CHISUM’S PILGRIMAGE II: MELVIN JACKSON CHISUM, SR., LOUIS HARLAN’S “SPY” UNRAVELLED IN BIOGRAPHY 1873-1945 By CECELIA RENA BROOKS Bachelor of Arts in General Studies Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia 1990 Master of Arts in History Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 2014 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2018
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CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:
MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUISHARLAN’S“SPY”
UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945
By
CECELIARENABROOKS
BachelorofArtsinGeneralStudiesVirginiaCommonwealthUniversity
Richmond,Virginia1990
MasterofArtsinHistoryOklahomaStateUniversityStillwater,Oklahoma
2014
SubmittedtotheFacultyoftheGraduateCollegeofthe
OklahomaStateUniversityinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfor
theDegreeofDOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
December2018
ii
CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:
MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUISHARLAN’S“SPY”
UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945
DissertationApproved:
DissertationAdviserDr.JamesHuston
Dr.BillBryans
Dr.MichaelLogan
Dr.JeanVanDelinder
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Onetimeisnotenough.Imustsay“thankyou”manytimesforthesupportIhavebeengivenovertheyears.Nothingisachievedonone’sown.IhavecrossedtheglobeinordertoresearchandunderstandtheAmericanBlackexperience.IcanneversaythankyouenoughtomymentorsRoyalHenderson,EuniceandHenryPonder,L.J.Galloway,JaneandHenryFenner,BettyandJackGraves,DaddyDaweandmy“mom”NancyDawe.IwouldnothavemadeitwithoutmyrunningbuddiesTracieandBrianStewart,PaulandMichaelEpstein,andE.CherylPonder.Likethespiritualsays,“Nevercouldhavemadeit,”withoutJune,Gary,John,andTravisChubbuck,mysisterDeidra,BettyeBlack,andMaryAnnBlochowiak.ThankstoOSUPhiAlphaThetaandtheHistoryDepartmentatOSUforsupport.IamgratefultoDr.CliffordEdwardsandDr.DarrylDancefortheirsupport.IPraiseGodthatatUnionTheologicalSeminaryinVirginiathelateDonaldGilbertDawe,introducedgroomedmeintheworksofRichardNiebuhr,KarlBarth,SojournerTruth,JamesCone,andLiberationTheology.ThroughmyresearchoftheLeonelleHargrove–Dr.IsaacWilliamYoungpapersImetthelateDr.JoyHargroveandtheChisumfamily.Thankyou,tothelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.andDr.GloriaChisum.ThankyoutoAnneJohnson,AngelaPeters,DianeJohnson,andSteveArcher.AspecialthankstoOklahomaStateUniversityprofessorsforsharingtheirknowledgewithme:Susan,Dr.JamesHuston,Dr.JasonLavery,Dr.DavidDeAndrea,Dr.BillBryans,Dr.JeanVanDelinder,Dr.L.G.Moses,Dr.RichardRohrs,Dr.AmyCarreiro,Dr.DouglassMiller,Dr.RichardBoles,andDr.MichaelLogan.ThankyouforthesupportgiventomeovertheyearsattheG.LamarHarrisonLibraryatLangstonUniversity,theNationalArchivesResearchCenterinWashington,D.C.,theMoorland-SpringarnResearchCenteratHowardUniversityinWashington,D.C.,theLibraryofCongress,andtoDanaattheTuskegeeLibraryArchivesRepository.TomyfamilyatTrinityUnitedMethodistChurchMuskogee,Oklahoma,thanksforyourprayersandsupport.
AcknowledgementsreflecttheviewsoftheauthorandarenotendorsedbycommitteemembersorOklahomaStateUniversity.
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Name:CECELIARENABROOKS DateofDegree:DECEMBER,2018 TitleofStudy:CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUIS
HARLAN’S“SPY”UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945MajorField:HISTORYAbstract:Noman’slifeandworkshouldbebasedontheethicsandmoralityofhisemployer,especiallywhentheemployerwasthecontroversialleaderofAmericanBlacksinthelate-nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesBookerT.Washington(BTW).InthegroundbreakingbiographieswrittenbyLouisHarlanaboutBTW,thatiswhathappenedtoMelvinChisum’slife.WhileblackhistoriansandjournalistswroteaboutChisumascharismaticandidiosyncraticduringhislifetime;inthe1970shistorianHarlanusedChisum’slifestoryinjuxtapositiontoBTW’s,inordertohighlighttheworkethichethoughtBTWportrayed.CallingChisumnomorethanavillainous“spy”and“provocateur”oftheera,HarlanlefthistoriansandtheirstudentswithavoidinProgressiveErahistorybecauseChisumrepresentedsomuchmoreinsocialandpoliticalendeavorsduringhislifetime.ThisdissertationusesHarlan’sownachievedrecords,theinsightofChisum’sfamilymembers,andpersonallettersbetweenChisumandcolleagues.WhilethisdissertationdoesnotdescribeallofChisum’sdeedsduringhislifetime,itdoesgiveanoverviewofHarlan’sperceptions,abackgroundofChisum’searlylife,correctsmyths,offersablacksocialgospelperspectiveofChisum,andfillsgapsinhistoriography.ThisdissertationdescribesandenhancesbothblackhistoryandAmericanhistory.UnknowninterandintraracealliancesarerevealedthatwereoncethoughtofasunheardofinAmericanhistory.Chisum’sPilgrimageIIplacestheendofBTW’sadministrationofaccommodation,whichHarlanbelievedendedin1916,squarelyinPresidentFranklinDelanoRoosevelt’sNewDealAdministration.GroundbreakingresearchshowsthatChisum,onceaspyfortheAmericanblackleaderBTW,becameaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministrationfortwoconsecutivetermsoftheNewDeal.FromtherethedissertationbrieflyindicatesofhowBookeriteslikeChisumsupportedtheCivilRightsmovementbybackingtheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP).
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
Chapter PageI.INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1DiscerningtheTruthFromtheDead.......................................................................................1ReviewofLiterature......................................................................................................................22Forward..............................................................................................................................................43 II.CONCEPTSINBLACKHISTORY.....……………………………………………………………..45FaithfulWitness,Chisum,BlackSocialGospel,andBlackCivilReligion...............45ChisumandTheChristologyofIsabella’sJourneytobecomeSojournerTruth.61
III.BACKGROUND...........................................................................................................................85 ItisNottheSizeoftheDogintheFightbuttheSizeofFightintheDog……...85 Chisum’sUniqueLinkstoAfro-Texans...........................................................................92 LeavingMexia:FindingAWayOut.................................................................................107 FromPullmanPortertoPugilisttoJournalist...........................................................125IV.THESTROKEOFAPEN:THEVILLAINIZATIONOFMELVINCHISUM.............142 Wizards,Genies,andJimCrow:HarlanRedrawsChisum....................................148 ChisumTheEntrepreneur..................................................................................................162V.CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEINOKLAHOMA.........................................................................184 WhentheWindComesSweepingDownthePlains…………………………………..184ANewArmyforBlackIndiansInOklahoma..............................................................191 MelvinChisumversusInmanPageatLangston,Oklahoma................................204
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Chapter Page
VI.MELVINCHISUMINTHE1920s.......................................................................................227Service,Service,Service...……………………………………………………………………..227 AnotherLookAtEmmettScott.........................................................................................232 Chisum;ABlackCivilReligionCultHero?...................................................................239 ToChicago:Chisum,OscarDePriest,andSamuelInsull......................................254 VII.THETUSKEGEEVETERANSHOSPITALCRISIS........................................................266 YouMayComeThisFarButNoFurther(Job38:11)..............................................266 WhiteConflictOvertheVeteransHospital.................................................................275 UncoveringBlackPoliticalEspionageatTuskegee.................................................290“Oklahoma:Sitalone,talkandwatchahawkmakelazycirclesinthesky!”300 VIII.CROSSINGOVER,TRIPPINGUP,THEENDOFACCOMMODATION1930s.311 ChisumVersusHoover........................................................................................................318 Farley’sCheckMate:TheBigFour..................................................................................329 Chisum=BigFour+Young+Oklahoma.....................................................................345 CrossingOver,TrippingUp,andEndingAccommodation...................................360 AMysteryRemains.WasChisumMurdered?............................................................372REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................379APPENDICES....................................................................................................................................396
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CHAPTERI
DISCERNINGTRUTHFROMTHEDEAD
“Thestoryofmyfatherwillneverbetold,becausethedetailsareshroudedincloudsofhistoryandthepeoplewho livedthoseeventshavegoneontotheir rewards in another world. Louis R. Harlan’s reference to Dad as“BookerT.Washington’sspy” isanexampleofthis.ReferringtohiminthiswayislikewritingofBobbyKennedyas“JohnF.Kennedy’sbrother.”Thisisatruestatement,but it issomuchshortof thewholetruththat it isnearlyamisstatement.Mr.Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthecorrespondencehediscovered,andthatwasnotmuch.”1
---Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.(1921-2014)
Noman’slifeshouldbemoldedaroundwhatoneofhisemployer’scritics
believedtobetrueabouthim,especiallywhentheemployerwasBookerT.
Washington(hereafterdenotedasBTW)(1856-1915),theacknowledgedleaderof
AfricanAmericansinthelate-nineteenthandearly-twentiethcenturies,whohad
legionsofcritics.Inmodernhistoriography,thelegacyofMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,
theAmericanblackefficiencyagent,investigator,sometimesspyandprovocateur,is
primarilyinterpretedinjuxtapositiontoBTWthroughthegroundbreakingwork1Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.
2
ofhistorianLouisHarlan(1922-2010)inthe1970s.YetDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,
questionedtheclarityofhisvision.Usingseveraldifferentinterpretivesourcesfrom
scholarswhodefinedthelifeofMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,includinghisfamily,oral
interviewsandtheirpapers,thisworkstrivestoframethecomponentsofhislifeto
givemorethanacomprehensivebiographyofMelvinChisumbeyondhisworkfor
BTW.ItaddstoAmericanBlackhistoriographybymovingbeyondtheBTWversus
WilliamDuBoisquarrelofaccommodationversusoutrightresistance.This
dissertationexplainshowresistancetookmanyforms,includingafirsttimelookat
abroadernarrativeshowinghowresistancetoblackachievementwassosolidly
entrenchedthatitevokedfromblacksworkingwithinthePresidentFranklinD.
Rooseveltadministrationadistastesostrongthatitbecametheimpetusfor
BookeritestopushforaCivilRightsmovement.
Oneofthemostdifficulttasksforhistoriansistoremainobjectiveand
dispassionateinthetreatmentofthepast,especiallywhenthepeopleoreventsthey
studyinvolvecontroversyormomentousaffairs.Agoodexampleofthisisthelifeof
MelvinChisum,whohasbeencharacterizedinhisowntimeandbyhistoriansas
eitheracivilrightsleaderoratraitor.Thisworkexaminesthehistoricallegacyof
Chisumandintheprocessshedslightonthehistoriographicaldebatesamongblack
historiansandhistoriansofcivilrights;itemploysfamilylegendsandrecordsin
ordertocreateafaithful,honestandobjectivebiography.Thelifeandlegacyof
3
Chisumismorethanthebiographyofoneman;itisanexampleofthestruggleto
defineandcontrolthedominantnarrativeofblackhistory.
ThisdissertationusesLouisHarlan’snarrative,whichdominatesthehistory,
toexplainthenecessityforprovidingabiographyofMelvinChisum.Incurrent
scholarshipthereareseveralstrandsofscholarshiponChisumthatconflictwith
eachother.ThestrandsincludetheworksofLouisHarlan,Chisum’sown
contemporariesfromthelastquarterofthenineteenthcenturytothe1960s,and
theChisum-Twinefamily.Sincethe1970sLouisHarlan’sworkscontrolledtheblack
narrativeaboutBTWandthusChisum.Harlan’sbooksincludedperhapsthefirst
biographicalnarrativeofChisuminthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.
ThroughhispresentationHarlanconcludedthatChisumwasnomorethana
notorious,reprehensiblespy,andprovocateurusedbyBTWtoperformdirtydeeds
tokeepBTWinpower.HarlanconcludedthatafterBTW’sdeath,Chisum,likeother
lieutenantswhoworkedfortheTuskegeemachine,wentintoobscurity.
Thesecondgroupincludesblackliteraryscholars,journalists,andhistorians
oftheProgressiveandNewDealeraswhowerecontemporariesofMelvinChisum,
Sr.ThesemenandwomenrecountedChisum’spilgrimagesaroundthecountryin
blacknewspapersonaweeklybasis.ThreebookscoveredtheworkofChisum:
Chisum’sPilgrimage,byWendellPhillipsDabney(1865-1952)anotherbyRobert
RussaMoton(1867-1940),FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography,andananthology
NegroCaravan,editedbySterlingBrown(HowardUniversity),ArthurP.Davis
(VirginiaUnionUniversity),andUlyssesLee(LincolnUniversity).InFindingaWay
4
Out:AnAutobiography,MotondescribesChisumasamanwithgoodbusinesssense,
conscientious,andlevelheaded,workingwithinmanufacturingcompaniesasan
efficiencyman.1PerhapsthezenithofChisum’scareercamewhenhis
contemporariescelebratedhislifebyplacingastoryabouthimintheanthology
NegroCaravanin1941.2DuringatimeofJimCrowandwarpreparation,theNegro
Caravanpresentedsignificantstoriesofthe“Negrocharacterandexperience”in
America.TheeditorscamefromleadingAmericanblackuniversitiesthathad
installedblackpresidents.TheNegroCaravanwasadocumentofpride.Inrelation
toChisum,thetitleofWilliamPhillipsDabney’sbookChisum’sPilgrimageand
Others(1927)waschangedto“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb.”Dabney’sshortstory,
publishedintheanthology,preservesChisumasacharactertorememberfromthe
ProgressiveEra,exceptthenameMelvinChisumwasnotused,onlyhisinitials“M---
C---.”
