofpresentation;hewasdisheveledinappearanceandmuchlesssuavethanChisum

andotherpoliticiansofthetimeperiod.WendellPhillipsDabneytoldthestoryin

theUnionnewspaper.“When[DePriest]begantolookbeyondthecity,toconsider

45“FormerAldermanOscarDePriest;Chicago;AttorneyEdwardWilson;EdwardH.Morris,”TheAppeal,(Chicago),26May1917.ThecityofChicagocontainsfiftywardsorlegislativedistricts.EachwardelectsoneAlderman.AldermenmakeuptheChicagoCityCouncil.Theygovernthecitywiththemayor.Analderman'stermisfouryears.

largeraffairs,heinvitedMelvinChisum,whohaddoneheavyworkinpublic

relationsduringthewar,tocometothecitytobehisadvisor.”46Theirrelationship

intheearly1920slaidthefoundationforanongoingblackpowerstrugglethat

lastedintothe1930s.InsteadofcarryingouthismissionforDePriest,whohired

Chisumtogroomhimintoapresentableman-of-affairs,ChisumblatantlystoleDe

Priest’sjob.ChisumexposedDePriest’scrookedpasttoInsull’smillionairelawyer,

DanielSchyler.Intheearly1900s,DePriestworkedundercrimebossWilliam

TaylorinChicago.

UnderTaylor,DePriestbecameanAlderman,anelectedmemberacity

council.ChisumprovedthatDePriestembezzledmoneygiventosupporttheblack

community.InstarkcontrasttoDePriest,ChisumdisplayedtoInsullhisabilityto

workinChicagoandgetthingsdone.Healsoheldaresumeofworkwiththe

governmentandprivatesector.Asaresult,InsullfiredDePriestandretained

Chisumashisefficiencyengineer.WorkingforInsull,Chisumwastheonlyblack

manwithanofficeinoneofthelargestbanksinChicago,theContinentalIllinois

NationalBank.“Hewasgivenacountrycarandacountryhomeintheexclusive

suburbofGlencoe,andbankedathousanddollarsamonth.”47Chisummovedhis

familyfromPhiladelphiatoIllinois.

Otherthanbeingoneofthefirstblackfamiliesinourcommunitytohaveanautomobile,wehadnoneoftheaccoutermentsofwealth.ThiscarwasusuallynotinGlencoebecausemyfathertookitonhis“businesstrips.”Hiswifeneverhadawardrobeoffancyclothes,orexpensivejewelry.Wewerealwayswellhoused,wellfedandadequatelyclothed.Iwouldsaythatwewerecertainlynotwealthy,nor46“AFriendinNeed,”Union,(Cincinnati)26April1934.47Ibid.

wereweneedy.”Whatmyfather’sfriendsandassociatesknewabouthimandhisworkandthepeopleforwhomheworked,madethemthinkhemustbewealthy.Hismannerswerethoseofadistinguished,wealthygentleman.48

DabneywroteabouttheepisodeintheUnionNewspaper,“ChisumandDe

Priestalsobecamebitterpersonalandpublicenemies.”Perhapsinthemannerhe

madeRoscoeDunjeeakinginOklahoma,Chisumdid,inasecond-handway,forDe

Priest.DePriestmovedawayfromdevelopingsymbiotictieswithwhitepoliticians

tobuildhimselfapoliticalmachineoftwenty-fivethousandblacksthatwouldvote

himintobecomingthefirstblackintheHouseofRepresentativessince

Reconstructioninthe1928election.

ReviewingoneofChisum’sescapadeswhileworkingforInsull,Owenswrote

intheMessengerthatChisumplayedtheultimateUncleTomgameonhiswhite

colleagues.Owenscomparedhimto“LikeL’Ouverture,theHaitianslave,patriot,

andmartyrthatdefeatedNapoleonBonaparte;Chisumhadbecome“theonewho

findsanopening”forAfricanAmericansinatimeofheightenedracism,industrial

slavery,andeconomicturmoil.”InhiscapacityofefficiencyengineerforInsull,

ChisumhostedadinnerbetweenInsullandtheNationalNegroPressAssociation

(NNPA).TheNNPAgatheredatthefamousAppomattoxClubforanelaborate

banquetpaidforbyInsull.TheyweresupposedtoretiretotheUnityClubtomeet

Insullpersonally.However,onlysixNegroeditorscametotheafter-dinner

reception.Introuble,Chisumleftthegatheringhallandrandownthestairsto

48MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,30August2005.OKCU..

whereagroupofmenina“MoorishScienceCult”weremeeting.Chisumnegotiated

topaythemenfiftycentsapiecetoattendthemeetingwithInsull.“Uninformedand

turbanedMoors”filledthelargehall.Attheendofthesuccessfulgathering,Insull

scoldedthe“editors”fornotarrivingontime.Hesaid,notrealizingthathehadbeen

duped,“IfcoloredpeopleareaslategettingtoheavenmakingC.P.T.time[colored

peopletime]astheyfrequentlydoelsewhere,thewhitepeoplewillallbeinsideand

St.Peterwillhaveclosedthegateeretheyarrive.”49Theoutcomeofthemeeting

wasthatanewBoy’sClubwasestablishedforblackyoungmenwithabigpool.

Insullinsistedongivingallthemoneyfortheproject.

Chisumdelvedintoothercontroversiesthatincludedthefightagainstthe

unionizationofporters.ChisumfollowedBTW’sstanceonblacksandunions“the

futurebelongedtotheman,ortheclassofmen,whoseekshisownwelfare.”50His

intimaterelationshiptothePullmanfamilyprobablyplayedintohisstance.Melvin

ChisumJr.onhisfatherandunions:“Firstwasthepublicaspect.Hespentmanyof

hismiddleyearsdevelopingthephilanthropicproclivitiesofwealthyindustrialists

tothebenefitofTuskegeeInstitute.Thesewealthydevelopers,ownersand

managersofthecountry’sgreatcorporations,wouldhardlyrespondtothepleasfor

fundsforablackschooldownsouthfromsomeonewhomtheyidentifiedwiththe

unionswhichtheywerefightingcontinuously.”51

49Ibid.,Union,(Cincinnati)26April1934.50BookerT.Washington,“TheNegroandLaborUnionsTheAtlanticMonthly,”June1913.756-767.51MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,30August2005.OKCU.

Chisum’ssonalsoidentifiedasecondaspectofhisfather’santi-unionstance

thatwaspersonal.“Dad’scontinualhostilitytowardtheunionmovementwas(with

oneexception)towardthemanagementoftheunions.Hefeltthatunionofficials

werenotinterestedinthewelfareoftheirmembers,butinthemselves.Inaddition,

hedislikedtheirmanners,theirmeansofoperation,andeverythingaboutthem.He

wasthesmooth,persuasive,diplomatictype.Theywerehead-knockersandfighters.

Heconsideredthemtobelow-born,ill-bred,coarseandfoul-mouthed.He

dismissedthemas‘scoundrels.’Heidentifiedmuchmorewiththecapitaliststhan

withtheunionists.TheexceptionImentionedabove?APhilipRandolph,whommy

fatherdescribedtomemorethanonceas‘asmartyoungman.’”52

ChisumremainedloyaltotheBookeriteanti-unionphilosophy.Washington’s

paradigmhadopposedorganizedlabor.“TheTuskegeephilosophyhadnoplacein

itsteachingsfororganizedlaborandWashingtonandhisfollowersadvisedblacks

tolineupwiththegreatcaptainsofindustry.”53By1919,theNationalUrban

League,abranchofWashington’sBusinessLeague,pulledawayfromWashington’s

anti-unionstance.However,in1924,theNationalNegroPressAssociation

condemned“allformsofunionismandeconomicradicalism”andadvisedblacks“to

standsquarelybehindcapital.”54ChisumwasfieldsecretaryfortheNNPAgroup

52Ibid.,MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,August30,2005.OKCU.53WilliamHarris,KeepingtheFaith:APhilipRandolph,MiltonP.WebsterandtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,1977).10.54Harvard,Sitkoff,ANewDealforBlacks:TheEmergenceofCivilRightsasaNationalIssue,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1978),170.

whovotedagainstunions.55AccordingtoRoiOttley,writingonRobertAbbott,

editoroftheChicagoDefender,andcontrarytotoday’spublicknowledge,theNegro

pressgenerallyattackedA.PhillipRandolphandunions.56ChisumlikeWashington

wasprejudicedagainstunions.InthemidstofhisinvestigationofTuskegee

VeteransHospital,(seenextchapter)andhisgrowingfamily,hefoundthetimeand

energytoswipe,condemnandsabotagefirstRobertL.Mays,thepresidentofthe

InternationalRailwayMen’sassociation,andlaterhewouldattackedAsaPhilip

RandolphandtheBrotherhoodofPullmanPorters.

In1924MaysattemptedtosueChisumfor$10,000allegingdefamationof

characterafterChisumpublishedascandalousarticleinthePittsburgCourier

newspapersuggestingthatMays-themanwhoorganizedPullmanPorter’s,

allegedlysquanderedmoneyonfastwomen-whilevisitinginChicago’sBuffetflats.

HeusedtacticshehadusedinOklahomatowinjusticefortheblackIndians;Chisum

senttotheanewstelegramtothepaperstating“MayswasarrestedFridaynightby

DetectiveSergeantJohnT.Scottinaboozeraid.”Chisum’stelegramread:

RobertL.MaysnabbedinRaid.RobertL.Mays,prominentcoloredlaboragitatorandorganizerofPullmancarporters,wasnabbedtonightbyDetectiveSergeantJohnT.Scott(coloreddetective)andhisboozesquadinaboozeraidonabootleggersjoint.Mayswasfoundinpossessionofthreequartsofbootlegliquorandputupstiffbattleinordertogetaway...Mays,itwillberemembered,55TowardtheendofhislifeWashingtoncametobelievethatunionsmightstopdiscriminationagainstblacksandplayamorepositiveroleintheeconomiclivesofblackworkers.RobertFactor,TheBlackResponsetoAmerica:Men,Ideals,andOrganizationfroFrederickDouglasstotheNAACP,(Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley,1970)348,pointedouthemayonlyhavebeenseekingnewsupportbecauseofthelossoffederalpatronagewiththeDemocratictakeoverin1913.56RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior:TheLifeandTimesofRobertS.Abbott,(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),263.

squanderedmuchmoneyafewyearsagowhichresultedinthepropertywhichwaspurchasedinthecityforahomeforPullmanportersbeingsoldunderforeclosure.57

DeclaringhisenemiestoincludebothMelvinChisum(ofTennessee,

newspapermanandpolitician)andOscarDePriest,whowerebothantiunion,Mays

struckbackatChisumby“declaringChisum’sarticle[a]viciousandmaliciousframe

up.”HecounteredthatChisumwasanunscrupulousenemy.“Myenemiescannot

stoptheprogramofachievinganindependentlabororganizationforthepurposeof

securingreasonablewageandjustworkingconditionsfor25,000Pullmanporters.”

MayscriticizedChisum’scharactercallingChisuminthePittsburgCourier

newspaper“anallegedex-convictoftheStateofOklahoma.”58DePriestresponded

withanarticleinthePittsburgCourier,April19thavowingthatChisumwouldhave

toprovehisallegations.TheChisumandDePrieststoryranonSaturdayApril26,

1924andexplainedthatChisumknewnamesandcountednosesandcouldgivethe

streetnameofwhereMayshadbeenintheChicagoflats.

ThenChisumandDePriest,workingtogether,walkedthestreetsofChicago

andfoundtheofficerswhoarrestedMaysunderthenameof“JohnSmith.”Chisum

retortedinthePittsburgCourierthatMaysdidthreethingswrongtogetcaught.The

firstmistakewastogetarrestedanduseafakename.Thesecondwastoattemptto

frightenjournalistsfromwritingthestoryoncehewasoutofjail.Thethirdwasthat

May’sallegationthatChisumwasanex-convict.Chisumwrotethat“hisuseofthe

57PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),12April192458PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),12April1924.

word‘alleged’lethimout,butitwasahintjustthesamethatthiswriterhaddone

time.Thiswriterhasbeeninthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,

highbindersandmoralreprobatesformorethan20years.Thiswriterhasbeen

sued14timesforlibelbythissamelitterofratsandhehasneverdoneadayinany

penitentiaryforhisexposingofthevastcrowedoffakersineightdifferentstates.”

ChisumfinishedthearticlewiththeinformationthatwouldbringAsaPhilip

RandolphtotheforefrontastheleaderoftheBrotherhoodofsleepingcars.Through

hisinvestigationsChisumfoundthatMayslied.Heonlyhad9,968portersonhisroll

not25,000.Mayswas“moochingalivingoutofhardworkingPullmanporters”and

onlyafigureheadroster.59Chisumbyaccident,pullingdownMaysbecamea

kingmakerforA.PhillipRandolphwhotookupthereinsoftheunionafterMays.

Chisumwrotethefollowingarticleonunionsinanewspaper.Thearticlewas

passeddowntohisson.Itisnotcomplete,noristhenameofthenewspaperthat

publishedit,northedate.However,onecanfeeltheheart-wrenchingsympathyofa

manwho,asanefficiencyman,haswatchedtheviolenceandmutilationofmenfor

theirwork.Thetitleis“ReasonsWhythePullmanPortersshouldNotOrganize”...

ProbablythemostburningquestionbeforeblackAmericatodayis“shouldthePullmanPortersbeorganizedintoAmericanFederationofLabor?”Intheopinionofthiswriter,therearetwelvethousandgoodreasonswhytheyshouldnotdoso,andfollowingareafewofthetwelvethousand.

Thehistoryofthecoloredworkerinhiseffortstoaffiliatewiththeorganizedunionsinthiscountryisoneoftragedyofcrackedskulls,brokennecksandprisonstripes,resultingfromtheorganizedcoloredworkerhavebeenusedasacat’spawduringperiodsofstrikes,whicharealwayscalledassoonasthecoloredbrothergetsorganized.

59Ibid.

WhodoubtsmaygototheprisonminesinKentuckyandAlabama(wherethestatesellsprisonerstomineoperators),andacquaintshimselfwithhordesofcoloredmenincarceratedthereastheresultofstrikeswhichwerecalledten,twelveandfifteenyearsagoandthecoloredunionists(newlyinductedintotheUnion)wereheldresponsibleforthemineriots,sabotage,etcetera,onlytheblackmenwereprosecutedandonlyblackmenwereconvictedandkilled.

OtherSouthernAtrocities

Formanyyears,eversincerailroadswerebuiltintheSouth,coloredmenhaveworkedasflagmenandbrakemenonthefreighttrainsandonmanyroadstheyworkedasfiremen.TheseNegroworkerswereneverdisturbedintheSouthbyanyforcewhatsoeveruntil1920,wheneffortswereintroducedtoorganizethemintounions.

Earlyin1921,PrestonBanks,whohadfortenyearsworkedasafiremanontheM.&O.railroad,washandedaletterathishomeinWestPoint,MisspurportingtobesentbytheK.K.K.ThisletterthreatenedBankswithmurderifhedidnottoquithisjob.BankssenthislettertotheChicagoofficeandkeptonliving.Verysoonafterthis,DeeAllenandSilasPorter,firemenalsoofWestPoint,weresentthesamesortoflettersandthefollowedthesamecoursewhichBankstook.ThespiritofthemovementagainstcoloredmenorganizingsoonbegantomanifestitselfinClarksdaleandAberdeen.(Paragraphscutout)(Paragraphpickup)...FewnightsafterMitchellwasshot.Othersshotatthissamepointin1921,wereBusterClark,brakeman’BenTombolt,brakeman,GeneSmithfireman;EdgarStokes,abrakemanontheAtlanticcoastline,wasthelastmantopaythepenaltysofarasthiswriterisinformed,becausejustaboutthistimefullreportofspecialrailroadagentshadbeenplaceduponthedeskofthatdistinguishedsouthernaristocratthehonorableC.H.Markham,presidentoftheIllinoisCentralRailroadandwhenthisred-bloodedexecutivethrewhislotinwiththewrongedemployeesofhiscompany,thismurderbusinesswasbrokenup,butnotuntilMr.Markhamhadspentthousandsofdollarsinthedefenseandsupportofhiscoloredworkers.

HaditnotbeenfortheefficiencyandgenuinehumansympathyofMr.Markham,theLordonlyknows,whatfurthercarnagewouldhavebeenwreakeduponthesedefenselessmenwhoseonlyoffensewas,theywerebeingimportunedto“join”theunionandsomehadbeenfoolishenoughtodoso.

ChisumtookagrandstandagainstunionsinNovember1925.Heusedhis

operationsattheContinentalIllinoisNationalBanktomakecontactwithfiftyofthe

mostprominentblackmenandwomentoinvitethemtoaconferencein

Washington.Overtly,theconferencewasto“chartaprogramofpoliticalactionand

tobringtheattentionoftheadministrationtothediscontentbeingintheheartsof

Negroesalloverthecountrybecauseofthenegligiblerecognitiongivenandthelack

ofconcernshownbytheRepublicans.OnMarch4,itwasexpectedthatPresident

CalvinCoolidge,ascendingintothepresidencyinhisownright,wouldinaugurate

policieswhichwouldstopsegregationandopenthedoorofpoliticalrepresentation

andopportunity.”60

Covertly,theconferencewasachancetogetleadingblackstogetherwith

CoolidgeandPullman.Chisumclaimedtohavepaidtransportation,hotel,andfood

billsforallparticipantswhocametoWashington.Afterthemeeting,itwasobvious

thattheeventwasa“strawman”forameetingbyCoolidgeandthePullman

CompanytotalkabouttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters(BSCP)strike.

RealizingChisum’scloseassociationtoPullmanandCoolidge,blacknewspapers

suchasthePittsburgCourieruncoveredtherealreasonforthemeetingandthat

Pullmanpaidforthewholeventure.

Thefactthattherewerenoinvitationsforblackswhoweremembersofthe

NAACPortheBSCPwasagive-awayofthemotivesoftheconference.61Several

newspaperswouldnotprinttheinformationharvestedfromthemeeting.They

knewtheagendahadbeenthePullmanstrikeandnotracialinclusiveness.62Some

60Harris.54-56,“LeaderstoGatherinCapital,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),31October1925.“FooledtoWashington,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),21November1925.61A.PhilipRandolph,“PresidentsAttentionCalled:PertinentCorrespondenceAddressedtotheWhiteHouseandProminentCitizensbyA.PhilipRandolph,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),21November1925.62Harris.KeepingtheFaith,54-56.

membersoftheblackpresscomplainedthatPullmanwasdirectlyinvolvedbecause

Chisumcouldnothaveaffordedtheexpensiveevent.ChisumtoldthePittsburg

Courierthathehadearnedthemoneytothrowthebashfromalargepaymentas

“efficiencyengineer”theprevioussummerandwantedtopaytributetohis

friends.63However,Chisum’sschemewasuncovered.

ThoughthepressdidnotaccepthisstoryaboutthemeetinginWashington,

neitherChisumnorhissupportersweredeterred.Theycontinuedtheirwork

againstthestrike.Schyler,oneoftheattorneysforthePullmanCompanyandfor

Insull,underwrotetheformationoftheNationalNegroAdvertisingAgency.Chisum

wastheadvisorfortheagency.Itsaimwastoplaceadvertisementsinblackpapers

“toinfluencetheirnewsandeditorialpoliciestowardscorporationsrepresentedby

theagency.”64Chisumhadidealcredentialsforthepositionasfieldsecretaryofthe

NationalNegroPressAssociation(NNPA).

Aftersettlinghimselfinastablepositionasafamilyman,Chisumcontinued

withonemoremission,toinvestigatefortheVeteransAdministrationonthe

TuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thegovernmentpaidforthismission.In1924,the

workersattheinstitutionwereallblack.ThehospitalwasturnedovertoDr.Joseph

H.Wardasmedicaldoctorincharge.ThechiefengineeroftheVeteransHospital,

WilliamJones,ablackmanfromOklahoma,filedseveralchargesagainstDr.Ward’s

administrationwiththelocalandnationalVeteran’sBureau.TheVeteransBureau

andPresidentCoolidge’sadministrationcalledMelvinChisumtodealwiththein-63PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),9January1926.64Ottley.TheLonelyWarrior,263-264.

houseproblems.BecauseofhisworkinOklahomaearlierinthefirstquarterofthe

twentiethcenturyitprovedeasytodealwiththemission.

CHAPTERVII

YOUMAYCOMETHISFARBUTCOMENOFURTHER,(JOB38:11)

THETUSKEGEEVETERANSHOSPITALCRISIS

“TheSouthernerwhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro,isonewhoorders,dictatesandbrowbeats theNegro,andneverallowstheNegrotoexpressawishastowhathehimself feels isbest forhimself. IfyouaskaSouthernerfor his definition, he will swallow, and then get off some lore about hisfondness foracertainBlackMammyetc.,andrunawayfromthe fact;but IaffirmMr.Christian,thattheyknow,andthoseofuswhohavelivedamongstthesesouthernwhitegentlemenknowwhattheymean.Whentheyspeakof“onewhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro.…”MayInotbepardonedforreminding you, that if your wishes and the President’s wishes are to becarriedout,itisnecessarythatyougetthiswordtoGen.Hinessothathemaynotbefooledintosomethingentirelycontrarytowhatyouwishdoneinthissituation.Iamsir,Yourobedienthumbleservant.”1

---MelvinChisumtoHon.GeorgeB.Christian,THEWHITEHOUSE

Inthe1920sTuskegeeAgricultureandMechanicalInstituteinTuskegee,

Alabama,(TuskegeeUniversity)facedoneofitsgreatestpoliticaltrialssince1MelvinChisumtoGeorgeChristianJr,28February1923,BoxC410,NAACPPapers,ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress.HereaftercitedNAACP.

inceptiononJuly4,1881.Theassaultcameintheformofathree-prongedattack.As

wouldbeexpected–oneroundcamefromwhitesupremists–includingthosewho

shouldhavebeennaturalracialandpoliticalallies.Theriseof“lily-white”factionin

theRepublicanPartyattheendoftheProgressiveEracreatedanintra-black

politicalpowerstrugglethatspilledoverfromWashingtonD.C.intoAlabama.1Black

politiciansstrippedofnationalpoliticalpowerendeavoredtomaneuvertheirway

tosellpoliticalpatronagepositionstodoctorsandnursesatthenewTuskegee

VeteransHospital.ThefinalassaultcamefromblackcriminalswholefttheWild

WestinOklahoma,planningtoinfiltrate,embezzlemoney,andcreatehavocunder

blackleadership.PresidentWarrenHarding’sadministrationcontactedMelvin

ChisumtoworkwithTuskegeeUniversityandtheNationalAssociationforthe

AdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)asaninvestigator.Thischapterdoesnot

concentrateontheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalordealperse.PeteDaniel’sarticle

“BlackPowerinthe1920’s:theCaseoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”(1970),

VanessaGamble’sbook,MakingaPlaceForOurselves,(1995)andMaryKaplan’s

workTheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalanditsBlackPhysicians(2016)describeand

flushoutaccuratepresentationsoftheepisode.2

1NorrisWrightCuneyoriginatedtheterm“lilywhite”atthe1888RepublicanStateConventioninFortWorth,Texas.CuneywasRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896.Hecalledthewhitesthattriedtoremoveblacksfromtheirseatstoattainanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites.”www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/arti-cles.org.2VanessaNorthingtonGamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920-1945(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).PeteDaniel,"BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"TheJournalofSouthernHistory36,no.3(1970);MaryKaplan,TheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalandItsBlackPhysicians:TheEarlyYears(NorthCarolina:McFarlandandCompany,2016).

Daniels,Gamble,andKaplan,pointtothecentralityofChisum’sinvestigative

skillsandhisintuitioninsolvingtheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalcrisis.Using

Harlan’snotes,familyinformationandwritteninformationofChisum’s

contemporaries,thischapterdevelopsthestoryofChisumwithintheworldofthe

hospitalfiasco.Theresearchcorrectshislegacybyrestoringpartsofhisstoryline

anddelineateshislifeandworkinthe1920s.3

Chisum’sabilitytouncoverevidencethateventuallysolvedmysteries

seemeduncommonandmysticaltohistorians.Evenhisjournalisticcontemporaries

foundhimremarkable.Inhisarticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s,”Danielswrotethat

Chisumwas“propheticinsensingtrouble”ashemovedsteptostepinaidingthe

government,theNAACP,andTuskegeeUniversityinsolvingthehospitalcrisis.4A

formerstudentofLouisHarlan,Daniel’sopinionofChisumwasbasedonmaterials

fromLouisHarlan’smanuscriptsthatlaterbecametheseriestheBookerT.

WashingtonPapers(1972).5Thehistorianwasnottheonlyonetopickupthesense

ofChisum’sotherworldlinessincrimesolving.Chisum’sownnewspaperfraternity

understoodhimas“irrepressible,omnipresent,[and]omnipotent,”wordsthat

3DuringWWIChisumworkedasanefficiencyagentundertheFederalDivisionofNegroEconomics.SeeGudza;Brooks,"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker."Master’sThesis,41.SeeJudsonMacLaury,“TheFederalGovernmentandNegroWorkersUnderPresidentWoodrowWilson,”PaperdeliveredatannualmeetingofSocietyforHistoryontheFederalGovernmentWashingtonD.C.March16,2000.(www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/shfgpro00.htm.)4Daniel.372.LouisHarlan,ed.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,(Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970).219.Hewrote,“From1903to1906ChisumwasWashington’spaidspy–andperhapssometimesprovocateur–intheranksofBTW’scritics.”LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915,(NewYork:Oxford,1983).473.5Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.

linkedhimtosorcery,beingasuperhero,oragod.6However,Chisum’sexpertise

developednotonlyfromamagicalpropheticvoicefromwithin,butfrom

understandinghowtousetheinformationamassed,fromlessonslearnedinthe

schoolofhardknocks,andcombinationsofmissions,lobbying,andcommissions.7

ResearchingdeeplyintheLouisHarlanpapersandothersourcesprovidesawider

contextofhowhelived,hisunderstandingofhimselfandthementhatpaidhimto

getworkdonebehindthescenes.Theresultrevealsamastermanipulator,a

MachiavellioraSvengaliwithouttheevilintent.8

In1922,theNationalNegroPressAssociation(NNPA)extendedhis

otherworldlyethostobeallseeing,allpresent,omnipotentinhiscovertactivities.

NewspapersoftheNNPAwhohadnotdiedoutmetwithindependent

newspapermentoforman“enlargedorganizationtoformaclosercooperation

amongtherace.”9Duringthemeetingblacknewspapermenandmembersinthe

printingtradecreatedanewpositionforMelvinChisum.Hebecamea“special

representativeofthePressAssociationtotourtheUnitedStatesintheinterestof

theorganization.”10NotethatoneyearlaterfounderoftheAssociatedNegroPress

(ANP,1919-1967),ClaudeBarnett(1889-1967),copiedtheposition.Barnetthired

6“NashvilleWelcomesPressAssociation,”TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1924.7Chisumlabeled“commission”toworkhedidforapercentageofthetake.8GeorgeMaurier,Trilby(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1894).Svengalibecameatermafterthecharacterinthebookseducedandhypnotizedagirlintobecomingasinger.Nowitsdefinitionisonewhocoachesorinfluencesanotherbysinisterinfluence.9“NashvilleWelcomesPressAssociation,”TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1924.10TheBroadAx(Chicago),18November1922.

PercivalL.Prattis(1895-1980)in1923asafeature/cityeditoroftheANP.11Prattis

assumedthetitleofANPfieldagentandcompetedagainstChisumasanNNPAfield

agentforstorylines.PrattisneverachievedthestatusasaWarwick.Therewasa

darksidetomenwhowereforhirebythosewhohadthecashtomanipulateothers.

Prattis“describedChisumasthesmoothestofalargegroupofunderhanded

operatorsinChicagoduringthe1920s.”Prattiscontinuedhisdescription,“he

[Chisum]hadalonghistoryofsecretiveandunprincipledmissionsforpay.”12No

informationexiststospecificallysupporthisclaim.However,ChandlerOwen,editor

oftheMessengersawthroughChisum’sone-sidedfaçadeofthehero.Inhisarticle

TheNeglectedTruthOwensdescribedChisumas,“M.F.C.(MasterofFooling

Crackers).”Chandler,ablacksocialisttaggedChisumandthenewspapermenaspart

of“aswarmofstool-pigeons,UncleTom’sandSambos...”13Chisum’stwo-pronged

nature,attheleast,wasnosecret.

Chisum’searlyadventuresinlife,alittleblackboyonhisownina

ReconstructionworldofTexas,developedwithinhimstreaksofmeanness,courage,

anddeterminationthataidedhimifandwhenhewentintotheunderworldof

placeslikeChicago,NewYorkandWashingtonD.C.Meannessstigmatizedor

brandedhisgeneration.Othermenfrominhiserapossessedsuchcharacteristics.

11PrattiswasfamousthefirstAfricanAmericannewscorrespondentadmittedtothepressgalleriesoftheSenateandHouseofRepresentatives.However,howwasChisummovedoutundertheHooveradministrationiftheywerenottheretobemovedin1928andyearsbeforeHoover’selection?12WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:APhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37,(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,1977)53.13ChandlerOwens,“TheNeglectedTruth:TheNegroPressintheHandsofWhiteFolksNiggers,”TheMessenger8(1925),80.80.

AccordingtoaformerlawmanintheTexasarea,DanielDeeHarkey(1866-1958),in

hisbook,MeanasHell(1948),menhadtobe“mean”inordertosurvive.During

Chisum’sgenerationmen“changedsociety’sorderandmadelawsstickwithguns,

knivesandaxes.Evenpeaceofficerstrailedthievesandmurderers,broughtin

rustlersandkillers,cleanedupviceringsandevenburnedballotboxes.”14Likethe

roamingyouthhehadbeen,inhislatefortiesandearlyfifties,Chisumat“fivefeet

sixinchesinheight,[mediumheight]withsuperabundanttissueuncorsetted,

[growingrotundinthemiddle]complexiondecidedlybrunette,[darkskinned]and

hairtruetonature[hairsnappedbacktonappyoratightcurlpatternaftercombing

it]”movedaroundthecountrygenerallyonhisown.15Chisumaddedoccupationof

fieldsecretaryoftheNegroPressAssociationtohisotherentrepreneurialworks.

Whilemissionsforthenewspaperassociationwerebasicallyfree,headdedtohis

potentialincomebyusingthespecialstatustoopendoorstomorevenues,usingit

forlocationsonceclosedtohimandopeningengagementsforspeaking.Heutilized

thepresspasswhileworkingonotherpersonaldetectivework.Chisumwasan

independentworker.Hecreatedhisownrules,usedhisownethicsorprinciples,

hadnosingleboss,noranyonetoreporttootherthanthepersonhecollectedhis

moneyafterajob.

Sometimesrelationshipsdevelopedincongressionalhallsthattookhimto

placesthatonlypoliticiansortheiraidswouldendeavortofrequent.Underthose

14DeeHarkey,MeanasHell(NewMexico:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1948).1.JamesSmallwood,MurderandMayhem:TheWarofReconstructioninTexas(Texas:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2003);ibid.15WendellPhillipsDabney,“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb,”inNegroCaravan,ed.SterlingAllenBrownandArthurDavis(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941),1001.

circumstancesChisumfoundcluesnewspapermenofothernationalitiescouldnot

access.Insiderrelationshipswithcongressmen,PresidentWarrenG.Harding,and

thePresident’ssecretary,GeorgeB.Christian,aidedhiscraft.Heknewthemby

name.Theyknewhimbynameandfame;frombeinganefficiencyagentduring

WorldWarIwithintheNegroEconomicsDepartment,tomissionsheaccomplished

forphilanthropists,andasacorrespondentwhowalkedcongressionalhalls.

Keepingfinanciallystable,Chisumalwayslookedforpersonal“commissions”from

thegovernmentofficialsasanefficiencyagent,manofbusiness,investigator,orfor

workasageneral“fixer.”

Forblacks,hewasa“walkingdelegate”inCongressionalhallsbutitis

possiblethatwhitepoliticianssawhimjustashewas-ageneralfixerforblack

situations-asotherblacksaroundthemwereadministrativeassistants.Hiswork

whilebeneficialtoallofferednoconflictingproblemtowhites,sincehewasnotan

electedofficialandheldnoseatofpower.HisRepublicanquasi-politicalposition-as

awalkingdelegatesortoflobbyist-remainedunaltered,when“lily-white”politics

affectedelectedblackRepublicanofficials.Chisum’scovertlobbyingwasprobably

doneinanUncleTom-cum-manofaffairsattendingtohigherupswithanattitude

thatkepthimin“hisplace”wheninthecongressionalpresence.Hewroteon

letterheadfromseveralcongressmenasifhemeanderedinandoutoftheiroffices.16

16TheauthortookmonthstofindoutwhoMelvinChisumwasaftersearchingincongressionalbooks.HisfirstletterstoI.W.YoungwerewrittenoncongressionalstationarymimeographedatthetopwithUnitedStatesSenateJuly____,WashingtonD.C.MEMORANDUM.SomeletterheadcamefromdifferentcommitteesincludingtheCOMMITTEEONEXPENDITURESINTHEEXECUTIVEDEPARTMENTS.August19,1033[1933].HewrotetohischildrenonUnitedStatesSenateletterheadandmemo

Histechniquewastounearththecongressionalbillsthatneededsupport,then,find

peoplewhowereinterestedinwhatheknew,thenusebothtohisadvantage.A

lettertoDr.Hinesshowedhisapproach,“ItismypleasuretotellyouthatIhave

takenthematterofyourBill[sic]upwiththenationalcommitteememberfrom

MarylandwhoisaclosepersonalfriendandoneofGod’sbestproductions.”17By

suchpursuits,ormissions-movingaroundthecountryvisitingveteransand

veteranhospitals-ChisumdiscoveredthehypocrisyoftheVeteransAssociation

againstRobertRussaMotonandtheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thediscoverywas

criticalintheeventsthatfollowed.Itwouldtakeallhiswizardryofinformation,the

useofpoliticalandfraternalconnections,hisabilitytojugglemissions,andprior

covertantics-allofhisexpertise-todiscovercomplications,exposevillains,and

solvethecrisisattheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.

Astensionsintensifiedoverwhetherblacksorwhiteswouldcontrolstaffing

andmanagementofthefirstandtheonlysegregatedblackVeteransHospitalever

built,someblacks,liketheirwhitecounterparts,schemedtofindwaystomake

moneyofftheproject.TwoofthehighestseatedbutlaterexiledblackRepublicans

duringtheProgressiveEra--bothWashingtonD.C.,attorneys--wereHoward

LincolnJohnson,Georgia(1870-1925)andPerryHoward(1877-1961),Mississippi.

Theyplacedthemselvesinpositionstogainmoney,prestige,andracialpoweratthe

TuskegeeVeteransHospital.Inthemeantime,twoblackOklahomansDr.J.D.Nelson

paper.ToMyverypreciousDaughterfromDaddy,18July1933.AnneJohnsonChisumPapers,LosAngelesCalifornia.17MelvinChisumtoDr.Hines,27November1920.RobertRussaMortonPapers,TuskegeeUniversityArchives,Tuskegee,Alabama,folderMJCSR1924.HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.

andWilliam“Bill”Jones,whofollowedColonelT.HughScott,aconsultantofthe

VeteransBureau,fromOklahomatoTuskegee,Alabama,clandestinelyjockeyedfor

powerandpersonalfinancialgain.TheVeteransBureau,undertheadministration

ofColonelCharlesForbes,became“anopportunisticpatchworkofindividual

briberyandgreed.”18Forbesparticipatedincorruptactivitieswithseveral

contractorsinvolvedinoperationofhospitalsthateventuallyledhimtobe

imprisonedinLeavenworth.ForbesthroughtheVeteransBureausoldgovernment

propertybelowcosttohiscolleagues.Johnson,Howard,NelsonandJones,allblack

men,plannedtomimicwhatwasgoingoninthenationalofficesoftheVeterans

BureauatTuskegee.TheywereattractedtoTuskegeeinordertousemoney

fraudulentlyfromthenewhospitalfortheirpersonalgain.Thesemenplannedto

bringdownblackleadersofTuskegeetoaccomplishtheirgoals.

InthesamewaythatOklahomansattackedandattachedthemselvestoBlack

FreemanIndianswhowerewealthy,Alabamawhiteswantedasortofguardianship

overthe$2.5milliondollarsforthehospitalforblackAmericansoldiers.Theattacks

forcontroloftheVeteransHospitalatTuskegeewereattacksonNorthAmerica’s

bastionofblackpride-TuskegeeInstitute,Dr.RobertRussaMoton,thecountry’s

mostpowerfulblackleader,andonblackAmericanrights.TheNationalVeterans

Bureau,underthedirectionofCharlesForbes,hadcontinuousscandalsand

Tuskegeewasnodifferent.Atitsinceptionin1920,VeteransHospitalNo.91in

Tuskegeewasinthemiddleofabattleforcontrolovermoneyandstaffing.Andrew

Mellon,whowasthenSecretaryoftheUnitedStatesTreasury,approved$2.5

18PhillipPayne,DeadLast(Athens:OhioUniversityPress,2009).59.

milliondollarsfortheconstructionoftheVeteransHospitalinTuskegee,Alabama.

Suchmoneyinthehandsofblacksdrewwolves.Gamblereferredtolettersfrom

whiteTuskegeeanswhobelievedthatthefightoverthehospitalwasforatestofthe

“supremacyofthewhiterace”becausewhitecontrolwasessentialsoasnotto

disturbracerelationsinthearea.AlabamaGovernorWilliamBrandon,SenatorJ.

Heflin,andtwostaterepresentativesW.BowlingandR.H.Powellsupportedthe

supremacyideal.19

WhiteConflictattheVeteransHospital

AsBlackWallStreetinTulsaservedasanationaliconforblackeconomic

success,sodidTuskegeeInstituteserveasthemostpowerfulblackcollegeinthe

nation.Itwaspowerfulbecauseofitssupportbywhitephilanthropists,andwhite

leaderssawitasaplaceofaccommodation.Forblacksandwhitesinanearlier

periodTuskegeeInstitutewasmorethanjustauniversity.BookerT.Washington

(BTW)establishedbothentitiesascentersforblackreform.BlackWallStreetin

TulsalayinruinsduetowhitemobviolenceinJune1921.Tuskegeeremainedthe

proudestbastionofblackeducation.TobetheTuskegeeinstitute’spresidentor

“principal”remainedasapositionofhighesthonoramongblackcollegepresidents.

Inthe1920s,manyblackcolleges,suchasHowardUniversityinWashingtonD.C.,

stillhadwhitepresidents.PresidentTheodoreRoosevelthadbelieved“thatthe

selectionofaprincipalforTuskegeeInstitutewasasimportantamatterasthe

19Gamble,MakingAPlaceforOurselves,90.

electionofthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.”20Whentheopportunitytoestablish

theblackVeteranshospitalonitscampus,TuskegeeInstituteneededprotection.

BTWcovereduphiscovertsupportforlegaldisputesduringhispresidency.When

LouisHarlanlookedforaSirGalahadintheBookerT.Washingtonpapers,hefound

ablackMachiavelli.MotonwouldsoonlearntoplaythesametunesasBTW,hehad

toorchestratetheleadershipthatwasneededduringthecrisis.

WhileRobertRussaMotonpossessedanexclusivepoliticalpowerasthe

PresidentofTuskegee,in1920,themostpowerfulelectedRepublicanblack

politiciansinthecountry,HowardLincolnJohnson(1870-1925)andPerryHoward

(1877-1961),losttheirpositionsasdecisionmakersandtheirabilitytohold

nationalofficeswhen“lilywhite”–acallfor“whitesuperiority”–emergedinthe

RepublicanPartyNationalConvention.21UnderPresidentsWarrenHarding,Calvin

CoolidgeandHerbertHooverlily-whitesreigned.22Thelily-whiteideological

strategyforcedblackpoliticianstodiscoverdifferentvenuesfortheacquisitionof

moneyfrompoliticalpatronage.TheyreachedwithinblacksocietytoTuskegee

lookingforpatronagedealsbutnotbeforewhiteAlabamansmadetheirstand.

20FrederickPattersonWilliamHughes,RobertRussaMotonofHamptonandTuskegee,(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1956),79.Untilhisdeathin1919,PresidentTheodoreRooseveltsatonBoardofTrusteesforTuskegee.Duringhispresidency,helinkedTuskegeetotheofficeofthePresident.21Theterm“lilywhite”originatedatthe1888RepublicanstateconventioninFortWorth,Texas.NorrisWrightCuney,blackRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896,calledthewhitesthatdroveblacksfromtheirseatstoachieveanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites,”(chapter4).22AlwynBarr,ReconstructiontoReform:TexasPolitics,1876-1906(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1971);DonaldLisio,Hoover,BlacksandLilyWhites(NorthCarolina:UniversityofNorthCarolina,1985);PaulCasdorph,Republicans,Negroes,andProgressivesintheSouth,1912-1916(Alabama:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1981).

WhitesinAlabama,supportedbyothersinthenation,cravedcontrolover

thehospitalsomuchthattheKluKluxKlanstagedamarchneartheTuskegee

campuswiththatpurposeinmind.Moneyallocatedforthehospitalenticedwhites

tofindawaytobenefitfromthehospitalthathadbeenbuiltonahistoricallyblack

collegecampus.Motonwasconsideredas“agood,noble,strongman...hardened

toabuseandmisunderstanding.”23AlbonHolsey,Moton’ssecretaryexplainedina

lettertotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementColoredPeople(NAACP)

that,“Thesoleinterestofthewhitepeopleinthehospitaliseconomic.Asidefrom

this;[sic]theydonotwishtohaveagovernmentinstitutioninthestateofficeredby

Negroesbecausetheyrealizethatthecoloredpeople’sresponsibilitywouldbe

solelytothegovernment,andtheycouldnotconsistentlycontrolthesituationin

anyrespect.InotherwordsandputtingitbluntlyasoneSouthernwhitemansaid,

‘Ifniggersareputattheheadofthishospital,they’llberesponsibleonlytothe

UnitedStatesgovernmentandwedonotwantanyniggersinthestatewhomwe

cannotcontrol.’”24NotallwhitesinthenationfeltthesamewayasAlabamans.

Gambleexaminedandchronicledthatwhitenewspapersandotherwhite

23FromMelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton“TheWorkGoesOn,”BaltimoreAmericanNewspaper(Maryland)2October1920fromGC604226422aTuskegeefileLibraryofCongress.24AlbonHolseytoB.J.Davis,30May1923,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleInManuscriptDivision,LibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,ManuscriptDivision,C419,LibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,(hereaftercitedasNAACP.)

communitiesarguedthatwhiteAlabamansdidnotfitthecriteriaofforVeterans

affairsinthisinstance.25

TheVeteransAdministration’sdubiousmethodsoffunctioningweretypified

intheproblematiclaunchofthehospitalinTuskegee.Inordertogetpermissionto

placethehospitalforblackveteransinTuskegee,onAugust18,1921,MajorW.N.

Kenzie,liaisonforPublicHealthService,guaranteedalocalcommitteeofwhitesthat

thehospitalwouldbe“controlledandoperatedbywhiteSouthernerswhowerein

touchwithlocalconditions.”26However,lessthanthirtydayslater,knowingofthe

promiseKenziereportedtothecommittee;thegovernment’sConsultantson

HospitalizationalsoacceptedthreehundredacresforthehospitalfromDr.Motonat

TuskegeeInstitute,withtheunderstandingthatblackphysicianswouldhavesome

controlandoperationofthefacility.

Callingthesaga,TheBattlefortheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,inherground

breakingbook,VanessaGambleallegedthatWilliamWhite,thechairmanofthe

ConsultantsonHospitalization,afterreceivingnoticefromKenzie,deliberately

misledDr.Moton,“toguaranteehiscooperationandnotjeopardizetheTuskegee

Institutegift”ofthreehundredacres.27Thetwomisdeedsonthepartofthe

governmentcreatedabattlefieldinAlabama,andeventuallyabattlearoundthe

country,overcontrolofthehospital.Whohadtherighttostaffthehospitaland

controlthe$6500forsalarieseachmonth?Bungledplanslaidthefoundationforthe

25Gamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves,78.26Ibid.,76.27Ibid.,94-95.RichardPowell,“HowU.S.GovernmentBrokeFaithwithWhitesandBlacksofTuskegee,”BirminghamDailyNews,”1July1923.

hospital.Indeed,Chisumuncoveredandexploitedtheinformationinnewspapers

thatitwasillegalatthattimeinAlabamaforwhitewomentonurseblacks.The

VeteransBureauhadalreadyplannedtohavewhitenurses,andsotheywouldhave

tohireblackmaidstoattendthesoldiers.Whenthehospitalopenedtoadmitblack

soldiers,whitenursesmadeapproximately$1600amonthandthemaidsdoingthe

actualworkmade$50amonth.

By1923,rumorscirculatedamongblacksthatwhiteAlabamanshadbeen

promisedthatthehospitalwouldbestaffedbywhites.Tokeepthetruthfrom

comingoutDirectorCharlesB.Forbes,craftilyappointedColonelT.HughScottof

Oklahoma,awhiteman,toworkwithMotonandChisum,“buildingpersonnelof

coloredprofessionalstomantheinstitutionwhenreadyforopening.”28Becauseof

thecommitmentofForbes,andintroductiontoColonelHughScott,Chisumand

Motonbelievedthatblackswouldindeedhavemost,ifnottotal,controlofthe

VeteransHospital.Unfortunately,Scottcontinuallymadeexcusesfornotmeeting

withthem.

DivorcedandremarriedandanewfatherofMelvinJuniorelevenmonths

later,Chisummovedaroundthecountryfrequently,accomplishingasmanyjobsor

“missions”tokeephisfamilyfinanciallystable.HiswifeAnnewithatoddlerand

expectingtheirsecondchild,retiredasanursetotakecareofherfamily.Annehad

attendedFredrickDouglassNursingSchoolinBaltimore.AswithhisfirstwifeMae,

Chisumdidnotbelieveinhiswifeworkingoncetheymarried.Thus,thefiftyyear

oldneededsteadyincometotakecareofhisfamily.Heownednobusiness,hadno

28PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),30June1923.

richrelatives,noeducationalbackgroundtoperformasteacherorprofessor.

Chisumhadtobealwaysdevelopingworkforhire.

Thelossoftheabilitytosellpatronagesaffectedhisincomeafterthe

RepublicanPartydevelopeda“lilywhite”agenda.Patronagecameinmanyforms

includingspecialdispensationforofficeholding,favorsaswellasmoneyand

politicaldeals.ForChisumpatronagewasawaytokeepsteadyincomecominginto

hiscoffers.Patronageswereincomethatapoliticianreceivedfromacquiring

positionsforaqualifiedcandidatewithinreigningadministration,whetheritbethe

DemocraticortheRepublicanParty.Untilthe1920sblackshadfoundpositionsfor

otherblacksintheRepublicanPartyatacost.Withfewblackshiredduringthe

termsofHarding,Coolidge,andHooverthis“graft”incomestoppedforChisumand

otherblackRepublicans.Chisumcontinuedtodoinvestigativeworkor“missions”

andalsoworkedforbigbusinessesasaprivateinvestigatororfixer.

OnJanuary24,1923,whileonamissionasfieldsecretaryfortheNational

NegroPressAssociation,Chisumexplainedthatfoundanoticeonthebulletinboard

inVeteran’sHospitalNo.65,(allwhite)inSaintPaul,Minnesota.Theinformationin

thefieldlettershowedduplicityinthemessagesthatForbes,theVeteransBureau,

Scott,PresidentHardingandHarding’sadministratorshadpassedtohimandMoton

duringspecialmeetings.ReadingtheletterrevealedtoChisumthatblacksinthe

countryhadmisinformationpassedtothemthroughChisumandMotonregarding

theplacementofblacksinthenewVeteransHospital.Thefieldletterfromthe

UnitedStatesVeteransBureauread:

U.S.VETERANSBUREAU

FIELDLETTER

NewHospitalatTuskegeeInstitute

ThenewU.S.Veterans’HospitalforcoloredveteransatTuskegee,Alabama,thefinestofitskindintheworld,isbeingconstructedbytheU.S.Treasurydepartment,andwillprobablybecompletedbetweenFebruary10and25.ThesumallottedfortheconstructionofthishospitalbytheTreasuryDepartmentwas$2,250,000.

Theplansallowforabout600beds,302tuberculosispatientsand294forneuropsychiatricpatients.Themedicalpersonnelwillbecomposedofwhitepersons.TheChiefnurse,chiefaids,chiefdietitiansandtheirassistantswillbewhite.Thestaffnurses,aidesanddietitianswillprobablybecolored.ThemedicalofficerselectedtotakechargeofhishospitalwillbefromtheReserveCorpsofthePublicHealthService,ofsouthernbirth,andonewhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro.

ThecoloredpeopleofTuskegee,andthesuperintendentandstaffatTuskegeeInstitutearegivinggovernmentofficialstheirheartyconsideration.29

Whathappenedtoseparatebutequal?ChisumandMotonunderstoodand

spreadthewordalloverthecountrythat“allblackworkers”wouldbeappointed

andhired.KnowingthescandalsthatovershadowedtheVeteransBureau,andthat

PresidentHardingneededtobecontacted,ChisumchosetogodirectlytoMotonfor

assistanceratherthaninformForbesofthesituation.Chisumtraveledfrom

TuskegeetoWashingtonD.C.,stoppingattheofficeofGeorgeChristian,secretary

(positionnowcalledChiefofStaff)toHarding.30Christianclaimedthatneitherhe,

29Ibid.30Payne,DeadLast,59.ForbeshadallthemoneyfromtheVeteransBureauand

norPresidentHarding,knewoftheVeteransBureau’snoticetohavewhite

leadership.Inessence,Forbeshadliedtotheblacksaboutthesituation.

MotonandChisumvisitedtheVeteransBureauonFebruary3,1923.On

Valentine’sDayin1923,PresidentMotonsentalettertoPresidentHarding

explaininghisembarrassmentbeforeAmericanBlacks.MotonwrotePresident

Hardingthat“Mattersthereseemedsomewhatconfused”aboutwhetherthe

hospitalwouldbestaffedbywhitesorblackswhentheyventuredintothedirector’s

office.31Motondidnotagreewithallwhitestaffing,buthewouldaccommodateto

concedetowhiteleadership,withblacksbeingabletoeventuallyqualifyandtake

over.BlackscouldnottaketheCivilServiceexamstoapplyforpositionsatthe

VeteransHospital.GivingthemtheabilitydosowasmostimportanttoMoton.

Insteadofdemandingrightsforblacks;Motonaskedforthechanceforblack

physiciansandnursestoqualifywithoutattemptingtousethepoweroftheofficeof

thePresidentofTuskegee,whosesupportcamefromdonationsbyphilanthropists

andtheStateofAlabama.TheTulsariotsandthefiresandlynchingsinChicagohad

Motonquestioningthefeasibilityofanall-blackstaffattheopeningofthehospital.

HeendedtheletterwithachallengetoPresidentHardingthat,iftheycouldnot

cometoterms,“astormofprotestonthepartoftheNegropressandfromNegroes

NorthandSouth,[willarise]whichIthinkwouldbemostunfortunate.”32

useditforhisownsystemsofpatronageandfeloniousactivity.31RobertRussaMotontoPresidentWarrenG.Harding14February1923,NAACPfiles,ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress.32MotontoPresidentWarrenG.Harding,14February1923,NAACP.

InthemeantimeMotonwrotetoJamesWeldonJohnsona“veryconfidential”

letter.HeneededthebackingoftheNAACP.MotonmentionedhislettertoHarding

writing,“Imeantoseethismatterthroughinawaythatwillbesatisfactorytous,or

elseIshallhavetogobeforethecountryandputtheblameupontheRepublican

PartyandtheHardingAdministration.”33Likehispredecessor,BookerT.

Washington,MotongrappledbetweenaccommodationtokeepTuskegeeandblacks

inAlabamasafeandorwhethertodemandimmediateactionfromthegovernment.

Hesettledonaccommodation.Blackleadersinthe1920s,includingChisum,didnot

agreewithMoton’schoice.ThemostpowerfulblackRepublicanpoliticianinthe

countryHenryLincolnJohnson,aRepublicanNationalCommitteemanforover

twelveyearsdidnotbackdownwhentheRepublicanPartygavehimanultimatum.

Evenhehadtobedraggedout.NowMorton,themostpowerfulblackintheposition

ofleadership,hadfallentoaccommodating?PossiblyMotonmusedthat“lily”

whitesstrippedJohnsonofallhispower.CouldithappenatTuskegee?Motonwas

notwillingtotakethechance.

BlackleadersinthecountrywentonarampageagainstMoton’sleadership

ofblacksintheUnitedStates.ChisumhonoredhisfriendshipwithMoton.Black

leadersstruggledintra-raciallytomaintainjusticeandreforminthe1920s.

AlthoughallblacksdidnotagreeontherightwaytostafftheVeteransHospital,

friendshipswereimportanttothem,astheywerethemenwhomadedecisionsfor

theirrace.Inthefashionofablackprogressive,ChisumdidnotagreewithMoton’s

approachtothesituationatTuskegeeVeteransHospital;andheurgedMotonto

33RobertRussaMotontoJamesWeldonJohnson,19February1923,NAACP.

pushrigidlyforanallblackstaffanddoctors.HewrotetoMoton,“comeonoveron

theNegroRace’s[sic]sidewhereyoubelong,”yet,Chisumremainedfaithfulto

MotonasafriendandleaderofblacksdespiteMotonhavingchosenanotherpath.

“YoumaybesurethatIloveyouasadearbrother–timeanddistancemakeno

differencebetweenyouandme–youareawarethatIloveyoufaithfullyandam

eternallyinterestedinallwhichconcernsyou.”34ThesewerethewordsChisum

wrotetoMotonwarninghimaboutapoliticalacquaintance.“Iamnotgoingtomake

anypleasforCongressmanMitchellbecauseyouhaveyourownideasasIknowbut

theydon’tinterferewithourfriendship,”Motonreturnedinhisletter.35Theirswas

afriendshipthatcouldstanddisagreement.Motonreturnedtothepracticesof

BookerT.Washington,heputthefocusonthegrassrootsblacksthatmightgethurt,

notonthetalentedtenthwhowantedimmediatejustice.Hedidnothavethe

TuskegeeMachinetobackhim(EmmettScottwasnothisloyalassistant)nordidhe

havetheNationalBusinessLeague.TheBusinessLeague,theblackpublic,NAACP,

andnewspaperscampaignedagainstMotonforhisstanceofaccommodation.

AttemptingtosaveMoton’sreputationandstandingamongblacks,onJune

30,1923,ChisumplacedallcorrespondenceintheMotonandNAACPfilesbetween

theHardingadministrationandtheVeteransBureau,includingpersonal

applicationsforpositionsintheVeteransHospital,inthePittsburgCourier

Newspaper.TheselettersdidnotexonerateMoton’sdecisionsabout

34MelvinChisumtoRobertMoton,20January1936,RobertRussaMortonPapers,TuskegeeUniversityArchives,Tuskegee,Alabama,folderMJCSR1924.HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.35RobertMotontoMelvinChisum,12May1936,MotonPapers.

accommodation,butdidgiveaclearerpictureofthesituation,includingthe

duplicityofgovernmentagenciestowardsblacks.Thetwo-page-spreaddelineated

thestepstakenbyChisumandMotontowardsgettinganallblackstaffforthe

hospital.

OnJuly1,MotonmadeanotherboldmoveinanefforttokeepTuskegeefrom

gettingattackedbyracists.InalettertothenewdirectorofVeteransBureau,

BrigadierGeneralFrankHines,Motonwrote,“ifNegroesareputinchargeofthe

hospital,thereisnodoubtinmyownmindthattherewillbeserioustrouble,which

maymeanthedestructionsoonerorlaterofmuchpropertyorseriousbloodshed,

and,thefar-reachingeffectontherelationsoftheracesintheSouth.”36TheNAACP

cutoffinvolvementwithTuskegeeInstituteandthehospitalaffairinprotestof

Moton’sstanceforaccommodation.Chisumstoodinthegap.

EvenMoton’ssecretaryletoutconfidentialinformationtothepress.In

betweenmissions,workingforothersbeyondthegovernmentandTuskegee,

ChisumhoundedHolsey-acrosscountryandback-untilhecouldget“threeheads

together,”he,HolseyandMoton.37CorneredbyChisum,AlbonHolsey,Moton’s

secretary,(muchunliketherelationshipofScotttoBookerT.Washington)

confessedtogivingoutnegativeinformationthatreachedtheWashingtonPost

Newspaper.InregardstoMoton,Holseyadmittedthathemadea“violationof

confidence.”38ThoughChisumdidnotagreewithMoton’sstanceofcompromise

withtheVeteransBureau;he“neverfailedafriend.”However,Chisumridiculed

36RobertRussaMotontoFrankT.Hines,1July1923,MotonPapers.37MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1September1923,MotonPapers.38AlbonHolseytoMelvinChisum,11August1923,MotonPapers.

Moton’spositionasfearful.AccordingtohistorianGamble,Chisumwroteto

BrigadierGeneralHines,thatMotonwas“intimidatedbytheAlabamaKluKlux

Klan.”39Whentheinformationintheletterwaspurposefullyleakedandcameback

toMoton,blacksintheNationalBusinessLeague,agroupsetupbyBookerT.

Washingtonthatfocusedonblackbusiness,attemptedtousethelettertoseparate

MotonandChisum.TheseparationcouldhavebeenthedownfallofMoton.Butthe

friendshipstoodwhenpoliticsseparatedthem.Chisumdidnotbackawayfrom

Motonbutstucktohisprinciples.WhenChisumbelievedinsomething,hewas

immovable;butitdidnotnegatehisloyaltytofriendswhodisagreed.40Oncehis

statementaboutMoton’sfearswentpublic,Chisumchosefriendshipoverpower.

HeleftaNationalBusinessLeaguemeetingwhenpeopleformedacommittee

toworkagainstMoton.Chisumwrote,“Iknowthatpeoplewhoprefertoseeyou

andmeapartasfriendswouldswearbyallthegodsthatit[themeeting]was

Chisum’swork,andImissedtheonesessionthatIwouldlikemosttohaveattended

toavoidbeingfurtherliedabouttoyou.”41Accordingtohisson,Dr.MelvinChisum,

Jr.,Chisum’sprinciplesseparatedhimfromothermen.“MyDadlivedanddiedby

hisprinciples.”Chisumchosetobeforthright.AsafriendtoMoton,heexplainedhis

understandingofthetruthinthewaytheDukeofWarwickwouldadviseaKing:

WhatyouneedDr.Motonisnotthefoolishflatteryofmenwhoareafraidtodisagreewithyou,youneedatthistimeaseverymanwhowieldspower

39Gamble,MakingAPlaceforOurselves,97.40AnneChisumJohnsontoAuthor,23November2007.ChisumPapers.Dulaney–BrowneLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity,Oklahoma,(hereaftercitedasOKCU.)41MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,25August1924.MelvinChisumFiles,TuskegeeInstitute,Tuskegee,Alabama,GeneralCorrespondence(GC)191-CA-C1-MCJSR,MortonPapers.

needs,youneedcounselofmenwhohavetheirhandsonthepulseofthepeople,menwhoareboldandunafraid.IamsayingthisbecauseIknowagooddealmorethanyourealizethatIknow,andmuchofitwouldbeofserviceifthosewhoseethroughhorseblindswouldletyoualoneandquitfoolingyouastowhatthePeoplearethinkingandsayingaboutyou....Iappealtoyouasyourfriendtoholdabitandgetdownonthegroundandlistentothestormofbitterresentmentagainstyouinthishospitalsituationamongstourpeople,isathingtoodefiniteandtoosubstantialtobeignoredandIbegyoutoquitthecoursewhichyouhavebeenpursuingforthelastsixmonthsandcallaroundyouthosemenwholoveyou,wholovetheRace,whoaretruetoyouandnolesstruetotheRace.42

BecauseofMoton’slinkswiththeRepublicanPartyandhisneedforsupportfrom

whitephilanthropistsheultimatelyretreatedfromtheoutrightbattleforthe

staffingofthehospital.UnderattackMortonusedthetacticsofBookerT.

Washington,steeringthepolemicsofequalityandjusticeawayfromtheUniversity;

hetoldthepressthatthefightwasinthehandsofpeople.“Thefighthadtocome

throughthepress,”hissecretaryAlbonHolseywrotetoJamesWeldonJohnson.

InAlabama,thefightforblackstostaffthehospitalbecameatestofthe

supremacyAnglo-SaxonraceagainstAmericanBlacksatthebastionofblackpower.

AsinOklahomainfirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,theArmyofLionsroared

intoaction.WhileMotonbarricadedhishome,blacknewspapers,theNAACP,called

fornocompromiseinthesituationatTuskegee.Motonplayedtheroleof

compromiserwhilesupportingthefight.Slowlyovertheperiodofayearblack

doctors,nurses,staffandpatientsgraduallytookallthepositions.HistorianVanessa

GambleinMakingaPlaceforOurselves(1995),pointedtoseveralfactorsforthe

42MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1September1923.MotonPapers.

win;theunitedeffortsofamongblacks,theworkofGeneralHines,theappointment

ofDr.JosephWardaschiefsurgeonandthenationalblackcommunitylearningto

fighttogether.Perhaps,Gamble’sgreatestpointwasthatnationallywhitesdidnot

agreewiththesouthernmentalitytoattackablackenclave.Itwasnon–traditional

intheSouthforwhitestostepoutoftheirplaceintoablackenclave.

WhileChisumworkedwithMotondealingwithintrablackconflictshe

workedwithGeorgeChristianandanotherunknowninformanttosolvewhathad

becameagreatcircusoferrors.Theemergingrelationship,friendship,between

ChisumandGeorgeB.Christian,secretarytothePresidentHarding(bulwark

betweenpresidentandthepublic)andoneofthepoliticianswhoinstigated“lily

white,”revealsthateventhoughpoliticsofwhitesupremacykeptmenofdifferent

racesapartinpublic,inprivatesessions,issuesofjusticeboughtmenasdifferentas

ChisumandotherwhiteRepublicanstogether.PresidentHardingalsomet

personallywithblackgroups,despitethefactthatwhitepoliticiansriskedlosing

votesifthepublicknewtheycollaboratedwithblacks.BecauseChristianand

BascomSlempstartedthe“lilywhite”rhetoric,Hardingneededtoprecedewith

cautioninhisdevelopingrelationshipwithChisum,Hardingcouldnotaffordtolose

votesbecauseheaidedblacks.43CorrespondenceshowshowChisummoving

aroundthecapital,aghostlyfigureinofficesofsenatorsandinthepresidential

chamber,madeadifferenceinracematters.