Whentheanthologywasfirstpublishedin1941achangeinthepower
structureofblackleadershadoccurred.AsafterthedeathofFrederickDouglass,the
deathofraceleaderRobertRussaMotonleftblackAmericanswithnoobvious
leader.DuringthistimeChisum’sinfluencewaspivotalinthedevelopmentofthe
earlycivilrightsmovement.UnlikeHarlan’scentralthemeofspyandprovocateur
forBTW,the“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb”developsathemeofChisumasthe
“SojournerTruth,”the“HarriettTubman,”aphilanthropist,journalist,andan1RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(London:AdelphiTerrace:T.FisherUnwinLtd.,1920),282.2WendellPhillipsDabney,"AVisittoDunbar'sTomb,"inNegroCaravan,ed.ArthurPaulDavis,SterlingAllenBrown,andUlyssesLee(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941),1000.
5
unconventionalcharacterintheProgressiveandNewDealEras.Becausenothing
hasbeenwrittenaboutChisumduringtheperiod,hisvocationinthefederal
governmenthastobeusedtodiscerntheintegralworkingsoftheBookeriteswithin
themake-upoftheNewDeal.Addingthisthreadcandevelopthehistoryofhow
BookeritesorchestratedtheCivilRightsmovementsofthe1940s,includinghow
theysupportedtheMarchonWashingtonplannedin1941tobeledbyA.Philip
Randolph.
WithinfouryearsafterthepublicationofNegroCaravanandExecutiveOrder
8802signedbyPresidentFranklinRoosevelt,MelvinChisumdied,leavinghisfamily
withonlymemoriesofhislifeandsomedocumentssupportinghisclaimsofwhohe
was.InthepresenteratheChisumfamilyrecountsfamilylegendsandstoriesfrom
thepastthatlinkedMelvinChisumwithTexas,Oklahoma,GeorgePullman,the
MethodistEpiscopalChurch,andmajorpolitical,social,andeconomiceventsofhis
timeperiod.ChisumclaimedhemetandkneweverypresidentfromWilliam
McKinleytoFranklinRoosevelt.Dr.MelvinJacksonChisum,Jr.,PhiBetaKappa
honorsocietymember,WWIIveteran,medicaldoctor,communityleader,and
philanthropist,introducedlegends,familystories,letters,anddocumentsthat
showedahard-working,lovingfatherandhusbandwhoworkedformensuchas
BTW,BishopWilliamDerrickoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurch(AME),
RobertRussaMoton,electricityphilanthropistSamuelInsull,andpresidentsofthe
UnitedStates.MelvinChisumSr.wasalsoappointedasthefirstAmericanblack
PublicWorksAdministrationinvestigatorinAmericanhistory.
6
Dr.Chisum’sinformationlinesupwithhistorianDr.JamesSmallwood(1944-
2013),whowroteextensivelyaboutblacksinTexasfromslaverytoReconstruction,
andasaTexasTechgraduatestudentpublishedhisdissertationin1974,“Black
TexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874.”Smallwood’scollectionofbookshelped
unearththeChisum’sfamilylineagefromtheirperiodofslaveryinMacon,Georgia,
totheirfreedominMexia,Texas.Thesestrandsofinformationhavenotbeen
blendedwithotherstodevelopacomprehensivenarrative.Thisomissioncausesa
problemformodernscholarswhowanttoplaceChisumintotheAmerican
narrative.3
LouisHarlan’sschooltreatedChisumasaspyandprovocateurandremains
themasternarrative,butitisbreakingdownbecauseoftwenty-firstcentury
researchcapabilitiesinlocatingoncehard-to-findinformation.Unsureofwhich
threadtofollowortocreate,scholarslabeledChisumaseverythingfromsalesman,
togovernmentagent,tospy,tominister.Afterfortyyears,asthemasternarrativeof
theHarlanschoolbreaksdown,areevaluationofthatnarrativebecomesnecessary
–notonlyaboutthechronicles–butthegoalsofthehistory.
3NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),24-26.WeissdiscussedtheRepublicanefforttowintheelectionin1932.WithoutChisum’spartintheelectionherdiscussionlackstherealcompetitivenessamongblackDemocrats.BethBates,PullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925-1945(NorthCarolina:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001),24.BateslinksChisumbacktotheNationalNegroPressAssociationandhistiestoGeorgePullman.BlancheCook,EleanorRoosevelt,Volume2:TheDefiningYears,1933-1938(London:Penguin,1999),158.CookdescribedChisumasajournalistnotrealizingthatasapartofHaroldIckesDepartmentofInteriorChisumwaspunishedforcontactingEleanorRooseveltwiththevaluablesuggestion.
7
ThethreadsalsounravelwiththequeryfromDr.Chisum,Jr.—“wasHarlan’s
visionlimited?”—andtakesthemeritofHarlan’sportrayalofChisum,Sr.,toanother
level.Rhetorically,Dr.ChisumaskedifHarlanusedtheinformationhefoundinthe
1960sand1970sinhisresearchonMelvinChisumtogiveafairandaccurate
portrayalofhisfatherordidheuseonlythosepartsthatcreatedanarchetypeofthe
manheneededtoplaytheantagonistinAmericanblackhistory.Orwassomething
elsegoingoninterpretatively?WithoutafullChisumbiographythesequeries
remaininlimbo.WeretheretiesbetweenChisumandHarlan?Weretheretiesto
otherswhohelpedwiththeresearch?OutofthemanyspiesBTWused,whywas
ChisumseparatedassoimportantintheBTWpapersversusthemanyotherspiesin
thenetwork?ThesequestionsarelinkedtohowBTWandhisfollowerswere
respondingtoJimCrowinequality.Thesequestionscanonlybeansweredwitha
backgroundcheckonHarlanandChisum.
AfterHarlan’spublicationof“BookerT.WashingtoninBiographical
Perspective”intheAmericanHistoricalReview(October1970),andthesubsequent
publicationofthearticle“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington”intheJournalof
SouthernHistory(1971),inwhichHarlanlabeledChisumasalow“spyand
provocateur,”Dr.ChisumbegantoquestionHarlan’sportrayal.AstheHarlan
descriptionbecamethedominantinterpretation,theeditorsofNegroHistory
Bulletin,anAmericanblackpublication,soughtanarticleonChisumtocounterthe
emergingnegativeportrayalofhim.ThemagazinereachedouttoDr.Chisum.An
articlepublishedunderthebylineofThelmaPerrysoonappearedinprintinthe
attempttocorrectsomeofthenegativeassessments.Itwaslabeledasmaterial
8
gatheredbyDr.Chisum.Accordingtothearticle,Dr.Chisum“declinedthebyline
becausehedidnothavetimetowriteanarticleabouthisfather.”4However,he
assembleddata“torecreateafewhighlightsofthecareerofChisum,Sr.”5Thus,staff
memberThelmaPerry’snamewasusedtopublish“MelvinChisum,Pioneer
Newsman”inNegroHistoryBulletinin1973.
Eventhoughhistorytendstomergethecivilrightsmovementsofthe1950s
and1960s,the1970swerenotapost-civilrightsera.Theyweretheyearscivil
rightslegislationwasbeingcarriedoutinthemainstreamculture.Eventhe
denominationDr.Chisumsometimesworshipedin,theMethodistChurch,didnot
technicallyintegrateastheUnitedMethodistChurchuntiltheearly1970s.While
civilrightswriterssuchasHarlanintegratedthehistoricalliteraturetoincorporate
mensuchasBTWandChisum,Smallwoodcorrectedthenarrativeofthehistoryof
blacksinTexas.AshisfatherhaddealtwithJimCrowsomeeightyyearsprior,
Chisum’ssonandhiswife,theformerGloriaTwine,werelivingthechangescoming
fromtheendofJimCrow.MelvinChisumJr.,amedicaldoctor,wasonthefrontline
ofexpertblacksmovingfromsegregatedpositionsandintoelementsofwhite
Americansociety.
Dr.Chisum’sexpertiseinarthritis,rheumatology,andinternalmedicineled
tohisrecruitmentfromhisownprivatepracticeofmedicineinPhiladelphiato
becomeanassociatemedicaldirectorofBellTelephoneCompany.Likesomany
4ThelmaD.Perry,“MelvinJ.Chisum,PioneerNewsman,NegroHistoryBulletin,1December1973,Vol.36,8.5Ibid.,8.
9
blackswithvariedtalents,Dr.Chisumfoundhisprofessionaltimelimited.
Inundatedwithworkinthechangingworldofraceandpolitics,asaleadphysician
atAT&T,Dr.Chisumdidnotfindthetimetowriteanarticleinrebuttaltothe
statementscomingoutabouthisfatherinthemanuscriptsthatHarlanproduced.
While,inhisarticles,“BookerT.WashingtoninBiographicalPerspective”and“The
SecretLifeofBookerWashington,”andeventuallyinbooksonthelifeofBTW
HarlanreintroducedtheMelvinChisum,Sr.,characterwithhisowninterpretation,
eventhoughtheearlierworksbyWendellPhillipsDabney,SterlingBrown,and
ThelmaPerry/Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,providedgreaterdetailaboutChisumandhis
work.6WiththeflickofHarlan’spen,theChisumofwitandintegritychangedintoa
darkmenacingcharacter.Harlancasthimasnomorethanaspyandprovocateur
forBTW.
Chisum’snewcharacterwasfirstcastintheJournalofSouthernHistory
article,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington”(August1971).7Thefirstvolume
ofHarlan’sbiography,BookerT.Washington:TheMakingofaBlackLeader,1856-
1901,waspublishedin1972.ItwasawardedtheBancroftPrize,possiblythemost
prestigiousannualhonorinthefieldofAmericanhistory.Thesecondvolume,
BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee,1901-1915,waspublishedin1983.
HarlanwonthePulitzerPrizeforbiography,asecondBancroftPrize,andtheAlbert
6LouisHarlanandRaymondSmock,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Volume71903-4(Illinois:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970),219.HereaftercitedasBTWP.Theywrote,“From1903to1906ChisumwasWashington’spaidspy—andperhapssometimesprovocateur—intheranksofBTW’scritics.”7LouisHarlan,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,”JournalofSouthernHistory37(August1971).ThiscontainsabiographyofChisum.
10
J.BeveridgeAwardforthebestbookonAmericanhistory.TheChisumidentityand
nameand,indeed,theblacknarrativeofthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury
changedhandsfromthosewhohadliveditandstruggledwithJimCrow,tothose
whowroteaboutit.InthewordsofDr.HenryPonder,presidentofseveralblack
universities,includingFiskUniversity,TalladegaUniversity,BenedictUniversity,
andLangstonUniversityandanativeofOklahoma,“Itishewhowritesthehistory
thatmakesthegreatestimpact.”8
TakingonthemasternarrativeofblackAmerica,HarlanremovedChisumfar
awayfromtheheroicactionsofblackleaders,sodifferentfromthewritingsofthe
menandwomenwhowroteabouthimintheblackworld.WhatHarlanwroteabout
BTWandsupportersofhisideologybecamethegoldstandard,regardlesswhat
blackbiographerswrotepriortohisbooks.WhatHarlanwrotechangedthe
dominantnarrativeofatleasttwoblackleaders–BTWandMelvinChisum.Harlan
wasincontrolofthenarrativeaboutblacklifeinthefirstquarterofthetwentieth
century.Themodelforblackhistoriographycamefromnewsources:Gunnar
Myrdal’s,AnAmericanDilemma:TheNegroProblemandModernDemocracy(1944)
versusBTW’s,UpFromSlavery(1901)andanewblackheroismadeofW.E.B.
DuBoisandhisNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople
(NAACP)overandagainstBTWandTuskegeeUniversity.
8Dr.HenryPonderinterviewwithAuthor23August2015,intheLeonelleYoungHargrove,Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,ChisumCollectionatOklahomaCityUniversityDulaney-BrownLibrary,OklahomaCityOklahoma.HereaftercitedasOKCU.
11
DidLouisHarlanremainobjectiveanddispassionateinthetreatmentofthe
Americanblackpast?ThelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,believedthatthedetailsofhis
father’sprogressivehistoryhavebeenshroudedinhistorytothepointtheyare
almostunrecoverable.Dr.Chisumwrotein2005,“LouisR.Harlan’sreferencetoDad
as‘BookerT.Washington’sspy’isanexampleofthis.Referringtohiminthiswayis
likewritingofBobbyKennedyas‘JohnF.Kennedy’sbrother.’Thisisatrue
statement,butitissomuchshortofthewholetruththatitisnearlyamisstatement.
Mr.Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthecorrespondencehe
discovered,andthatwasnotmuch.”9WasHarlanlimitedordidhereadjustfactsto
fitthetimeperiodofthecivilrightsmovement?Cantheyberecoveredbychecking
Harlan’sresearch?Also,keyinthisargumentistheideaofaccommodationversus
resistance.Inotherwords,astandardofjudgmentwasmade–civilrights,political
actionandresistanceweregood;therefore,thepolicyofaccommodation,meaning
acceptingsecondclasscitizenstatus,wasbad–andthusthoseforaccommodation
werebadandbackward.
UntilAugustof2017theboxesofHarlan’sresearchonhisbooksandarticles
remainedclosedandunprocessedinanarchivalwarehouseusedbytheUniversity
ofMaryland,CollegePark.OpeningtheboxesofHarlan’sresearchrevealedoverfive
hundredpagesofresearchrelatedtoMelvinChisum,includingthearticlewrittenin
1973intheNegroHistoryBulletin.TherecordsattheUniversityofMarylandshow
thatresearcherspresentedathoroughbackgroundcheckonChisumtoDr.Harlan.10
9Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.OKCU.10LouisR.HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries,
12
YetfromalltheresearchgatheredforHarlan’smanuscripts,onlytwodisparaging
wordswereusedtodescribeMelvinJacksonChisumas“spyandprovocateur.”One
incongruousfullparagraphexplainingtherelationshipbetweenBTWandChisum
servedasidiosyncraticoranecdotaltotheoverallBTW–Chisumrelationship.It
referredtoslavery.CouldthestainofslaverylinkBTWandChisumandHarlan?