ThefirstlettersdealingwithTuskegeewerestiltedcorrespondenceshowing

thatChisumwasMoton’s“man-of-affairs,”takingcareofcorrespondenceinMoton’s43MelvinChisumtoGeorgeChristian,28February1923.NAACP.

stead.Inresponsetothelinefoundinthefieldletterabout“asouthernwhiteman

whounderstandsNegroes,”ChisumandChristiancorrespondedfromJanuaryuntil

thedebaclebetweenwhitesandTuskegeewasoverinJuly.Thestatementinthe

fieldletterthatsaid“medicalofficerselectedtotakechargeofhishospitalwillbe

fromtheReserveCorpsofthePublicHealthService,ofsouthernbirth,andonewho

thoroughlyunderstandstheNegro,”unnervedtheblackpopulation,andprompted

Chisumtodiscussitwithwhites.

NodetailsremainofChisum’svisitstothewhitehouse--justaswithinthe

BookerT.Washingtonpapers--somelettersonlyreflectthemeetingsonbenches

andunknownplaces.OnFebruary28,1922ChisumwrotetoChristian“The

southernerwho“thoroughly”understandstheNegroisonewhoorders,dictates

andbrowbeatstheNegro,andneverallowstheNegrotoexpressawishastowhat

hehimselffeelsisbestforhimself.”HoweveronFebruary23,1923Chisumwrote

Christiana“sincerepersonal”letterinwordingChisumreservedforhisfriends.

Duringthecorrespondence,distrustturnedintorespectbetweenthetwomen.

OneofChisum’smostimportantinformersfromtheVeteransBureau,who

calledhimselfG.B.,tooktheideaastepfurtherandlookedathisownlife.G.B.’s

responsetellsaboutChisum’scharacter,howasablackmanChisumbrokedown

barriersandmadechangesintheheartsofmenwhentheyactuallygottobein

relationshipwitheachotherbeyondthecolorline.Infact,thiscorrespondencewith

ChisumchangedthestatusoftheentireTuskegeebattlebecauseG.B.gavepertinent

informationontheVeteransBureautoturnthecaseinTuskegee’sfavor.

Tho’IamasouthernerandhaveallthetraditionalprejudicesofdecentSoutherners,Ineverhavehatedcoloredpeople,norwillIeverbeapartytoanyschemesagainstthemsimplybecausetheyareofthecoloredrace.TheinformationwhichIamabouttogiveyouisofamostdelicatenatureandtherearenotmanymenofmyowncolorwithwhomIwouldtrustit,butyou,thoughacoloredman,areoneofthesquarestmenwhomIhaveknown,andsinceyousaidthattheanswerstoyourquestionswouldbeofgreatandvaluableservice,Iamhandingitouttoyouforthepurposeofhelpingyou.44

WhydidChisumstandoutamongotherblackmenfightingforjustice?Eventhough

hecouldbediabolical,itwashisintrinsiccharacter–internalintegrityofpurpose-

thateventuallyturnedmentowardhimandcausedthemtohelphiminhisgoals.

Hisgoalswereracegoals.

UncoveringBlackPoliticalEspionageatTuskegee

ThestoryofthewhitesagainstblacksatTuskegeeisbetterknownthanthe

issuesofintra-racialconflict.However,blackpoliticiansforcedoutoftheirpositions

intheRepublicanPartyduringtheadministrationofPresidentWarrenHarding

attemptedtoinjectthemselvesintheTuskegeeventuretoregainprestigeand

money.Theyusedchaosinthebackgroundandracismintheforefront,to

manipulatetheirwaytotheirenrichment.Racismwasatthecenterofthebattles

overthestaffingofTuskegeeVeteransHospitalNo.91,butitwasnotthecauseofall

theconflicts.Withintheblackworldsomemenwerespieswhileotherswere

crooks.44G.B.toMelvinChisum,30June1923.NAACP.

Astorywithinastory,Chisum’sworkuncoveringsabotageintheTuskegee

crisisdidnotgounnoticed.Inthearticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof

TuskegeeVeteransHospital,”PeteDanielmentionedhowtwo“Negropoliticians...

attemptedtogaintheconfidenceofHardingandtheninstalltheirmenatTuskegee,

undoubtedlyexpectingtomakethemostofthepayrollandthesuppliesthatwentto

thehospital.”45ChisumuncoveredtheworkofhisfellowLincolnLeagueofAmerica

co-patriotsHenryLincolnJohnsonandPerryHoward.ContrastingChisumwith

politiciansJohnsonandHoward,showshowallthreeblackpoliticiansreactedto

racialoppressionwhenfacedwithlossofprivilegesandpatronage.

Theriseof“lilywhites”intheRepublicanPartyattheendoftheProgressive

EranotonlyforcedthefinalsegregationofblackRepublicanswhocontinuedtohold

positionsinlocal,state,andnationalcaucuses,italsoforcedblackpoliticianstofind

differentvenuesforpoliticalandsocialcontrolwithintheblackcommunity.46

StrippedofthesecurityofnationalandstateRepublicanchairmanships,atthe1920

RepublicanNationalConvention,twoofthemostpowerfulRepublicanNegro

politiciansHenryLincolnJohnson“Linc”(1870-1925)andPerryHoward(1877-

1961).

HenryLincolnJohnson,aRepublicancommitteemanfromGeorgia,

maintainedameasureofnationalpositionbycontrollingsixelectoralvotes.Perry45Daniel,BlackPowerinthe1920s,374.46Theterm“lilywhite”originatedatthe1888RepublicanstateconventioninFortWorth,Texas.NorrisWrightCuney,blackRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896,calledthemutineerswhotriedtodriveblacksfromtheirseatstoachieveanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites.”www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fcu20.

Howard,a“BlackandTan”RepublicancommitteemanfromMississippi,andonce

specialassistantattorneygeneral;Black-and-TansdescendedfromSouthernGrand

OldPartyoftheReconstructionerablacksandwhiteswhosupportedamore

inclusiveparty.NorrisCuney,EmmettScott’sformerbossbeforeBookerT.

Washington,waselectedthefirstpartychairmanin1886.Cuneyeventuallywas

strippedofnationalpowerthroughlily-whiteracialbigotry.HenryJohnsonand

PerryHowardattemptedtogaincontrolinthelaststrongholdofblackpower,

TuskegeeAlabama.47Followingtheconvention,bothmenlosttheirpositionsthat

allowedthemtheabilitytomakemoneythroughthepatronagesystem.Johnsonled

theBlackandTanFactionoftheRepublicanPartyinGeorgiaandwasappointedby

PresidentWilliamTaftasRecorderofDeedsinWashingtonD.C.1909-1913.Under

WoodrowWilson,forwhom“Linc”campaigned,“lillywhites”thenoustedblacks

frompartyleadership.PerryHowardledadistinguishedcareerasaBlackandTan

RepublicancommitteemanfromMississippi.Theybothusedtheragingcrisisofthe

TuskegeeVeteransHospitalinanattempttorebuildtheirowncredibility.Together

asRepublicanPartyrepresentativestheywenttoPresidentHardingtogetthe

powertohirefortheVeteransHospital.Theybothresumedtheirlivelihoodsas

lawyersinWashingtonD.C.

Initially,blackpoliticiansputtheirfaithinPresidentHardingbecauseonthe

campaigntrailin1920,whenhevisitedwithblackRepublicansinOklahoma,in

47See,JMorganKoussar,TheShapingofSouthernPolitics:SuffrageRestrictionandtheEstablishmentoftheOnePartySouth(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1974);MichaelPerman,StruggleforMastery:DisfranchisementintheSouth,1888-1908(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001).

frontofacrowdoffifteenhundredpeople,Hardingstated,“Youcan’tgiveoneright

toawhitemananddenyittoablackman.Ibelieveintheenforcementofthe

constitution.Don’tyou?”Blacksbelievedtherhetoricof“lilywhite”wouldonlylast

duringthepresidentialelection.Amongthosewhogatheredintheofficeofthe

president,Chisum,Johnson,andHowardheardHarding’sannouncementbeforehe

passedittothepress.However,in1920,soonaftertheRepublicannational

primarychoseWarrenHardingastheircandidate,inapremeditatedbutsubtleact

ofbravadotobringmoreSouthernwhitestotheRepublicanParty,Republicans

BascomSlempandGeorgeChristianledarevoltofwhitepoliticiansagainst

southernblackpoliticalleaderswithintheRepublicanParty.

Whiteracismintheformof“lilywhite”forcedHarding’srhetorictochange

afterhisinaugurationin1921.Beforetellingthepress,inanapologeticmanner,

HardingexplainedinaclosedmeetingtoablackcaucusofRepublicansthatsat

beforehimthathisadministrationwouldfollowthewhitesupremacyagenda.48

Whentheblackcaucusleft,rumorsofhisdecisionleaked.Incompleteunbelief,local

WashingtonNAACPmenArchibaldGrimke,SheldonDavidson,CharlesCottrilland

JamesCobbcampedintheswelteringsummerheatinWashingtonwaitingfor

PresidentHardingtoreturnfromvacationandhearthedetailsforthemselves.49

UnderduressHardingdecided,“Iamverythoroughlyconvincedinmymindasto

thepolicythatIamgoingtoinauguratewithreferencetoappointments,andthatis,

48“ManyRumorsInWashington,FewAppointmentsDefinite,ExecutiveCommitteeFormedtoMaintainNationalHeadquartersAtWashington[sic],”SavannahTribune(Georgia),12March1921.49“DividedonPresident’sStatement,”NegroStar(Kansas),5August1921.

Iamnotgoingtoappointanycoloredmentopublicofficeinthesouthernstates.

Thisthingcalledraceprejudiceyoucannotdownbybattlingitandtheonlysolution

asIseeit,forthecoloredmenintheSouth,istofallintoranksbehindwhite

leadershipuntilhecan,actingthroughSouthernlegislatures,workouthis

destiny.”50HardingcontinuedthesamepolicyintheNorthwithveryminor

exceptions.AccordingtotheWashingtonBeenewspaper,tostopblackRepublicans’

outcryforsomeonetogetan“officeoffirstrank”oneblackman,CharlesAnderson,

aformerspyforBookerT.Washington,wasappointedtotheoldthirdDistrictin

NewYorkasinternalRevenueCollector.51

Inaworldofheightenedracialconsciousness,HenryJohnsonandPerry

Howard’spowerfulpositionsintheRepublicanPartyupto1920hadtheeffectofan

“eggsittingonawall”tosouthernwhitepoliticians.Theyhadtofall.Johnsonand

Howard’spositionsinthepre-1920s“GrandOldParty”madethemakintoblack

monarchsbecausewithintheirhomestatesofGeorgiaandMississippitheyhadas

muchpowerandauthorityovertheelectionofaparty’scandidatesasNorthern

whitemenandmorethanmanySouthernwhitepoliticians--thatisuntilthe1920

RepublicanNationalConvention.Whiletheyweldedthispower,theyalsomuddied

themselveswithmuchpoliticaldirtsincetheywereinthemidstofasmany

patronagescandals,fraudulentschemes,andmoneylaunderingastheirwhite

50Ibid.51“CharlesW.AndersontobeInternalRevenueCollector.”WashingtonBee,9July1921.Seealso“DispatchReceivedfromPoliticalCorrespondent,”SavannahTribune,(Savannah),23July1921.

contemporariesinthewhiteworld.52JohnsonandHowardforatimecoulddono

wrongandwhentheywerecaught,theydidnotgetpunished.Johnson“hada

reputationforsellingfederalappointmentsinhispositionasamemberofthe

RepublicanNationalCommitteeandasarecorderofdeeds.In1912–1913,hewas

chargedwithsolicitingpoliticalsubscriptionsandviolatingcivilservicelawwhen

hewasacollectorofinternalrevenueinAtlanta.”53Violatinglawsdidnotremove

politicianslikeJohnsonfromoffice.Ifanything,hethoughtitmadehimoneofthe

“goodoldboys.”54

NoonecouldobtainafederalappointmentinMississippi“withoutthe

supportofsaidPerryW.Howard.”55PerryHowardranapoliticalmachinein

Mississippifraughtwithpatronageabuse.Thefederalgovernmenttriedand

indictedHowardtwiceforsaleofpatronageinMississippi.MenpaidHowardupto52SeeNeilMcMillen,"PerryW.Howard,BossofBlack-and-TanRepublicanisminMississippi1924-1960,"TheJournalofSouthernHistoryXLVIII,no.2(1982).AndseeOliveShadgett.TheRepublicanPartyinGeorgiaFromReconstructionThrough1900(Atlanta:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1964),132-133.53RobertHill,TheMarcusGarveandUniversalNegroImprovementPapersed.RobertHill,vol.IV(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985).54JohnsonandHoward’spoliticalprogramscontradictedtheaveragetwopartysystem’schainofpowerinthesegregatedSouth.AsfarbackastheCivilWarblacksalignedwiththepoliticsandgoalsoftheRepublicanParty.Bythefirsthalfofthetwentieth-century,thewhitetoblackpatronagecharacterizedthedominantmodeofupwardmobilityinblackpolitics.BlacksandwhitesofthePartycarriedonasymbioticrelationship.Bythefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturythewhitetoblackpatronagecharacterizedthedominantmodeofupwardmobilityinblackpolitics.Whitesneededtheblackvoteinordertowin.Blackswhocouldgatherthevotesfromtheirconstituencyweretheblacksthatobtainedofficesaspartofthespoilssystem.Thesemenpassedonpoliticalfavorstootherblackpoliticiansandbusinessmen.Thiseffortgaveblackstheideathattheballotservedasasafeguardfortheirliberties.Thisfalsesenseofprotectioneventuallycreatedafalsesenseofstablegroundinaracistworld.TheJohnsonandHowardpoliticalbaseswereallblackconstituencies.Theydidnotneedthewhitevotetohavetheirpositions.55McMillen.136.

$2,500forpoliticalpatronagepositions.56ItwasnotaproblemtoHoward,who

sometimespassedforwhite,thatMississippihadmoreblackpeoplethanwhitebut

lessthan1,700blackswereeligibletovote.Henotonlylookedwhitebutwhites

treatedhimlikeawhitepoliticianinMississippi.UnlikeChisumandJohnson,he

lobbiedagainstbasicblackjusticeissuessuchastheDyerAntiLynchingBill.Walter

White,secretaryoftheNAACPwrote,“ThereareNegroeslikePerryHowardwhofor

thesakeofpersonalgainwouldknifeeveryNegrointhecountry.”57Accordingto

BorisHeersinkandJefferyA.JenkinsprofessorsintheDepartmentofPoliticsatthe

UniversityofVirginia,unlikeothersouthernstates,thelily-whitesnevertookover

theBlack-and-TansinMississippiunderPerryHoward,“Infact,between1892and

1952Mississippi’sdelegationwasmajorityblackwithonlyonexception(1920,

when45.8%ofdelegateswereblack.)58

HowardandJohnson’spoliticalaspirationsdifferedlittlefromthoseof

MelvinChisum.WhileChisumclaimedhispowerandprestigebyhisdarkershadow

ghostingthroughthecongressionalhallsandpresidents’administrativeoffices,

JohnsonandHowarddisplayedtheirpowerthroughtakingpatronagemoneyfrom56Blackswerenottheonlypoliticianssellingpatronagepositions.JosephTolbertanAngloBlack-and-TanfromSouthCarolinaallegedlysoldofficesforasmuch$2000.See“TolbertDeniesSaleofOffices,”NewYorkTimes(NewYork),1August1922.“SaleofPatronageinSouthCarolinaChargedatHearing,”WashingtonPost(WashingtonD.C.,31October1924.“TolbertReappointmentSeenUnconstitutional,”WashingtonPost(WashingtonD.C.),10March1923.BorisHeersinkandJeffreyJenkins,“Black-and-Tansvs.Lily-Whites:RaceandRepublicanPartyOrganizationintheSouthAfterReconstruction,1868-1952,”in2016AnnualMeetingofthePoliticalScienceAssociation(Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,2016).57WalterWhitetoS.D.Redmond,8January1923.NAACP.58HeersinkandJenkins,“Black-and-TansVs.Lilly-Whites:RaceandRepublicanPartyOrganizationintheSouthAfterReconstruction,1868-1952,”172.

thehighestbidders.Johnsonwasaraceman.Howardclaimedwhateverwas

beneficialtohim.Chisumwasanindependentdoingwhatwasbestforhim.

Eventually,evenJohnsonfounditwashardtobeakinginakingdomcreated

byyouroppressors.TotoppleJohnsonandHoward,Republicanshadtoinstitute

whitesupremacy.JohnsoncontrolledsixelectoralvotesinGeorgia.Whenhegave

themforTaftforPresidentin1910,JohnsonwasgiventheappointmentofRecorder

ofDeedsforWashingtonD.C.Johnsondevelopedsuchpowerthatlikehiswhite

colleagues,hismisdeedsneverresultedinpunishment.RacismcausedJohnson’s

downfall.In1920lesssuccessfulwhitesfromGeorgia,thosewhomhehadleft

behindinthe1880s,covetedhisposition.Republican“lilywhite”wasthetoolthat

broughtdownsuchapowerfulman.

Unlikemanyblackrepublicans,physicallyejectedfromtheirseatsafterthe

acceptanceoflily-whitebytheparty,Johnsoncouldnotatfirstbeunseatedonthe

statelevelornationallevelbecausehiscontrolofelectoralvotesgavehimtoomuch

authority.TheNegroStarNewspaperreported,“Nomaninrecentyearsoutrank

[sic]himinpoliticalcunningandpower.”59Duetohishighrankinginthe

RepublicanPartyandaspartofadealforhimtoholdapatronageposition,

PresidentHardingnominatedJohnsonasRecorderofDeeds.TheNewYorkTimes

reportedthat“JohnsonhasbeenastormcenterinRepublicanpoliticsrecentlyand

thebeliefprevailsthathewasnominatedfortheRecorderofDeedsasapreliminary

59HenryJohnsondiesAfterAStroke:WasFormerRecorderofDeedsandG.O.P.Committeeman.”NegroStar,18August1925.

tosuggestingthatheresignasNationalCommitteemanfromGeorgia.”60The

charges(ofapoliticalnature)madeagainsthimarenotworthyofmuchattention,

asfarasweareabletosee.”61JohnsonrefusedtoresignfrombeingRepublican

NationalCommitteeman.HebecamethefirstAfricanAmericancalledbeforea

SenateCommitteeSubcommittee.

August1921wasayearofdisastersforblackRepublicans.OnAugust2,

PresidentWarrenHardingdied.ThatsamemonthJohnsonsufferedastroke“being

attackedsosuddenlyhewasbutabletocallforhelpoverthetelephone.”62

However,hestillwentbeforetheSenateandtestifiedbeforeaSenatecommittee.A

subcommitteeoftheSenateCommitteeonPrivilegesandElectionsinvestigatedhim

forfraudulentpresidentialcampaignspending.“Johnsonadmittedthatheaccepted

$9,000ofthe$20,000spentbytheLowdenforcesinGeorgiabutdeclaredthat

supportersofGeneralLeonardWoodforthenominationhadspentbetween

$60,000and$65,000inthatstate.”CongressrejectedtheJohnsonnomination.

Johnson’sclaimtothe“goodoldboy”privilegesnolongerexisted.

Seekingtokeepsomepower,JohnsonandHowardsetupanoperationin

WashingtonD.C.todeceiveblackleadersandmakemoneythroughpatronageby

usingtheVeteransHospital.WhenMotonfirstrequestedHardingtosupplythe60“HardingGivesPosttoLincolnJohnson:NominationofNegroforDistrictofColumbiaRecorderMayCauseRowinSenate,”NewYorkTimes(NewYork),29June1921.61ClevelandGazette(Cleveland),27August1921.“LilyWhiteism[sic]onRampageAppearstotheRepublicanProgramfortheSouth.”SavannahTribune(Georgia),4June1921.62“HarryLincolnJohnsonStrickenforParalysis[sic].ColoredRepublicanLeaderNominatedforRecorderofDeeds.”WashingtonBee,(Washington),3August1921.

VeteransHospitalwithallblackshemadeamovethatwouldlaterembarrasshim

andfrustrateblackleaders.AccordingtomemorandumfromMay1923meeting:

HardingsummonedHenryLincolnJohnsonandrequestedhimtogetintouchwithleadersofhisracetodetermineuponaslatewhichcouldbeimmediatelyputinchargeoftheTuskegeeHospital.InsteadofdoingasthepresidentrequestedaccordingtoMr.Holsey’sdirectstatement,Mr.JohnsonsawanopportunitytousetheTuskegeeHospitalmatterasameansofregainingconfidenceofthecoloredpeopleforhimself,PerryHowardandotherNegropoliticians.Theplanwastogetthehospitalintheircontrolasasortof“piecounter.”Throughthecontrolofappointmentstothehospital,Messrs.Johnson,HowardandRoscoeSimmons,etal,determinedtopurchasesupportofappointeeswhichwouldbevaluableinviewofthe1924Presidentialelection.63

ChisumaidedTuskegeeVeteransHospitalandthegovernmentasmuchasspying

helpedBookerT.Washington’sadministration.ChisumdiscoveredHowardand

Perry’splansandsetupHolseytogetthereinstatedintheeyesofMoton.Herbert

Seligman,secretaryoftheNAACP,knewthatChisumdiscoveredtheconspiracy.

However,hedidnotknowwhyHolseysolvedthesituationratherthanChisum.

MaybeforChisumitwaspartofthedealaftersavingMotonduringthehospital

crisis.OrwithChisumsomethingthatpaidactuallycameupintheinterim.

Whatever,Chisumwrote:“Ifoundacommissionawaitingmewhichtookmeaway

fromWashingtonimmediatelywiththeresult,Iwascompelledtosuspendmy

activitiesintheVeteransBureaubusinesstemporarilybutbeforegoingIdispatched

acalltoMr.Holsey,whichboughthimtoWashingtontotakemyplaceandhedida

63“MemorandumofConferenceBetweenJohnE.Nail,AlbonLHolseyandWalterF.White,”7May1923.NAACP.

bangupjob,betterthanIwouldhavedoneit.”64Asaprovocateursometimes

Chisumpurposelydisappeared,leavingcriminals,hewasofthesameilk,orin

difficultywiththelaw.Thistactichelpedhimtoretainhisanonymityandkeephis

cover.

HolseystoodoutsideandlistenedthenwalkedintoHoward’sofficeand

discoveredHenryJohnson,PerryHoward,andanotherrepublican,RoscoeSimmons,

makingplanstocontrolthehiringoftheVeteransHospital.Atthatpoint,thethree

refusedtostoptheirinterference,claimingPresidentHardinggavethemauthority.

HolseysentoutapressreleasedenyingthatJohnson,HowardandSimmonswere

handlingtheapplications.Finally,theonlywaytogetthegrouptostopwasgoingto

thedirectoroftheVeteransBureau.“GeneralHinessummonedJohnsonandread

himtheriotacttohimonhiscock-surenessoverthesuggestionmadetohimbythe

President.”65ItwasreportedthatJohnsonandHowarddidnothavePresident

Harding’sbacking.Theywereonlysupposedtogivelistsoftheirconstituentsfor

positionsinthehospitaltothecommitteeofHolsey,WhiteandChisum.

“Oklahoma,sitaloneandtalkandwatchahawkmakelazycirclesinthesky!”66

TheeliminationoftheinfluenceofJohnsonandHowardwouldnotbethe

finalprongofpowerfulblacksattemptingtoinfiltratetheTuskegeeVeterans64MelvinChisumtoHerbertSeligman,15May1923.NAACP.65AlbonHolseytoDr.GeorgeCannon,4May1923.NAACP.66DiannaEverett,"Oklahoma!"TheEncyclopediaofOklahomaHistoryandCulture,www.okhistory.org(accessedSeptember29,2018).

hospital.Thefinalattackcamefromwithintheenvironsofthenewlyhiredblack

community.Informationontheinvestigationcomesfromaconfidentialreport

ChisumsubmittedtotheVeteransBureauin1926.Insteadofgoingintothe

investigationasaMachiavellian;ChisumwentinasSvengaliwiththeevilintentto

hypnotizeandmanipulatethevillains.Nomagicorsorceryneeded;Chisum’sfirst

missionforBTWin1914aidedChisumasdetective.

Overtheyears,Chisum’sinvestigationsgarneredreputationsonboththe

goodsideofthelawandthewrongside.Sometimesheactedasafixer,kingmaker,

andrace-man;andontheotherside,hefittedPrattis’descriptionofhimas

“secretiveandunprincipled.”Hewasnotoneortheotherbutallofthemplusmore.

ShapeshiftingaseasilyasaCelticspirithecouldbeaChicagounderworldmobster

inonemomentin1915Oklahoma,anda“yessir”saying,UncleTom,thenext.His

lastmissionatTuskegeeVeteranshospitalshowsatechniquethatChisumcoulduse

--Svengali.Inthe1895novelbyGeorgeduMaurier,Trilby,theroleofSvengaliwas

ofamanwhothroughhypnosiscouldusehisvoicetosubjugateandtransform

anotherhuman,makingthemnomorethanpawnstohim.Morethantheroleof

provocateur,apersonwhoprovokestroubleorcausesagitation,Chisum’spastlife

showshowonebecameeffectiveindealingwithsituationsonlyanothercriminal

mindcoulddiscern.Intheeyesofscoundrels,inthefirstquarterofthetwentieth-

centurywhentheysawChisum,theysawakingoftheunderworld.Thisinformation

comesfromaConfidentialReporttotheVeteransAdministrationtotheVeterans

BureauwrittenbyChisumMarch10,1926.Thereportisunusual.Itisoneofthe

firstdelineatedreportswrittenbyChisumotherthanhisletterstoGeneralHines

duringWorldWarI.Itshowshisadherencetoworkingwithinandadheringtoan

organizedestablishment.

Aproblemwithdoinghistoriographyisthatintwentieth-centuryhistory,

Oklahoma’sstanding,asamajorblackenclaveinthenation,remainsunderscored.

ToomuchattentioniscasttotheEastwhilewhathappenedinOklahomais

neglected.InOklahoma,onefoundtheriseofallblacktowns,severalpersonalvisits

ofBTWfrom1905totheNationalNegroBusinessLeaguemeetingheldin1914;

Oklahomanswhohelpedestablishedthebusinessleague;therichestblacksinthe

worldwereOklahomansintheearlyteens;andoneofthreeblackcollege

presidents.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung’sheldthenation’sfirstblackassistant

governorship,andBTW’sestablishmentofbanksandBlackWallStreetcarriedvast

nationalimplicationsforblacknationalism.Aparadigmshiftinhistoricalnarrative

wouldshowhowOklahomaandblackOklahomansledthenationthroughoutthe

firstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Yettheinformationinsteadofbeingamajor

buildingblockinthenation’shistoryistreatedasmortarinsteadofamajorbuilding

block.Certainly,followingthelifeofChisumdemonstratesthatOklahomawas

centralinBlackNationalism,justasBlackWallStreetandtheTulsaRaceMassacre

wascentralinpoliticsinthefirstquarterofthetwentieth-century.

Duringtheperiod1914-1916,whenChisumwasrunoutofOklahomaona

chargeofcriminallibel,hemetWilliamJonesandDr.J.D.Nelson.Chisum’s

reputationfromtheInmanPageaffairattheColoredAgricultureandNormal

University(LangstonUniversity)drewattentionalloverthenation.67Chisum’s

infamousjumpfromatraininthestateofOklahomatogetawayfromlaw

enforcementthatputanetworkofpoliceandmarshalsouttocatchhimbecame

legendinthecountry.68ChisumcarriedouthislastmissionforBookerT.

WashingtoninOklahoma,anddidsomeofhisownpersonalinvestigationagainst

InmanPagewhileinOklahoma.Chisum’sreputationfromtheInmanPageaffairat

theColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity(LangstonUniversity)drewattention

alloverthenation.69HeeventuallygotawaybyridingatraintoMuskogeewherehis

friendshelpedhimcatchatrain.In1916alongwithothernewspapersaroundthe

country,theDenverStarcorrectedtheepisode.OnceknownforlibelChisumbecame

knownasahero.Theywrote,“MelvinJ.Chisumknownastheheroof“Langston

University,”inOklahomahasatlastwonhisgreatfightforbetterconditionsinthat

institution,andmanycivilandcriminalactionsinstitutedagainsthimhavecometo

naughtsincethegovernorhaspardonedChisumintheonlycasethathasbeenmade

tostick.Mr.Chisum’sfightwasformoralelevationinthemanagementofthe

school.”70Jonesknewoftheepisode.JonessawChisum’snewherostatusasthatofa

67OklahomaTribune,(Oklahoma),15August1915.OKCU.“EditorChisumPardonedandParoledByCourtAftertheJudgediscoveredtheChargesUponWhichHewasConvictedWereTrue,”PhiladelphiaTribune,(Philadelphia),13January1917.“NewsBureauPromotor,”DenverStar,(Denver),13January1917.NegroEditorisreleasedonBond,”FortGibsonGazette,(FortGibsonOklahoma)2march1916.“ChisumisVindicated,”DenverStar,(Denver,Colorado)28October1916.“ChisumAgainintheToils,”AfroAmerican,(BaltimoreMaryland),15September1916.68RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(London:AdelphiTerrace:T.FisherUnwinLTD.,1920).69OklahomaTribune(Oklahoma),15August1915.70“MelvinJ.ChisumtoEnterChisolm[sic]ServiceatDenison,Texas,”DenverStar,(Denver),21October1916.

greatconmanwhowonagainstinordinateodds.ChisumknewJonesasaslickcon

artist.ButlikePrattis,JonesbelievedChisumwastheslickestofhisgeneration.

In1926whenChisumattendedtheannualNationalNegroBusinessLeague

meetingheldinTulsa,Oklahoma,hegatheredinformationaboutaschisminthe

innerbowelsoftheTuskegeeVeteranshospital.Onlyamanwhotraveledas

extensivelyintheblackworldandbetweenallpoliticalworldsoftheUnitedStates,

suchasChisum,couldputtogetherinformationandknowhowtouseit.Helearned

thatmen,whohadembezzledfromblackOklahomacivicorganizations,shiftedtheir

workfromBoleyandTaft,Oklahoma,toTuskegee,Alabama.Themenheldpowerful

positionsatthenewveteranshospital.HedidnotsetoutforWashingtonor

Tuskegee.OnthewaytogetthecommissionforhandlingTuskegeehestoppedin

Richmond,VirginiaforanElksmeetingandwenthometohisfamily.

TheinvestigationintotheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalfortheVeteran’s

Bureauwasamission.Thereportwasdoneasanarrative.By1924,theworkersat

theinstitutionwereallblack.ThehospitalwasturnedovertoDr.JosephH.Wardas

medicaldoctorincharge.ThechiefengineeroftheVeteransHospital,WilliamJones,

ablackmanfromOklahoma,filedseveralchargesagainstDr.Ward’sadministration

withthelocalandnationalVeteran’sBureau.Thechargesincludedservinga

luncheonforblackphysiciansoutofVeteranfunds,buildinggaragesforstaff

physicians,Dr.Ward’suseofhospitalgasinhisprivatecarandtheuseofhospital

vehiclestohaulequipmentforentertainment,sharingthewatersupplywiththe

UniversityandallowingMotontodominatetheVeteranshospitalaffairs.71The

VeteransBureauandPresidentCoolidge’sadministrationcalledMelvinChisumto

dealwiththein-houseproblems.BecauseofhisworkintheOklahomaearlierinthe

firstquarterofthetwentiethcenturyitprovedeasytodealwiththemission.

Chisumonlyhadtocheckintothehotel,swaggeraroundthegrounds,talkaboutthe

hospitalwithpeopleofTuskegee,andwait.