Washington,havingstartedinslaveryandpoverty,would“gagatalmostnothing
thatpromiseddominance.”11Couldthissentencepointtodeeperquestionsin
researchnotaccountedforinHarlan’sworks?
AboutthetimeDr.ChisummovedtoBellTelephoneCompanyandLouis
HarlanwonawardsforhisworkonBTW,anewvoiceinthewildernessarosein
academia.Arevisionistscholar,Dr.JamesSmallwood,struggledtocorrectthe
historicalrecordofReconstruction,particularlyinTexas.Smallwoodbecame
associateprofessoratOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,intheHistory
Departmentin1975.Refutinglong-heldthemesofTexansoftheDunningschool,
Smallwoodwroteandpublishedagroundbreakingwork,TimeofHopeandTimeof
Despair:BlackTexansDuringReconstructionin1981.HisbookwontheCoralH.
TullisAwardin1982forthebestbookoftheyearonTexashistory.12
HornbakeLibrary,CollegeParkMaryland.Critics,Box(35),Box(38)Discardednotes,Box(40),BiographicalMaterialBox,(40),andSecretlife,PersonalBox(41).Thiscollectioniscurrentlyunprocessed.11LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983),92.12Howell,Kenneth(2014),“InMemoriam:JamesSmallwood,”EastTexasHistoricalJournal,Vol.52:Iss.1,Article7.Availableat:http://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/ethj/vol52/iss1/7
13
ByusingSmallwood’sscholarshipandlinkingittotheChisumbiography,
anotherunwovenstrandappearsfortherationaleofabiographyofMelvinChisum.
TheChisumfamilywasagroupofAfroTexans.Moreover,theyfollowedthepathof
theHarlanclantoTexasfromGeorgia.TheHarlansmovedfromMason,Georgia,to
RobertsonCounty,Texas,adjacenttoLimestoneCounty,asearlyas1837.Chisum’s
father,JohnChisum,cametoTexasasaslavefromMaconinthelate1850sorearly
1860swithJohnChisholm.MaconandMason,Georgia,areaboutthewidthofa
plantationapart.TheChisumssettledinLimestoneCounty.TheLoganStroud
familymovedtoTexasinthe1820s.JaneHarlanmarriedLoganStroud.Janewas
relatedtoLouisasaseventh-generationmemberoftheHarlanfamily.
JaneHarlanStroud,andherhusbandwereownersofMelvinChisum’s
motherRachalHenderson,ontheStroudPlantationinTexas.Jane’sfatherJoseph
movedin1837toRobertsonCounty,Texas,whereheraisedindigo,vegetables,and
cattle.RobertsonCountyisboundedonthenorthbyLimestoneCounty.13Perhaps,
Harlan’sunderstandingofslaveryisametaphorforwhathefoundoristhe
identificationwithlegendsintheHarlanfamily.IntheNewYorkTimes,January29,
2010,WilliamGrimeswroteinanarticle,“LouisR.Harlan,HistorianofBookerT.
Washington,Dies,at87,”that“criticspraisedMr.Harlan’sskillatcapturing
13SeeAlpheusH.Harlan,HistoryandGenealogyoftheHarlanFamilyandParticularlyoftheDescendantsofGeorgeandMichaelHarlanwhoSettledinChesterCounty,Pa.,1687(Maryland:LordBaltimorePress,nd.,1914?)DigitizedforMicrosoftCorporationbytheInternetArchivein2008FromtheNewYorkPublicLibrary.AlsoseeJamesSmallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874"(TexasTechUniversity,1974),37.SeealsoHandbookofTexasOnline,ArtLeatherwood,“Stroud,LoganAlmaren,”accessedDecember20,2017,http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fstak
14
Washington’selusivecharacterandgettingareadonapersonalitythat‘had
vanishedintotherolesithadplayed,’asheonceputit.”CouldGrimes’statementbe
trueaboutHarlanhimself?DidHarlan’spersonalityasanhistorianvanishintoa
familyroleashewroteoftheChisumfamilyorBTW?Harlanwascertainlyawareof
hislineage.In1987theHarlanFamilyinAmericacreatedanonprofitassociationto
celebratetheirfamilyheritagesince1687.LouisHarlanwrote“HarlanFamilyin
America:ABriefHistory.”14ThereareboxesintheHarlancollectionthatcannotbe
opened;perhaps,thereismoreinformationwithinthem.
TheideathatHarlanknewthatChisum’smotherhadoncebelongedtoa
familymemberandhismentionthatBTWandChisumwould“gagatnothing
becauseoftheirslavepast”leadstoquestionsaboutthedepictionofChisuminthe
writingofHarlan.Moresimpleassociationscomeintoquestion.Forinstance,why
didHarlanusethedescriptionofChisumasanelderlymanshapedlikean
armadillo?GiventhatChisumwasbornintheearly1870s,Chisumwouldhavebeen
onlyinhisearlythirtieswhenheworkedforBTW.Thatdescriptioncamefroma
1968interviewwithG.W.AScottdonebyHarlanhimselfandwasusedbyhis
studentsasastandardviewofChisum.PeteDanielrepeatsitin1968whenhe
describedChisumas“likeanarmadillo”becauseofhisbullet-proofvest,adding,“He
14FredHarlan,HarlanFamilyinAmerica,SiteHostedbyAeneas,www.harlanfamily.org/book.htm.“ABriefHistory”waswrittenbyLouisR.Harlan.
15
wasshort,stubby,andugly.Hehadabigbelly...hewasallegedtohavecarrieda
pistolallthetime.”15ButtheinterviewwithScottistakenoutofcontext.
TherestofthestoryintheinterviewnotesthatScottandChisumhadan
altercationontheTuskegeecampus.Accordingtohisinterview,ScottmetChisumin
the1930s.Chisumwouldhavebeeninhissixties.Menchangeinappearanceover
thirtyyears.BTWdiedin1915.BTWneverknewthe“plumplittlerogueinabullet-
proofvest”butasleekmanofaffairswholookedyearsyoungerthanamaninhis
thirties.Thisisaglaringmistake.Ifoneopenstheboxesofresearchlongburiedin
therecessesofthearchivesattheUMD,thequestionofDr.Chisum’s
characterizationofhisfatherbyHarlantakesonanewformforaresearcher.The
factthatHarlanhadthisinformationwithinthefilesraisesquestionsofambiguityin
thecharacterizationofChisuminthehistoriographyoftheHarlanschoolonblack
Americanhistory.16
Thus,thisbiographyundertakesDr.Chisum’schallengetorectifythe
scholarlycharacterizationofMelvinChisumand,additionally,wonderswhether
suchanundertakingwouldindeedchangetheentiredepictionofblackactivityin
theageofBTW.Doesitdemonstrateafissureinscholarshipthatcouldchangeor
challengetheHarlanschool’sunderstandingofChisumandtherebyopenthedoor
formoreresearchonotherblacksoftheperiod?Italsoevenbrokersthequestionof
15HarlanandSmock,BTWP,Vol.8:1904-1906,7.InterviewofG.W.A.Scott,7November1968,LouisR.HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries,Box26,GalleyProofs.PeteDanielsdidtheinterviewforHarlan.16HarlanPapers,SpecialCollections,UMDLibraries.http://hdl.handle.net/1903.1/1362.Box41.
16
whetherHarlan’svisionofBTW’slifeandworkfromReconstructionto1940is
accurate.17Ifso,thendevelopingachronologyofChisum’swork,whichofnecessity
includesotherBookerites,couldconstructamorecomprehensiveunderstandingof
theperiod.
UnderstandingthecomplexityofhowHarlanrecastBTWhelpsshedlighton
thehistoricaldebatesaboutMelvinChisum.Thus,inordertoplaceChisuminthe
narrativeofblackhistory,thisdissertationfocusesonBTW’sbiographerLouis
Harlan.HarlancompletedhisdoctoralworkatJohnsHopkinsUniversityunderhis
advisorC.VannWoodward,authorofTheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(1955).While
attendingJohnsHopkins,HarlanmetandbefriendedDr.JohnHopeFranklin,the
AmericanblackauthorofTheMilitantSouth1800–1861(1956)andFromSlaveryto
Freedom(1958).AccordingtoRaymondSmock,inmemoriam,writteninthe
AmericanHistoricalAssociation(AHA)magazineinApril2010,theimpactofthe
twomentors,particularlyFranklin,ledHarlantodevotehiscareertoracerelations
andAfricanAmericanhistory.
AsaprofessorattheTexasStateCollegein1958HarlanpublishedSeparate
andUnequal:PublicSchoolCampaignsandRacismintheSouthernSeaboardStates,
1901–1915.Throughuseofmanuscripts,publicdocuments,newspapers,andofficial
reports,thebookprovidedevidencethatSouthernstatesovertlyignoredtheir17TheodoreM.Pryor,WealthBuildingLessonsofBookerT.WashingtonforaNewBlackAmerica(Maryland:Duncan&Duncan,1995),v.MaceoCrenshawDailey,WhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScottandtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(ElPaso,Texas:SweetEarthFlyingPress,2013).ThesehistoriansaskedthesamequestionsbutdidnothavetheinformationonChisumtohelpthemmakeavalidargument.
17
obligationstoAmericanblackschoolsundertheseparatebutequaldoctrine.In
1965HarlanmovedtotheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkasahistory
professor.AugustMeierwhousedtheBTWcollectionattheLibraryofCongressfor
hisownbook,NegroThoughtinAmerica1880-1915:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeof
BookerT.Washington(1963),urgedHarlantousethecollectionforhisown
research.AccordingtoDavidLeveringLewis,writinginmemoriamofAugustA.
Meier(1923-2003)intheAHA’sPerspectivesinHistory,bytheendofthe1960s
MeierheldeminenceinthefieldofAmericanblackhistory.
RickiMoskowitzandJaniceQuinterwroteintheintroductiontotheAugust
MeierPapersfortheSchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCultureinNewYork,
that,“perhapsMeier’smostfar-reachingimpactontheintellectualcommunityhas
beenachievedthroughhisroleaseditorofbooksandotherpublicationsforfour
seriesinblackstudies.”18Meier’sgreatestimpactonthehistoricalcommunitywas
achievedinhisroleasmentor.Meier’spoliticalbackgroundwas,likeAPhillip
Randolph,(1889-1979)socialist.MoskowitzandQuinterdescribedMeier’s
backgroundasradical:hismotherandfathermetthroughthesocialistpartyand
Meierwasrearedinasocialistcommunityofreformerswithbackgroundsin
socialism,communism,unionism,andvariousprogressiveeducators,and
anarchists.
18AugustMeierPapers,SCMG340,SchomburgCenterforResearchinBlackCulture,theNewYorkPublicLibrary,@http//archievesnypl.org/scm.
18
Werethe“civil-rights”historiansobjectiveanddispassionateabout
Bookerites?AsthecultureofWWIIpeopleturnedfromtheColdWartoAmerican
civilandpoliticalunrest,mostblackhistorynarrativeswerecelebratoryinnature,
writtenbyblacksthatsoughttoemphasizeinbiographytheheroicstatureofblack
leaders.Post-WWIIhistoriansrevisedthegenreofblackhistoricalstudytofita
moremodernphilosophyofblackassertionoftheirrights.Againstthesuggestions
ofAmericanblackprofessorsinthe1960s,includinghistorianP.SterlingStuckey,
whobelievedthatblacksshouldwritetheirownhistory,liberalandconservative
whitessuchasC.VannWoodward(1908-1999),AugustMeier(1923-2003),and
LouisHarlanbuiltthedominantschoolsofblackhistoryintheUnitedStatesbased
ontheirinterpretationofblacksuffrage.19Reachingback,thesescholars’historical
analysischangedthemasternarrativefromracialupliftandreformtoradical
demandsforequality,demandsthatincludedjusticethroughagitation.
Asuncontestedleaderinwritingandeditingblackhistoryinthe1960s-
1980s,MeiersetthedominantormainstreamnarrativeforBTWandhisfollowers
suchasChisum.Acivilrightsactivistsincehisyouthinthe1930s,Meierputinhis
prefacesofblackhistorybooks(suchasNegroProtestThoughtintheTwentieth
Century(1965)),anti-BTWrhetoric,andheincorporatedthepsychologicaltermsof
JeanPiaget(1896-1980)—“accommodationandassimilation”—todescribeBTW’s
agendaandtocontrastitagainstW.E.B.DuBois’moresocialist-gearedreform.
MeierpitsBTW’sagendaagainsttheonesupportedbyinfluentialwhiteliberalsand
19ErnstBreisach,Historiography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(Chicago:UniversityChicagoPress,1983),366-367.
19
socialistsoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople
(NAACP)thatfavoredpoliticalaction;hedepictedthetwoprogramsasiftheywere
battlesofrightandwrong.IncontrastKellyMiller,aprominentblackpolitician,
mathematician,sociologist,andhistorianatHowardUniversitywhosawthings
differently.InRaceAdjustment:EssaysonNegroAmerica(1908),hereferredtothe
differencesas“constructions,”notasaccommodationandassimilation.Helookedat
BTWandDuBoisastwomen“whoagreedtothesameendbutdifferedonhowto
getthere,”notasamonumentalconfrontationofuncompromisingprinciplesas
Meiersetinhiscommandingnarrative.AccordingtoMiller,blackswereinlinewith
radicalssuchasDuBois,butalsosawaplaceforsolidarity,thrift,andinstitutionas
espousedbyBTW.Thegenerationofthe1960screatedablackhistorywhichdrew
itsperspectivefromasocialistleadersblackandwhitewhousedtheNAACPasthe
centralpieceintheessentialnarrativeofblackhistory.Thisdissertationcontends
thatHarlancontinuedthisthreadofMeier’sphilosophy.