JonesassumedChisumwaslookingforgraft.SoonJonescontactedChisum

throughayardmanwhoworkedfortheVeteransHospital.Jonesrequestedheand

theyard-manMr.YatesmeetwithChisumat10pminChisum’shotelroom.Chisum

wrote,“Ipromptlyadjustedmyattitudetomeethiswishesinorderthathewould

talkwithmorefreedom.”Jonesplannedonusingthenewspaperstoslowlydestroy

Dr.Ward’sreputation.OnlytenyearspriortothemonthMelvinChisumusedthe

OklahomaTribunenewspapertodestroythereputationofPresidentInmanPageof

OklahomaColoredAgriculturalandNormalUniversity.Inhispositionoffield

secretaryoftheNNPAChisumcouldaidJonesindoingthesameforDr.Ward.

However,Chisum,allknowing,said,“Bill,youarestalling.Youareplayingadeeper

gamethanyouhavetoldme.Now,ifyouwantmetohelpyouplayyourgame,you

mustletmeinalltheway.”AfteraskingChisumifhe“wantedtomakesomereal

money”andascertaininghis“yes”JonesgaveChisumtheinformationheneededto

solvetheproblemsattheVeteransHospital.Jones’schemewastoframeDr.Ward,

Mr.Roney,PropertyCustodian,andMr.Burke,BusinessExecutive.ThemoveinDr.71MelvinJ.Chisum,"(Confidential)theFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"inNationalNegroPressAssociation,ed.WashingtonD.C.(Chicago:NationalNegroPressAssociation,1926).2.NAACP.

J.D.Nelson,Jones’colleaguefromOklahoma,intothepost,Mr.YatesintoMr.

Roney’splaceandChisumcouldhaveMr.Burke’splace.Jonesbelieved“Hundredsof

thousandsofdollarsarespenthereeveryyearforsupplies,anwithourmenin

chargehere,wecancleanupandretireinfiveyears.”Chisumagreedtothescheme

anddelvedintofixingthematter.72Afterall,Chisumhadclaimedpatronagemoney

forgettingthepatronagepositionforDr.Ward.ActingasJones’allyChisumsubtly

turnedthingsaround.CarefullyoveraperiodofdaysChisumwentalongwithJones’

plansasonewhowouldbecomeinvolvedwithJones’espionage.

LeavingTuskegeeChisumwrotetoJonesthathewoulddoallthatwas

neededhowever.Hewouldseeasenatorrelatedtothematter.However,“Bythe

way,IseemtohavelosttheslipofpaperonwhichIwrotehisinitials,andIdonot

recallthem.Kindlyprovidethemimmediately,sothatImayincludehisfullname,

andwaitforthebelltoring.”Jonesansweredimmediately,“MydearMelvin...

ThoseinitialsareJ.D.Dr.J.D.Nelson,ofOklahoma.…”73Jonesownletterimplicated

ChisumaccumulatedstatementsaboutJonesandNelsonfromtwojudgesin

Oklahoma.TheinformationwasthatwhileinBoley,Oklahoma,Jones“stole

everythinghecouldgethishandson...Hegotthecitytocontractwithhimtobuild

72Ibid.,3-5.NAACP.73Ibid.,10.NAACP.

aCityWaterWorksplant.Wespent$49,000ontheproject,butwehavenowater-

worksfromtheinvestment.”74

Likewise,Jones’partner,Dr.J.D.Nelson,wasacrookwhileinOklahoma.75

NelsonlivedinOklahomathreeyears.Hepersuadedeightmentoputupone

thousanddollarsapiecetopurchaseasiteforahospitalintheblacktownofBoley.

ThestateofOklahomaacceptedthegiftandsupportedthebuildingofthehospital.

“WeleftthedetailstobeworkedoutbyDr.Nelsonandthestatehealthofficials.

Whenweawoke,wehadanentirelydifferentpropositiontotheonewhichhadbeen

originallyplannedfor,(aT.B.Sanitarium)[sic]ofwhichDr.Nelsonwasthe

president.Whenithadbeenrunningabouttwoyearsandahalf,theauthoritiesput

Dr.J.D.Nelsoninjailformisapplyingstatefunds.”76Muchlikethesituationin

TuskegeewithJonesandDr.Ward,whenNelsongotoutofjailheandJones

schemedagainstthenewpresidentofthehospital“creatinganawfulmess.The

stateauthoritiesofOklahomaclosedtheSanitarium,wreckedandmovedthe

building,andjustaboutthistime,thesetwomountebankspulledoutofhereand

soonweheardofthematTuskegee.”77ThetrainridefromOklahomatoAlabama

wasnotexpensive.

74Ibid.,12.NAACP.75Ibid.,1-14.Seealso“JonesInterviewsGov.Robinson,”BlackDispatch,(Oklahoma)5January1922.“DedicatesTubercularHospital:RobinsonStrikesatLynchinginOklahomaCityandTulsa,SaysHeWillExhaustFundsofStateForConviction,”BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),10September1920.76Chisum,"(Confidential)theFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”12.77Ibid.

Chisumendedhisfourteen-pagereporttotheUnitedStatesVeteransBureau

inWashingtonD.C.withthementionthat--thelawofficesofPerryHowardwere

legaladvisorsandsponsors--forJones.Chisumalsoincludedthathe“hadthe

conviction”thatindividualswithintheVeteransBureauknewofJonesandNelson’s

worktodiscredittheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.

ChisumgavetheinformationhegatheredtoGeneralHines.Joneswas

suspendedonOctober12.Jonesstood“discredited,dishonest,disgruntledanda

disloyalagitator,whoseefforthasbeenandnowistodestroythegroupoffaithful

andhonestpeopleofourRacewhoaretryingtoreflectcreditupontheRaceby

administeringefficiency[sic]theaffairsofthethreemilliondollarhospital.”78

Chisum’sreputationflourished.Theyrememberedwhenhesavedpoorblacksin

Oklahoma:

[Weare]likethesegmentwhenleavingOklahomablackpapersapplaudedChisum.Weareforcedtosaythatthisfamousnewspapercorrespondentissomedetective.ItcannotpossiblyremainhealthyforcertainindividualsaboutthatinstitutionunderthegallingfirefromChisum’spen.Weareallwatchingthefurflyatlongrange.79

HolseycongratulatedChisumpersonallywiththewords“Ithasbeenagreat

victoryfortheraceandIcongratulateyouuponthesplendidpartthatyouplayedin

itssuccess.”80MelvinChisum’spositionwasmorethanspyandprovocateurinthe

78Chisum.,13-14.JonesWillNotQuitTuskegee,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),13March1926.AustinTexasMouthpiece,(Austin),27March1926.79AustinTexasStatesman,(Austin),27March1926.80AlbonHolseytoMelvinChisum14April1926,MortonPapers.

mid1920s.Becauseofhisindependence,hisbackgroundintheblackworldfromhis

youthtotheperiodofworkingforTuskegeeVeteransHospital,noonetitlecanbe

usedtodefinehim.Duringthisperiodthoughhemovedfromcovertworkto

allowinghiscloaktoberemoved.Wasitintentionalinordertogainaposition

withintheRepublicanParty?Didthekingmaker,orawalkingrepresentativeseeka

legitimatejob?Wasthatthereasonheallowedpreviouslycoveredupworktocome

totheforefront?Orwithhisraceworkinthe1920sdidothersuncoverhim?In

1926WilliamDabneypublishedthebookChisum’sPilgrimage,givingdetailsabout

Chisum’spriorlife.Cincinnati’sColoredCitizenstoldthestoryofChisumasalabor

agentinthelateteensandduringWorldWarI.Somethingchanged.Perhapsina

timewhenW.E.B.DuBoisandWalterWhitewere“voices”Gamblerecognizedin

herMakingaPlaceforOurselves,thecountrywasalsolookingforothervoicesto

leadblacksandChisumwasbeingliftedasone.81

Followinghispilgrimagetolookatbasicissuesthatblacksdealtwithfrom

1920sthatresultedfromwhitesupremacyintheRepublicanPartyhelpstobetter

illustratehow,duringwhathasbeencalledtheHarlemRenaissanceEra,blacks,

besetwithracistpolemics,pulledthemselvesup“bytheirbootstraps”using

whatevermeanstheycouldacquire.82Thischaptershowshowblackpoliticians

dealtwiththepainofRepublicanpoliticalbacklashbytryingtousetheTuskegee

VeteranshospitalandhowChisum’suncouthpositionasspyandprovocateur,

81Gamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920–1945),98.82TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Vol.3(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1974),583–587.CitedasBTWPapers.

efficiencyagent,andlobbyistintercededbyusinghisgovernmentcontacts.

IncludingChisum’sRacework,whichhedidforfreeforTuskegee,showshow

Chisum’sbackgroundasaspy,belovedjournalist,andhischarismaticpersonalityto

developfriendships;theystoppedinterloperswhowantedtobringdownTuskegee

Instituteinordertobuildthemselvesupcould“ComeNoFurther”withoutbeing

caughtinhiswebofespionage.

ChapterVIII

CROSSINGOVERANDTRIPPINGUP;THEENDOFACCOMODATION

“TheaverageNegroknowsthewhitemanbetterthanthewhitemanknowstheNegro.Under the exacting conditionswhich theNegrohad to liveherewiththewhitemanhasmadehimadiplomatofwhichanynationwouldbeproud.”1

---Dr.IsaacWilliam,Young’sWeeklyTalks

NewDealhistorianscontinuetomissone“veryopensecret”amidPresident

FranklinDelanoRoosevelt’sNewDealadministrationandtheblackDemocratswho

forgedtieswiththemin1932.Indeed,becauseoftheracismintrinsicinAmerica

andtheeconomiccrisis,theadministrationdidnotfollowthroughbygivingmany

appointmentstoblacks.Yet,hopeflickeredwhen,throughpatronage,JosephGuffey,

asenatorfromPennsylvania,gaveRobertVann,editorofthePittsburgCourier,one

1“Dr.Young’sWeeklyTalks.PublicQuestions:KnowledgeandPower,”BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),26November1920.

of“his”jobsastheassistantattorneygeneralforPennsylvania.2PresidentRoosevelt

thenappointedDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,aphysicianandeditoroftheKansasCity

American,astherecorderofdeedsforWashington,D.C.3However,accordingto

RobertVann,the1932electionclandestinelyinauguratedanotherblackpolitician’s

career,thatofMelvinJacksonChisum.In1933,SecretaryoftheInterior,Harold

IckesappointedChisumasthefirstandonlyblackPublicWorksAdministration

(PWA)Investigator.Vanntheorizedthatbecause“thepowerfulold-timeRepublican

whoturnedLincoln’spicturetothewall”4forDemocratRoosevelt’svictoryover

RepublicanHerbertHoover,Chisumbecame“themostpowerfulblackmanin

Americaforaperiod.”5TheopensecretincludedthatChisumachievedtheprivilege

ofhandlingpatronagefortheDemocraticParty.ThePWAofficiallyhiredMelvin

ChisuminFebruary1934asaspecialagentintheWashingtonD.C.area.Thisisthe

firstchapterwrittenintohistorythatcapturestheaccount.

ThedevelopmentofChisum’slifeexpandstheworkstartedbyNancyWeiss

inFarewelltoThePartyofLincoln(1983)onthepoliticalstrategyofthe“BigFour.”6

2JosephAlsopandRobertKintner,“TheGuffey:BiographyofaBossNewStyle,”SaturdayEveningPost,26March1938,6.AndrewBuni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1974).3GaryKremer,"WilliamJ.Thompkins:AfricanAmericanPhysician,Politician,andPublisher,"MissouriHistoricalReview101(2007).4LosAngelesEagle,(LosAngeles),10November1932.5NationalPersonnelRecordsCenter,NationalArchives,St.LouisMissouri;PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),28July1945;TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1934.InhistwentiesChisumbecameaspyandprovocateurforBookerT.WashingtonandtheTuskegeeMachine.Atsixtyyearsofage,Chisumconducted“missions”asanefficiencyagentandwasafieldagentfortheNationalNegroPressAssociation.6NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFdr(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983).

RecentlydiscoveredpapersofChisum’scolleagueandboyhoodfriend,Dr.Isaac

WilliamYoung,specificallydelineatehowblacksaccomplishedthelocal,stateand

nationalnetworkofsupportfortheRoosevelt–Garnerticket.Whilehistoriansof

AfricanAmericanslikeWeissattemptedtoelaboratethestory,theylackedsources

tocompletestoryoftheBigFour’sworkfromlocal,state,andnationalgovernment

perspectives.Throughusingthesenewresources,thischapterbringsinformationto

thetablethatmeetsWeiss’scriteriapresentedinherbookandcanaddtoher

historicalnarrative.ThehistoryofChisum’scareeratthePWA,givesinsightinto

howtheRooseveltAdministrationusedaccommodation,todisruptthecallforcivil

rightsonthepartofBookerT.Washington’smostaggressivelieutenants.

Chisum,amostlyself-mademan,madechangesthroughouthislifetomeet

thechallengesofhistime.HisneededaKingmakerin1932.JamesFarley,oneof

Roosevelt’sownkingmakerakeypoliticaladvisortoRooseveltwhenhewas

governorofNewYorkbecameChisum’skingmaker.AsDemocraticNational

ChairmanofRoosevelt’spresidentialcampaignin1932,Farleyearnedtheprivilege

ofplacingtheDemocraticPartyspoils,orpatronagepositions,personallybefore

PresidentRooseveltforhisapproval.Hisfortewashisabilitytoconsultwith

Roosevelt;whenotherscouldnotgetintoseethepresident,Farleycould.Under

JamesFarley,theoldstructureofpatronagewouldcomebacktonationalpolitics

throughtheDemocraticParty.Farley“believedinthepatronagesystemand

intendedtofollowit,somethingtheGOPunderHooverneverdidforAmerican

blacks.”7

ChisumandFarleyhadknowneachotherintheteenswhenChisumwasan

efficiencyagentattheUnitedStatesGypsumCompany.Theyworkedforaperiod

togetherduringthe“AlSmithforPresident”campaignin1928.Farleyeventually

movedovertotheRooseveltforGovernorofNewYorkcampaign.Chisumrespected

Farley.Hehada“rigiduniversalsetofrulesgoverningproperconductandeveryone

understoodtheminthesameway.”8Farley“adheredtoanunwrittenbut

neverthelessrigid,codeofpoliticalconductconstructedaroundtheideaofparty

regularity,loyaltytoone’scolleagues,absolutehonestyandtheunderstandingthat

theparty[loyalty]wouldberewardedinduecourse,usuallyintheformof

patronage.”9Thetwomenhadotherattributesincommon.BothChisumandFarley

hadinsecuritycomplexesabouttheirlackofeducationanditsdrawbacksamong

politiciansandbusinessmenwhohadcollegedegrees.Bothwereprolificwriters.

Bothbelievedtheyhadcomethroughtheschoolofhardknocksbecausetheyhad

workedhardforalltheyachieved.Neitherwantedtobekings,butonlythemakers

ofkings.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,Chisum’schildhoodfriendinOklahoma,wantedto

beaking.

7JamesFarley,BehindtheBallots:ThePersonalHistoryofaPolitician(NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandCompany,1938),224.8DanielScroop,Mr.Democrat:JimFarley,theNewDealandtheMakingofModernAmericanPolitics(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2006),23.9Ibid.,3.

ThroughpoliticalintrigueYoung’sandChisum’sstoryremainedintertwined

fromboyhoodtoYoung’sdeathin1937.Asketchoftheirboyhoodinchapterone

showedtheirearliestyears.AmissionforBookerT.Washingtoninchapterfour

showedtheirworktogetherinOklahoma.Thischaptersketchestheiradultyearsas

leadersinthenation.Young’sstepfather,JosephBrown,aDemocratwasappointed

tohisfirsttermasmagistrateoverthethirdwardofLouisianain1881.Locatedin

St.Mary’sParrish,theareaincludedtheFranklinandtheSaintJosephdistricts.

UndertheDemocraticParty’s“lilywhite”policy,blacksgraduallylostgroundand

weresubjectedtoincreasedsegregationandlossofpoliticalinfluence.10Even

thoughhisstepfatherlosthispositionbecauseoflily-whitepoliticsayearningfor

thepoliticallifeanditsnaturechurnedinYoung.In1908Youngfollowedother

BookeritestoOklahoma.HeleftLouisianaaDemocratbutchangedintoa

RepublicanashecrossedtheOklahomaborder.Youngachievedpolitical

aspirationsinthe“allblack”communityofBoley,Oklahoma.Hewasvotedmayor

from1912-1915.In1914,heintroducedChisumtotheareaasaboyhoodfriendand

journalist.In1915Washingtondied,ChisumwasrunoutofOklahomaandYoung

movedtoOklahomaCity.

In1915Chisum,aspresidentoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation

(NNPA),politicianandreformer,changedtheblackpowerstructureinOklahoma.

ThroughOklahomaCity’sblacknewspaper,theOklahomaTribune,Chisum

orchestratedthefiringofOklahomaColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity

10MauriceThompson,TheStoryofLouisiana(Boston:DLithropCompany,1888),264.

(Langston)president,InmanPage.Intheaftermath,therewasnoblackstateleader.

RoscoeDunjeetookoverthenewspapernamingittheBlackDispatch.Dunjeeand

YoungopposedeachotherforblackleadershipinOklahomaCity.Youngpulledout

infrontofDunjeein1919whenunderthetable,hehelpedJohn“Jack”Walton,the

whitegrassrootsleader,gainelectionasmayor.Togetherthecandidateforthegrass

rootswhitesandYoung,representingthepoorerblacks,laidaplantoeconomically

stabilizebothgroups.Thewhitemayoralcandidateneededtheblackvotetowinthe

election.ThegamewasplayedagainsttheJimCrowmentalityofthepeople.Who

wouldbelieveKuKluxKlansmanJohn“Jack”Waltonwouldforgeapolitical

relationshipwithYoung?Itwasamythofdisharmonythatallowedthemtowork

together.Noway,itwasbelieved,couldwhitesandblacksworktogether.Young

operatedundertheconstraintsofhisday,yetforgedanalliancewithWalton,

knowingWaltonwasanovertracistandsegregationist.Waltonwantedtohelppoor

whitesandwantedthepoliticalpositionofmayor.Thisforgedrelationshipbetween

themmadeitpossibleforWaltontowintheelection.ThoughYoungwas“aleading

Republican”heregisteredpoorerblackvotersasDemocratswiththehelpofSammy

Simpson,anex-drugdealer,inOklahomaCity.Duringtheperiod,onehadtoregister

asaDemocratinordertovotetheDemocraticticket.11

Waltonwontheelection.YoungwasappointedchairmanoftheNegro

WelfareLeague.Aswithmostsegregatedventures,theleaguehadawhitechairand

blackchair.ThepositionmadeYoungseemthe“blackmayor”ofOklahomaCity.He

wasinchargeofporters,railroadworkers,andhotelbellhopsandincontactwith11Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”49.

unionworkersaswellasmanyofthedestituteblacksofthestreets.Youngcraved

morepoliticalpowerandeventuallygotit.WaltonranforGovernorin1921.In

1921YoungbecameaDemocratandsuccessfullyusedtheirplatformtodeliverthe

voteforWaltonasGovernorin1922.YoungmovedawayfromthepartyofLincoln.

Hewashailedastheleaderofthe“NegroDemocrats”andapioneerblackDemocrat

ofthenation.

Youngassumedtherole.HesaidtoagroupofblackDemocratsgatheredto

honorhim:“ItisgoingtobemyresponsibilitytoaskforthethingsthattheNegroin

OklahomaneedsduringthenextfouryearsandbytheeternalGodIamgoingtobe

foundaskingforthatwhichisnecessaryandthethingsthatweoughttohave.”12He

askedforthepatronagepositiontobepresidentofLangstonUniversity.Younggot

it.Waltonwasimpeachedsixmonthslater.In1928-1929DunjeeoverthrewYoung’s

reignasblackDemocraticleaderinOklahoma.Duringtheperiodbetween1928and

1931Youngcontinuedhisears,eyes,noseandthroatmedicalpractice,establisheda

drugstoreandacabservice.13Dunjee’spowerasapoliticiangrewbecauseofthe

poweroftheblackpress.

ThehistorywithintheblackpressremainscrucialtounderstandingUnited

Stateshistory.Thisdissertationdefinestheblackpressasnewspaperspublishedby

andforAmericanblacks.Sincetheinformationwithintheblackpressisusedmostly

asanalternativehistoryitsresourcesremainlessregardedinthelargernarrative.

FromGarlandPenn’sfirststudyoftheblackpress,TheAfroAmericanPressandIts12BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),16November1922.13Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor”,39.

Editors(1969)toPatrickWashburn’s,TheAfricanAmericanNewspaper(2006)

booksarguetheblackpresshousedthebasisofthestruggleforblackfreedomand

thepressassourceofblackpoliticalpower.Leaningheavilyondocumentationfrom

theblackpressandprimarysourcesthatreinforcethem,remainstheonlywayto

reinsertthecharactersthatremainofpartofthewhatseemsthebordernarrativein

Americanblackhistorynow-butwasthemasternarrativeintheirtimeperiod-

backintothenationalhistoryintorepresentthestoryofthecampaignsofAmerican

Blacksandtheirstrugglesinthe1920sand1930spoliticalspheres.

ChisumVersusPresidentHoover

WhenChisumattemptedtomimicYoung’spoliticalmaneuveronthenational

levelbysupportingaracisthisquestbackfired.In1929Chisumalsosuffereda

majorpoliticalsetbacklikeYounghadin1928-1929inOklahoma.Chisumbacked

GeorgePullman’sson-in-lawGovernorFrankLowden,intheRepublican

NominatingConventionforthepresidencyin1928.WhenHooverwonthe

nominationandtheelectionChisumcontinuedtosupporttheRepublicanParty.In

Hoover’sfirsttermasPresidentheremainedsilentonmattersoftheblack

patronageinthecountry.“Hisinauguraladdresscontainednospecificreferencesto

racialmattersandduringhisadministrationhemadefewerpublicstatementson

racialissuesthananyotherpresidentinthetwentiethcentury.”14Chisumspokeup

14RobertMason,TheRepublicanPartyandAmericanPoliticsfromHoovertoReagan(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),233.LaryGrothaus,"HarryHoover

forHooverinblacknewspapersandatmeetings.BlackpeoplewereChisum’s

constituency.ButChisumwhohadbeeninthebackgroundmuchofhislifeforgothis

fernseed,aShakespeareantalisman,forinvisibility.So,bytheendofMarchwhen

thePresidenthadmadenoreferencetohisplanforblacksChisumpublishedforthe

blackpublicanexposeinterviewinthePittsburgCourier.Vannrantheheadline

“MelvinChisumGivesLowDownonPoliticalFuture,”referencingHoover.Chisum

hadnotmetwithHooverbutattendedameetingwithRobertRussaMoton,

principalofTuskegee,whenhemetwiththePresident.InaninterviewChisumsaid

that“PresidentHooverunderstandsmoreaboutthecoloredpeoplethanthequasi

Washingtonleadersthinkshedoes...”15UnliketheprophesyintheTuskegee

HospitalscandalChisumwasoffthemarkandcouldnotfixtheerror.The

informationgotbacktoHoover.

VaryingdiscussionscontinueaboutHoover’sresponsetoblackconstituents.

InHooverBlacksandLillyWhites(1985)DonaldLisiodevelopedHoover’scharacter

aspaternal.ReadingLisio’scharacterdevelopmentofHoovermakesonebelieve

thathehadadeeplyfeltcompassionforblacks.However,LisiobelievesthatHoover

hadtoconcealthatdisposition.Otherauthors,particularlythoseofthetimeperiod,

includingGeorgePadmoreinTheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers(1931),Harold

Gosnell,NegroPoliticians(1935),EthanMichaili,*HoraceLiveright,TheWashington

Merry-Go-Round(1931)andthenewspapertheAfroAmerican,revealedthatHoover

andBlackAmericans,"inHerbertHooverandtheRepublicanEra:AReconsideration,ed.CarlKrog(NewYork:UniversityPressAmerica,1984),132.15MelvinChisum,MelvinChisumGives“LowDown”OnPoliticalFuture,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),30March1929.

wasablatantracist.HooverintentionallyenslavedpeopleofAfrican,Chinese,and

Italiandescentforeconomicgain.16InNegroPoliticiansGosnellnotedthatHoover

believedhedidnotneedtheblackvote.HebelievedthattheSouth“shouldbe

carriedbywhiteleadership.Hoover’sownbigotrytaintedthegreatvictoryandthe

fouryearsheremainedinoffice.”17Yet,accordingtoLisiothebigotrywasimbedded

inHoover’scampaign,nottheman.Lisiowrotethatblackpoliticiansbeganaccusing

him[Hoover]ofbeinganti-blackandpursuingalilywhitestrategy:evenbefore

HooverhadinfactdecideduponanypoliticalpresidentialpolicytowardtheSouth

orblacks.”18Theblackpeople,pressandpressassociationsstoodwaitingforsome

leadership.ChisumtooktheplungeasaleadingRepublicanwithsupposedaccessto

Hoover.

So,ChisumgaveanexplanationforHoover’slackofresponsetoblacksthat

raninpapersaroundthecountry.HeprophesizedthatinHoover’sfirsttermthat

“Mr.Hooverisgoingtorecognizetheserviceofthecoloredpeopleinafinewaybut

heisnotgoingtotolerateanorgyofunresponsible[sic]folksatthewhitehouse

everydaybeforebreakfast.”19BothpresidentsHardingandCoolidgeheldChisumin

highesteem.However,HooversawChisumajustanotherblackjournalistwho

16GeorgePadmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers(London:R.I.L.U.MagazineofInternationalTradeUnionCommitteeOfNegroUnions,1931).Entirebook.HaroldGosnell,NegroPoliticians(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1935).21-36;HoraceLiveright,WashingtonMerry-Go-Round,(NewYork:JoraceLiveright,Inc.,1931),31-34.AfroAmerican,(Washington),22October1932.Liverightisthepublisher.17Gosnell,NegroPoliticians,30.Grothaus,HarryHooverandBlackAmericans,132.18Lisio,Hoover,Blacks,andLilyWhites,93.19MelvinChisum,MelvinChisumGives“LowDown”OnPoliticalFuture,PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),30March1929.

neededtoknowhisplace.InAugustof1929,Chisumwasgrantedaninterviewwith

PresidentHoover.

WhenChisummetwiththepresident,insteadofpraisefromthe

administration,HooverrepudiatedhimandremindedhimofhisplaceasaNegro.

Theonlysourceofthisinformationisintheblackpress.Theoriginalinformation

stemsfromtheAugust10,1929article“WhiteHouseWillNoLongerbePublicity

Seekers”springboardtoHeadlines,Vanndeclaredoutrightinthecaptionthathe

“BELIEVEDCHISUM’SVISITPRECIPITATEDULTIMATUM.”Afterpersonally

presentingaletterfromaRobertRussaMotontoHoover,aconversationensued.

ChisumemergedfromtheOvalOffice,wasrejectedforpublishinghissentimentsas

aleadingblackRepublicanthatHooverfeltthathehadnorighttoexpress.

AccordingtothePittsburgCourieritwasbecauseofChisumthatthePresidentgave

theultimatumandclosedranksonallblackreporters.Hisofficewouldnotbea

“springboardtoheadlines.”20ItseemsChisumlostaccesstothepressbothblack

andwhiteafterAugust29,1930.Itseemsasifhewasblacklisted.Notevenpictures

ofhimappearintheblackpress.Therearenoarticleswithhisnameuntilhis

appearanceintheBaltimoreAfricanAmericaninNovember7thof1931.Hisname

seemedtobe“Negro,”asBookerT.Washingtononcelabeledhimintheearly1900s

whenhewasnothingtoBTWbutaspy(chapter4).

In1931MelvinChisumjournalistappearedoncemoreintheblackpress.In

Novemberof1931Chisumstartedanewspapercolumn“IvoryandGold”intheAfro

20PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),10August1929.

AmericanBaltimorenewspaper.Ivoryandgoldaretwoofthemostprecious

commoditiesfromAfrica.HisnextarticleappearedDecember19,1931,inaNew

YorkAgeeditorialresponsetoJ.R.Hawkins,ablackRepublicanleaderwho

supportedHoover.ChisumstartedbyridiculingHawkinsasablackleaderfor

defendingtheHooveradministration“whichhastreatedtheNegrowithcontempt.”

HawkinsreportedthattheRepublicanGovernmentemployed54,000soldiers,

charwomen,messengers,andunskilledlaborersmakingtheoutlayofthe

governmenttoblacksat$69,000,000ayear.

Chisum’sarticledevelopedintoascathingreportontheRepublicanParty

anditstreatmentofitsblackconstituency.Chisumrespondedthattheamountwas

paltryandinsignificantincomparisontowhatotherraceshadprocured.Thenhe

ridiculedblackswhowanted“recognitionintheserviceofthenationbutnotatthe

priceofliberty,whichpoliticianseasilybarteraway.”Blackswanted“recognitionof

theirrightsascitizensoftherepublic.”Chisumwrote,“Letusfollowasquaredeal

forallpeople...Wecanneverbecomeafactorinpoliticsaslongasourballotisa

playthingwhichmaybeparkedandfoundonalmostanyelectionday.”21Thisarticle

writteneloquentlyyetwithpowerfulinnuendoswouldmarkChisum’sfinal

separationfromtheRepublicanPartyinthecomingelection.Italsoreveals

Chisum’sownhypocrisy,becausehehadbeenamanwhosoldpatronagesand

soughtapositionwithinpoliticalbureaucracy.AsChisummovedintogaininga

politicalpositionhisprincipleschanged.Thereishereaquestionofintegrity.

21NewYorkAge(NewYork),19December1931.

Whiletheever-encroachingDepressionandthestockmarketcrashweighed

heavilyinhisdisfavor,historiansnotethatHoover’slackofapositiveimageto

blacksandhisbeliefhedidnotneedtheblackvotealsocontributedtohisdownfall.

BytheendofSeptember1932,Hoover’sreelectioncommitteecomprehendedthat

heneededablackfollowingifhewantedtowinthepresidencyasecondtime.When

RaymondBenjamin,headoftheRepublicanNominatingCommittee(RNCcolored)

queriedblackRepublicansthreemonthsbeforetheelection,withinthepartylines,

hefoundseveralpointsagainstHooverandhisadministrationoverandaboveblack

complaintsofeconomicinequality.First,Hooverhadnotmadeanyoutstanding

appointmentsamongblacks.Secondly,Hooverrefusedtohavehispicturetaken

withblacks.Finally,blacksfeltthatHooverwasagainstthem.Immediately,his

planningcommitteereadjustedtheirworktomeetthethreatsoftheelection.They

addedappointmentsofblackstotheRNCforcoloredvoters.Blackpoliticians,

RoscoeSimmons,JohnHawkins,L.K.William,C.R.Richardson,PerryHowardand

theonlyelectedblackcongressmanintheUnitedStates,OscarDePriest,weregiven

astipendof$350amonthnottoexceed$10adaytodelivertheblackvote.In

anothergestureofdespair,withinaweekapictureoftheRNCleaders(colored)

tookapicturewithHooveratanominatingcommitteemeeting.

CloselywatchingtheRepublicansshufflearoundWashingtonasattemptedto

gainblacksupportafterfouryearsofneglect,KellyMiller,professoratHoward

University,author,andreformerwroteintheAfroAmericannewspaperthat“You

cannotwipeoutfouryearsofcomplainingandcriticismforMr.Hooverandhislily-

whiteprogrambyaneleventhhourchangeofheart.”22Hisstatementwasprophetic.