Inthe2010AmericanHistoricalAssociationmagazinearticle,Raymond
Smock,acoauthorwithHarlanintheBookerT.WashingtonPapers(1973),gave
detailsonwhyHarlanusedMeier’smasternarrativeandredefinedBTW’sstory:
Themid-1960s,ofcourse,wastheheightofthecivilrightsmovementandthebeginningofamajorseachangeintheattentionandprominencegiventoAfricanAmericanhistory.Yetatthissametime,BookerT.Washington’simageinthepantheonofsignificantblackfiguresinAmericanhistorywasbadlywaning.Washington,theleaderwhoaccommodatedtoJimCrowstricturesinthelate19thandearly20thcentury,hardlyseemedthestuffofheroestoanewgenerationofactivistsbothblackandwhite,whowereagitatingforanendtoJimCrowanddemonstratingforfullcivilrights.LouisHarlanparticipatedinthecivilrightsmovement,marchinginMontgomerywithMartinLutherKingJr.andlatermarchingandprotestingagainstthe
20
VietnamWar,allthewhilestudyingthelifeoftheconservativeRepublicanBookerT.Washington,whohadrejectedprotestasameanstoachievesocialandpoliticalequality.20
Harlanrecasttheself-madeprogressivemoldofBTWandthemenwho
supportedhisideologyofaccommodation.TheauthenticMachiavellian-cum-Uncle
Tomwayofhandlingwhitesandotheradversariesbecameapsychologicalproblem
ofblackleadershipinsteadofasurvivaltechnique.Thebackbookcoverreadsabout
Washingtonasifhewereabedlamitenotablackmaninawhiteworld.Theywrite
positiveaboutHarlanandrecklesslyaboutBTW.“Asuperbworkofscholarship...
Tomeetthechallengeofasubjectascomplex,difficultandtreacherousas
Washingtoncallsforabiographicaltalentofhighhonor....’CVannWoodward
writes,“Hebringstolifeamanofenormouscomplexity,anenigmaticfigurewho
offendsourera’ssensibilitiesandrefusestomeetourpreconceivednotionsofhow
agreatleadershouldbehave,”intheWashingtonPostBookWorld.21Thelarger
problemofhowtocombatviolentracismwasatstake.PossiblyBTWhadoneway
andHarlansimplycouldnotorrefusedtolookthoughBTW’slenses.22
20RaymondSmock,"InMemoriamLouisR.Harlan,"PerspectivesonHistory48,no.4(2010).21LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983).ThebackcoverpresentsaviewofWashingtonasamanfinallydismantledlikeaclownwhosepaintedfaceiscleanedtorevealnothingbutanotherdressedupNegro.22StevenMintzandJohnStauffer,TheProblemofEvil:SlaveryFreedom,andtheAmbiguitiesofAmericanReform(AmherstUniversityofMassachusettsPress,2007).Mintz’sbookseesthistypeofReconstructionasaproblemofevil.HisgoalistoresituateAmericainabiggerframeinordertolookatAmericanBlackhistory.
21
ItismycontentionthatHarlan,usingthedevelopingpsychoanalyticalhistory
techniquesofthelate1950s,concludedthatconflictsoccurringinaslavechildhood
formulatedattributesinBTW’spersonalityandprovidedanopeningforhimto
acceptMelvinChisumashispersonalfriendandpoliticalally.ContrarytoDr.
Chisum’sideathat“Harlan’svisionwaslimitedbywhathecouldseefromthe
correspondencehediscovered,andthatwasnotmuch,”Harlanhadquiteabitof
informationonMelvinChisum.23InvolumesevenoftheBookerT.Washington
Papers,HarlandescribesMelvinChisum’scareerasbusinessman,journalist,and
politician.TheworkChisumdidforBTWfrom1903to1915asspyandprovocateur
andhiscontinuedsupportofBTW’saccommodationfitthenarrativeofthe“new-
left”revisionistmodelthattheaccommodationistswerebackward,debasedleaders.
ItseemsthatHarlanchosespecificletterstouse,andbyleavingoutothers,heand
othersrecastMelvinChisumasanantagonistandtraitortohisraceinsteadofthe
politicianthatwashisactuallegacy.
HarlandevelopedthenarrativefurtherbytwistingBTW’sblack“UncleTom”
Machiavellian-styleofleadershipintoapsycho-historicalproblem.Harlanextended
thissocialpsychosisintothedevelopmentoftherelationshipbetweenBTWand
Chisum.HeblamedBTW’sfriendshipwithChisumonBTW’supbringingandslave
past.
C.VannWoodwardandMeierasmentorsmaneuveredHarlanintotheir
versionofblackhistory.HarlaninturnindoctrinatedandinfluencedRaymond23Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.OKCU.
22
Smock,StephenFox,DavidLeveringLewis,PeteDaniels,BrianKelly,andother
historiansinhisgenerationintohisinterpretation,whichdevelopedanddescribed
therelationshipbetweenBTWandChisumaspsychologicallydisturbed.Underthe
advisementofLouisHarlan,thetrailofthenewlydevelopedChisum
characterizationstartsin1970withthepublicationofStephenR.Fox’s,The
GuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter.Foxnamedthreeprofessors—Arthur
Zilversmit,AugustMeier,andLouisHarlan—whohelpedhimpublishhis
manuscript.FoxexplainedinhisprefacethatHarlan“helpedmefindapublisher,
permittedmetoreadanunpublishedpaperofhisonBookerT.Washington,and
finallygaveacriticalreadingtomymanuscriptinitspenultimateform.”24Inhis
researchFoxaccessedtheW.E.B.DuBoispapersprivatelyheldinthecustodyof
HerbertAptheker,whopublishedADocumentaryHistoryoftheNegroPeopleinthe
UnitedStatesin1951.Inhisbook,ApthekerlabeledChisum“self-styledasan
efficiencyengineer”whowasagainsttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters
(BSCP).25
ReviewofLiterature
Exceptforthesocialistmagazine,TheMessenger,historiographicalresearch
inbooksandpapersintheearlytwentiethcenturydidnotportrayChisumasa
traitortohisrace.AsWashington’sspy-cum-man-of-affairsfrom1903until1915,24StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter,ed.AugustMeier,StudiesinAmericanNegroLife(NewYork:Atheneum,1970),Preface.25HerbertAptheker,ADocumentaryHistoryoftheNegroPeopleintheUnitedStates(PennsylvaniaStateUniversity:CitadelPress,1951),635.Nowaccessiblethrougharchives,theseprimarysources,particularlytheWalterWhitepapers,giveaclearerstoryofMelvinChisum’slateryears.
23
ChisumhadaccesstoeverypresidentfromWilliamMcKinleytoFranklinRoosevelt.
SomeletterstoandfromthemareinthepresidentialfilesintheLibraryof
Congress.RaymondSmockco-editedAGuidetoManuscriptsinthePresidential
LibrarieswithDennisBurtonandJamesRhoadsin1985.26Completedin1937,the
NationalArchivesinMarylandholdcongressionalpapers.TheNAACPpaperswere
intheLibraryofCongressin1964,availableandprocessedby1978inthe
ManuscriptDivision.JosephSullivanandMichaelMillerpreparedTheHaroldIckes
PapersintheManuscriptDivisionoftheLibraryofCongressin2005.However,
Ickes’diarywasinthefilesoftheLibraryofCongress.BackcopiesoftheAfro
AmericanNewspaperslayavailableintheMarylandofficearchives.Wendell
Dabney’sChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers(1927)wasavailableinlibrariesof
AmericanblackcollegesintheformoftheNegroCaravan’s“VisittoDunbar’sTomb”
in1941.AllofthesemanuscriptsportrayedChisumasloyaltohisraceandparty
platform.Historicallyblackcollegesanduniversitiesinthe1970shadMonroe
Work’sTheNegroYearbookandAnnualEncyclopediaoftheNegro(1913),and
copiesoftheNegroCaravan((1941)ontheirshelves,aswellasTheMulattointhe
UnitedStates(1918),Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens(1927),andRobertRussaMoton’s
autobiographyFindingaWayOut(1920).HowardUniversityremainsonlyafew
milesfromtheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkandtheNationalArchives.
TheresearchofStephenFoxsettheanti-Chisumstageforthestudentsofthe
HarlanschoolwiththefirstbookinmoderntimestojudgeChisumas“niggardly.”
26DennisBurton,RaymondSmock,andJamesRhoads,AGuidetoManuscriptsinthePresidentialLibraries(UniversityofMichigan:ResearchMaterialsCorp,1985).
24
FoxalsousedtheCharlesM.StoryandWilliamH.Lewispapers,theJamesWeldon
JohnsonandWalterWhitepapers,andtheHenryCabotLodgepapersthathe
obtainedthroughtheirfamilies.Fox’suseofnewspaperarticlesonChisum’s
charactershowsthattherewereothersourcesavailableforthesehistorianswriting
Americanblackhistoryinthe1970s.TheDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,familyandChisum,
Sr.’spaperswereaccessibleinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.Inthe1970s,Dr.Chisum
hadaprivatemedicalpracticeininternalmedicineat245NorthBroadStreetin
Philadelphia.Hiswife,GloriaTwineChisum,workedattheNavalAirDevelopment
Centerasanexpertinvisualperformanceandperception.Foryearsnewspapers,
magazines,andjournalscarriedstoriesofherawardsandprizesinthefieldof
scienceandphilanthropy.Dr.GloriaChisumwonthe“BlackEngineeroftheYear”
awardin1989.However,thehistorianschosetocastorframeMelvinJackson
Chisum,Sr.’sworkandlegacybasedonthecharacter,reputation,andideologythey
werecreatingaboutBTW;theydidnotconsulttheChisumfamily–theycertainly
consultedotherfamilies–aboutaccuracy.Foxalsobasedhischaracteronoral
historygleanedfrommensuchasPercivalPrattis,wholivedduringtheperiod,but
whohadlittleassociationwithChisum.
FoxturnedtoHarlan,Harlan’snotes,andHarlan’sestimateofChisuminstead
ofdoinganinterviewwiththeChisumfamily.Foxwrotethat“Washington’ssecret
campaignagainstTrotterbeganearlyinSeptember1903withtheespionageefforts
ofaNewYorkBookeritenamedMelvinJ.Chisum.Chisumwasamanofno
particulardistinction”;afewyearslaterWashington’sbestfriendinNewYork
remarkedthatChisum“hasmadeuphismindnottowork,andexpectstoliveby
25
borrowing.”The“ChisumTrail”becameoneofaddingtoHarlan’snegativedepiction
ofChisum.Foxaddedthatin1916theNewYorkAgereportedthatChisumhadfled
fromacriminallibelconvictioninOklahoma.Butin1903hiscasual
unscrupulousnessmadehima“goodhenchman-errandboyforTuskegee.”27
JervisAnderson,aJamaican-bornhistorianandjournalist,wroteA.Philip
Randolph:ABiographicalPortraitin1972.Itisthebestoverallreportonthe
Pullmanportercrisisintheblackcommunity.Inhisresearchon“Negrounionism,”
theAfrocentrichistoriancallstheChisumofthe1920sa“prominentChicago
politician,”“whoadvisedporterstheywouldbebetteroffrelyinguponthegoodwill
ofthePullmancompany.”Andersondidnotusetheanti-herojargonassociatedwith
Chisum’sstanceagainsttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters(BSCP).Anderson
providesanoveralllookatthePullmanporterconflictbyincludingthepointofview
oftheblackchurches,theblackpress,theblackcommunity,thesocialist-backed
MessengermagazineofRandolphandChandler,andblackleadersbothforand
againsttheunionizationofporters.
InEssaysontheAgeofEnterprise(1974),laborhistorianDavidBrody
followedtheHarlanschoolin1974byusingtheexactwordingof“spyand
provocateur”thatHarlanwoulduseinhis1977publicationoftheBookerT.
WashingtonPapers.Harlanmentionstwoofhiscolleaguesandstudentsattheend
ofhisdescriptionofChisumasspyandprovocateur.Hewritesthat,formore
informationonChisum,thereadershouldconsultPeteDaniel,“BlackPowerinthe27Fox,TheGuardianofBoston,57.
26
1920s:TheCaseoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”intheJournalofSouthern
History(August1970),andWilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,
MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(1977).
DanielwasastudentofHarlan,Harrisablackeducator.
WilliamHarriscontinuedthenegativedepictionofChisuminKeepingthe
Faith.Thebookwasoriginallypublishedin1925.Anamesakepossiblypublished
theoriginalcopyofthebook.Anattempttofindtheoriginalauthorwas
unsuccessful.WilliamHarriscouldnothavebeentheoriginalauthorbecausehewas
notbornuntil1945.TheoriginalmanuscriptdidnothavethedescriptionofChisum
fromPercivalPrattis.ItdidgiveinformationthatChisumwasloyaltothePullman
portersbecauseofhispersonalrelationshipwithGeorgePullmanwhohadhired
himwhenhewasaboytobeaporter.LikeFox’suseoftheerroneoussources,
HarrisusedthePrattisinterviewinthere-edited1977versionofthebook.Inthe
neweditionpublishedbytheUniversityofIllinoisPress,HarrisdescribedChisumas
the“smoothestofalargegroupofunderhandedoperatorsinChicagoduringthe
1920s;he[Chisum]hadalonghistoryofsecretiveandunprincipledmissionsfor
pay.”HarrisearnedhisM.A.andPh.D.fromIndianaUniversityandtaughthistory
therefrom1972to1982.HarrisdidnotuseChisum’spoliticalorjournalistic
reputationtodescribeChisumforhisbook,butindicatedheinterviewedPercivalL.
Prattis,a“ne’re-do-welljournalist.”EarlyonPrattiswasaChicagopublisherof
HeebieJeebies:ASignofIntelligenceandacolleagueofChisum’sattheNational
27
NegroPressAssociation(NNPA)inthe1920s.28Yet,somehow,withalltheprimary
andsecondarysourcesrelatedtoChisuminthegenerationtiedtotheHarlanschool,
thePrattisinterviewandonebyG.W.A.Scott,ateacheratTuskegeeHighSchool,
becamethemostnoteworthysourcesonChisum.