InFarewelltothePartyofLincoln,WeissarguedthatblacksbecameDemocratsin

responsetoeconomicbenefits,whileSitkoffinANewDealForBlacksarguedthat

blacksjoinedtheDemocraticPartybecausetheNewDealmovedtoembracecivil

rights.23Inthesimplestterms,followingChisumandYoung’spoliticalworkblacks

movedtotheDemocraticPartybecauseblackleadershipattendedtotheirchurches,

fraternalorganizations,andcultivatedtheirgrassrootscommunities.Oncetherethe

leaderstoldthemwhen,where,whattoread,andhowtovote.24Whilewhitepapers

mostlyignoredblackpeopletheblackpressgavethemstoriesfromnewspapers

thatboughtfactshometheycouldgetnowhereelse.Addingtothisthrushis

professorofAfricanAmericanStudiesatUniversityofIllinoisatChicago,Jane

Rhodes,descriptionoftheblackpressintheUnitedStates.Shebelievesthatthe

blacknewspapersbecamethetangiblesymboloffreedom.25Thenewspaperwas

somethingblackscouldsee,feel,andholdtogether.Theyhangednewspapersonthe

wallslikepicturesofblackheroes.Hoovercratshadabattleagainsttheblackpress

andagainsttheblackmemory.

22AfroAmerican(Baltimore),22October1932.23Weiss;HarvardSitkoff,ANewDealforBlacks(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1978).24Eveninthe1960sand1970sinchurchesinVirginiablacksweresimplygivenavotingcardthatwasusedattheprecinct.Communitiestrustedthepreacher’schoices.25JaneRhodes,MaryAnnShadCary:TheBlackPressandProtestintheNineteenthCentury.(Bloomington:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1998),xvi,32,63,184.JaneRhodes,“BlackPressSoldiersWithoutSwords,”FilmbyStanleyNelson(CaliforniaNewsreel,1999).

Theblackpressplayedadualroleduringtheelection.Itservedasanoutlet

ofinformationandasvehicleofchange.InthecampaignagainstHooverthepress

wastheonlyvehicletorevealthebackgroundofthecandidatestoliterateblacks

whotookinformationtothemassestovote.Theseleadersweretiedtochurches,

fraternalorganizations;andtheyhandedoutvotercardsfortheirfollowerstotake

tothepolls.TheRNChadalottodotomakeupforHoover’slifetimeofavid

discriminationagainstminorities.Intheearly1930sasinthefightinOklahomain

theteens-inadditiontotheblackchurchorspeakersmovingaroundthetown-the

blackpresswasaneffectivemeansindevelopingpublicopinion.“Whenthepress

speaksthepeoplelisten,thewhitepoliticiansofbothpartiesiftheyarewisewill

takeheed,”KellyMillerwarned.26

AccordingtoKelly,byOctober1932mostblackNewspapersstopped

accepting“thepittance”fromtheRepublicanPartyandopenedthepapersupto

bothpartiesforpaidadvertisementsatfixedrates.Theblackpressbecamenon-

partisaninsellingadvertisinganddemocraticinsupportofthepresident.From

RoscoeDunjee’sBlackDispatchinOklahoma,totheblackpressesaroundthenation,

blacknewspapersturnedtheirinfluencetoRooseveltandawayfromHoover.Kelly’s

takewasthis.TheNorfolkJournalandGuide,theLouisvilleNews,theHouston

InformerandtheKansasCityCallwereantiHoover.IntheChicagoDefenderKelly

saidthatwashesitant“lingering,shiveringonthebrinkandfearstolaunchaway.”

WhiletheAfro-AmericanandPittsburgCourierwereproRoosevelt,NewYorkAge

refusedtosupportHoover.TheWashingtonTribune,theIndianapolisRecorder,the26AfroAmerican,(Baltimore),22October1932.

BostonChronicleandtheBostonGuardianweretheonlyblackpapersinNew

Englandcutthecord,theAmsterdamNewsandthePhiladelphiaTribunestandwith

Republicans“feeblyandapologetically”withRepublicans.Notonlyblack

newspapersbutalsoAdolphOchsNewYorkTimesandWilliamRandolphHearst’s

newsagencieslenteditorialoppositiontoanotherHooverpresidency.27

AccordingtoresearchbyJaneRhodes,theblackpressremaineddifferent

fromthemainstreampress.Itwasnotgovernedby“idealsofobjectivity.”The

RepublicanPartyandHoover’spersonaldisrespectanddisregardforblacks

resultedinabacklashfromthepressthatrivalsthemodernmedia’scoverageof

presidents.WeissexplainedthattheRepublicanParty’slackofsupportforblacks

openedthedoorforDemocratstocourttheblackvote.28

HoovercratsnotonlybattledDemocratsfortheblackvotebutfortheminds

ofvotingblacksbecauseofBlackCivilReligion.Newspaperspublishedvividstories

againsttheRepublicanleader.TheCrusaderNewsService(NewYork,1932-1940)

wasrunbyacadreofnamesShawnAlexandercalledthe“ArmyOfLions”(chapter

5.)29BenjaminDavis,LorenMiller,WilliamPatterson,CyrilBriggsallofwhom

workedinOklahomawithChisumintheteens,unearthedandreportedPan

Americaninformationthatwasofinteresttoblacks.Chisumappearedagainatthe27KellyMiller,Afro-American(Washington),22October1932.RichardSherman,TheRepublicanPartyandBlackAmerica:FromMckinleytoHoover1896to1933(Charlottesville:UniversityPressofVirginia,1973).232.Mason,TheRepublicanPartyandAmericanPoliticsfromHoovertoReagan,30.28Weiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln,6.JaneRhodes,“BlackPressSoldiersWithoutSwords,”FilmbyStanleyNelson(CaliforniaNewsreel,1999).29ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStrugglebeforetheNaacp(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).

AfroAmericannewspapersduring1931.UsingthefrontpageoftheAfroAmerican

newspaperandinboldprint,thecoverageseemedanimportant“alert”toreaders

whosawit.Hoover’spastwasnotcoveredinthemainlinemediabutblackreporters

spilleditintotheblackcommunity.Theinformationwasnotsubjectivebutbasedon

facts;theWashingtonMerryGoRound(1931)suggestedtheevidencewasafternoon

teatalkamongthepoliticiansinWashingtonD.C.:

Today,thepresidentoftheUnitedStates...Betweenthetwoperiods,alongconsistentrecordofJim-Crow,anti-Negropolicies:ThatisthestoryofHerbertHoover,candidateoftheRepublicanPartyforre-electiontothepresidency...Hoover,theminemanager,“founditcheapertopay$15wheneverChineselaborerswerekilledthantoproperlytimberthemine,”saysWalterLiggettinhisbook,“TheRiseofHerbertHoover.”...NotonlydidHoover’sCompanyprofitthroughexploitingthelaborofcoolies,buthealsoinvestedintheshippingcompanywhichconductedslavetrafficbetweenChinaandSouthAfrica.30

Foragenerationwhosurvivedslavery,ReconstructionandJimCrowthestories

helpedtransformRepublicansintoDemocratsandnon-votersintovoters.

ThefollowingweekmorestoriesaboutHooverdevelopedenmitybetween

theRepublicanPartyanditsblackconstituency,peoplewhovotedRepublican

becauseofitslinkofthepartytoLincoln.BlacknewspaperscoveredPanAfrican

newsonaregularbasis.AccordingtotheAfroAmericannewspaperarticles,Hoover

forcedLiberiatoacceptaloanmadebyFirestone’sowncompany,theFinance

CorporationofAmerica,at7%interest.Theloan’sclauselimitedLiberia,asblacks

30Padmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers,93-105.HoraceLiveright,WashingtonMerry-Go-Round(NewYork:JoraceLiverightInc,1931).55.AfroAmerican(Baltimore),16October1932.Lewis,2.243.

inAmericawerelimited.ThecountryofLiberiacouldmakenoloanselsewherefor

20yearseventhoughtheycouldborrowatalesserinterest.“Liberia,originally

foundedasahavenforNegroesescapingfromslavery,wasonceagaintransformed

intoacountryofforcedlaborandslavery.”Thestatementwasatouchstoneforso

manyex-slavesstillaliveintheUnitedStates.“Moneywaspaidtothechiefsof

nativetribes,whointurnforcedworkerstoworkfortheFirestoneCompany.

Hooverwasrewardedin1928when,Firestonecontributed$25,000tothe

Republicancampaign.Subsequently,Firestonegotataxrefundof$3,000,000.”31

Accordingtogovernmentpapersunclassifiedin1991,FirestonemovedintoLiberia

in1926,andbyworkingwithwarlordsestablisheditsbusiness.Norebuttalcame

fromwithintheHooverorFirestonecamps.ExceptforPadmore’s,TheLifeand

StrugglesofNegroToilers(1931)andtheblackpressthefirstreportsontheordeal

areinthemid-teensofthetwenty-firstcentury.32Thereportshavebeenrecently

printedonlineandinblogs.TheblackpressattacksagainstHooverwere

contemporarytothetimeperiod.TheattacksonthepeopleinLiberiabyFirestone

warlordswereattacksonrelativesofAmericanBlackswhosefamilymembershad

gonetoLiberiaafterslaveryandotherswholeftforLiberiaintheearly1920s.

31Afro-American(Baltimore),16October1932.32JohnHarper,“Firestone’sandtheWarlord:WhatyouneedtoknowaboutFrontlinesdocumentaryonFirestoneintheLiberianCivilWar,”AkronCommunityblog,Cleveland.com,19November2014,www.cleveland.com/akron/indes.ssf/…/firestone_and_the_warlord_what.html.For“FirestoneandLiberia:ASecretHistoryUnearthed”isaPropublicareportthathascopiesoforiginaldocumentsthatwereunclassifiedin1991.SteveEngelberg,RobinFields,“FirestoneandLiberia:ASecretHistoryUnearthed,”ProPublica,inc,www.Propublica.org/article/firestone-and-the-war-Lords-editors-note.Padmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers,70.

Farley’sCheckMate:TheBigFour

Anelectionisthetimewhenkingsaremadeandkingmakerstested.Knowing

theexistenceofraceandclassprejudiceamongAmericans,FranklinRoosevelt’s

teamforaNewDealadministrationsoughttheblackvoteforthe1932election.

Gettingblacksupportfortheblatantlyracist,mostlySouthern,DemocraticParty

waschallenging.In1928thefirstblackandonlyblackcongressmanwaselectedto

Congressinthetwentiethcentury--Chisum’snemesis,theRepublicanOscar

StantonDePriestfromthestateofIllinois.DePriestwasformidableasthe

championofallblacksbecausehewastheonlyblackmanincongress.Republicans

ultimatelyusedDePriesttorecruitblackvotesinthefinalcountdowntothe1932

election.DemocratsneededAmericanblackchampionsandadvocatessuchasDe

Priestbuttheyhadnoelectedofficeholdersbecauseoftheirlongheldstanceoflily-

white.

Farley’sstrategynotonlyencouragedthedisgruntledblackleadersinthe

RepublicanPartytojointheDemocraticParty,healsoarrangedtoobtainblackmen

whocouldbringsomethingtothetable,menfromtheNationalNegroPress

Association(NNPA)andthosewhowereattachedtopoliticalmachines.Democrats

pursuedmensuchasRobertVann,ownerofthePittsburgCourier,andkeptin

contactwithDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,aDemocrataffiliatedwiththe“BossTom”

PendergastmachineinKansasCityandowner/editoroftheKansasCityAmerican.

FarleyalsosupportedDr.IsaacW.Young,the“FatherofBlackDemocracy”in

Oklahoma,whowasoustedfromhisleadershipoftheblackDemocratsinOklahoma.

WithonelettertotheblackleadersFarleyreinstatedYoung.AfterwatchingChisum

gobackandforth,unwillingtorepudiateRepublicanismbutfinallyrelinquishhis

tiestotheRepublicanPartyanddeclarehimselfanti-Hoover,Farleyrecruited

MelvinChisum,ashisspecialweaponorfixerinSeptemberof1932.

FarleydeterminedtotakeadvantageofRepublicanoversights.Hedeveloped

anetworkofactiveDemocraticworkersthroughoutthecountry.Untilthe1930

electionsDemocratshadparticipatedinaNegroBureauinordertogetvotesfrom

blacks.Farleychangedthesystembydividingthecountryintofourdistricts,ineach

ofwhichthestateblackcaucusescompetedtobethebestintheirregion.Itwas

calledthe“BigFour.”Fewdocumentsremainfromastateandlocalperspectiveof

theblackorganizationthatcompetedtobeinthebigfour.However,medicaldoctors

(1884-1944)ofKansasandI.W.YoungofOklahomaleftrecordsthatshowhow

theycampaignedtoreachtheirgoals.

Oklahomahadoneofthetwobest-organizedNegroDemocraticClubsinthe

UnitedStates.Intheearly1920sblacksinOklahomaandKansasfacedgreatrisk

whentheybothswitchedpoliticalparty’sloyalties.WiththeaidofthePendergast

MachineinKansasCity,Dr.WilliamThompkinswasfirsttoorganizeAmericanblack

Democratsonastatelevel.ThePendergastMachinedominatedpoliticsinKansas

from1900to1939.ThompkinsandYoungattendedear,eye,andthroatschool

together.Theybothmadetheirrisebybackingwhitepoliticians.However,because

theinfluenceofthePendergastMachineinKansas,thestatehadalmosta100%

turnoutinelectionsforwhomeverJamesPendergastchose.Manyelectionsthus

werefixedtokeepPendergast’sDemocraticconstituentsinoffice.

Young’scareerinpoliticswasmuchharderthanThompkins.Youngfought

hardforeverythinghegainedinOklahoma.Inthe1930sYoung’sgreatestvexation

wasthathehadnoDemocraticnewspapertobackhim.Inordertobecompetitive

withotherblackorganizationsintheregion,heneededtotransformhisstate

organizationintooneoftheBigFourintheNationalDemocraticConventionin

1932.RoscoeDunjeeusedtheBlackDispatchtoslayYoungateveryturnin

responsetoChisum’sTribunenewspaperagainstInmanPagein1915.33Thompkins

attemptedtousurpYoung’sauthorityandtemperdownYoung’sDemocratic

organization’spowerfulupsurgebyplacingBudBrown,connectedtotheTulsa

Eaglenewspaper,overOklahomaDemocrats.ThompkinsandBrowninsinuatedthat

theywereopeningnationalheadquartersinTulsatokeepYoungoutofthenational

limelight.34

However,knowingYoungcouldgarnertheblackvoteinOklahoma,Farley

withonlyonelettertoOklahomaDemocraticleadersin1931,putYoungbackinto

thepositionasleaderofOklahoma.Young’sfirstmovewastofindaneditorand

establishanewspaper.TheDemocraticClubthenattemptedtobuytheTulsaEagle.

Followingthe1921riots,Tulsawasstillalandmineforpolitics.Attackedduringthe

riotinTulsaandescapingthoughbadlybeaten,A.J.Smitherman,formereditorof

theTulsaStar,refusedtoreturntoOklahomafromBuffalo,NewYork,tohelp33SeeFranklin,MyLifeandEra:TheAutobiographyofBuckColbertFranklin,53.34BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),27September1928.

Young.35C.G.LoweoftheMuskogeeLanterncameintohelp“whiptheotherwould-

beDemocraticleadersfromotherstates.”36Thefightingfortheprivilegeofbeingin

theBigFourwasintense.LowewrotetoYoung:

YouwillrecallthedemocraticleaderofMo....[He]hadeverythinghiswayatthestatemeeting.HeisfromK.C.Wemustgetaheadofthatbunch.TheyusemuchspaceintheK.C.American,Thompkinspaper,tellingofthegreatworktheyaredoing.TheSt.Louisbunchisnotfollowing.Ifwegetinwiththeeasternbunch,whoarenotanxiousastowholeadsintheWestwecangetassistancefromthem....ThompkinswillhaveTheCall,TheArgus,andtheSt.LouisAmericanandanothersmallpaperfromHannibaltofight.37

TheDemocraticNationalConventionsentnomoneytoYoungforthe

campaign.HefinancedmostoftheblackOklahomaworkfromhisowncoffers.

Beforethenationalconventionin1932,Young’sgroupneededfivethousanddollars

tobuytheEagletocompetewithThompkinsasnumberoneblackDemocraticclub

inthesouthwest.Itwasahardsellinthedepressioneconomyandtheeffortfailed.

WiththePendergastMachinebehindhim,ThompkinspulledoutaheadofYoung.Dr.

F.O.Williston,JamesHoward,A.W.ScottandI.W.Young,Oklahoma,A.H.

Underdown,GeorgeTaylor,J.H.Canton,LearyPerry,SH.RoseDr.H.M.GrayandJ.

LewisTaylorformedtheNationalDemocraticNegroVoter’sLeaguein

headquarteredinWashingtonD.C.TheyinvitedChisumtojointheirranks.He

declinedandsuggestedtheyaddThomasSmithofBaltimoretotheirlist.Chisum

remainedanindependent–afixer.Thoughhisgroupwaspowerful,Youngwasno

35A.J.SmithermantoI.W.Young,29March1932,OKCU.36C.G.LowetoI.W.Young,11April1932,OKCU.37Ibid.

matchincaucuseswhoseleaderswerenewspapereditorsandhadthebackingof

powerfulmachinebosses.YoungcameinsecondtoThompkinsinhisregion.

Earlier,attheDemocraticNationalConventionFarleyannouncedthatthere

wouldbenonationalNegroBureauwithoneleader.Instead,hehadcreatedfour

regionalblackDemocraticcaucusesfromthemanywhocompeted—theBigFour:

theNationalColoredDemocraticAssociation,NationalDemocraticVotersLeague,

TammanyHallNegroes,andJulianRaineyofBoston,seeminglyaone-manshow.38

TheconventionappointedRobertVannofPittsburgtosupervisePennsylvaniaand

WestVirginia.ThompkinstookoverOklahoma,Missouri,Kansas,Iowa,and

Nebraska.BostonattorneyJulianRaineywouldoverseeNewEngland,andDr.

JosephJohnsonofColumbus,Ohio,wouldhavechargeofOhio,Michigan,Indiana,

andTammanyHallwouldruntheNewYorkarea.EndorsedbyTammanyHallleader

JohnCurry,LesterWaltonwasappointedpoliticalstrategist.

Theoriginaldesignwasthattheyallcompetedforrecognitionfromthe

DemocraticNationalConventionfortheirworkatthestatelevel.AttheDemocratic

NationalConvention,thebestfourgroupsofNegroesweredesignatedtohandlethe

NegrocampaignfortheNationalDemocraticCommittee.WhenDemocratswonthe

election,itwasuptotheBigFourleaderstorecommendpatronageappointmentsin

local,state,andnationalarenas.EachheadoftheBigFourwassupposedtoreceivea38BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),29September1932;NancyJ.Weiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),44.WeissfounditimportanttostatethatThompkinswasoneoftheBigFourandtheonlyblacktoreceiveanappointment;shewasincorrect.N.Scott,Jr.,toI.W.Young,16September1933,OKCU.TheUnion,(Cincinnati),24November1932;AssociatedNegroPress,2February1932,OKCU.

patronagepositionfromthepresident.“Notonlyisitexpectedthatthefivewill

receiveoutstandingappointmentsandhavetheearoftheDemocraticPartyleaders,

butitisthoughttheywillhavemuchtodowithNegropolicy.”39AlthoughYoung’s

statewasoriginallyunderThompkinssomethingmusthavehappened(perhapsit

wastheirrivalryinTulsa)becausehedidnotserveunderThompkinsbutinstead

wentwithDr.JohnsonofOhio.40YoungservedaschairmanoftheCampaign

CommitteeoftheNationalDemocraticNegroVotersLeague,Inc.,insteadofunder

Thompkins.

AftertheNationalDemocraticConvention,politicalstrategistsmovedin

frenzy.MelvinChisumplayedbothsideshestartedmakingheadwaywithJames

Farley.WhileatthesametimeheattemptedtokeeptieswiththeRepublicans.

However,everymoveChisummadeseemedtobenewsworthy.WhenChisum

insinuatedadealwithDemocratsitwasfront-pagenews.Itwasa“signofthe

times,”theNorfolkJournalandGuidereported.“MelvinChisumtoldlastweekwhy

hewasgivinguphislife-longallegiancetotheRepublicanParty....Mr.Chisum

wieldsconsiderableinfluenceandhastheconfidenceofmanywhiteandcolored

citizens.Asapublicistandjournalist,hehasstandingandusefulcontactsand

outletsforhisopinions.”41WhentheJournalandGuidereportedthestory,Chisum

hadnotinformedtheRepublicansofhisconsideringachange.Actually,hewasstill

vyingforatopblackleadershippositionwithintheRepublicanParty.

39TheUnion(Cincinnati),24November1932.40TulsaEagle(Tulsa),12June1937.CampaignnotesandlettersareintheOKCU.41“TheIdesofNovember,”NorfolkJournalandGuide(Norfolk),16July1932.

TheRepublicanssabotagedhim.Whenhewenttoseeifhecouldgetabetter

dealorpositionwithinthenationalRepublicanPartythantheofferfromthe

Democratshewalkedintoatrap.TheblackpressfollowedChisumclosely.Perhaps

becauseofhisruninwithHooverearlier,theblackRepublicansfollowedhis

endeavorsevencloser.Editorshadatendencynottoforgetpastarticlesorlettersto

theeditor.Chisum’shypocrisyinpoliticalloyaltyslappedhiminhisface.Hisarticle

againstHoover,J.R.Hawkins,andtheRepublicanPartythathadbeenwritten

December1931intheNewYorkAge,afterhecameoutofhisyearlongsojournin

1929,wasasvividtoRepublicanblacksinAugustof1932asithadbeenin

Decemberof1931.AfterseveralscathingarticlesagainstRepublicansChisum’s

column“IvoryandGold”intheAfroAmericanblacknewspapersdescribedhis

transitionfromRepublicantoaltruisttoDemocrat.WhilecallingonPresident

HerbertHoover’sintimatefriendfromCaliforniaandinchargeoftheColoredVoters

Division(CVD),RaymondBenjamin,insteadofapersonalvisit,Chisumfound

RepublicanCongressmanOscarDePriestandColonelRoscoeSimmonswaitingin

Benjamin’soffice.ThinkinghewouldhaveaprivateconversationwithBenjaminhe

woundupbeinginterrogatedbyDePriestandBenjaminabouthispoliticalstatus.

WhenBenjaminaskedChisumifhewasaDemocratChisumreplied,“I’mnota

Democrat.I’manaltruistworkingforthegoodofmypeople.”42Republicanshadnot

wantedhishelpin1929whenHooverrepudiatedhim.Theystillostracizedhimin

42MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),6August1932.

1932.HestoodnochancewithBenjaminwhoReinziLeimuscalled“theWhite

HouseRingmasterforHoover’sNegroSideShow.”43

Chisumwasnotapoliticianbutawalkingdelegate.Duringthisperiodhe

wantedtomovefromhisinvisiblepositiontoapoliticalposition.However,he

continuedtogettrappedinthepoliticalespionagethathehadwitnessedfromthe

outside.PerhapsaftertheremovalofPerryHowardfromtheadministration,

Chisumthoughthewouldfitin.However,ifHooverremovedaprestigiousblack

fromofficetopleasehiswhitesouthernconstituency,Chisum’sremovalfromthe

pressandpossiblythehallsofCongressin1929wouldhavebeenthefirstdismissal.

Whateverthereason,ChisumcouldnotgetintothegoodgracesofRepublicans

undertheHooverAdministration.Muchoftheprobleminvolvedsituationshe

created.

Leimus,awriterfortheNewYorkAge,usedthesametacticsonChisumthat

BruceGritappliedthirty-threeyearspriorwhenBrucechargedthatChisumhad

falselymanagedanactor.Leimusprintedastingthatbeingan“altruist”inpoliticsof

thatperiodwasacopout.Theterm’smeaning-apersonunselfishlyconcernedor

devotedtothewelfareofothers-wasnotnecessarilycoinedbyChisumbutusedin

thecontexttoescapechoosingaparty.“Thetermwascoinedbytheveteran

raceologist,MelvinJ.Chisum...AfterOscarandRoscoehadthrowntheanti-Hoover

articlesfromtheChicagoDefenderandotherpapers,intoChisum’steethand

accusedhimofbeingaDemocrat.”LeimusreportedthatChisumannouncedinthe

43Lisio,Hoover,BlacksandLilyWhites,271.

NorfolkJournalandGuidethathehadquittheRepublicanPartyandrepudiated

PresidentHoover.44ThenephewofBookerT.Washington,JohnWashingtonandson

ofOscarDePriest,StantonDePriest,wereappointedtotheRepublicanNational

Committee.HisownarticlesplacedhimoutsideHooverforPresidentcampaign.

WhenassuredhecouldnotgainaplaceintheRepublicanCVD,Chisum

repliedtoquestionsofhispoliticalstanceonSeptember2,1932inhis“Ivoryand

Gold”column,“ANYROOSEVELTISBETTERFORPRESIDENTTHANAFAITHLESS

HOOVER.IamnotaDemocrat;IamadisgustedRepublican,butitisbasedon

principle.TheillustriousandcourageoushistoryoftheRepublicanparty[sic]-the

partyofLincoln,Grant,Garfield,McKinleyandTheodoreRoosevelt–isshamedby

thelilywhiteattitudeofHerbertHooverandhiscohorts.”ChisumcriticizedHoover

becausehehadnotattemptedtobepoliticallyfairwithblacksbut“humiliatedand

insultedallofus,innouncertaintermsHooverwantstheRepublicanPartytobea

whiteman’sparty.”ChisumwroteinhiscolumnthatPerryHowardDePriestand

RoscoeSimmonsandthe“sun-tanned”politiciansweredespicable,notconcerned

aboutthewelfareofthepeoplebutonlyconcernedabout“politicalpap(money)and

jobs–anykindofjobsfrommessengersondown,‘Yessir,Mr.Boss.’”45

WhileChisumfoughtforpoliticalpassageinthecomingelection,hisbrother

W.WoodruffChisum,whohadcontinuedthefamilyrealestatebusinessinLong

Island,NewYorkandhadbeenaveteran“Hellfighter”oftheNewYork15th44MelvinChisumandRev.Wm.ByrdSeekLeadershipofRepublicanCampaignforPresidentHoover,NewYorkAge(NewYork),20August1932.TheNegroStar(Wichita),7August1932.45MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),3September1932

RegimentinWorldWarI,landedafederalappointmentonEllisIslandasSecretary

oftheLaborDock.EmmettScott,thensecretarytothepresidentatHoward,

UniversitywasappointedasamembertoWashingtonD.C.’snewlyformedparole

board.StillverymuchcarryingtheethosoftheTuskegeeMachineinhimlikea

sword,ScottwarredwithW.E.B.DuBois.PerhapstheAmericanBlackCivilreligious

traditiondidnotlinkScotttoDuBoisbecauseDuBoisremainedanagnosticto

religiousdogmaandtheelection.DuBoisdidnothaveareligioustradition.He

stayedawayfromchurch“becauseministershadnothingtosay.”46Nordidhehave

anythingtosayaboutreligion.

SomewherebetweenSeptember3rd1932andSeptember16thChisum

transitionedfromRepublicanworktotheDemocraticParty.Eventhoughhe

campaignedintheNorth,Chisum’sfirstmajorrallywasinLosAngeles,California

backingvicepresidentialcandidateJohnGarner,“CactusJack,”fromChisum’shome

stateofTexas.“Mr.Chisumtoldthosepresentthatthiswasthefirsttimethathehas

everworkedintheinterestofDemocraticpartybutheisjustasearnestthistimeas

heeverwas.”47Hewaspaid$350totraveltoCalifornia.Headmittedthereasonfor

changewasthenegativetreatmentofHoovertowardshisrace.MelvinChisum

wrotethathewas“inthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,highbinders,and

moralreprobates.”48FromT.ThomasFortunein1899toA.PhilipRandolphinthe

late1920s-inhisboxing,journalism,andpoliticalcareers,MelvinChisumusually

wenttobattlewithprominentblackfoeshebelievedimmoralorhadpolitical46AfroAmerican(Washington),31December1932.47Argus(St.Louis),16September1932.48MelvinChisum,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),12April1924.

agendas.However,inhisgreatestbattlesagainstinjusticeintheblackworldhe

warrednotagainstablackfoebutagainstinjusticeintheUnitedStates,Liberia,and

Haiti--HerbertHoover.Chisummadeitclearhewas“notfightingtheRepublicans,

allhisworkisbeingdoneagainstthePresidentandhisgang.”49

Until1932ChisumhadbeenasstalwartaRepublicanasSaintPaulwasa

Benjamite.LikesomanyAmericanblacks,hewasvestedintheRepublicanPartyas

achildofafreedslave.AbrahamLincolnfreedblacks.TheRepublicanPartywasthe

partyofliberators.Ithadbeenthatsimple.BecauseofthebeliefthattheRepublican

PartywassomehowapartoftheblackAmericantraditioninthepastanditwas

supposedtobepartofthetraditionintothefuture,Chisumwasrelentlessinhis

“IvoryandGold”attackonrepublicansurgingthemtoreturntotheoriginalethicsof

the“PartyofLincoln.”OneofChisum’s“IvoryandGold”bannersread,“Hoover

TermedtheWorstEnemyWeHaveEverHadintheWhiteHouse.”Evenhehadto

recognizethattheRepublicans’engraftingofSouthernersintheirrankshad

changedtheparty.Hewroteinhiscolumn,“Hooverhasdemonstratedindeedsand

bywordofmouth,thatheisopposedtoNegroesexercisinganysortofauthority

andthathedoesnotintendtoallowthemtocontrolanypoliticalpowerwherehe

canpreventit.”50ThenextweekChisumwrote,“Finally,Mr.Hoover’spublicpolicies

haveworkedtothedoubleundoingoftheNegrocitizenryandweascitizensmust

riseupinNovembertohelpvoteMr.Hooveroutofoffice.”51Ashemovedawayfrom

theRepublicanParty,ChisumpromotedRoosevelt’srhetoric.Heonlywanteda49MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),15October1932.50“IdesofMarch,”Afro-American(Baltimore),undated,ChisumPapers,OKCU.51Ibid.

“newdeal”fromtheRepublicanParty.Heended,referringtoLincoln,“Thegreat

Emancipatorwouldnotknowhispartyifheweretoseetheleadersoftoday.

FrederickDouglasswouldbeunabletorecognizethispartyifheweretomeetitin

heaventoday.”52

InlateSeptemberof1932,DePriestheadedfortheMidwest.Histourwas

fromSanDiegoCaliforniatoSeattleWashingtonthentoMinneapolisMinnesota.He

wentonan“offensiveblock.”HisjobwastoblocktheDemocraticPartyfromtaking

thevotefromblackRepublicansnotonlyforthepartybuthefoughtforhisownseat

inChicagoasastaterepresentative.TheChicagoDefendernewspaperfollowedhis

tour.DePriestalwayscarriedanaceuphissleevebecauseheknewaboutGovernor

Roosevelt’sdisability.InMexiaTexas,Chisum’sbirthplace,DePriesttoldblack

audiencesthattheywereactuallyvotingforGarnerinsteadofFranklinRoosevelt.If

anythinghappenedtoRoosevelt“Garnerwouldbringtothepresidencytheattitude

oftheSouthtowardtheNegro.”Hedidnotwanttobe“handicappedinmyefforts

fortheAmericanpeople.”53Headlinesread“DePriestSaysSouthWantsGarnerin

PresidentChair,”“DePriestBeginsSpeakingTourtoAidHoover,”“Southern

DemocratsHatetoAdmitthatRaceVoteisWanted.”54ThePittsburgCourier

followedDePriestwithhonestreporting.VannwrotethatsincehiselectionDe

Priestrepresented“inawaythewholeNegrorace.”However,“afterMr.DePriest

gotoutbeforethewholecountry,naturallyheexpoundedadvicetothewhorace.”

52Ibid.53MexiaHerald,(Mexia),23September1932.54ChicagoDefender(Chicago),15September1932;ChicagoDefender(Chicago),24,September1932;ChicagoDefender(Chicago),1October1932.

TheproblemforthepaperrevolvedaroundDePriestrepresentingallblacksbut

espousingare-electionofHooverwhenhisstanceincongresswasasagreat“non-

partisanleader.”Vanngivesinsightofthemindsofblackswatchingthecampaign

unfold.“Now,however,Mr.DePriesthasdesertedhisownorganizationandgone

overtoMr.Hoover,lock,stock,andbarrel,...leavinghisNon-Partisanfollowershigh

anddry.”55LikeChisum,DePriestmadedecisionsbasedonpersonalgoals.Melvin

ChisumJr.wrote:

Dadusedtotellmethatheshouldhavelistenedtome,regardinghisrelationshipwithOscarDePriest.DePriestandhedevelopedintoantagonists,ifnotenemies.DadtoldmethatearlyinhisrelationshipwithDePriest,hebroughtMr.DePriesttoourhome.IwouldimaginethatthiswasduringtheshortperiodweresidedinD.C.–1924or1925.Iwouldhavebeentwoor2or3yearsoldandhadnotdevelopedanyoftheinhibitionsorguileofolderkids.DadsaidthathebroughtmeintotheroomwhereMr.DePriestwasand,andintroducedmeto“hisfriend,Mr.DePriest.”Iburstoutwiththeloud,wailingproclamation,“Don’tlikefriend.Don’tlikeFriend.”AllofDad’seffortstomollifymewereuseless.IwouldhavenothingtodowithDePriest,muchtoDad’sembarrassment.Hesaysthatifhehadfollowedmyleadinthatrelationship,itwouldhavesavedhimalotofgrief.IneverdidunderstandwhyDePriestandChisumfelloutwithoneanother,butpoliticsbeinglikeitis,suchdevelopmentsarenotsurprising.56

ChisumgaveonelastattemptinAugustof1932toworkwiththe

Republicans.The“Hoovermanagers,”knowingChisumhadtheabilitytobringinthe

blackvoteas“amanofmuchtravelandcontacts”deniedhimworkinthenational

party.57ItseemsChisumneverregainedtiestotheleadershipafterthe1929

55PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),8October1932.56Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor,4January2007.OKCU.57“TwoSeekLeadershipofNegroRepublicans,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),20

incident.Whatever,theDemocratsacquiredhistalenttoweanvotersawayfrom

DePriest,asinloveorwar,allwasfairinpolitics.Theyimmediatelyputhimonthe

roadknowingthatlessthanthirtydaysearlierhehadofferedhimselftothe

Republicans.

Chisumhandledtheelectionashehadhandledtheworkoffieldagentforthe

NNPA.Insteadofridingtrainshegotinhiscarandfollowedthetrailofhis

Republicannemesis,RepresentativeOscarDePriest.Ofcourse,ChisumandDe

Priesthadalonghistorytogether.Theonlyblackmaninthecountrywhocarriedas

muchinfluenceinsidecongresswasthewalkingdelegateforblackrace.Hisfamily

intow,ChisumsupportedtheDemocratsashetraveledaroundthecountry.In

Septemberof1932,ChisumostentatiouslyprovedhispointtobothRepublicansand

Democrats.HelefthispositionwithSamuelInsull,hishouseinthewhite

neighborhoodofGlencoeresidentialneighborhoodinChicago,placedthefamily

furnitureinstorage,andmovedhisfamilytoahotelinChicago.Fromthere,he

droveacrossthecountrywithhiswifeAnneandtwochildrentoCalifornia.

ThroughouthistriphestoppedincitiesacrossAmericaespousinga“newdeal”

agendaforblacksandtheblackfamily.

Chisumgavethe“lowdown”onhistraveltoCaliforniaaftertheelection.He

stoppedatthehomesofoncegreatblackRepublicanswhobecameDemocratsin

1932.58Theydrove2696mileswithoutaproblem.Oklahomawasofgreat

importanceinthe1932election.OntheWaytoCaliforniatheChisumfamilystayedAugust,1932.58AfroAmerican(WashingtonD.C.),3December1932.

inMuskogeewiththeT.J.Elliotson301N11thstreet.Itisnoquestionthatinthe

lateteensandearly1920sOklahomahadagrowingAmerican-Africanpower

structure.ItwasstillrecoveringfromtheriotandfiresofBlackWallStreetinthe

Tulsa.Numerousall-blacktowns,leadingblacknewspapers,growingblacklaw

firms,andseveralAmericanblackoildynasties,wereallestablishedintheearly

twentiethcenturyunderthewatchfuleyesofBookerT.Washington.Blackswere

tradingoilandcottonwithLiberiaandEuropeancountries.BeforetheTulsaRiots

andthebombingofGreenwoodin1921,OklahomawasbecominganAmerican

blackmecca.

FromMuskogeeOklahoma,heheadedtoFortWorthwheretheChisum’s

wereguestsofColonelWilliamM.McDonald“GooseneckBill”secretaryofthe

MasonsofTexas,andpresidentoftheFraternalBankandTrustCompany.Hisson

recalled:

WedrovefromChicagotoLosAngelesinaleisurelyfashion.Daddywoulddrivetotheblackpartsoftownwithdilapidatedbuildingsandnosidewalkstofindlodging.Daddywouldsay[“M]other[,]youandsisterstayherewhileIfindsomeoneIknow.[”]Weleftthecar.Iknowitwasnevermorethanfifteenfeetbeforesomeonehailed“MelvinChisum”whereverwewent.Thishappenedoverandoveragain.59

TheytraveledthroughBigSpringsTexas,toElPaso,NewMexico,Phoenix,

ArizonaintoLosAngeles.AccordingtohisdaughterAnne,Chisumworkedforthe

CaliforniaEaglewhentheylivedinCalifornia.ItwasablacknewspaperinLos

59Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,10June2007,OKCU.

Angeles.MyDadandthepublisherspentalotoftimetogether.Dadwrotevarious

articles,onekindafteranother,fortheEagle.Aftertheelection,wemovedbackto

Philadelphia.Hismainagenda,however,wastocovertheWestCoastforRoosevelt

andtorepelthemessageofCongressmanOscarDePriest,whomChisumdebated

beforealargecrowdofDemocratswhileinCalifornia.60Themanmodernhistorians

considernomorethana“spyandprovocateur”wasthemanFarleybelievedworthy

enoughtodebatetheRepublicanParty’smostreputableblackmantoobtainthe

blackvoteforFranklinD.Roosevelt.“MyfatherwasinvolvedinpoliticsandIrealize,

inretrospect,thathewenttoCaliforniatobeinvolvedintheelection.”61

BeforetwothousandDemocrats,hereSaturdayoflastweek,MelvinChisum,well-knownnewspaperman,gavethelietoCongressmanOscarDePriest,GOPcampaignorator,whohadprecededhimasGOPcampaigner.Mr.Chisumsaid,“DePriestfellshortofthetruth.HedidnottellallthetruthabouttheRepublicanParty.Andasfortheveterans,yes,heliedonthem.IwasinWashingtonatthetimeandtheboysdeportedthemselvescreditablyatalltimes.Theywerenotmolestinggovernmentpropertybuttherichmenofthecountryknewthatthosemenwerenotbeingtreatedfairlyandtheybecameuneasy.Mr.Hooverbecameafraidandorderedthemtobeevicted.DePriestliedtoyou.Amanwhowouldlietoyouaboutonethingwilllietoyouaboutallthings.”Mr.ChisummadeitclearthathewasnotfightingtheRepublicansbutallhisworkisbeingdoneagainstthepresidentandhisgang.62

60Ibid.61LindaTwine,Conversations(NewYork:SelfPublished,1991).OKCU.62“SpeechBefore2000Democrats,”SanFranciscoSpokesman,(SanFrancisco)20October1932.The“veterans”referenceistothe“BonusArmy”ofthousandsofWorldWarIveteransandtheirsupporterswhogatheredinWashingtonin1932todemandcashpaymentoftheirservicecertificates.

ChisumobtainedsupportfromwhiteDemocratsafterfacingthepolitical

rivalryinthepersonofOscarDePriest.Hispocketswere“linedwithmoneyforthe

cause”ashetraveledhome.However,someblackleaderssuchasRoscoeDunjeeof

OklahomaCity,whoslowlypulledawayfromtheRepublicanPartybutwasnot

reallycommittedtoeitherpartyorganization,condemnedChisumforhisharsh

wordsaboutthehighest-rankingblackintheUnitedStates.Dunjeedidnot

understandthepowerandswayChisumheldinnationalpolitics.HesaidtoChisum:

IfmenlikeyouaregoingtotravelalloverthisnationanddestroytheidealismthatNegroesaredevelopinginNegrocongressmenyouaregoingtoretardagenerationthelogicalreturntoNegroesfromsuchcongressionaldistricts.IfyoucanrememberthevirtuesinOscarDePriestandforgethisfaults,youwillaccelerateinalargemeasureand[the]momentumwhichisgathering....63

Chisum,whohadstoppedinOklahomaonthewaybacknorth,twinkledatDunjee

andcontinuedhispoliticalagenda,bothchastisedandinvigoratedthatDunjee

listened,evenifhedidnotunderstand.DunjeemayhavehadthenewspaperChisum

onceownedbutChisum’spocketswerefilledwithdonationstothecampaignandhe

didnotcare.

Chisum+Patronage+I.W.YoungandtheBigFour

Roosevelt’selectionaspresidentoftheUnitedStateswasbelievedtobea

victoryforAmericanblacks.However,formanypoliticianswhosufferedthrough

63BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),2March1932.

Reconstructionearlierintheirlives,theNewDealseemedtobethesameolddeal.

BlacksknewwithinweeksthatevenwiththeBigFourinplace,andoverwhelming

supportofblacksfortheDemocraticticketatthepolls,racismandtheeconomicsof

theGreatDepressionresultedinalackofpatronageforblacksatthebeginningof

Roosevelt’spresidency.NomatterhowliberaltheNewDealwantedtobe,the

placementofblacksintopoliticalpositionsintheDemocraticPartywasaparadigm

shiftthathadtobehandledwithcaution.64However,blacksstillbelieveda

symbioticpatronagesystemwasimplicitbetweenwhiteandblackpoliticianseven

duringtimesofovertracismanddepression.Therefore,blackDemocratic

politicianswhovotedforRooseveltexpectedtoreceivetheirrestrictedshareofthe

spoilstousewithintheirspecificcommunities.65Eventhosewhogainedpatronage

positionsormadethefinalcrossingfounditwasliketrippingupwitheverystep.In

1932,atbothstateandnationallevels,thepatronagesystemforblacksbrokedown.

RacismandtheeconomicsoftheGreatDepressionresultedinalackofpatronageat

toplevelsofgovernment.Blacksseekingpositionsinthefederalgovernment

64CharlesHurd,WhentheNewDealWasYoungandGay(NewYork:HawthorneBooksInc.,1965),225.BecauseoftheracialprejudiceofhisdayRooseveltcouldnotmoveinthedirectionofappointingNegroestohiscabinet.AlfredB.Rollins,Jr.,RooseveltandHowe(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,Inc.,1962),269.LouisHowe,areporterandadvisortoRoosevelt,wrotetothepresidentthathehadtocarefulinansweringletterstoblacks.Southernsupporterswouldbelostifthepresidentwastooaccommodating.65SeeBrooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”forpatronagerelationshipbetweenI.W.YoungandJohnC.“Jack”Walton.SeeAdamCohenandElizabethTaylor,AmericanPharaoh,MayorRichardJ.Daley:HisBattleforChicagoandtheNation(Boston:LittleBrownandCompany,2000),fortherelationshipbetweenMayorDaleyofChicagoandTammanyHallNegroes.SeeDavidConrads,“BiographyofDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,1884-1944,PhysicianandHospitalAdministrator,”forinformationonpatronagebetweenThompkinsandthePendergastMachine,onlineatKansasCityPublicLibrary:www.kclibrary.org.,1999.

respondedbyusingformaltiessuchaspoliticalrelationships,andinformaltiesto

Washington,D.C.,insiderssuchasMelvinJacksonChisumtodemandsuchspoils.

“Wehavethereceiptoffernsseed:wewalkinvisible...”66Inhelpingthe

DemocratswintheelectionChisumemptiedhispocketsoffernseed.Inorderto

fightagainsthisgreatestfoe,HooverasJimCrow,hebroughttolighthismasteryof

intrigue,hispresenceincongressionalhallswasnolongerghostly,hisdynamismas

ajournalistnolongerrestrictedtotheeyesofblacksandhisabilitytoleadmasses

ofblacksacrossthecountry.Thesesabilitiesbecameanalbatrossinsteadofa

benefit.Heshape-shiftedintothekindofblackmanthatintimidatedwhite

leadership--aMelvinChisumwiththepowerofaMartinLutherKing-butwhodid

notwanttobeaking.

Intheyear1933asVannpredictedChisumwasthepowerfulblackmanin

WashingtonD.C.LettersunearthedbetweenhimandI.W.Youngshowhiscapability

tomakeappointmentsthroughFarley’shenchmanship.Chisum’spositiondealing

patronageaidedtheBigFourinlandingpositionsingovernmentthattheDemocrats

didnothoardfortheirownwhiteconstituencies.ChisumworkedforIckesbefore

hisappointmentinthePWAin1934.Evenbeforehewasappointedasanagent

ChisumwasstartedworkforthegovernmentasadetectiveoragentofthePWA.He

wassenttoOklahomain1933todiscusstheirpotentialforgrants.Hisapplication

66WilliamShakespeare,HenryIV.SamuelHemingway,TheSecondPartofHenrytheFourth(NewHaven:OxfordUniversityPress,1921),96.

forthepositionreadthathedidsomesatisfactoryworkforthegovernmentbefore

hewashired.67

RobertVannenteredhisnewofficeinWashingtonwithenthusiasmandleft

withhisprideintactbutwithouttheearlieridealismthatthegovernmentwould

giveblacksanythingbutthesameolddeal.BuniwrotethatthedayVannarrivedin

WashingtonwasahotJulyafternoon.Hismindfilledwiththepersonalpromiseof

hisnewposition.68LikeI.W.Younghelongedfortheabilitytofinallytosupporthis

pledgesofpatronagetoothers.Facedwithsuchisolationanddisrespectinhis

position,itsoongothotinhisoffice.Patronagewasnotforthcoming.Weiss

describeditslimitsinFarewelltothePartyofLincoln“Vann’sownposition

impressiveasitmayhavebeenintitle,provedtobeadisappointment.Hisoffice

accommodationswerewoefullyinadequate;stenographersresistedtakinghis

dictationbecauseofhisrace,andhecouldnotevengetanappointmenttoseethe

attorneygeneral.”69VannlefthispositiontoreclaimfulleditorshipofthePittsburg

Courier.Theadministrationusedtheseblackjournalistsasawaytostifletheblack

agenda.Ifthenewspaperwasthemostpowerfulswordtheblackshadthenwho

controlledtheleadingnewspapermencontrolledblacksintheUnitedStates.Vann

finallycametotheconclusionthat“I’mnotdoinganythinghere.Itlookslikethey

67U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,February1934.UsedwithpermissionofAnneJohnsonChisumAngeles,California.68Buni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism,221.69Weiss,FarewellTothePartyofLincoln,44.

putmedownhereinWashingtontoshutmeup.”70HepackedandleftWashington.

Chisumwouldeventuallycometothesameconclusion.Thetrickwasonthemagain.

FarleycalledtheexecutivemembersoftheBigFourtoWashingtonin

Februaryof1933.Blackleadersunderstoodthatitwastheirjobtohelpgovernment

officials“see”Americanblacksandtheirneeds.Reasoningthatthecountrywas

actuallychangingundertheNewDeal,newspaperspublishedreportsofthegreat

meeting,themen’sagenda,andthefactthatthey(andChisum)hadactuallytalked

withPresidentRoosevelt.TheBigFourpresentedthesesuggestions:

1. ThedefiniteendofdiscriminationagainstNegroesintheCivilservice.2. ThedefiniteendofsegregationoftheNegroandwhiteworkersin

governmentaldepartments.3. Thedefiniteendoftheflagrantandlong-standingviolationsoftheJimCrow

lawsoftheSouthininter-statetravel.4. TheinsistencethatCongressenforcethe14thand15thAmendmentsand

thatthePresidenthimselfdosoinhiscapacityasChiefExecutive.5. ThedefiniterecognitionofthesupportgiventothePresidentbyNegro

votersandpartyworkersandincreaseofthenumberofappointmentsinthediplomaticserviceandallothergovernmentappointivejobs.

6. Theimmediateadoptionofahands-off,friendly-neighborpolicytowardHaitiandLiberia.

7. ThegeneraldispositiontorecognizeespeciallythefactthatNegroeshaveseriousproblemsduetocolorprejudiceandthatitisnecessaryanddesirablethathetakeimmediatestepstoimpressuponthenationthefactthatheisopposedtoitstreatmentoftheNegro,andwishestoimprovethestatusoftheNegropeople.

8. ThedefiniteendofthedecompositionofNegroregimentsandtheirexiletoGeorgiaandtheMexicanborders,theopeningupoftechnicalbranchesoftheArmyandNavytoNegroesandtheendofsegregationanddiscriminationpracticedintheCitizensTrainingCamps.

70Buni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism,221.

NeitherRooseveltnortheNationalDemocraticPartypromisedtofollow

throughonanyoftheirpromises.Nordidtheyreadilypatronizetheleadershipof

theBigFour.AsofJuly1933,onlyoneoftheBigFourleaders,RobertL.Vann,

obtainedapatronageappointment.SenatorJosephGuffeypleadedwithPresident

RooseveltthatVannbeappointedasassistantattorneygeneralwithout

confirmationoftheSenate.Rooseveltdidnotinterfere;thepositionwasoneofthe

patronage“jobs”Guffeyhadasacongressmantogiveoutatwill.71WhileThompkins

askedforatraditionalpostforablack--ministertoHaiti--Rooseveltappointeda

whiteDemocrattothepost.Thompkinswasappointedrecorderofdeedsfor

WashingtonD.C.MonthsbeforehisappointmentChisumworkedwiththe

governmentdoingmissionsoncontractaroundthecountry.InFebruaryof1934

ChisumbecameaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAuthority

OnthestatelevelinOklahomathepredicamentofblackleadersreceiving

anykindofpaymentorpatronagegrewdire.DuringtheDepressionblackleaders

suchasI.W.YoungofOklahomaandhisloyalDemocratsusedtheirownmoneyto

furtherthecause,believingtheywouldreceivepatronagepositionstobarter.72

YoungrepresentedtheBigFourinOklahoma.Withtheaidofblackvotes,WilliamH.

“AlfalfaBill”MurraywonthegubernatorialraceinOklahomain1930.Murray’s

administrationinOklahomaproceededmuchlikethenationaladministration.Black

DemocratssoonlearnedthatSouthernDemocrats—notNewDealmen—comprised

71JosephGuffey,SeventyYearsontheRed-FireWagon:FromTildentoTrumanThroughNewFreedomandtheNewDeal(MahomedanPress,2010),171.72AttorneyJ.J.EvanstoI.W.Young,1June1933;H.W.McNameetoI.W.Young,12November1932;W.C.OwentoI.W.Young,17November1932,OKCU.

Murray’sadministration.Young,themostsuccessfulblackDemocratinOklahoma,

wasostracizedandnotmadethe“blackgovernor”ashehadbeenunderJack

Walton.InalettertoR.M.McCool,theDemocraticchair,Youngwrote,

IfeelthattheselectionofNegroesforpurelyNegroplacesshouldbedoneupontheadviceandwiththesupportoftheNegroDemocratsofthestate.Amovementisunderfootinthiscountytodojusttheopposite....ThereareseveralNegroPostoffices,amongthemLangston,BoleyandClearview,whichmustbeconsidered.IbelievethatNegroDemocratshavesufferedlongandenoughtoenjoytheseplaces.Thentoo,youandIcanshowtheseloyalNegroesthatweappreciatetheirloyalty.73

MurrayandMcCoolallowedwhiteDemocratstogivepatronagetotheirown

chosenblackappointeesandfriends,notnecessarilythosewhoworkedinthe

campaign.Murrayallowedhisadministrationtoreplacesometraditionalblack

politicalpositionswithwhiteworkers.Youngwasputoffwhenheattemptedtosee

Murrayaboutappointments.Whenhegotnoassistancefromthestatecommitteeor

thegovernor’soffice,helplessnessovercameYoungashewrotetoR.M.McCool:

Ihavetakensomuchabuse,sufferedmanyinconveniences,spentsomuchtimeandmoneyandsupportedmypartypoliticssounreservedlythatIoughttohavesomesayastheheadofafineNegroorganizationofDemocrats,astowhoarethemenandwomenbestpreparedtoreceivethesehonorsandfillthesepositions.IsaywithoutanyegotismoranydesiretodictatethepoliciesoftheDemocraticParty.IamonlyaskingthatIbepermittedtoadvisewiththepowersthatbe;mayIrespectfullyaskthatyoudropmealine,givingmetheacceptedprocedurethatyouandtheorganizationproposetofollowinthesematters?Ourorganizationispreparingtoaskthatoneofourmen,viz.,O.B.Jeffersonbeindorsedforthe

73I.W.YoungtoR.M.McCool,20December1932,OKCU.

AssistantUnitedStatesAttorneyGeneralshipthatisnowbeingheldbyaNegrofromKansas.74

AstheNegroDemocraticleader,Youngbeggedforrespectwhenitcameto

patronagedisbursements.HewroteOklahomaCongressmanF.B.Swankaskingfor

thechancetoatleastgivehisopiniononwhowouldgetthepostalpositionin

Langston:“Notthatyouarenotcapable,notknowingthesituationbutIthinkyou

shouldhavesomehonest,intelligentadviceinthepremise.”75Youngsimplywasno

longertreatedliketheblackgovernor.EventhoughMurraypraisedYoungandgave

himgifts,Murrayallowedmoneyfrompatronagebrokeringtogotowhite

politicians.InresponseYoungformedcommitteestomeetwiththegovernor,tono

avail.76Younghadchallenges.Amonthaftertheelection,usingthesystem

establishedbytheBigFour,LewineWeaverwrotetoYoungexpectingassistancein

apatronageposition:

NowitismydesiretosecureapoliticaljobthrougharepresentativeorsenatorfromOklahoma.TodothisoneneedsthebackingofoneinpowerthereinthestateandIknowofnobettermantowhichImightappealthanyou.IknowDr.Young,thatyouunderstandjusthowtogoaboutitandIamaskingthatyoudothisformeandwhateverchargesareIwouldbegladtoremitshouldIgetin.77

Young’sreplyfollowed:

74I.W.YoungtoR.W.McCool,20December1932,OKCU.75I.W.YoungtoF.B.Swank,27December1932,OKCU.76I.W.YoungtoJ.C.Evans,11June1933;J.C.EvanstoI.W.Young,21May1933,OKCU.77LewineWeavertoI.W.Young,21November1932,OKCU.

IshallbepleasedtodowhateverIcantohelpyoutoobtainyourdesire.SeetheCongressmenandSenatorsthereandOklahoma,determinewhatyouwanttodo–whatyouwouldliketohave,andinformmeofthesame,togetherwiththeirattitude.Trytogivemetheattitudeofeachoneapproached.Iwillthenbesufficientlyinformedtorecommendyou.78

Overthenextseveralmonths,ambitiousDemocratsfloodedYoung’sdeskat

Langstonwithrequests.Young’splanofdoingallhecouldfortheNegroDemocrats

ofOklahomabecameagameofpatienceandembarrassment.79UnderGovernors

WaltonandMartinTrapp,Younghadasayinthehiringofleadersforallblack-run

institutions,whichgavehimoverwhelmingpoliticalpower.Henolongerhad

patronageovertherosterofthepostofficesintheblacktownshipsorasayinthe

positionsatLangston.HeappealedtoMcCoolforstatepositionsbutreceivedno

help.Whentraditionalblackappointmentscametothetable,GovernorMurray

favoredYoung,butYoung“didnotknowifitwasasafething”toapproachthe

governor.”80Whentraditionalavenueswereclosed,Young,likeotherblacks,

resortedtotheirownmanofaffairsinCongress--MelvinChisum.William

Thompkins,thechairpersonoftheBigFour,wasalsohavinga“greatstruggle”in

Kansas.HewrotetoYoungattemptingtosellarotogravuretotheuniversityand

finishedtheletteronapersonalnote:

You,likemyself,havehadagreatstruggle.Everythingthatwe’vegotwe’vehadtofightlikethedevilfor!Whateveryouhaveobtained,Godknowsthatyoudeservebecauseyou’veneverhadanythingcometoyoueasily.Writeto

78I.W.YoungtoLewineWeaver,8December1932,OKCU.79MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.80I.W.YoungtoAttorneyJ.C.Evans,1June1933,OKCU.

meandletmeknowhowyouaregettingalong.IfIcanhelpyouinanyway,letmeknow.81

Thompkinsshouldhavebeengivenpatronageleadershipforblacksaschairmanof

theBigFour.InsteadofThompkins,I.W.YoungcontactedMelvinChisumforhelp.

HeandotherOklahomansfromtheNegroDemocraticStateCentralCommittee

decidedtogetbehindamemberoftheexecutivecommitteeinordertogethima

nationalappointment,O.B.Jefferson.

ThenbackinWashington,D.C.,ChisumtoldYoungthathewas“sittingpretty

withtheAdministrationandstandtogetalotmoredonethanamanwhoisstriving

togethimselfajob.”82However,jobsintheNewDealadministrationwerenot

plentifulforblackDemocrats.Chisumseemedchallengedhimself.HesentYounga

listofvacanciesforblacks.Itwashisfirsttimetoworkintheworldofcongressional

patronagebrokeringandheperceivedsomethingdifferent:

Therearemanyapplicantsforplacesbothblackandwhite,manymorethancanpossiblybetakencareof.Iwouldsaytherearefiftyapplicantsforeveryplacewhichistobefilled,butonlythosewillgetjobswhosesponsorscangetuptodistributingthrough.FortunatelyforusIamontheinsideandamnotacandidateforaplace,notformyselfImean.83

AstandardprocedurehadbeensetuptogetjobsthroughChisumandtheBig

Four.Forsomereason,O.B.Jeffersondidnotunderstandtheoverallprocessofhow

81WilliamThompkinstoI.W.Young,3October1933,OKCU.82MelvinChisumtoO.B.Jefferson,29May1933,OKCU.83MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,29May1933,OKCU.

togetapatronagepositionforhimself,orhethoughthewasinBigFourstanding

withYoung.YoungoutrankedhimasstatechairmanoftheNegroDemocratsandas

amemberoftheBigFourteamoftheNationalDemocraticNegroVoter’sLeague.

JeffersoncovetedapositionintheJusticeDepartmentinWashington,D.C.Young

supportedhimfirstbysendingletterstothemembersofthestatecommittee,then

followedwithletterstoMcCool.However,Youngwasstrategic.Hemanipulatedthe

statesystemfirsttodevelopabackingforJefferson’snationalofficeopportunity.In

this,YounghadthebackingofChisum,whowrote,“YouarethefirstcoloredleaderI

haveevermetinpoliticswhoistryingtohelphissupportersinsteadoftryingtoget

ajobforhimself.Andbecauseofthisverylaudableattitudeonyourpartyoumay

restassuredofmymostloyalsupportofeverymanwhomyouselect.”84

InanobviousshowofdisrespecttoYoung,Jeffersonbreachedthesystemby

contactingChisumdirectlybyletter,andwithoutYoung’spermissionorknowledge,

askingforhelptogainanationalposition.FilesshowthatChisumredirectedallthe

informationhereceivedfromJeffersonbacktoYoung.TheBigFourhadagreed(and

atthispointtheassumptionmustbethatChisumalsoagreed)that“noneofuswill

movewithoutacommonconsentoftheothersandwemusttakeanybodywhotries

todosotothebutcher.”85

Blacksthemselvesmayhavelostmanypatronagepositionsifthe

correspondencebetweenJefferson,Chisum,andYoungisanexampleofhow

Negroesdealtwiththerealnationalpatronagesystemwhitesused.Jeffersonwas84MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.85TheUnion,(Cincinnati),2February1933.

notbutchered,buthewasputinhisplacefornotusingthenationalsystem.Chisum

reroutedJefferson’sletterbacktotheonlyOklahomarepresentativefortheBig

Four,I.W.Young.JeffersonhadwrittentoChisum:“Iamnotunmindfulofthefact

thatthetenderofyourgoodofficeswereperhapspersonaltoDr.Young;however,I

wouldappreciatesomeexpressionfromyouastoyourattitudetowardmy

aspirationsandifyoucouldlendyourinfluencetofurtherthem.”86InChisum’s

reply,hestipulatedacostoffivehundreddollarsfortheservicetoberendered—

onehundreddollarsupfrontandthenonehundreddollarsamonthwhenJefferson

receivedtheposition.Chisum’sreplyalsoincludedthefollowing:

AssumingthatyouwillgoalongthelinewhichIshalllaydown,IhavegoneaheadwiththeplanoftryingtoplaceyouinthepostformerlyheldbyJudgeHoustonofGary,Ind.,inthePostmasterGeneral’soffice.IhavemadethisselectionbecauseIknowyouwouldnothaveachancetogetthepostintheDepartmentofJustice.ThathasbeenpromisedbyMr.FarleytotheHonorableRobertL.VannofPittsburg.87

ChisumthenrespondedtoYoungaboutJefferson’ssituationandincludeda

listingofjobscalled“THEVIRGINISLANDSETUP.”Thedocumentwasincludedasa

partofSenateBill173.Chisummarkedthepositionsthatwouldbeconsideredfora

blackman,eachofwhichpaidapproximatelytwothousanddollarsayear.On

August19,1933,ChisumwrotetoYoung:

[Iam]conferringwithMr.FarleyaboutNegropositions.Ifoundhiminamosthappyframeofmind.Hesaidtomethatherealizedthatlittlehasbeendoneinsofarasthecoloredpeopleareconcerned,but,hesaid,“Chisum,you

86MelvinChisumtoO.B.Jefferson,29May1933,OKCU.87Ibid.

writethisdownandrememberthatImeanit,wearegoingtodealjustlywiththecoloredfriends,weknowwhattheyareupagainstandaregoingtotreatthemfarbetterthantheRepublicanshave.88

Jeffersonbalkedattheprospectofpayingforaposition,butnonetheless

sentthefirstinstallmentthroughI.W.Young.Chisumimmediatelygottowork

attemptingtogetJeffersonappointedtotherecorderofdeedsofficeinWashington,

D.C.However,JeffersondidnotrespondwhenChisumattemptedtwicetoget

informationfromhim.ThefrustratedChisumwrotetoYoung:

Whenwetalkedlast,IpromisedyouthatIwouldimmediatelygetbusyandgetthingssoshapedthatwecouldgetMr.JeffersonappointedtotheRecorderofDeedsofficeandIdidexactlyasIagreed.WhenthingswereinshapethatIwasreadytopresenthisnameIwrotethatthepetitionbesentforwardimmediately.TothisletterIhavehadnoreply.TwiceIpromisedtodeliverthisformaldocument;whenitwasnotinmyhandslastWednesdayAugust30andnowordfromyouIwas,asyouwillsee,plainlyintheair.Idonotallowanysituationtokeepmeintheairlong;soIaskedforthreedaysandIwenttoPoughkeepsieNewYorkandgotamanwhomIknowcanfillthebillineveryparticular.Theenclosuresaremerelysentyouthatyoumaypossessthenameandhaveahintoftherelationexistingbetweenthemanandme.WatchtheNegropapersandyouwillrealizethatIwastellingyouonlythetruthwhenIsaidIcouldandwoulddeliverthispostforyou.89

JeffersonfinallyrespondedonSeptember11,1933,thatheknewChisumwas

“thereontheground”;however,herefusedtosendoriginalendorsements.Jefferson

noted,“MyendorsementsareonfilewithbothoftheOklahomaSenators.Iam

88MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,19August1933,OKCU.89MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,6September1933,OKCU.

enclosingsomecopies,whichyoumayfinduseful,andyouwouldcertainlyhave

accesstotheoriginalsasmysenatorsmustbeinaccordwithourefforts.”Jefferson

didnot“desiretocometoWashingtontourgemycandidacy,andwillnotunlessand

untilIamassuredthatweareinstrikingdistance,orapersonalinterviewwiththe

appointingpowerisdesired.”AsforthepapersandotherendorsementsChisum

needed,JeffersonadmonishedChisum,“Ordinarilythecharacter,ratherthanthe

numberofendorsementsforapoliticalappointment,countsformost.”90Jefferson

didnotunderstandthepolicyofFarleyorthefraternalorderofpolitics.OnOctober

14,ChisumwrotetoYoung:

AsIhavealreadywrittenyou,IamfurtheringthecandidacyofanothermanfortheRecorderofDeedsplace,becauseIwasleftina“hole”couldnothearfromyouandhadtogetacandidateandgetonequick.IamoftheopinionthatthePresidentwillhavemadepublictheannouncementofmyman.Youareawarethattheproperpracticeis,tonotmentionthenamesinadvanceofthePresident’sannouncement.AlldetailswerefinishedanhouragoandIamreturningtomyhomeinPhiladelphia.NopracticalwordfromMr.JeffersonsuggeststomethatheeitherthinksIamobligatedtoworkforhimandpaythe“freight”myself,orhethinksIamafool.WhenIhadbutlittleexperienceandmyinfluencewasnegligible,Iwentaboutservinganyandallmenatmyownexpense;Idonothavetodothatnow.IhavenointentionofgoingforwardforanymaninOklahomabutyou,purelyonthebasisoffriendship.91

Didotherblacksinthecountrytrytooverridethesystemsetupfortheir

patronagepositionsonthenationallevel?DidtheyattempttogoaroundFarley’s

BigFourtopetitiontheirowncongressmen?Couldsuchbehavior,aswellasthe

90O.B.JeffersontoMelvinChisum,11September1933,OKCU.91MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,14October1933,OKCU.

racismintrinsicintheDemocraticsystem,beareasonforsomelackofblack

positions?JeffersondecidednottousetheBigFoursystem.Hewasoverlookedby

Oklahomacongressmen,blackballedbyblackleaders,despisedbyChisum,and

ostracizedbyYoung.HisDemocraticpoliticalcareerendedlocallyandhehadno

chancenationally,allbecausehebrushedasidetheparadigmusedbytheBigFour.