HenryP.Guzda’sarticle,“LaborDepartment’sFirstProgramtoAssistBlack
Workers,”appearedinthemagazineMonthlyLaborReviewinJune1982.Thearticle
supportsMoton’sautobiographicaldataonChisumasanefficiencyengineerfrom
anarticleintheSouthernWorkmanlabormagazinein1920.Thearticledoesnot
nameChisumbutdiscussesaletterhewrotetoGeorgeE.Haynes,theheadofthe
DivisionofNegroEconomicsfortheUnitedStatesgovernmentduringWorldWarI.
Chisum’snameisincludedinthefootnotes.GuzdadescribesChisumasahigh-
rankingofficialofTuskegeewhoworkedforthegovernmentasanefficiencyagent.
ThearticledescribedChisum’sworkinMobile,Alabama,whereblackworkerswere
“exploitedtothedegreeofslavery.”Thisexploitationofworkerswasthesame
informationthatDabneywritesaboutinthisbookChisum’sPilgrimageand
Cincinnati’sColoredCitizensaspositiveforthewareffortandbusiness.
DespitetheHarlanschool,AfricanAmericanbiographiesinthe1980s
continuedtocastChisumasaheroofthecivilrightsmovementsintheProgressive
andNewDealeras.RoyWilkinswasawell-knowncivilrightsleaderinthemid-
twentiethcentury.Inhisautobiography,StandingFast:TheAutobiographyofRoy
28Harris,KeepingtheFaith,53.PrattislaterpublishedtheNewPittsburghCourierafterRobertVann(oneoftheBigFourin1932)in1941.PrattiswasonthelocalboardoftheNNPAwithChisumin1927.
28
Wilkins(1982),WilkinsregardsChisumasacivilrightsleaderwhocouldmakeor
breakablacknewspaper.WilkinseditedtheNorthwesternBulletinin1922.Asfield
agentfortheNNPA,Chisum,toWilkins’delight,supportedtheinstrumentofcivil
rights.WilkinssucceededW.E.B.DuBoisaseditoroftheCrisismagazine,an
instrumentoftheNAACP.
Thesameyear,1982,JohnHopeFranklinandAugustMeierpublishedthe
book,BlackLeadersoftheTwentiethCentury.WhereasWilkinsadmiredChisumand
wasdelightedwiththesupportChisumgavetoyoungmenseekingtobecivilrights
leaders,FranklinandMeierwereoftheHarlanschool,denigratingChisum’sworkas
thatofaspyandprovocateur.FranklinandMeier,likeStephenFoxinTheGuardian
ofBoston,wroteintothenarrativethatBTWhiredayoungblackman,MelvinJ.
Chisum,toinfiltratetheinnercouncilsofTrotter’santi-BTWorganizationinBoston.
TheauthorscontinuedthenarrativethatHarlanschoolwritersbeganaspartof
theirframeworkandincludedinformationthatChisumlaterspiedontheBrooklyn
branchoftheNiagaraMovement,arrangedtobribeanoppositionnewspapereditor
inWashington,andreportedtheseandotherclandestineactionstoBTWonapark
benchinNewYorkCity.29
Thestruggletointegrate,todefine,andtocontrolthedominantnarrativeof
blackhistoriesseemedtobewonin1983whenHarlanpublishedhissecondvolume
onBTW,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Hisrevisionist
motifbecamethegoldstandardforBTW’slifeandthedominantnarrativeforblack
29Harlan,WizardofTuskegee.98.
29
historiesabouttheAfricanAmericanexperience1896-1940.Contrarytotheway
BTWwroteofhimselftheHarlanschooldescribedhimasacomplex,ambiguous
man.Importantfiguresin1950shistorywhowerealsoHarlan’smentorssupported
thenewBTW.C.VannWoodwardcalledtheredefinedBTW“complex,difficultand
treacherous,”inhisNewYorkTimesbookreview.TheWashingtonPostreviewer
discoveredthatBTWwas“anenigmaticfigurewhooffendsourera’ssensibilities
andrefusestomeetourpreconceivednotionsofhowagreatleadershouldbehave.”
HarlansuggestedtoMarjorieHunteroftheNewYorkTimesin1984thathe
personallymaynothavelikedBTWforhavingso“manypersonalities.”30
Accordingtovarioushistorians,Harlan,byunmaskingBTW,liftedhimselfto
newheightsinacademia.InHarlan’sinterpretation,BTWdescendedfromablack
icontoanunlikablepsychotic.TheWashingtonPostreviewer,MattSchudel,justified
Harlan’sredefinitionofBTW.SchudelwrotethatblacksdisfavoredBTWbecauseof
hisstanceonaccommodation.TheHarlanschoolalsocastanothercharacterasan
anti-hero,alecherousvillain,andspy—MelvinChisum.Dr.QuintardTayloratthe
UniversityofWashingtonplacedChisum’snarrativeinhis20thCenturyAfrican
AmericanHistoryManualasanespionageagent.
AnewversionofChisumbegantopopup,however,onethatchallengedthe
wholeHarlaninterpretationofBTW,theideaofaccommodation,andtheactivities
ofMelvinChisum.GloriaT.Hull’sdescriptionofChisuminGiveUsEachDay:The
DiaryofAliceDunbarNelson(1984)wascontrarytoHarlan’sdepictioninthe30MarjorieHunter.“APulitzerBiographer’s30-YearLaborofLove,”NewYorkTimes,(NewYork),10May1984.
30
WizardofTuskegeeandQuintardTaylor’sassessmentofChisuminhishistoryclass
asanespionageagentforTuskegee.WhenPaulLawrenceDunbarandAliceDunbar
weremarried,theylivedinanapartmentwithChisuminNewYork.AliceDunbar
continuedherrelationshipwithChisuminherthirdmarriagetoRobertJ.Nelson.
NelsonwasacivilrightsactivistthatChisumsupportedmonetarilyandbacked
throughpoliticalmeans.ContrarytoHarlan,AliceDunbarNelsoninherdiary
describesChisumasabehind-the-scenescivilrightsactivistsupportive,strong
enoughtopullacaroutofmuddyditch,andaleaderofAmericanblacksinthe
1930s.HerdiarypointstoChisumworkinginthebackgroundasherhusbandgrew
morepowerfulasanactivist.Nelson’sdiaryprovesherhusbandbecameacivil
rightsleaderthroughChisum’scovertworkforhim.
Anotherhistorian,DonaldLisio,whowroteHoover,Blacks,andLily-Whites:A
StudyofSouthernStrategies(1985),examinedChisum’slegacyoutsideoftheHarlan
school.HedescribedChisum’sactivismforcivilrightsduringtheHerbertHoover
administration.Insteadofaspyandprovocateur,LisiodescribedChisumas“awell
known,Chicagoconservative,who,however,opposedblackunions.”WhenChisum
opposedHooveroverthetreatmentofAmericanblacks,Lisiodocumentedthesame
imageofChisumthatRoyWilkins,AliceNelson,andJohnsondidintheirbooks.
VanessaGambleinMakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospital
Movement1920-1945picksupLisio’smotif.Gamble’sresearchplacesChisumwith
theleadersoftheblackhospitalmovementincludingthemembersoftheNAACP.
UsingmanyofthesamesourceswhichHarlanandhisstudentshadaccessto,
31
Gambledevelopedaless-biasedviewofChisumandhisworkasanefficiency
engineer.
Butdespiteafewpositivecharacterizations,thedamagetoChisum’s
reputationcontinued.Forexample,usingthesameinformationasGamble,Pete
DanielasastudentofHarlan’s,inhisarticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof
theTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”understoodChisumasthepersonwhobrokethe
criticalstandoffatTuskegeeUniversityinthe1920s.Danielusedthepsychohistory
ideathatChisumwas“psychic”inhisworkinsteadofamanproficientasarace
leaderandefficiencyengineer.InDaniel’sfootnotesarereferencestoHarlan’sBTW
papers.Danielfoundpleasureinaddinganotethat“Harlanwasapparentlyunaware
oftheperiodduringwhichChisumworkedforTCI[TennesseeCoalandIron
Company]—anappointmentapparentlysecuredforhimbyMotonthroughhislong
relationshipwiththecompany’smanagement.”TheHarlangroupseemedtotake
pleasureinfindingnegativeinformationaboutChisum.
Asthetwenty-firstcenturyapproached,afewhistorianslookedoutsideof
theHarlanschoolandbacktothepre-1965erafortheirdescriptionsofChisum.
TheireffortstendtodevelopadifferentlegacyforMelvinChisum.BlancheCookin
EleanorRoosevelt:DefiningYears1933-1938(1999)wrotethatChisumwaspartofa
thinktankofblackleadershipintheUnitedStatesunderFranklinDelanoRoosevelt.
In2001,BethBates,inPullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlack
America1925-1945,includedChisumasoneofthebest-educatedblackmeninthe
countryalongwithBenjaminE.Mays,presidentemeritusofMorehouseCollege.She
32
relatesthestoryoftheporterstrikeandChisum’srelationshipswiththeGeorge
Pullmanfamily.SheplantsMelvinChisum,asamemberoftheNNPA,inalarger
communityoflaboraristocrats,includingPerryHoward,Republicannational
committeemanfromMississippi,JesseBinga,headofBingaStateBankinChicago,
andJ.FinleyWilson,grandexaltedruleroftheElks,allofwhomweregratefultothe
PullmancompanyforhiringthemwhenmostemployersexcludedAfrican
Americans.
In2003,MarcusPohlmannwroteCapitalismversusCollectivism:TheColonial
Erato1945,whichdescribesMelvinChisumasaself-styledefficiencyengineer.His
bookisacomprehensivecollectionofmajorandminorleadersinAmericanblack
politics.PaulBernsteininLetterstoEleanor:VoicesoftheGreatDepression(2004)
writesofChisumasoneofanumberofblackleaders.RefutingBrianKelley’sarticle
thatbecameabookin2000,WilliamGriffininAfricanAmericansandtheColorLine
(2005)revisitstheissueoflaborrecruitingthatBrianKellydescribesinRace,Class,
andPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921(2001).GriffinsuggeststhatJoseph
L.JonesandChisumfoundedaCincinnatiemploymentagencythatbecamealabor-
recruitingcenterfornorthernmanufacturersandmunitionsplantsduringthewar.
Kelly,astudentofHarlanwrotethatChisumsoughtcheapblacklaborfromthe
South.HeaddsintohisfootnotestheexcerptofthedescriptioninHarlan’sBookerT.
WashingtonPapers.Kellywentastepfurther–writingasifhisdiscovery-merited
accolades-thatHarlanwasunawareofChisum’sworkforTennesseeCoalandIron.
33
HadKellyresearchedtheHarlanpapershewouldhavefoundthathis
mentorHarlanknewbutchosenottopublishtheinformation.RaymondArsenault
wroteMarianAnderson,theLincolnMemorialandtheConcertthatAwakened
America(2009),inwhichhetracedChisum’sworkasraceleaderandfieldsecretary
oftheNNPAandhiseffortsthathelpedHaroldIckesgetMarianAndersontosingat
theLincolnMemorial.ShawnAlexanderinAnArmyofLions:TheCivilRights
StrugglebeforetheNAACP(2012)focusedonChisum’sworkasBTW’sagent,who
infiltratedtheBrooklynbranchoftheNiagaraMovement,butnotasaspyand
provocateur.31
Chisum’spositiverolewasnotacknowledgedbytheHarlanschool.Aslateas
2009historianRaymondSmock,consideredaBTWscholarforhisworkinassisting
LouisHarlaninhisaward-winningworks,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardof
Tuskegee1901-1915andTheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,continuesHarlan’s
traditionoftreatingChisumasanineteenth-andtwentieth-centuryvillain.Notonly
doesSmockadverselyevaluateChisumbutalsowithinthreesentencesaddsinsult
toinjurybyspellingChisum’ssurnameincorrectly.ThisaffrontoccursintheLibrary
ofAfrican-AmericanBiographySeriesbook,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadership
intheAgeofJimCrow,inwhichSmockwritescomparativelyaboutChisumand
otherspies:
It[NiagaraMovement]wasinfiltratedbyanevengreaternumberofWashington’sspies,includingRichardT.Greener,aHarvardgraduate,andashadycharacternamedMelvinJackChissum[sic]whomWashingtonhad
31ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).
34
employedin1903tospyonMonroeTrotter.Chissum[sic]wouldbecomearegularfixtureinWashington’ssecreteffortstokeepaneyeonhiscritics,oftenmeetinghimonparkbenchesinNewYorkandinothercitiestogethisinstructions.Actingtheroleoftheespionageagenttothehilt,includingcarryingaconcealedweaponandoccasionallywearingabulletproofvest,theobsequiousChissum[sic]wouldsignhisletterstoWashingtonwithflourishessuchas“Iam,Yourobedienthumbleservant,Chissum[sic],todowithasyourEminencedesires,absolutely.”32
SmockbelittledChisumforhisattitudeofhumblenessbeforetheAmericanblack
kingandperhapsplayedonthe“possum”shapeofhisfigurewith“Chissum.”33
TherevisionofChisum’slifebytheHarlanschoolillustratesthathistorians
havebiasesintheirwritingofhistory.Likecastingaplay,pioneerhistorianschose
charactersfromtheProgressiveEraforrolesthatwereacceptableduringthepost–
civilrightsmovement.Theeraofwritingsymbolizedacivilrightsperspective.John
HopeFranklinreferredtotheritualofcastingintheprefaceofhispublication,From
SlaverytoFreedom(1990).Hewrotethattheprocedureofwritingblackhistory
involveda“discreetbalancebetweenrecognizingthedeedsofoutstandingpersons
anddepictingthefortunesofthegreatmassofNegroes...wheredominant
personalitiesforgedtothefrontandassumedrolesofresponsibilityand
leadership.”34Somehow,Chisumdidnotfitthecriteriafortheclassicroleofblack
leadership.
32RaymondSmock,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadershipintheAgeofJimCrow,ed.JohnDavidSmith,TheLibraryofAfrican-AmericanBiography(Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2009),181.33Ibid.,181.34Ibid.,xii.
35
The1970sbiographersintheHarlanSchoolcastMelvinJacksonChisumonly
asavillain,asimpleone-dimensionalcharacterbasedonhisworkforBTWat
Tuskegee.35Theythenaddedtheanti-heroinformationaboutChisumastheyfound
itinhistory.Historiansdevelopedtheirownblackheroesbasedontheir
interpretationofwhathistoryshouldhavebeen.Initially,theyneededastory,but
nowtherewereenoughresourcestoincludethedimensionsthey,purposefullyor
not,leftouttodismissAmericanblackleaderswhotheybelieveddidnotseek
justiceandthemoralandmaterialimprovementofAmericanblacks.Chisumdidnot
fittheirmold,sohewasleftout,recast,orreducedtoacaricature.Reclaimingthe
fullcharacterofAmericanblackhistoryincludeswrestlingwithChisumandadding
backintothenarrativethatBTW’sdeathdidnotendaccommodation.
TheMachiavellian-cum-UncleTomactremainedinblackcirclesasawayof
dealingwithpeopleinracistpoliticalandsocialarenas.Itwasdevelopedbyblacks
tosurviveinaracistworld;itwasnotapsychologicalproblemofAmericanblacks
inChisum’sera,asforwardedinnarrativesoftheHarlanschool.Inordertomake
BTWmoredigestibleforwhitesandblacksinthecivilrightsmovement,Harlan
admittedlytamperedwiththeBTWcharacterinhisnarrativebecausehewantedto
usehishistoriesastoolsforsocialreconstruction.InsteadofrevealingthatBTW
usedMachiavelliantacticsofslaveresistanceortheUncleTompersonato
manipulatewhitesociety,HarlanreadjustedBTW’scharactertothatofacomplex
personalitywithadamagedpsychemanifestingitselfinunstablebehavior.In
manipulatingWashington’scharacter,HarlanalsoalteredthereputationofChisum35HarlanandSmock,BTWP,Vol.8:1904-1906,77.
36
toshowBTWwasderangedenoughtoacceptChisumasacloselyregardedfriend.
OnlyasocialistnewsmagazineduringlaborunionconflictslabeledChisumasa
traitor.OnlyanotherspylabeledChisumaslecherousintheBTWpapers.Bothwere
pickedupbytheHarlanschoolasobjectivetruthabouthisnatureinhistoriography.
Inher1995book,MakingAPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement
1920–1945,VanessaGambledescribedChisumas“FieldSecretaryfortheNational
NegroPressAssociationwhoplayedsuchaprominentrole....”36Aswell,Blanche
CookinEleanorRoosevelt:DefiningYears1933–1938,recountedthatChisumwas
partofthethinktankofblackleadershipundertheRooseveltadministration.Other
historianswroteofChisumandtheirresearchshowedhisworthinhistory.Beth
Bates’sPullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925–1945,
(2001),MarcusPohlman’sCapitalismvs.Collectivism:TheColonialErato1945,
AfricanAmericanPoliticalThought,(2003),PaulBernstein’s,LetterstoEleanor:
VoicesoftheGreatDepression(2004),WilliamGriffin’sAfricanAmericansandthe
ColorLineinOhio,1915-1930(2005),RaymondArsenault’sA.PhilipRandolph:A
BiographicalPortrait,(2009),andShawnAlexander’sAnArmyOfLions:TheCivil
RightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(2012)allgivetruthfulandobjectiveaccountsof
MelvinChisum.
Thereisnooverallexplanationastowhythesetwenty-firstcentury
historianschosetheirdepictionsofChisumdespitethedominantnarrativeofthe
Harlanschool.Theyareallfromdifferentuniversities,somefromdepartments36VanessaNorthingtonGamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920-1945(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),80,82,97.
37
otherthanhistory.ThoughtheyhavedifferentinterpretationsofChisumthanthe
Harlanschool,theirworkforhistoricalclaritydoesnotmeantheinfluenceofthe
Harlanschoolisover.Perhapsthenewmoretruthfulandobjectivedescriptions
meananewschoolofhistorianshasalreadybegun,--whichincludesareassessment
ofaccommodationaswell–butbecauseweareinthemidstofthechangeithasnot
yetbeennamedorrecognized.
Withtruthandobjectivity,thereallegacyofMelvinChisum’shistorywill
impactsocial,labor,andracialhistory,allowingforamorecomprehensivestudyof
Americanhistorytobewritten.Twenty-firstcenturyhistorianswillshowthatthe
HarlemRenaissancewillnolongerpervadetheunderstandingofthedynamicsand
ethosofblackAmericainthe1920s.Roomwillbemadeforalegitimatehistorical
viewofanearliercivilrightsagendathatwasbeingbuiltinboththeRepublican
PartyandtheDemocraticPartyaswellinlabor,throughmensuchasChisumand
Nelsonwhosetthefinalstageofthecivilrightsmovementthatstartedin1940at
thedeathofRobertRussaMoton.
ThisattemptofaddingChisumonthenationallevelandminorcharacterson
thestatelevel,suchasOklahomansDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,(1873-1937)and
WilliamTwine(1860-1933),andthewhiteleaders,preachers,industrialists,and
politicianswhoworkedwiththem,willfocusonandanalyzeanevolvingpatternof
racerelationsthatbroughtanewordertoAmericaby1940,showinghowfittingthe
lifeofChisumintothepuzzleofbattlingJimCrowandracismduringtheProgressive
EraandtheNewDealyearsaidsindevelopingacomprehensivepictureofblack
38
activism.InsertingintohistorythelifeofMelvinChisumbringsalivethepeopleand
ideasofthetimeperiodfrom1873tothe1930s.
Inthisdissertation,thenameofBookerT.Washingtonisshortenedtothe
initialsBTWbecauseusinghislastnameismanytimesconfusedinthisinstrument
withWashingtonD.C.Usingallcapitalsgiveshomagetohimasthegreatmanhe
continuestobeinourmemory.Eachchapterbringsintoperspectivethelifeof
MelvinChisumbeyondhisworkforBTW.
ThisChapter1servesasanintroduction.DiscerningtheTruthFromtheDead,
takesthechallengeofthelateMelvinChisum,Jr.,toresearchandanalyzewhether
thetheoryofHarlanabouthisfatherwasshortsighted.UsingDr.Chisum’squeryit
demonstratesthatresearchhasuncoveredseveraldiscrepanciesinthecharacterof
ChisumpaintedbyHarlan’spen.Therefore,thedepictionofChisumasaspyand
provocateurattheheightofhiscareerisreopenedforinterpretation.Thechapter
examinesHarlan’sobjectivityaswellasreviewsHarlan’slineageinjuxtapositionto
Chisum’sfamilylineage.Tiesarefoundthatleadtomoreindepthinvestigationin
chapter3.
Chapter2,ConceptsinBlackHistory,FaithfulWitness:Chisum,theSocial
GospelandAmericanCivilReligion,laysafoundationfordefiningthecourageous
“risktaking”characteristicsChisumbecameknownforinhislifetime.Whilebothhis
sonanddaughterwantreaderstoknowhewasnotanavidchurchgoer;Chisum
developedwithinhimthebehaviorsthatcamefromatraditionofthesocialgospel.
Thesepracticesledtogivingone’slifeforothers,nomattertherisk.Thechapter
39
developstheideathatChisumwasamysticwhopracticedtheblacksocialgospel
undertheumbrellaoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligion.Hispracticecanbeseenin
thesamepraxesofSojournerTruthandotherblackheroes.
Chapter3,Background,ItisnottheSizeoftheDogintheFightbuttheSizeof
theFightintheDog,coversthebackgroundandmeaningfulassociationsMelvin
Chisummadeasayoungmanthathelpedhimbecomearaceman,spy,and
eventuallyaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministrationintheNewDeal.Itis
thenarrativeofhischildhoodinfluencesthatmadehimamanofsteel.Chisumwas
bornpost-CivilWarinoneofthetoughestpartsofthecountryforfreedmento
survive.HecasthimselfasTexasSteelandliterallyboxedhiswayoutoftheSouthas
“TexasRedBud,”aprize-winningpugilist.Heformedintimateattachmentsto
whitessuchasGeorgePullmanandblackssuchasBTWandBishopWilliamDerrick,
thatguidedandhelpedhimgainprestige,positions,andlateremergeduringthe
ProgressiveEraatopblackpoliticianintheDemocraticParty.
Chapter4,TheStrokeofaPen,TheVillainizationofMelvinChisum,unravels
thecaricatureoftheBookerT.Washington–Chisumrelationshipdevelopedby
Harlanasoneof“moralinsensitivity.”ThechapterrevisitsthequestionofHarlan’s
descriptionofChisumfurtheringresearchintheMaster’sThesis,“DrivingBlack
American:MelvinJacksonChisumSr.,AfricanAmericanKingmaker.”UsingHarlan’s
ownarchivedresearchfromtheUniversityofMarylandCollegeParkstorage,the
chaptercontinuestoquestionHarlan’sdescriptionofChisum’srelationshipasclose
totheTuskegeeMachine.IttakesalookatthecaricaturesthatHarlanusedforBTW.
40
HarlanusedideasofmysticssuchasinthestoryofCamelotincludingwizards,and
wizard’slamps-thatcalledtogenies-todescribetheblackethic.AstudyBlack
MachiavelliansshowsthatBrerRabbit,EmmettScott,BTW,Chisumandmostblack
leadersusingthemaskofUncleTomwerewizardsattemptingtoescapeJimCrowin
theUnitedStatesofAmerica.ThechaptertakesChisum’slifeintotheearly1910sas
hedevelopedintoanentrepreneurasarealestateagentinNewYork.
Chapter5,Chisum’sPilgrimageinOklahoma,WheretheWindComesSweeping
DownthePlains,movesChisum’slifeintothepivotalmomentswhenheloosensties
withtheTuskegeeMachineandstartstomovearoundthecountrydevelopinghis
notorietyasajournalistandhishobbyofrescuingthepoor.Hisrescuesweremore
intheorderofblackmysticsoftheblacksocialgospel,SojournerTruth,Harriett
Tubman,andToussaintL‘Overture.UnlikeRobinHood,Chisumdidnottakefrom
therichandgivetothepoor.Heliterallyheldhisneckupforthelynchingrope,to
aidblacksinescapingblackleaderswhoabusedotherblacks.Hetooktheriskof
goingagainstasystemmiredincriminalconspiracyandJimCrow.Thischapter
takesanotherlookatChisum’sattackonLangstonUniversitypresidentInmanPage
andestablisheshispartinthecourtcasethatfollowed.IthighlightshowChisum’s
newspaper,thefirstblacknewspaperinOklahomaCity,TheOklahomaTribune,
becameacatalystforthecivilrightsmovementthroughRoscoeDunjee’sriseas
editoroftheBlackDispatchinafightagainstChisum’sespionage.Itbroadensthe
narrativeofthechildhoodfriendshipbetweenChisumandDr.IsaacWilliamYoung
asChisumsetsthestageforYoung’srisetobecomingOklahoma’s“FirstBlack
Governor”in1921andanationalblackleaderinthe1930s.
41
Chapter6,MelvinChisuminthe1920s,Service,Service,Service,picksupfrom
Chisum’spivotalmomentinOklahomaandguidesthereaderintoChisum’slifeafter
thedeathofBTW.ThechapterchangesthehistoricalnarrativesetbyHarlan’s
SchoolonBTW.Hisinfluencedidnotdiewithhim.Itshowshowsomelieutenantsof
theTuskegeeMachinecontinuedtoworkwithintheUnitedStatesgovernment
carryingoutBTW’sagendaintothe1930s.Thechaptercontinuestoshowthebreak
downbetweenChisumandtheTuskegeeMachineandpicksupwithEmmettScott
asleaderoftheremainingBookerites.ItsuggestschangesatTuskegeeandchanges
inChisum.ThechaptertakesChisumbeyondbeingaWorldWarIefficiencyagent
fortheU.S.EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomics(coveredinmy
master’sthesis,“DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumSr.AnAfrican
American“Kingmaker.”)ItlooksatChisumwithinthepoliticsduringtheriseofthe
“lily-white”agendainboththeWarrenG.HardingandCalvinCoolidgePresidential
administrations.EmphasisismadeonChisum’srelationships,hismarriage,family,
andhisnemesesincludingMaysBenjaminoftheBrotherhoodofSleepingCar
Porters,andOscarDePriest,arising,black,Republicanpoliticianinthefourthward
inChicago.ThechapterdevelopsandshapesChisum’sdevelopingcareerunder
SamuelInsull.
Chapter7,TheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalCrisis,YouMayComeThisFar:But
ComeNoFurther,(Job38:11):ChisumandtheTuskegeeVeteran’sHospitalCrisis,
specificallygivesanaccountofChisum’smissiontoaidtheWarrenHarding
administration,theNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople
(NAACP),JamesWeldonJohnson,andRobertRussaMotoninbringingaboutanall-
42
blackadministrationattheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thechapteroffersacloser
lookatChisum’spracticeofdetectivework.Itdemonstrateshiscapacitytoconfront
leadingblackpoliticianswhoattackedTuskegee,andshowsdevelopmentofhis
acumenandskillsforhisworkoverhislifetime.TheepisodeforeshadowsChisum’s
1930sunveiling;hisgradualmovementfromperformingundercoverworkforpay–
tothehighestbidder–tohisaccomplishmentsinovertpoliticalwork.
Chapter8,CrossingOverTrippingUp,theendofAccommodation,discusses
thefinalmovementofBTW’slieutenantsintotheProgressiveErareform.Theyleft
theRepublicanPartyforaNewDealwithinPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’s
administrationonlytofindthesameolddeal.Chisum’srisetobethemostpowerful
blackintheUnitedStatesistheclimaxofthechapter.Usingletterswrittenbetween
ChisumandDr.IsaacWilliamYoungofOklahoma,thechapterintroducesthenewly
discoveredprimarysourcesthatshowtheworkofblackDemocratsinthe
patronagesystemonthelocal,state,andnationallevel.Thesegiveanintimateview
ofblackswholefttheRepublicanPartybelievingDemocratswouldsupportthem.