Perhapspartoftheproblemwasthat,likeO.B.Jefferson,manyNewDeal

blackleaderssabotagedthemselves.However,Chisum’slastrecordedletterto

YoungdescribedtheproblemsoftheNewDealandblackappointments:“Ofcourse

manyplaceshavebeenfilled,but98%oftheplacesfilledarekeyjobswhereitwas

essentialinordertointroducetheadministrationpower.Thus,wehavenoreason

tobediscouraged.”92HesentYounganotherofficiallistingofjobopeningsinthe

VirginIslandsmarkedwithpostsforAmericansblacks.93PresidentRooseveltand

Congresshadothermajorproblemswithwhichtodeal.AccordingtoChisum,

Americanblackworkwasintentionallypushedtothebottomoftheagenda.

Becauseboththestateandfederalgovernmentsrefusedtooverhaulcivil

rightslegislation,patronagewasoneofthefewformsofpoliticalacknowledgment

blacksexpected.Eveninmoderntimes,somepeopledonotknowthatpatronage

jobswerebrokered.Itwasameansofearningextraincomeforthosewhowere

expertsinprocuringtherightpersonforaposition.Thebrokersfunctionedlikea

nationalhumanresourcedepartment.Ittooktime,knowledgeoftheposition,and

knowledgeofpersonalitiestodeveloptheleadershipofanation.RobertVann92MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,31October1933,OKCU.93OriginallistincludedintheLeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,OKCU.

withstoodtherigorsoftheofficethatGuffeygavehimforashortperiod.However,

menlikeForresterWashingtonappointedasFERAraceadvisorbyWillAlexander

didnotlastayear.

CrossingOver,TrippingupandEndingAccommodation

ExceptintherecordsofthePWAandsomeblacknewspapers,fewpeople

knowthehistoryofthefirstblackagent,MelvinChisum,hiredbythePWA.The

FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorkshiredChisumasa“special

agent”intheDivisionofInvestigations,PublicWorksAdministrationattheageof

61years.Thejustificationwasnotthatitwasapatronagepositionbutsimplythat

theDivisionwasinneedofanadditionalSpecialAgentintheWashingtonoffice.

Chisum’sworkasa“publicityagent”forBookerT.WashingtonofTuskegee

InstitutefromOctober1899to1912servedashisreferencealongwiththesentence

“Mr.Chisumdidsomespecialworkforthisdivisionwhichwasentirely

satisfactory.”94Hisgovernmentgradewassetat11withasalaryof$3200.While

workingforthegovernmenthecontinuedtowritethepresidentandMrs.Roosevelt

askingforprivilegesforMaryMcLeodBethuneandAliceDunbarNelson.

Chisum’sletterstoEleanorRooseveltseemedtobewhatspurnedheronthe

pathtohelpingblackwomenandfindinghernicheasapresidentialwife.Blanche

94U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,February1934,AnneJohnsonChisumCollection,LosAngeles,California.

CookinEleanorRooseveltTheDefiningYearsandPaulBernstein,inLettersto

EleanorbothsuggestthatChisum’slettertoEleanoraschairoftheCommitteeof

MobilizationforHumanNeedsCampaigninJanuaryof1934suggestingthat“a

capableintelligentnegrowomanoffinetrainingshouldbechosen...”95whichledto

therelationshipbetweenEleanorandMaryMcLeodBethune.WhenEleanor

Roosevelt’ssecretarycontactedWalterWhite’sandIckes’officeforabackgroundon

Chisum,IckesresponsewastomoveChisumawayfromWashingtonanddeeper

intothefieldintheSouthoftheUnitedStates.HisresponseinalettertoEleanor’s

secretaryitshowsthatChisumwasonceagaininhisplaceasawalkingrace

delegateincongress.Therewerefearsastowhathecouldaccomplish.“Thisman

Chisumisagooddealofatroublemaker,asIknowfrompastexperience.Iamglad

thatyoucalledthismattertomyattentionthusgivesmeanopportunitytosupply

youwiththefacts.”96TheletterisfromIckesofficeyetincomparisontolater

writingsaboutChisuminIckes’diaryandconsideringIckesintenttokeepChisum

whenotherslikeHarryHopkinswhodidnotwantChisumintheDepartmentof

Interior,bringsupquestionsastotheauthorship.Addedshorthandandnoteson

theletteralsoposesquestionsastotheauthorshipofthemissive.ItseemsChisum’s

raceworkdidnotbodewellwithsomeoneintheofficeoftheInterior.Nonetheless,

95BlancheCook,EleanorRoosevelttheDefiningYears1933-1938(London:Penguin,1999).100.PaulBernstein,LetterstoEleanor:VoicesoftheGreatDepression(Indiana:Arthorhouse,2004),34.96HaroldIckestoEleanorRoosevelt,28November1934;FolderIckes,Harold,CorrespondencewithGovernmentDepartments1934,PapersofEleanorRoosevelt,FranklinD.RooseveltLibrary,HydePark,NewYork.

ChisumestablishedarelationshipforhimselfwithEleanorRooseveltconcerning

AfterayearconstantlyswitchingregionsbyorderofHaroldIckes’office,

Chisumbecamedisillusioned.Herealizedthathispositionwasbeingusedtostop

himfromworkingforcivilrightsforblacks.HewrotetoRobertRussaMoton:

Thedepartmenthassystematicallykeptmeoutofwhatishappeningtocoloredpeoplebykeepingmefromtheseatofgovernment.ThishasbeenengineeredbytheRosenwaldinfluencewithintheDepartment.Theyhavekeptmeverybusytoo,sothatIcouldnotfindtimeforwritingorworkingfortheinterestsoftheNegro.97

HecontactedhisformeremployerSamuelInsullwhosuggestedChisumtalktothe

FirestonefamilywhoneededsomeonewithChisum’scapabilitiesontheirpayrolls.

OverthenextfewyearsChisumworkedforthegovernmentbutgrewweary.He

facedracediscriminationastheonlyblackagentinofficesaroundthecountry.His

workasajournalist,raceleader,andhelpingTuskegeewaslimited.Eachtime

Chisumattemptedtodoworkfortherace,hisarticlesappearedinpapers,orhe

wroteletterstoDemocraticleaders,orvariousdistrictsrejectedhimforbeinga

black,Ickes’movedhim.OnOctober5thof1934Chisumwastransferredfrom

WashingtontoNewYork;December5th1934hewastransferredfromNewYorkto

Chicago;March25th1935wastransferredfromChicagotoSanFrancisco;July1935

fromSanFranciscotoAtlanta.Moton’sresignationfromTuskegeein1935because

97MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1January1935.RobertRussaMotenPapersArchivesandSpecialCollections,TuskegeeUniversity,Tuskegee,AL.(HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.)

ofpoorhealthreasonsseemedtostemthetideofChisum’smourningovernotbeing

abletoaidTuskegee’sfinances.

Duringthisperiodofthe1930stheNAACPchangedleadershipand

developedgoalsattunedtothepoliticalandsocialclimate.In1931JamesWeldon

Johnsonresigned.WalterWhitesteppedintohisshoesandchangedthegoalsofthe

organizationbytakingonmoreracialissues.TheNAACPdefendedtheScottsboro

boysaccusedofrapingtwowhitewomen.NAACPworkbegantomirrortheworkof

theArmyofLionsearlierinthecentury.WhileBookeriteslaboredwithin

governmentchambersunderthefootofRooseveltadministrationtheNAACPwas

lefttodealwithissuesontheculturalfront.InW.E.B.DuBois:TheFightforEquality

andtheAmericanCentury,DavidLeveringLewisdescribesthetimeperiodasoneof

“thehealingofriftsbetweenBookeritesandDuBoisians,”andaparadigmshift.98

Certainly,EmmettScottputouthisrighthandtoDuBois.In1935DuBois

publishedBlackReconstructioninAmerica,1860-1880.Perhapsseeingtheirown

identityandfootstepsforthefirstEmmettScottitwastimetochange.Insteadof

theirbanteringtheyhaddoneovertheyears–andthelawsuitsbetweenthem–

ScottandDeBoismadeatruce.ScottrespondedtoDuBois’book,“thecolored

peopleoftheworldowedDuBoisadebtofgratitude.”Lewisdirectsthereader’s

attentionthatapatternshifttookplaceorneededtotakeplaceinDemocracyand

thewaysoffightingforjustice.Hewrotethatthebookrepresentedoneofthose

genuineparadigmshiftsperiodicallyexperiencedinafieldofknowledge,onethat98Lewis,W.E.BDuBois,TheFightforEqualityandtheAmericanCentury1919-1963,2,366.

forcesreinterpretationsofthepastbyitssuddenanddisorientingemergence.99A

paradigmshiftstruckthemlikeagaleofwind.Inthedecadeofthe1930sMelvin

ChisumlaiddownhiscloakofaheroforthemassesandhisOlivertypewriterforthe

securityofapaycheckforhisfamily.I.W.YounggaveuphispresidencyatLangston.

RacismasJimCrowgrewintosuchabitterrivalevenYoungcouldnotsellthe

bigotryoftheDemocraticPartytohisOklahomaconstituency.RoscoeDunjeetook

overasraceleaderintheDemocraticParty.

IckesintentionallykeptMelvinChisumsobusyputtingoutfiresaroundthe

countrythathecouldnotresumehisroleasaraceleader.Hewrote:

IamdeeplygrievedthattheassignmentstookmeentirelyoutofthefieldoftheEast.HavemadeoneblunderinthispositionIoccupy,Ididtheworkjam-upfromtheverybeginning,andwheneverthereareeggstobeunscrambled,middlewest,southorsouthwest,theyhaverushedmeofftodotheunscramblingandIhavemetwithconsiderablesuccess.100

Finally,ChisumbegantosabotagehisworkinordertobefiredbythePWA.

WhenChisumpleadedandwasnotgivenavacationhetookoffandwenttovisit

Moton.“Thedepartmentseemsboundtokeepmeengagedfarfromhomeandyou,”

hewrote.Thenheskippedwork.Multiplechargesagainsthistimemanagement,

andraceissueswerewritteninareportagainsthim.Chisumdidthings“hisway”

insteadofbygovernmentregulations.Finally,onSeptember24,1936Chisum

resigned“inordertopursuesomeprivateinterestsofmyown.”Hewrote,“Ihave

99Ibid.,367.100MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,20January1936.MotonPapers.

needtobeabsentfromdutyforalimitedperiodoftime.Iamthereforeresigningas

ofSeptember25,1936.”101

Itseemsfromcorrespondencethathewentonthecampaigntrail.However,

atthiselectiontherearefewrecordsofhisnewspaperarticles.Inthesamemonthof

hisresignation,hispublicationof“WhytheNegroIsForRoosevelt”waspublished.

InacongratulatoryletterofNovember6thMotonapplaudedChisumasthe“onewho

candeliverthegoods.”102IckesrehiredChisumasaspecialagentaftertheelection.

InJulyof1937headlinesread“TheFatherofBlackDemocracyisDead.”Chisumand

EmmettScottattendedDr.IsaacWilliamYoung’sfuneralinLangston,Oklahoma.

Theirpicturesshowatypeofmourningontheirfaces.Theirgenerationwas

changingoutfornewmovements.Young’sdeathendedofaneraofBookerite

politicsinOklahoma.Young’sbodywasburiedonthecampusofLangston

University.InmanPagewasburiedonthecampusin1935.MimickingAbraham

Lincoln’sresurrectioninAmericanCivilReligion,whosebodywasmovedfromits

originalrestingplace;in1977Young’sbodywasexhumedandmovedtoGuthrie,

Oklahomabyhisgranddaughterthelate,HonorableDr.JoyHargrove.

ChisumremainedwiththeDepartmentofInterioruntilJune1938.103Hewas

forcedtoresign.ItisnotclearwhetherhecreatedascandalwithanItalian

101U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,MelvinChisumtoHon.A.R.Class,24September1936,(HereaftercitedasJohnsonCollection.)102RobertRussaMotontoChisum,6November1936.MotonPapers.103U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,19November1936.AnneJohnsonChisumpersonalCollection,LosAngeles,California.(HereaftercitedasJohnsonpapers.)

contractorwhowaslinkedtooneofhisprojectsorhewassetup,bytheItalianand

Chisum’sPWAmanager.Chisumfeltsorryforthe“poorItalian.”Hewrotealerting

LouisLombardiofmeddlingandpesteringtacticsthatweretocomefromaresident

inspectorforthegeneralstateauthority.LombarditurnedinthelettertothePWA.

Overtheyears,complaintsabouthimasablack,hispersonalworkstyle,and

bookkeepingcouldnotgethimfired.Someofhischargesthatmountedoverthe

yearspointtoself–sabotage.Workingfromwithintheadministration,astheonly

blackmanwiththepowerofgovernmentandincontrolofmillionsofdollars,itwas

likehisworkinWorldWarI(seechapter4).Thistimehestoodforthegovernment

committingthemisdeedsandtherewasnoonetoabovehimstoptheactsofmisuse

ofpower.ashewatchedplainpeoplegetwaylaidingovernmentpractices.Tiredof

hisownproblemsofracism,secretarieswhodespisedhimforhisblackness,

stringentrulessetforinvestigators,andalackoffreetime,andmoreChisumlost

faithintheRooseveltAdministrationhimselfandinhisinvincibilityasaheroof

plainpeople.ordertogetbacktoracework.Finally,IckeswasforcedbyChisumand

themountingtensionwithinthePWAleadershiptoletChisum,theblackman,be

firedorresign.Chisumresigned.

TheworldhadchangedsinceChisumlefthisentrepreneurialbusiness

ventures.Anewgenerationofphilanthropists,sonsofhisprogressivefriendsran

enterprisesdifferentlyandwiththeironmenoncall.EmmettScottofferedChisuma

positionattheSunShippingCorporation.Thepositionwastiedtounionssoafter

onedayatworkChisumquit.Hecreatedhisownsmalljournalismagencyoutof

whichhedidmissions.Herevertedtopre-1914pugilismstyletoworkasabouncer

inrestaurantsandbacktomissions.Hedidnottellhiswifehisfamily.Hisson

Melvinexcelledincollege.Melvinplannedtobecomealawyer.Buthewentoffto

serveinWorldWarII.HisdaughterAnneattendednursingschool.Hiswifewent

backtonursing.Chisumwentbacktoaidingblacksinaworldthathadchanged

sincehehadbecomeagovernmentman.

EvenTuskegeehadchangedfrom1932to1940.ThecoveroftheAfro

AmericannewspaperonJune4th1940,featuredthearticle“Dr.R.R.MotonDead.”

Chisum’spowerful,lovingfriendRobertRussaMotonhadinhaledandexhaledhis

lastbreath.UnlikeLouisHarlan’sbeliefthatWashington’sinfluencediedin1915,

Moton’sdeathwasitsend.ThenewleaderatTuskegeewasnotaBookerite.Though

FrederickDouglassPattersonneededthesupportofChisumtoraisefunds;

Pattersonrepresentedtheintroductionofnewideasforblackreformandeducation.

AsChisumattemptedtofindworkduringthenextfewyearshewroteabout

thedeathofProgressivessuchashe.Thedatesofthelivesofmeninthesechapters

showthatduringthe1930smenwhowerephilanthropists,enemies,andleaders

workedwithoropposedChisum,andTuskegeeMachinehadslowlydiedleavinga

skeletalcrewtobringaboutchangeinacountrythatwasstillbigotedandaworld

blightedbytheracismthatledtotheUnitedStatesenteringWWII.Indeed,a

paradigmshifttookplacein1940withinblackAmerica.OnAugust3,1940,theAfro

AmericanNewspaperfeaturedtwofamiliesasthenewleadersofblacksinthe

UnitedStates.TheAfroAmericandisplayedthefirstpictureoftheW.E.B.DuBois

familyeverprintedinanewspaperandanotherofWalterWhiteandhisfamily.104

AfterhisstintwiththeDepartmentofInteriorChisum’sjournalismcareer

neverreachedtheheightsheattainedbeforehisgovernmentwork.Hecampaigned

asaDemocratforWendellWilkiebutagainsttheRooseveltAdministration.The

mantleoftheblacksocialgospelseemedtoleavehimuncovered.Theblack

newspapersdwindledtoapproximatelytwelvenationalleadingpapers.Chisum’s

workasaracemandwindledastheworkoftheNAACPtooktheformofthework

heoncedidasafieldagentwithintheArmyofLions.Chisumwenttoworkwith

EmmettScottattheSunShipyards.Whentheshipyardbecameunionizedbywayof

hislongtimenemesisAsaPhilipRandolph,heleft.TomakeendsmeetChisumsold

hisOlivertypewriter.Hiswifecontinuedtoworkasanurse.Physically,Melvin

ChisumdiedinatrolleyaccidentonJuly5,1945.Partsofhimdiedeveryyearuntil

thataccident.

BlacksfoundtheirkeyortrickinEuropeanliterature–likeShakespeare’s

HenryIV-carryingfernseedintheirpockets.Beinginvisible,mimickingUncleTom,

andstandingaskingmakersinthewhiteworldhelpedthembecomeleadersinthe

separatebutequalworldthisgroupofblacksattemptedtomakejust.Theproblem

wasseparatewasneverequalandtheirblacknesswasneverforgiven.The

Machiavellianstrickedthemoncemoreingivinggovernmentpositionstohush

themandslowtheirprogressinraceissues.DuringtheDepression,ablackman

104AfroAmerican(WashingtonD.C.),3August1940.

withasteadypositionwasararecommodity.InmanywaysChisumreachedthe

pinnacleofblacklifeasaninvestigatorhecouldnothavereacheddoingmissions

andbeingafree-freelancejournalist.Iotherwayshegaveintohisownworsefears

ofhavingtoworkforhisownbenefittothepointthathecouldnotworkforthe

race.105

ModernhistorianshavereliedontherecordsoftheNationalAssociationfor

theAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)tounderstandhistoricaltiesofblacks

totheNewDealandtheendoftheProgressiveEra.NancyWeissinFarewelltothe

PartyofLincoln,andHarvardSitkoffinANewDealforBlackswriteofalackof

positionsforblacksintheNewDeal.CluestoBookerT.Washington’scontinued

reformmovementundermensuchasChisumeludedmanyofthem.Illuminatingthe

experienceofcharacterssuchasMelvinChisumandhisfriendI.W.Youngredirects

thehistoricalnarrative.Historicallenseshavebeenchangingoverthepasttenyears

bymovingawayfromDuBois’leadershipandacknowledgingthepowerofBookerT.

Washington’sreformwellintothe1930s.Thischapterhelpsthehistoriandiscover

whyineverynarrativeofthe1930sthenameMelvinChisumpopsupoutof

nowhere.Hewasnotamarginalcharacterintheworldofthe1930sbutamain

character.Hisworkwasburiedinthewakeofmenwhocameafterandaddedtohis

historyorinthoselikePurviswhodidnotlikehimwhenhewasliving.Whenhe

diedtheycasthimonlyintheroleofworkingasaspyorundergroundinChicago.

105NewYorkAge(NewYork),19Dec.1931.MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933.OKCU.

Initsentirety,thechapterreviseswhattwentieth-centuryandtwenty-first

centuryhistorianssuchasthelateLouisHarlan,RaymondSmock,intheBookerT.

WashingtonPapers(1972)etal,RaymondSmock’s,BookerT.Washington(2009),

BrianKellyinhisbook,Race,ClassandPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921

(2001),PeteDanielinhis1970sarticle,"BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof

TuskegeeVeteransHospital,"StevenFoxinthebook,GuardianofBoston:William

MonroeTrotter(1970),Dr.QuintardTaylorprofessoremeritusofUniversityof

Washingtonclasslectures,andotherswhotheorizedthatChisumathiszenithwas

nomorethanavillainousspyandprovocateurforBookerT.Washington.106Asa

consciousdecisiontheychosetodescribeChisuminpejorativetermsinsteadof

followinghiscareertothe1930s.Evenin1918asanefficiencyagentwithinFederal

DivisionofNegroEconomics,Chisumroseabovetheroleofspyheplayedwithinthe

segregatedTuskegeeMachine.Hebecamethegreatestlivingheroofhisgeneration

afterHarriettTubmandiedin1914.AmericanBlacksofalleconomicsectorsknew

hewouldgivethemService,Service,Serviceintheirtimesofneedwhethertheyhad

moneytopayornot.Chisum’sgreatestfoeandhisgreatesttriumphwasagainst

HerbertHoover’spresidency.SupportingRooseveltmadehimthemostpowerful

blackmaninthecountry.Whilehedidnotlandapoliticalpositionbehindhis

106Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7;BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915;RaymondSmock,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadershipintheAgeofJimCrow,ed.JohnDavidSmith,TheLibraryofAfrican-AmericanBiography(Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2009);BrianKelly,RaceClassandPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921(Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2001);PeteDaniel,"TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"TheJournelofSouthernHistory36(1970);StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter,ed.AugustMeier,StudiesinAmericanNegroLife(NewYork:Atheneum,1970).

powerfuldisplayofleadingblackAmericaforDemocratshewasgivenan

appointmentthatmatchedhisprowess.HisappointmentinDepartmentofInterior

affirmedChisum’scareerasaninvestigatorandextendsthehonorofhisvocationas

agovernmentdetective.HaroldIckes,amanlikeChisumwhobuilthimselfupbyhis

ownbootstraps,againstabigotedsystem,keptChisuminthepositionwithequality

withtheotherPWAagents;Chisumhadthesamesalary,thesamerights,andthe

samekindofworkinanAmericathatwasnotreadyforablackmanwiththepower

ofthegovernmentanditsmoneybehindhim.MuchlesswereAmerican

businessmenandtheDepartmentoftheInteriorreadyforaselfmadeinterrogator,

detectivewiththecharacterofMelvinChisum!

Finally,inregardstoHarvardSitkoff’sbookANewDealForBlacks(1978),in

whichhestatedthatnoblacksvotedintheSouthestablishestheexceptionwith

datafromOklahomaandChicago.InOklahoma,theblackvoteuseditspotentialto

changeelectionsasearlyas1919.107AblackChicagodistrictvotedinthefirstblack

stateRepresentativesinceReconstruction,OscarDePriest,in1928.The

ramificationsofthevoteintheseareasdrovethepoliticalactivityofMelvinChisum

inthe1930s,andChisum’sactivitiesrevealedthefinalepisodeofthe

accommodationstrategyofBookerT.Washingtonandthedawnofthepost1940

CivilRightsmovement.

AMysteryRemains.WasChisumMurdered?

107Sitkoff.31.

MelvinChisumSr.diedatthenightofwhathadbeenabeautifulsunnydayin

July1945,helayunderatrolley,whilehisson’smilitarycareerhadhiminOkinawa,

hiswifeanddaughterathomeattheirleisure.Chisumtoldthemhewasheadedtoa

jobataclubwherehewasa“greeter,”onthenighthewasstruckandkilledbya

trolley.Anne,hiswife,neverfullybelievedthestoryoftheaccidentespeciallyby

anythingresemblingatrain.“Shekeptsaying‘Daddywassocareful.Hewasalways

tellingmetowait,’”accordingtohisdaughterAnne’sChisum–Johnson’smemory.

However,therewasnoinvestigationintoChisum’s“accidental”death.“Therewas

neveranyquestionintowhatreallyoccurred,”shesaidwithapassionatepause,

whensherealizedthatinthe1940sthenhisfamilydidnotknowhissubversivelife.

“Hewalkedinfrontofatrolley.Atleastthatwhatweweretoldwhathappened,”his

daughtersaid.Seventy-threeyearslatershenowhassomequestion.

WhatreallyhappenedtoMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.?Hissonbelievedwhat

hewastoldin1946whenhereturnedhome,thathisfather,goingabouthisusual

routinegotoffatrolleyandwalkedinfrontofthemovingtrainbecausehewasnot

thinking.Researchinghislife,theauthorfindsMelvinChisumSr.’s,deathtooneat

forapriordetective,investigatorandamanonceagaindoingmissions.Dr.Melvin

Chisum,Jr.,evendrewamaptodemonstratethetrolleydeath.Hepennedthese

wordstotheauthorwith“allthepointsnecessarytoindicatewhatDadwastrying

todowhenhehadhisfatalaccident.”

DadmountedtheRoute10trolleybetween43rdand44thstreets,headedintown.HedescendedfromthetrolleyinthepassengersafetyislandonthesouthsideofMarketStreetwiththeintentionofcrossingMarketStreetto

theothersideofMarket70cartotakehimoutto49thor50thandWoodland.Whathappenedtohimorwhatwasonhismindthathewalkedinfrontofthetrolleycarwewillneverknow?Washetired?Washelate?Washeinahurry?Wastheresomethingonhismindthatmadehimunawareofthedangerousstepshewasabouttotake?Ofcourse,thenormalthingtodoistoletthetrolleycarproceedandcrossthestreetbehindit.Butthen,aproperlycarefulstreetcardriverwouldbecertainthatthetrackswereclearbeforeproceeding.Butthereyouhaveit.”108

However,hedidnotknowofhisfather’sworkasadetective.

ThisbiographyChisum’sPilgrimageIIbringstolightnewlydiscovered

informationaboutMelvinChisum,Sr.’s.lifefromchildhoodtodeathwhichallows

foratleastandinvestigationintothecircumstanceofhisdeath.Didsomeoneor

somepeopleattackhimorperhapsgivehimanudgeontothetracks?Therewasno

policeinvestigation.By1946whenhissoncamehome,thefactsweresoneathedid

notneedtoprovethem.Underduressandgriefhisdaughterdidnotquestionwhat

wassimpleandtothepoint.Yet,addinginrecenthistoriographyandresearchof

thisdissertationtheaccidentbecomessuspiciousashewifeAnneimplied.

MelvinChisumwasatrainedporterandamasteroftrainsandtraintracks.

Heknewthemlikeheknewthekeysofatypewriter.Hewasverycarefulaccording

tohiswifeanddaughter.Arethereextenuatingcircumstancesthatwouldreopen

thecaseofhisdeathasmurder?Morethantheenemieshemadeinthepastasa

politician,hisundergroundworkinChicago,andduringhisgovernmentwork

standsoutasreasonsforamurder.Therewereothercontemporarycircumstances

108Dr.MelvinChisumtoauthorDecember12,2007.Letterisinauthor’snotebook.

ofthetimeperiodthatcitedcouldreopentheideaofamurderversusanaccident.

AccordingtohisdaughterherfatherwasworkingfortheDemocraticPartyona

missionthatnoonequiteknewaboutexcepthimandhisinnercircle.Shebelieves

thathewasinvolvedinthelaborstrikeinPhiladelphia.Intheyear1944,heworked

withtheNAACPagainstoneofthemostpowerfulcorporationsinPhiladelphia,

Pennsylvaniaalaborunioninordertohaveblacksandwomenhiredtrolleydrivers

andintootherpositions.

Laborhistorian,JamesWolfinger,pennedthatthestrike“demonstratedthe

profoundracialcleavages,thatdividedtheworkingclass,notjustinthesouthbut

acrossthenation.”109FromthedissertationislearnedthatChisumhadawayof

playingbothsidesinissuesinhispast.Inthe1940spoliticsandtheleadershipthat

oncebackedhimhadchanged.ProgressiveEraphilanthropistsandRobberBarons

ofthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturydidnotrunthe

companies.Anewbreedofbusinessmenhadtakenoverwithlesspersonaltiestoits

“fixers.”CompanieslikethePhiladelphiaTransitAuthoritywassomuchgrander

thanthoseblackentitiesChisumattackedhadunderBTWorA.PhilipRandolphand

theBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,(BSCP)inthe1920sand1930s.Hadhe

beenfororagainstthestrikeorattemptedtoplaythemiddleashehadinsomany

missionsofthepast?

109JamesWolfinger,"WorldWarIiHateStrikes,"inTheEncyclopediaofStrikesinAmericanHistory,ed.BenjaminDayAaronBrennan,ImmanuelNess(NewYork:M.E.SharpeInc.,2009).126-137.