AfteralltheyearsofplayingBrerRabbitandescapingthefarmer,thefarmercaught
BrerRabbit,byluringtheminandthen–fencingtheranch.Somehistoriansbelieve
thattheendofthesocialgospelperiodendedundertheNewDeal.Chisumwrites
thattheperiodwastheendoftheProgressiveEra.ForChisumandotherblack
leadersthetransformationbecameonefromtheblacksocialgospelintoaliberation
theology.Liberationtheologygrewfromthesocialgospel.OnceBookeritesjoined
theotherblackpoliticalfactionsinthe1930stheytookovertactioninsteadof
accommodation.BecauseoftheNewDealwizardry,“warwickism”wasswappedfor
43
assertiveness.Theywouldhavetofighttheirwayoutandwiththisparadigm
changecreatedthemoderncivilrightsmovement.
Forward
Almostfiftyyearsafterthepublicationof“SecretLifeofBookerT.
Washington,”andtheintroductiontoChisumintheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,as
aspyandprovocateur,scholarscontinuetoprobeforanswersabouttherealMelvin
Chisum.LouisHarlanlegitimizedanddefinedthestudyofAmericanblackhistory
fortheworld.HisworkkepttheBookerites’workintheclassroominthetwentieth
century.Itspullwassoweightythatfewquestioneditsaccuracyuntilapleafrom
thelateDr.MelvinChisumtoclearhisfather’snamecametogetherwithaccessto
newsourcesprovidedbydigitization,whichallowedthetasktobeundertaken.
JamesSmallwood’sworkimpactedboththreadsofhistoriographyandledbackto
thejournalistsofthe1920sandearlier.Modernscholarsneedanswersandlike
Chisum’ssonseekavisionofChisumthatisnotdistortedandaviewofBTWthatis
nottwisted.ThisisanattemptatabiographicalsketchofthelifeofMelvinJackson
Chisum,Sr.,andanunderstandingblackpoliticsintheProgressiveEra,ofatime
whenBookeritesbecameapartofthecivilrightsmovementandwhytheydid.That
informationhasgoneunrecognized.
LouisHarlan’sresearchonMelvinChisumwasnotthecentralreasonfor
writinghisbooks.However,thedevelopmentofChisumasnomorethanspyor
provocateur,andtherecollectionsofhiscareerinthenarrativesoftheHarlan
44
schoolneedtobeadjusted.BlackhistoriansportrayedChisuminthelastofthe
nineteenthcenturyandthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyasaraceleader,hero
andpolitician.IcontendaswellthatonlyafterBTW’slieutenantslikeChisumwho
werestilldeeplyembeddedandentrenchedingovernmentnetworks,attemptedto
makeaccommodationworkfromwithintheRooseveltadministrationandfailed,
couldtheCivilRightsMovementariseandgraspandholdthenation’sattentionas
“the”movementofAmericanBlacks.Thus,thedissertationrecalculatesthe
beginningoftheCivilRightsMovementbasedonBTW’sinfluencethroughhis
lieutenantsthatremainedingovernmentandprivatepoliticalcirclesafterhisdeath.
RobertRussaMotonheldthemajorinfluenceinkeepingaccommodationalive.
WithinamonthofRobertRussaMoton’sdeaththeBaltimoreAfroAmerican
newspapermadeaboldstatementwhenitpublishedthenewleadersofblack
reform.BackedbyChisum,thefirstpicturethateverappearedofW.E.BDuBoisand
hisfamilywaspublishedinJuly1940.OnemonthlaterWalterWhiteandhisfamily
werepresented.TheculminationofBTW’sworkofaccommodationandcivilization
buildingbyhislieutenantshadended.Thesenewspaperitemssymbolizeda
paradigmshiftbetweenBookeritesandmoreliberalblacks.Theycametogetheras
one.Thefactionsoftheblackleadership(chapter5)becameone.Agitationnot
accommodationwasthenewvoiceofthemovementforjustice,libertyandequality.
45
CHAPTERII
FAITHFULWITNESSTOLIBERATION
CHISUM,THESOCIALGOSPEL,ANDAMERICANCIVILRELIGION
MelvinChisum,Sr.spokeatSecondBaptistChurchinMcKinney,Texas,“Declaringthatthecoloredmanshouldbemorereligiousthanotherracesbecausehisblessingshadbeengreat,butdeploringthesuperstitionthathadgrownuparoundNegroChurchactivities,thespeaker’s(Chisum)finalconclusionswere,thattheblackfolksmusthavemore“seven-dayintheweekhometraining”and“lessSundayshoutingreligion.”
---McKinneyDailyCourierGazette,23June1916
InordertounderstandChisumandtheworldofblacksinthefirstquarterof
thetwentiethcentury,oneneedstounderstandthedevelopmentofthe“blacksocial
gospel”and“AmericanBlackCivilReligion.”Historianstendtosuperimposethe
theoriesofadominant,Anglo-Saxon,upperclass,socialgospelmovementoverthe
entiresocialgospelmovementacrossthespanofAmericanhistoryfromthemid
1800stotheCivilRightsmovementinthe1960s.Whileitistruethatthesocial
gospelmovementattheendofnineteenthandturnofthetwentiethcentury
inspiredreformmovementswhichincludedgovernmentreformsintheworkplace
andeveninpersonalspheres,theleadershipofthosefactionschoosetoaddress
46
equalityonanunequalbasis.TheirworkswereimpededandlimitedinAmerican
society,becausethechurchandtheeducationalsectorsallowedracism,sexism,and
classisminaone-sidedquasi-Christiangospel.Thischapteridentifiestheeffortsof
commonpeopleonthefringesoftheSocialGospelMovement,reevaluatestheBlack
SocialGospel,anddefinestheAmericanCivilReligionthatsupportedit.
AnAmericanCivilReligionexistsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Robert
Bellah,Americansociologist,wrote,“WhilesomehavearguedthatChristianityisthe
nationalfaith,andothersthatchurchandsynagoguecelebrateonlythegeneralized
religionof(theAmericanWayofLife),fewhaverealizedthatthereactuallyexists
alongsideofandratherclearlydifferentiatedfromthechurchesanelaborateand
well-institutionalizedcivilreligioninAmerica.”1EarlyAmericanmulti-dimensional
societiescreatedracialseparationandultimatelyseparatebutequallaws.Underthe
umbrellaofProtestantreligiousculture,AmericanBlackscontinuedoutsideaswell
aswithinthemainlinechurchactsoftheBlackSocialGospel.Separatedspaces
allowedforblackstocreatetheirownAmericanCivilReligion.Intheirownsphere
blackscelebratedEmancipationProclamationDay,Juneteenth,andThirdofApril
ratherthanjusttheAmericanIndependenceDayonJuly4.Followingtheblack
newspapers,churchexperiences,andbooksoftheperiodshowsthatthenational
blackcommunityhadtheirownheroes,holidays,folklore,andliterature.Modernity
isstilldiscoveringtherubricsofthedifferentdimensions.Theyareevidencedin
researchonMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.
1RobertBellah,"CivilReligioninAmerica,"Daedalus96,no.1(1967).1.
47
HowdidseparationandtheirownAmericanCivilReligionaffectthesocial
gospelofAmericanblacks,AmericanAsians,andothercultures?Itcreateddifferent
domainsinwhichtodiscoverfreedom,justice,andliberty.Becausemostblacks
wereslavesthenlaterencasedinaJimCrowframework“truth”wasnotareally
tangibleentity.WomenlikeSojournerTruthwereinvolvedinquasi–Christian
movementssuchaswomen’ssuffrage.Whenthetimecametogiveallwomen
equalityofthevoteinAmerica,herAnglo-SaxoncounterpartsleftAmericanblack
womenbehind.BlackshadbeenleftbehindinthegrowthoftheUnitedStates.
InregardstoChisumheunderstoodthatthe“truth”ofblackpeoplewas
distortedasachild.Hisfamilymember,MerrittTrammell,knowntofreedmenand
thefirstgenerationoffreebornblacksahero,preacher,andlawman,was
characterizedinthenewspapersandbystateleadersasanoutlaw(chapter3).
Duringandafterslaveryandintothemodernera,theAnglochurchesandtheir
revivalistsdevelopedtheologicaldistortionsandtokeepblacksunequal.Evenin
somemainlinedenominationsuntilthe1920sonlywhitescouldpastorblack
mainlinechurches,therebykeepingthepowerofthewhiteperson’sGodinwhite
hands.Fromslaveryandintothe1970sthisdistortionofgospelwasforce-fedto
blacks.ForanexamplewhileattendingdesegregatedschoolsinVirginiamany
learnedforthefirsttimethatAmericanblackancestorswereslavesbecauseofthe
HamDoctrine.Eventhoughelementaryschoolhistoriansforcedthenarrativeson
children,bythe1970ssomeblackpastorswereeducatedenough,thoughblack
colleges,torepudiatethemyth.
48
ToborrowatermfromMelvinChisumin1916andCarterG.Woodsonin
1933,Blackswereintentionally“mis-educated”byliberalpastors.Biblicalpassages
suchas“slavesobeyyourmaster”in1Peter2:18,weredistortedbypastors
ignoringaccompanyingtextsusedintheblacksocialgospellikeJohn8:36thatread
“whomtheSonsetsfreeisfreeindeed.”Chisumwaspreaching/speakingat
churchesduringthesametimeperiodthathebeganliterallymovingblackstothe
North.Chisumindicatedthismis-educationinhis1916speechbeforeamixed
audienceatSecondBaptistChurchinMcKinney,Texas.Hesaid,“Thereisnoreason
whytheblackmanshouldnothavegivenevidenceofallthefinequalitiesofthe
whiteman,butforthefactthathiseducationhasbeenwrongandhisleadersare
responsibletherefore.”2Heincorporatedtheblacksocialgospelbiblicalemphasis
offreedomintohisownlife.In1915ChisumescapedOklahomaalivebysheerwill
againstalmostinsurmountableodds.By1916hewasdodgingwarrantsforhis
arrestforabscondingbynighttotheNorthwithSouthernworkers(chapter5).
Lawsagainsteducatingblacksstifledtheirspiritualaswellastheirsecular
growth.Inspiteofthis,the“HolySpirit”oftheJudeo-ChristianGodmetthemas
slavesandfreedmenandspirituallyfreedthem.Forsome,hundredsofyearsafter
theircapture,thisknowledgefitthereligiouspraxisratherthananAfro-centricone
relatedtothecultsorancestorworshipofAfrica.3Whilethemainline
denominationstaughtofaGodwhodecreedHam’sdescendantstobeslaves;
2“COLOREDMANISTOSPEAKHERE,”McKinneyDailyCourierGazette(Texas)23June1916.3EFranklinFrazier,TheNegroChurchinAmerica(NewYork:ShockenBooks,1963).55.FrazierbelievedblacksdevelopednewideasaboutGodtofittheirneeds.
49
somehow,theyknewthe“true”Godwasdifferent.Eventhoughbereftofthefull
gospelaboutsociety,ChisumandSojournerTruthandevenJackJohnson,Chisum’s
childhoodfriend,foundthat“withintheirownbeings”theyhadexperiencethat
bespokeofaspiritoffreedombeyondbondage.Mysticallytheyknewa
transcendentGodthathadsomethinggoodforthemlikeotherpeoples.Theyhadno
namefortheir“trueGod”butspoketheirthoughtsinslavesongswiththelyrics:
Whatisthis,thatmakesmefeelsogoodinside?WhatisthisthatmakesmelaughwhenIfeellikecrying?Whateveritis,itwon’tletmeholdmypeace.Itmakesmelovemyenemiesandmakesmelovemyfriends.Itwon’tletmebeashamedthatI’vebeenbornagain.4
Evenwhileblack-theycouldbebornagainandwashedwhiteassnow–itinthe
supernaturalthough,thespiritrealmofthetrueGod.
AsastudentoftheologyandUnitedStateshistory,Igrapplewithdistortions
inthedifferencesinwhitesocialgospelandtheblacksocialgospelasrelatedtothe
AmericanBlackdiasporaandtheirsalvationhistory.Thoughseldommentioned
becauseitwasthetimeofCivilRightsmovementandequality,duringdesegregation
manyyoungblacks,struggledwithblacknessinaworldwhereallblackthingswere
destroyedsothattheymightassimilateintowhiteculture.WilliamElbertBurghardt
(W.E.B.)DuBoiscalledintegrationintoexistence.However,DuBoisleftforAfrica
leavingagenerationtoliveouthisvision.TheyfacedanewReconstructionmuch4Thisslavesonghasnoorigin.Itwaspasseddownthroughtheblackchurches.TheauthorpickeditupinVirginiaatFirstUnionBaptistChurch.TravelingthroughouttheUnitedStatestoblackchurchesonefindsthatitisapartoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligionsongtradition.
50
liketheirancestorsonehundredyearsprior.Theirworldwastornapart.According
toErnstBreisachinHistoriography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(1983),NewLeft
andCivilRightshistorians“attackedtheestablishedorderofblackhistory”turning
blackheroessuchasBookerT.Washington(BTW)“intodarkfigures”while
underdogssuchasW.E.B.DuBoisbecametheheroes.5The“true”blacksocialgospel
andAmericanBlackCivilReligionbecametheinspirationforthe1970s
Reconstructioncommunitytouseinordertosurvivetheangstthatcamefrom
movingoutoftheirblackenclavestotheracismofdesegregationwheretheywere
viewsassecond-classcitizens.Thesegroupsofyoungadultsconsideredthemselves
martyrslikeMartinLutherKingJr.Theysearchedforheroesandheroinessuchas
BrerRabbit,SojournerTruth,andmenlikeMelvinChisuminordertosurvivewhen
theirliberationwaschallenged.Theyneedednotthefundamentalistjargonbuta
“sevendayaweekhometraining”thatChisumcalledforinhisspeechatSecond
BaptistChurch,astheyriskedlife,limb,andallforjusticetogoforwardinthenewly
developingworld.