TheheadlineintheBaltimoreAfroAmerican,“MelvinJ.ChisumTrolleyCar

VictimFormerPublisherandVeteranPolitician,SupportedWillkie,PinnedUnder

TrolleyOperatedByWoman,”seemsasubtlehintthattheremayhavebeenmoreto

Chisum’sdeaththanamomentaryforgetfulnessonhispart.Thenewspaper

reportedthatChisumwasstruckonSaturdayJuly7byatrolleycarat32ndStreet

andLancasterAvenueThearticlegavethewomandriver’snameandaddress.It

continuedbystating,that“trafficattheintersectionwasstoppedforfifteenminutes

whileworkersjackedupthecartoremovethevictim.”110MelvinChisumwasnot

dead.Hewastakentoahospital.Whywasitnecessarytopublishthatitwasa

womandriver?Wastheresomebountyonhishead?WasittheAfroAmericaneditor

lettingsomeoneknowthatthemurderdidnotgounnoticed?

ThePhiladelphiatransitstrikeof1944wasasick-out,strikebywhitetransit

workersinPhiladelphiafromAugust1throughAugust61944.Whiteworkers

protestedtheopeningofjobsduringaperiodoflaborshortagetoblackconductors

andmotormen.Priortotheperiodblackscouldonlyholdmenialjobs.Onthefirstof

Augusteightblackswereabouttomaketheirtrialrunswhenwhiteshadasickout

strike.ThestrikewaseventuallybrokenthroughtheSmithConnallyAct–Warlabor

DisputesAct.TomConnally,aDemocratfromTexas,Chisum’shomestate,presented

theanti-unionact,onSeptember5,1942.Bythemid1940sChisumfoughtagainst

ThePhiladelphiaTransportationCompany(PTC)withtheNAACPandothers.PTC

wasoneofthelargesttransitcompaniesinthecountry.Theactpassedin1943

110AfroAmerican(Baltimore),14July1945.PhiladelphiaTribune(Philadelphia),14July1945.

overridingPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’svetobyboththeHouseandtheSenate

becauseworkerscrippledthewarindustrywhen300,000warworkersincluding

workersattheNavalYardcouldnotgettowork.

Asearlyas1943NAACP’sworkwasintricateinpublicizingPTC’sissuesof

racismwithintheTransitWorkersUnion.In1944theWarManpowerCommission

becameinvolvedinthePTCdiscriminatoryhiringpractices.Theypromotedeight

blackstoskilledpositions.Whenwhiteworkersfoundouttheycalledinsick,

blockedentrances,andeventuallyshutdownthetransitsystem.Themilitarytook

overthetransit.BySeptemberof1944thestrikewasoverandblacks,motormen

drovethetrolleys.BeforeayearwasupChisumwasmurdered.

Theheadlineswereexplicitthata“womantrolleydriver”struckandkilled

MelvinChisum.ReportsshowthatChisumwashitsosoundlythatheneverwokeup

inthehospitaltotellwhathappenedduringhisaccident/murder.Apushorashove

wouldhaveplacedtheseventy-two-yearold,spy,provocateur,raceman,and

governmentagentinfrontofatrain.Thebriefcasehecarrierwasneverrecovered.

Heneverwokeupfromhiscomatosestateanddiedtwodayslater.Avery,very,

quietserviceforhimwasheldwithonlyfamilyinattendance.Whilethefamilymay

becorrect,thathisdeathwasindeedanaccident;duringthattime,theydidnot

knowabouthisworkasaspyandhismissionshestillcarriedout.Theydonotknow

whatpapershehadinthebriefcase.EmmettScottdestroyedallpaperworkthat

includedChisum.Thequestionremainsforhistorianstoconfront.

MelvinChisum’slifewasatestamenttothegreatestAmericanBlackSpy

careerinAmericaorworldhistory.Forhistorianswhofollowsuchapowerful

dynamiccareerashisinpolitics,theunderworld,andespeciallyduringtheintense

racialclimateofhefacedinhislifetimetheideathathewasmurderedisplausible

becauseabiographyisnowwritten.Itisnotallencompassingbutenoughtoshowa

lifeofanamazing,courageous,comedic,actor,investigatorandlovingfatherwho

consideredhimselfanAmericanProgressive.HisnamegoesdownintheAmerican

CivilReligionasthebestAmericanBlackdetectiveofthetwentiethcentury.

Circumstancesintheworldhavechangedandnomancanevertakehisplace.

ThedissertationendswithwordsfromMelvinChisum’ssonwhosentthis

historianonamission.ThosethatknewMelvinChisumacceptedhisidiosyncrasies.

Thosewhohatedhim,hatedhim.Thosewholovedhim,lovedhim.

KnowingyouhasenabledmetounderstandmyfatherbetterthanIeverdid.HeandIboretheaffectionandrespecttowardeachotherthatallgoodfathersandsonsshould.IneverquestionedwhyhewasthewayhewaswhenIknewhim.Iwasquitepleasedwithhim,asIknewhim.Iwasjustpastmy22ndbirthdaywhenIsawhimlast,whileonfurloughbeforegoingtothePacific,inWorldWarII.Hemusthavewrittenmeatleasteverytwoweeksduringtheremainderofhislife.Maildeliverieswereirregularoverseas,andwhenmyoutfitreceiveditsmail,therewouldalwaysbeseverallettersfromDadandprobablyapacketofnewspapersaswell.Hadhebeenlivingandcontinuedtolivesomeyearsaftermyreturn,Imayhavelearnedsomeofthesethingsabouthimmyself.ButIdoubtthepicturewouldhavebeenasclearasyouhavepaintedit.111

---Dr.MelvinJacksonChisumJr.toAuthor.

111Dr.MelvinJacksonChisum,Jr.toAuthorSeptember18,2014inauthor’snotebook.Dr.ChisumdiedOctober22,2014.

REFERENCES

PrimarySources

Manuscripts

ClaudeA.BarnettPapers.ChicagoHistoryMuseum.Chicago,IL.

MelvinJacksonChisumPapers.PrivateCollection.Langston,OK.

CalvinCoolidgePapers.LibraryofCongress.Washington,DC.

WendellDabneyPapers.CincinnatiHistoryLibrary.Cincinnati,OH.

AliceDunbar-NelsonPapers.UniversityofDelawareLibrary.Newark,DE.

I.W.YoungandLeonelleYoungHargrovePapers.PrivateCollection.Langston,OK.

HaroldIckesPapers.LibraryofCongress.WashingtonDC.

InmanPagePapers.LincolnUniversity.Jefferson,MO.

LouisHarlanPapers.UniversityofMarylandatCollegePark.CollegePark,MD.

N.A.A.C.P.Papers.LibraryofCongress.Washington,DC.

RobertRussaMotonPapers.TuskegeeUniversityArchives.Tuskegee,AL.

FranklinD.RooseveltPapers.FranklinD.RooseveltLibrary.HydePark,NY.

TheodoreRooseveltPapers.LibraryofCongress.WashingtonDC.

WilliamHowardTaftPapers.LibraryofCongress.WashingtonDC.

WoodrowWilsonPapers.LibraryofCongress.WashingtonDC.

Newspapers

Afro-American(BaltimoreEdition,Maryland),1915-1945.

AmsterdamNews(Amsterdam,NewYork),1914-1925.

ANPJournal(NewYork),1925-1932.

BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma),1916-1945.

BoleyProgress(Boley,Oklahoma),1914-1916.

BroadAxe(Chicago,Illinois),1915-1945.

CapitalPlaindealer(Topeka,Kansas),1932-1936.

ChicagoDefender(Illinois),1921-1945.

ChicagoWorld(Illinois),1923-1925.

ClevelandGazette(Ohio),1922-1924.

ColoredAmerican(NewYork),1898-1904.

DailyOklahoman(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma)1905–1945.

Freedman(Indianapolis,Indiana),1914-1917.

GuthrieDailyLeader(Oklahoma),1915-1916.

Harlow'sWeekly(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma),1916–1923.

KansasCityAdvocate(Kansas),1922-1924.

Leader(Oklahoma),1915-1916.

MinneapolisMessenger(Minnesota),1922-1925.

NegroStar(Wichita,Kansas),1928-1932.

NationalNegroPressAssociation(NewYork),1914-1945.

IndianapolisRecorder(Indiana),1923-1925.

NewYorkAmsterdamNews(NewYork),1922-1945.

NorfolkJournalandGuide(Virginia),16July1932.

OklahomaGuide(Guthrie,Oklahoma),1915-1916.

OklahomaTribune(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma).1914-1915.

PittsburghCourier(Pennsylvania),1914-1945

Plaindealer(Kansas),1936-1945.

SanFranciscoSpokesman(California),1931-1932.

SavannahTribune(Georgia),1922-1923.

TulsaStar(Oklahoma),1915-1917.

TheTuskegeeNews(Alabama),28August2012.

TheUnion,(Ohio),1914-1945.

WashingtonBee(Washington,DC),1904-1916.

World'sFlashlight(Kansas),1933.

SecondarySources

Aldrich,Gene.BlackHeritageofOklahoma.Edmond,Oklahoma:ThompsonBookand

SupplyCo.,1973.

Alexander,Shawn.AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStrugglebeforetheNAACP.

Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012.

________.T.ThomasFortunetheAfroAmericanAgitator:ACollectionofWritings,1880-

1928.Florida:UniversityofFloridaPress,2008.

Aptheker,Herbert.ADocumentaryHistoryoftheNegroPeopleintheUnitedStates.

PennsylvaniaStateUniversity:CitadelPress,1951.

Asante,Mole.FacingSouthtoAfrica:TowardanAfrocentricCriticalOrientation.New

York:LexingtonBooks,2014.

Barr,Alwyn.ReconstructiontoReform:TexasPolitics,1876-1906.Austin:University

ofTexasPress,1971.

BarryCrouch,DonaldBrice.TheGovernor'sHounds:TheTexasStatePolice,1870-

1873.JackandDorisSmothersSeriesinTexasHistory,LifeandCulture.

Texas:UniversityofTexasPress,2012.

Barth,Karl.ChurchDogmatics.EditedbyB.W.BromileyandT.F.TorranceVol.1,

London:T&TClark,1936-1977.

Bates,BethTompkins.PullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlack

America,1925-1945.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001.

Bernstein,Paul.LetterstoEleanor:VoicesoftheGreatDepression.Indiana:

Arthorhouse,2004.

Berry,Howard.HeMadeItSafetoMurder.OklahomaCity:OklahomaHeritage

Association,2001.

Bethune,MaryMcLeod.ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen.BlackWomenin

WhiteAmerica:ADocumentaryHistory.EditedbyGerdaLernerNewYork:

RandomHouse,1972.

Brawley,James.TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern:Bondage,Freedomand

EducationofBlackPeople.NewYork:VintagePress,1974.

Breisach,Ernst.Historiography:Ancient,MedievalandModern.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1983.

Brooks,Cecelia.JusticeThroughEspionage.Langston,Oklahoma:BlackTownBooks,

Buni,Andrew.RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism.

Pennsylvania:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1974.

Casdorph,Paul.Republicans,Negroes,andProgressivesintheSouth,1912-1916.

Alabama:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1981.

Chalmers,DavidMark.HoodedAmericanism:TheHistoryoftheKuKluxKlan.

CharlotteNorthCarolina:PawPrints,2008.

Chang,David.ColoroftheLand:Race,Nation,andthePoliticsofLandownershipin

Oklahoma,1832-1929.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010.

Chisum,MelvinJ."(Confidential)theFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationofthe

TuskegeeVeteransHospital."InNationalNegroPressAssociation,editedby

WashingtonD.C.,14.Chicago:NationalNegroPressAssociation,1926.

Cook,Blanche.EleanorRoosevelttheDefiningYears1933-1938.London:Penguin,

Cotton,Walter.AHistoryofNegroesofLimestoneCountyfrom1860to1939.Mexia,

Texas1939.

Crockett,Norman.TheBlackTowns.Lawrence:RegentsPressofKansas,1979.

Cubberley,Elwood.TheHistoryofEducation.Hanover:UniversityofConnecticut

Press,1920.

Dabney,Wendell,P.Chisum'sPilgrimageandOthers.Cincinnati,Ohio:DabneyPress,

———."AVisittoDunbar'sTomb."InNegroCaravan,editedbyArthurPaulDavis

SterlingAllenBrown,UlyssesLee.NewYork:DrydenPress,1941.

———.Cincinnati'sColoredCitizens;Historical,SociologicalandBiographical.Ohio:

NegroUniversityPress,1926.

Dailey,MaceoCrenshaw.WhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScottandthe

BookerT.WashingtonMovement.ElPaso,Texas:SweetEarthFlyingPress,

Debo,Angie.AndStilltheWatersRun:TheBetrayaloftheFiveCivilizedTribes.New

Jersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1940.

———.OklahomaFoot-LooseandFancyFree.Norman:UniversityofOklahoma

Press,1949.

Djata,Sundiata.BlacksattheNet:BlackAchievementintheHistoryofTennis.New

York:SyracuseUniversityPress,2006.

Dorrien,Gary.TheNewAbolition:W.E.B.DuboisandtheBlackSocialGospel.New

Haven:YaleUniversityPress,2015.

Draper,Sharon.TheCopperSun.NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006.

DuBois,William.DuskofDawn.NewYork:AmsterdamPress,1940.

Durkheim,Emile.TheElementaryFormsofReligiousLife.TranslatedbyKarenFields.

London:TheFreePress,1912.

Fox,Stephen.TheGuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter.EditedbyAugust

Meier.NewYork:Athenaeum,1970.

Franklin,JimmieLewis.JourneyTowardHope.Norman:UniversityofOklahoma

Press,1971.

Franklin,JohnHope.FromSlaverytoFreedom:AHistoryofNegroAmericans.New

York:RandomHouse,1969.

________.MirrortoAmerica:TheAutobiographyofJohnHopeFranklin.NewYork:

Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2005.

Frazier,E.Franklin.TheNegroChurchinAmerica.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1963.

Gamble,VanessaNorthington.MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospital

Movement1920-1945.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995.

Garraty,John.TheNewCommonwealth1877-1890.NewYork:Harper&Row,1968.

Gibbs,WarmothT.PresidentMatthewW.DuganofWileyCollege.Marshall,Texas:

Firmin-Greer,1936.

Green,CharlesandPayne,Adam.TimeLongerThanRope:ACenturyofAfrican

AmericanActivism,1850-1950.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2005.

Griffin,WilliamW.AfricanAmericansandtheColorLineinOhio,1915-1930.

Columbus:TheOhioStateUniversityPress,2005.

Grossman,James.BlackWorkersintheEraoftheGreatMigration1916-1929,Black

StudiesResearchSources:MicrofilmsfromMajorArchivalandManuscript

Collections.Maryland:UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,Inc,1985.

Grothaus,Larry."HarryHooverandBlackAmericans."InHerbertHooverandthe

RepublicanEra:AReconsideration,editedbyCarlKrog.NewYork:University

PressAmerica,1984.

Harkey,Dee.MeanasHell.NewMexico:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1948.

Harlan,Louis.BookerT.WashingtonPapers.EditedbyLouisHarlanVol.7,Illinois:

UniversityofIllinois,1972.

_______.BookerT.WashingtonPapers.EditedbyLouisHarlan.Vol.8,Illinois:

UniversityofIllinois,1972.

________.BookerT.Washington:TheMakingofaBlackLeader1856-1901.NewYork:

OxfordUniversityPress,1972.

_______.BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.NewYork:Oxford

UniversityPress,1983.

________,andSmock,Raymondeds.TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers.Indiana:

UniversityofIllinois,Press,1979.

Harmon,Alexandra.RichIndians:NativePeopleandtheProblemofWealthin

AmericanHistory.ChapelHill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolina,2010.

Harris,Abram.TheNegroasCapitalist:AStudyofBankingandBusinessAmong

AmericanNegroes.NewYork:HaskellHouse,1936.

Harris,JoelChandler.UncleRemus.NewYorkAppletonandCompany,1880.

Harris,William.KeepingtheFaith:APhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Websterandthe

BrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters1925-37.Urbana:UniversityofIllinois

Press,1979.

Hauan,Martin.Oklahoma'sLegalGraft,IllegalGraftandJustPlainStealin’.Oklahoma

City,Oklahoma:MidwestPoliticalPublications,1993.

Hemingway,Samuel.TheSecondPratofHenrytheFourth.NewHaven:Oxford

UniversityPress,1921.

Hendricks,Stephanie.DevineDestruction:WiseUse,DominionTheologyandthe

MakingofAmericanEnvironmentalPolicy.Michigan:MelvilleHouse,2005.

Hill,Robert.TheMarcusGarveyandUniversalNegroImprovementPapersEditedby

RobertHillVol.IV,Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985.

Holloway,Jonathan.ConfrontingtheVeil:AbramHarrisJr.,E.FranklinFrazierand

RalphBunche,1919-1941.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,

Holsey,Albon."AManofCourage."InRobertRussaMotonofHamptonandTuskegee,

editedbyWilliamHughesandFrederickPeterson,123-127.ChapelHill:

UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1956.

House,H.Wayne,IceThomas.DominionTheology,BlessingorCurse?Massachusetts:

MultnomahPress,1988.

Ickes,Harold.TheAutobiographyofaCurmudgeon.Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,

———."Diary."InHaroldL.IckesPapers,editedbyManuscriptDivisionLibraryof

Congress,37.Washington,D.C.:LibraryofCongress,1937.

Jackson,David.BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleagainstWhiteSupremacy:The

SouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,

Johnson,Jack.JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut.Chicago:NationalSportsPublishing

Company,1927.

Jones,MitchellRiceandWoodrow.PublicPolicyandtheBlackHospital:FromSlavery

toSegregationtoIntegration.Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,1994.

Kaplan,Mary.TheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalandItsBlackPhysicians:TheEarly

Years.NorthCarolina:McFarlandandCompany,2016.

Kelly,Brian.BeyondtheTalentedTenth:BlackElites,BlackWorkersandtheLimitsof

AccommodationinIndustrialBirmingham,1900-1921(NewYork:NewYork

UniversityPress,2002)onlineSchoolofModernHistory,Queen’sUniversity

ofBelfast.

________.Race,Class,andPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2000.

Koussar,JMorgan.TheShapingofSouthernPolitics:SuffrageRestrictionandthe

EstablishmentoftheOnePartySouth.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,

Kremer,Gary."WilliamJ.Thompkins:AfricanAmericanPhysician,Politician,and

Publisher."MissouriHistoricalReview101(April2007):168-82.

Leavell,R.H.andSnavelyT.R.,T.J.Woofter."NegroMigrationin1916-1917."In

DivisionofNegroEconomics,editedbyU.S.DepartmentofLabor.

Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1916-1917.

Leslie,LavonneJackson.FreedomafterSlavery:TheBlackExperienceandthe

Freedmen'sBureauinReconstructionTexas.Indiana:TraffordPublishing,

Lewis,DavidLevering.W.E.B.Dubois:TheFightforEqualityandtheAmerican

Century1919-1963.Vol.2,NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,2000.

Lincoln,C.Eric.TheBlackChurchsinceFrazier.London:UniversityofLiverpool,

Lisio,Donald.Hoover,BlacksandLilyWhites.NorthCarolina:UniversityofNorth

Carolina,1985.

Liveright,Horace.WashingtonMerry-Go-Round.NewYork:JoraceLiverightInc,

Luker,Ralph.TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite.ChapelHill:NorthCarolina

Press,1991.

Machiavelli,Niccolo.ThePrince.TranslatedbyLuigiRicci.London:GrantRichards,

Maurier,George.Trilby.NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1894.

Meier,August.NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1915:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeof

BookerT.Washington.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963.

———.NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1995:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeofBooker

T.Washington.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963.

Mjagkij,Nina.OrganizingBlackAmerica:AnEncyclopediaofAfricanAmerican

Associations.EditedbyNinaMjagkij.NewYork:GarlandPublishing,2001.

Asante,Molefi.FacingSouthtoAfrica:TowardanAfrocentricCriticalOrientation.

NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2014.

Moton,RobertRussa.FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography.NewYork:Doubleday,

Page&Company,1922.

Niebuhr,Reinhold.BeyondTragedy:EssaysontheChristianInterpretationofHistory.

NewYork:CharlesScibner'sSons,1937.

———.NatureandtheDestinyofManI:AChristianInterpretationHumanNature.

NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1941.

Niebuhr,Richard.TheMeaningofRevelation.NewYork:MacmillanPublishing,

Noll,Mark.AHistoryofChristianityintheUnitedStatesandCanada.GrandRapids,

Michigan:W.B.EerdmansPublishingCompany,1992.

Ottley,Roi.TheLonelyWarrior.Chicago,Illinois:HenryRegency,1955.

Padmore,George.TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers.London:R.I.L.U.Magazine

ofInternationalTradeUnionCommitteeOfNegroUnions,1931.

Patterson,Zella.LangstonUniversity:AHistory.Norman:UniversityofOklahoma

Press,1979.

Payne,Phillip.DeadLast:ThePublicMemoryofWarrenG.Harding’sScandalous

Legacy.Athens:OhioUniversityPress,2009

Perman,Michael.StruggleforMastery:DisfranchisementintheSouth,1888-1908.

ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001.

Pryor,TheodoreM.WealthBuildingLessonsofBookerT.WashingtonforaNewBlack

America.Maryland:Duncan&Duncan,1995.

RaymondSmock,DennisBurton,andJamesRhoads.AGuidetoManuscriptsinthe

PresidentialLibraries.UniversityofMichigan:ResearchMaterialsCorp,

Rable,George.ButThereWasNoPeace:TheRoleofViolenceinPoliticsof

Reconstruction.Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2007.

Richardson,Clement.TheNationalCyclopediaoftheColoredRace.Montgomery,

Alabama:NationalPublishingCompany,Inc.,1919.

Roberts,John.FromTrickstertoBadMan:TheBlackFolkHeroinSlaveryand

Freedom.NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1989.

Rousseau,JeanJacques.TheSocialContract:OrthePrinciplesofPoliticalRights.

TranslatedbyRoseHarrington.NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1893.

Ryan,Thomas.Spies,Scouts,andSecretsintheGettysburgCampaign.California:

SavisBeatie,2015.

ScottEmmett,LymanStowe.BookerT.Washington:BuilderofaCivilization.New

York:Doubleday,Page&Company,1918.

Sherman,Richard.TheRepublicanPartyandBlackAmerica:FromMckinleytoHoover

1896to1933.Charlottesville:UniversityPressofVirginia,1973.

Simmons,Martha,andThomasFrank.PreachingwithSacredFire:AnAnthologyof

AfricanAmericanSermons1750tothePresent.NewYork:W.W.Norton&

CompanyInc.,2010.

Smallwood,James."BlackTexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874."TexasTech

University,1974.

———.MurderandMayhem:TheWarofReconstructioninTexas.Texas:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2003.

Smock,Raymond.BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadershipintheAgeofJimCrow.

TheLibraryofAfrican-AmericanBiography.EditedbyJohnDavidSmith

Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2009.

Sitkoff,Harvard.ANewDealforBlacks:TheEmergenceofCivilRightsasaNational

Issue.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1978.

Shadgett,Olive.TheRepublicanPartyinGeorgiaFromReconstructionThrough1900

Atlanta:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1964.

Stauffer,StevenandJohnMintz.TheProblemofEvil:SlaveryFreedom,andthe

AmbiguitiesofAmericanReform.AmherstUniversityofMassachusettsPress,

Talbert,Horace.TheSonsofAllen.XeniaOhio:TheAldinePress,1906.

Thompson,Maurice.TheStoryofLouisiana.Boston:DLinthropCompany,1888.

Thornbrough,EmmaLou.T.ThomasFortune:MilitantJournalist.Chicago:

UniversityofChicagoPress,1972.

Thorne,Jack.RecollectionsofaSleepingCarPorter.JerseyCity,NewJersey:Doan&

Pilson,1892.

Tillich,Paul.PaulTillichMoralityandBeyond.NewYork:HarperandRow,1963.

Tolson,ArthurL.TheBlackOklahomans:AHistory,1541-1972.NewOrleans,

Louisiana:EdwardsPrintingCompany,1972.

Truth,Sojourner.NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,

EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresent

Century,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer

"BookofLife."Boston:Publishedfortheauthor,1875.

W.H.Brookset.al.StoryoftheRiot.NewYorkCity:Citizens'ProtectiveLeague,

Washington,BookerT.UpfromSlavery.NewYork:Doubleday,1901.

Washington,NathanielJason.HistoricalDevelopmentoftheNegroinOklahoma.

Tulsa,Oklahoma:DexterPublishingCompany,1948.

Weiss,Nancy.FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR.New

Jersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983.

William,Hughes,andPatterson,Frederick.RobertRussaMotonofHamptonand

Tuskegee.ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1956.

Wolfinger,James."WorldWarIiHateStrikes."InTheEncyclopediaofStrikesin

AmericanHistory,editedbyBenjaminDayAaronBrennan,ImmanuelNess.

NewYork:M.E.SharpeInc.,2009Woodson,CarterG.TheHistoryoftheNegro

Church.WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,1921.

———.TheNegroinOurHistory.WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,

_________.TheMis-EducationoftheNegro.WashingtonD.C.:AssociatedPublishers,

Woodward,C.Van.TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow.NewYork:OxfordUniversity

Press,1955.

Work,Monroe.NegroYearBook:AnAnnualEncyclopediaoftheNegro.Alabama:

TuskegeeInstitute,1913.

Articles

Bacote,Clarence.NegroProscriptions,Protests,andProposedSolutionsinGeorgia,

1880-1908.”JournalofSouthernHistory,29(1959):471-478.

Bellah,Robert."CivilReligioninAmerica."Daedalus96,no.1(1967):1-21.

Bennett,Lerone."ChroniclesofBlackCourage:RobertR.MotonRiskedLifeinFight

forBlackDoctorsatTuskegeeVeteransHospital."Ebony,38(September

1983):199-206.

Brooks,Cecelia.“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor:Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung.”The

ChroniclesofOklahoma,82(2004):32-63.

Dabney,WendellPhillips."AVisittoDunbar'sTomb."NegroCaravan,editedby

ArthurPaulDavis,SterlingAllenBrown,UlyssesLee.NewYork:Dryden

Press,1941.

Daniel,Pete."BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital."

TheJournalofSouthernHistory36,no.3(1970):368-88.

———."TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital."TheJournalofSouthernHistory

36,(1970).

CliftonO.Dummett,andEugeneDibble."HistoricalNotesontheTuskegeeVeterans

Hospital."JournaloftheNationalMedicalAssociation,54(March1962):134-

Daniel,Pete."BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital."

JournalofSouthernHistory,36(1970):368-88.

Guzda,Henry."LaborDepartment'sFirstProgramtoAssistBlackWorkers."Monthly

LaborReview(June1982):39-44.

Harlan,Louis."TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington."JournalofSouthernHistory

37(August1971):393-416.

Holsey,Albon."AManofCourage."InRobertRussaMotonofHamptonandTuskegee,

editedbyWilliamHughesandFrederickPeterson.ChapelHill:Universityof

NorthCarolina,Press(1956):54-62.

Keene,Jennifer."TheMemoryoftheGreatWarintheAfricanAmerican

Community."InUnknownSoldiers:TheAmericanExpeditionaryForcesin

MemoryandRemembrance,editedbyMarkSnell.Kent,Ohio:KentState

UniversityPress,(2008):207-214.

Lewis,Elsie.“ThePoliticalMindofTheNegro,1865-1900.”JournalofSouthern

History,21(1955):189-202.

Marty,Martin."RighteousEmpireRevisited."AmericanAntiquarian(2007).

McMillen,Neil."PerryW.Howard,BossofBlack-and-TanRepublicanismin

Mississippi1924-1960."TheJournalofSouthernHistoryXLVIII,no.2(May

1982).

Moreno,Paul."AnAmbivalentLegacy."TheIndependentReview,6(Spring2002):

513-539.

Owens,Chandler."TheNeglectedTruth:TheNegroPressintheHandsofWhite

FolksNiggers."TheMessenger,8(1925):79-80.

Patton,Stacey."TheRichestColoredGirlintheWorld:SarahRector'sUnusualTale

IsaSingularStoryofRaciallyMotivatedGreedandCorruption."Crisis,

Perry,Thelma."MelvinJ.Chisum,PioneerNewsman."NegroHistoryBulletin,36,

(September1973):176-80.

Roman,C.“TheU.S.VeteransHospital,Tuskegee,Ala.,ColonelJosephHenryWard.”

JournaloftheNationalMedicalAssociation,21(April–June1929):65-67.

Rudwick,Elliott.“TheNiagaraMovement.”JournalofNegroHistory,42(1957):177-

Smock,Raymond."InMemoriamLouisR.Harlan."PerspectivesonHistory48,no.4

(2010.)

UnpublishedMaterial

Asante,Molefi."TheRoleofanAfrocentricIdeology."Paperpresentedatthe

CommitmenttoCivilSociety,Dakar,Senegal,2009.

Brooks,Cecelia."DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker."

Master’sThesis,OklahomaStateUniversity,2014.

__________“SkeletonsintheCloset:AtWhatCost?HearingtheCallforHelpWhen

AfricanAmericanLeadersOppressedTheirOwn1914-1915."InAssociation

fortheStudyofAfricanAmericanLifeandHistory,editedbyTracieMayes

Stewart.Atlanta,Georgia,2015.

Chisum,MelvinJ."TheFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationoftheTuskegee

VeteransHospital."(Confidential),Illinois,1926.

Cripps,Thomas."TheLilyWhiteRepublicans:TheNegro,TheParty,AndTheSouth

intheProgressiveEra."Master'sthesis:UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark,

Hintz,Mary."EarlyHistoryofLimestoneCountyOrganizesasaStudyforTeachinga

LocalHistoryUnit."Master'sThesis:SouthwestTexasStateTeachersCollege,

SanMarcos,1943.

Molefi,Asante."TheRoleofanAfrocentricIdeology."Paperpresentedatthe

CommitmenttoCivilSociety,Dakar,Senegal,2009.

CECELIARENABROOKS

CandidatefortheDegreeof

DoctorofPhilosophyThesis:CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUIS

HARLAN’S“SPY”UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945MajorField:UNITEDSTATESHISTORYBiographical:

Education:CompletedtherequirementsfortheDoctorofPhilosophyHISTORYatOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,OklahomainDecember2018.

CompletedtherequirementsfortheMasterofArtsinHISTORYatOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,OklahomainDecember2014.CompletedtherequirementsforMasterofDivinityTheDivinitySchoolatDukeUniversity,June1996.CompletedtherequirementsfortheBachelorofGeneralStudiesinJournalismandReligion,VirginiaCommonwealthUniversityRichmond,Virginia,1990.Experience:GraduateTeacherAssociateOklahomaStateUniversity2016-Present.

Lecturer,Humanities,LangstonUniversity2014-2015. AdjunctProfessor,VCUDepartmentofReligion1991-1993. PastorofTrinityandSpencerUnitedMethodistChurches,2016-Present

MELVIN JACKSON CHISUM, SR., LOUIS HARLAN'S “SPY ...

Documents

InDesign Melvin Bolden

Melvin Road - s3.amazonaws.com€¦ · Melvin Road 922...

SES San Francisco: Spy vs. Spy - Competitive Research

Spy vs Spy: Protecting Secrets

”I SPY” (PRIMAVERA)€¦ · (PRIMAVERA)...

Nets-s Melvin

Incident Management and ChatOps - USENIX Forget the...

Melvin keynote slöjd

REPORTED OF MARYLAND JACOB LEE CHISUM v. STATE OF … ·...

Melvin Vera Melvin Cetrangolo

Zongshen Assignment Melvin

Portafolio melvin gonzalez

Aikens, C. Melvin. Prehistory of Japan / C. Melvin Aikens...

Spy Counter Spy

SPY-DVR4 / SPY-DVR8 / SPY-DVR16...

Baccalaureate: Gloria Chisum 1994 Five Honorary … ·...