Exploringthisrelationshipdeeplyhasshapedmyacademicworkand
Master’sTheses.AtUnionTheologicalSeminaryinVirginiaandPresbyterianSchool
ofChristianEducation,thisledtomywriting“SojournerTruth;AFaithfulWitness”
(1994).Iwrote“ADefiantBreed”(1996)attheDivinitySchoolatDukeUniversity.
AttheUniversityofOklahoma,itwas“Oklahoma’sFirstBlack‘Governor:’Dr.Isaac
WilliamYoung,”(2004)andJusticeThroughEspionage(2006).Mymaster’sthesisat
5SeeErnstBreisach,Historiography:Ancient,MedievalandModern(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1983).363-365.
51
OklahomaStateUniversity,“DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,
AfricanAmericanKingMaker(2014)helpedmeunderstandthatChisum’sworkwas
thesameideologyoftheblacksocialgospelasSojourner’s.Idiscoveredand
followedthehypothesisoftheblacksocialgospelaslinkedtothe“socialgospel”but
advancedtotheunderstandingthattherewasanAmericanBlackCivilReligionover
andaboveanAmericanCivilReligion.Chisum’slifefittheparadigm.Chisum
changedfromaneophytetohero.WhetheritwasthedeathofHarriettTubman
(1914)ortherealizationthatBookerT.Washingtonwasdying(1915)(that
consequentlytherewouldbenowizardtoleadblackpeople),somethinggavehim
impetustosavehispeople.However,inthattimeperiodhechangedintoarace
warriorwhotookrisksthatnoothermaninthecountrywaswillingtotakefor
indigentblacksanddestitutewhitepeople.
Chisum’santics,thewayhewroteandspokeofGod“withinhim”andthe
blackcommunity’scelebrationsofJohnBrown’sdeath,theEmancipation
Proclamation,NatTurner,andtheiraccoladesforToussaintL’Overture,didnotfit
themoldandmoresoftheAmericansocialgospelidealnorAmericaCivilReligion.
AmericansocialgospelislinkedtoProgressivism.ItisassociatedwithAmerican
ProtestantismintheNorthernStates,butitwasdifferentfromthereligiosityofthe
ex-slavesinthesouthernstatesaswellasthoseblackslikeChisumwhomoved
North.Thenorthernmovementofthesocialgospeldealtwithsocialproblems
relatedtoChristianethicsfoundintheDominionistTheology,whichrosebeside
fundamentalisminthe1960s,notequivalenttotheliberationtheologyamong
52
blacks.6Thisformofnationalismsuggestedthattheonepercentofrichpeople
shouldrulethenationevenaftertheCivilRightsMovement.
TheDominionisttheologyemployedbiblicaltextualguidesthatledthe
peopletofollowthe“Beatitudes”versusaliberationtheology.Thetheology
incorporating“blessedbethemeek”discouragedthemeekfromchallengingthe
powerstructure.IntheProgressiveEra,poorblacksweretiedtoagricultureby
gunmensurroundingthemandusedinlaborbybigbusinessinthesamewaysas
thepastplantationownersusedslaves.Eveninthelatenineteenthandearly
twentiethcentury,theblacksocialgospelwasitselfaresponsetotraditionalliberal
andconservativemainlineChristianChurchdogma.Sometimesblackshadtoshape
-shiftintotheSon(avesselforGod’sspirit)duringthenight,playBrerRabbit,and
trickthetricksterinordertomoveforward.Chisumbecamethemodernshape-
shifterinhistime.DrawingthepowerfromGodhedidwhatwasnecessarytosave
livesandsouls.ThearticleintheMcKinneynewspaperliftsChisumasa“savior”of
coloredyouths.7
ThearticlerecountsanationalstoryaboutChisum’sfirstknownheroic
achievementoutsideoftheboxingring.TheMcKinneyDaileyCourierGazettegavean
overviewofChisum’srecentworksavingyoungwomen’svirtue.Itretoldthestory
ofChisum’sexposeofallegedimmoralconditionsatacoloredschool.Followinghis6ForahistoryofDominionistTheologysee,StephenieHendricks,DevineDestruction:WiseUse,DominionTheologyandtheMakingofAmericanEnvironmentalPolicy(Michigan:MelvilleHouse,2005).ThomasIceH.WayneHouse,DominionTheology,BlessingorCurse?(Massachusetts:MultnomahPress,1988).7“COLOREDMANISTOSPEAKHERE,”McKinneyDailyCourierGazette(Texas)23June1916.
53
workinthecentralwesternstate“thepresident,eightteachers,andawhite
physicianwereforcedtosevertheirconnectionswiththeschool.Subsequently,a
libelsuitwasfiledagainstChisumandsomefiveorsixotheractions.Inbutonecase
wasthefearlesseditorconvictedandthejudge,afterhearingtheevidencewasso
astonishedattheverdict,permittedChisumtobereleasedonthisown
recognizance.”8Whatthenmadeheroeswhowillingtogivetheirlivesforthe
commonvileblackhuman?Itwasthepowerinherentintheblacksocialgospel.Itis
notthatthesocialgospelwasdifferentbetweenblacksandwhites,betweenrich
andpoor;thedifferencewashowtheyreceivedtheRevelationofGodthatwas
beingheldfromtheirpreachingandteaching.
TheAngloAmerican-Europeansocialgospelhasatleasttwostrains.Onwas
articulatedbyliberalclergymenliketheradicalWashingtonGladden.JohnGarraty,
inTheNewCommonwealth1877-1890(1968)wrotethatGladdenrejectedsocialism
butunderstoodtheindustrialsystemwasfilledwithbenefitsthatcouldbespread
amongcommonpeople.ThroughaChristianpointofview“appliedChristianity,”
societycouldberegeneratedwhenAmericanslearnedtosharethewealth.He
appliedsocialsciences,economicsandreligiontoformasocialgospelofwealthand
missions.9Theother“traditionalEuropean”strandresultedfromablendof
sociologyandChristianity.InTheSocialGospelinBlackAndWhite(1991),Ralph
Lukerclaimedthatthefirstpersontousetheterm‘socialgospel’wasanobscure
pastorinMissouri,HarlanPaulDouglass,inhisbook,ChristianReconstructioninthe8Ibid.9JohnGarraty,TheNewCommonwealth1877-1890(NewYork:HarperandRowe,1968),321-322.
54
South(1909).LukeclaimedDouglass’ideasmirroredstronglythoseofGladdenand
themenofhisperiodbuthisproblemwiththeadvocatesofthesocialgospelinthe
ProgressiveErawasthattheyfailedtodoanythingaboutracism.Douglass’ideas
incorporatedblacksinAmerican-Europeansocialgospel.Luker’sbookincorporated
blackstoAmerican-Europeansocialgospelusingaseparatebutequalclassist
framework.
Luker’stheorywasthatthesocialgospelwasanextensionofhomemissions
andthesocialreformmovement.10Heisthefirsttowriteaboutwhitestakingtheir
principlesofsocialgospeltoblackenclaves.However,thecontentionofthischapter
isthattheirAnglo-American-Europeanbasedinstitutionalizedideasof“social
gospel”missedthemarkformenlikeChisumandwomenlikeSojournerTruth.The
blackgospelwaslinkedmoretotheovershadowingpoweroftheHolySpirit,the
partofGodthattookoverthehumanspiritandthenuseditasGod’sown.An
examplewouldbethePentecostalRevivalonAzusaStreetinLosAngeles,California.
Aholiness,ex-slave,blackpastorWilliamSeymour,beganarevivalmeetingonApril
9,1906thatlasteduntil1915.Evenearlier,theMethodistchurchesinIllinoisand
Indiana,whereSojournerhadpreached,experiencedsupernaturalactivity.God
spoketothespirit“withinher,”notneedingapreacherandbypassingsocial
structurescreatedbythedogmaofmainlinedenominations.
ThesestrandsofthesocialgospelfoundandanalyzedbyLukerandGarraty
werethensuperimposedupontheblackcommunity.Thiswhitedominantsocial10RalphLuker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite(ChapelHill:NorthCarolinaPress,1991),1-6.
55
gospel,soughttoinstillanAnglo-conservatismintoChristianityandtherebyreplace
the“spiritwithin”blacksfoundinthestrugglefortheirowndefinitionsof
personhood,fulfillment,andequality.AngloAmericanswantedtomaintaintheir
holdonpowerthroughthedominantnarrative.Afteryearsofpurposefully
misinterpretingBiblicaltextstoAmericanblackslavesandtheirfreeoffspringto
meetwhiteneeds,anideologyhadtobecreatedbyblacksinordertofillthevoid
thatliesaboutGodcreatedintheirlives.
Liberationtheologythroughthesocialgospeldealtwiththebasicchallenges
ofbeingblack.Grassrootsblacksparticularlyrequiredatheologythatrefutedthe
vilenessofblacknessandinferiority--theirownskin,music,hair,andbeing--that
blackshadbeentaughttobelieveaboutthemselvesinchurchteachingthathad
becomeapartofmainlineChristianity.11ThegapbetweenmainlineChristianityand
blackspiritualityremained.TheblacksocialgospelwasmorethanwhatLuker
perceived,justtakingDouglass’ideastomainlinepastorsinlargememberinner-
citychurches.Thedoctrinalproblemsremained.Theyencouragedseparate
churchesandseparatedialoguesaswellasdivisivelawsliketheMannAct,the
WhiteSlaveTrafficActof1910,lawsthatwereusedagainstChisum’schildhood
friend,JackJohnson,tostiflehimfrommarryingawhitewoman.UndertheMann
ActJohnsonwasjailedforcarryinghisfiancéfromonestatetothenext.12
11CeceliaBrooks,"Oklahoma'sFirstBlackGovernor":Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,"TheChroniclesofOklahomaLXXXII,no.1Spring(2004).ErmaThreattexplainedthatintheMethodistChurchwhereDr.Youngworshippednogospelwassungonlyhymns.12TheresaRunstedtler,JackJohnson,RebelSojourner:BoxingintheShadowoftheGlobalColorLine(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2012).134,135,160.
56
TheAnglosocialgospelexpressedbyLukerandGladdenonlymadeblacks
worthyofhelpbutnotpeopleworthyofequality.Thus,ifGodlovedeventhem,
blacksneeded,discovered,andadheredtoa“blacksocialgospel”thatspokebeyond
themainlineteachings.Sincetheirslavepasttaughttheywerelittlemorethan
animals,blackshadlackedaJesuswhocouldsavethemandtransformtheminto
beingtrulyhuman.SlavesweretaughtthatJesuswasamightywarriormuchlikean
overseer.Theyshouldobeyhim.Thatimagedidnotworkforthem.Slaves,their
children,andfreemenwhowouldnotcompletelyacceptwhatAnglostaught,went
insideoftheirbeings–searchingandfinding“aknowledgewithin”them.Therethey
foundtheHolySpiritasSojournerTruthdidinher“call.”Witnesstofaithwithin
tookonthesameformthatithadforcenturies–liberationfromfollowingthe
moresofthedominantculture.
Creatinganicheinrecentscholarship,Dr.GaryDorrien,ofUnionTheological
SeminaryinNewYork,contributedanotherstrandinrecentscholarshipbylinking
theblacksocialgospeltotheCivilRightsmovement.AccordingtoDorrien’sTheNew
Abolition(2015),priortohiswork,literatureontheblacksocialgospelexisted,but
nobookswerewritten.13RalphLuker’s,SocialGospelinBlackandWhite(1991)title
seemsincontentionwithDorrienbutitisnot.Luker’sthesiscommunicatedthe
sameoldsocialgospelthatusedEuropeanmotifs.14Dorrienfoundthatintricately
13GaryDorrien,TheNewAbolition:W.E.B.DuboisandtheBlackSocialGospel(NewHaven:YaleUniverisityPress,2015).,ix.14Luker,TheSocialGospelinBlackAndWhite,Luker’sbookfollowsthehistoriographyofthegospelinsteadofveeringtowardsablacksocialgospelwithblackheroes,blacktheology,andblackicons.HisresponseisthehistoriographyintheAmericanwhiteProtestantvenueofCharlesHopkins’TheRiseoftheSocial
57
wovenintotheblacksocialgospelwasapoliticaljusticemovement.15ItfitBellah’s
criteria.Inthemulti-dimensionalsocietycreatedbyracialseparation,blackshad
theirownheroes,wars,holidays,folklore,andliteraturethatlifteduptheir
strugglesagainstoppression.16
Dorriendevelopedhisideaoftheblacksocialgospelemphasiswhichhe
foundintherootsofW.E.B.DuBois’justicereformmovement.Dorrien,likeAugust
MeierwhowroteNegroThoughtinAmerica(1963),foundamysticsideinsideof
W.E.B.DuBois’lifeexperience.MeiercalledDuBoisascholar,aprophet,anda
mystic.17ThepoliticsofreformlinkedDuBoistoMartinLutherKing,Jr.’spartinthe
civilrightsmovement.Dorrienconcluded,“TheBlackSocialGospelemergedfrom
thetraumaofReconstructiontoaskwhata‘newabolition’wouldrequirein
Americansociety.Itbecameanimportanttraditionofreligiousthoughtand
resistance,helpingtocreateanalternativepublicsphereofexcludedvoicesand
providingtheintellectualunderpinningsofthecivilrightsmovement.”18While
DorrieninsistedthattheReconstructionnarrativeshowsenlightenment,the
GospelinAmericanProtestantism,1865-1915,(1940);FrederickJohnson’s,TheSocialGospelRe-Examined(1940);HenryMay’s,ProtestantChurchesandIndustrialAmerica(1949);andPaulAllenCarter’sTheDeclineandRevivaloftheSocialGospel,SocialandPoliticalLiberalisminAmericanProtestantChurches,1920-1940(1954.)15SeeRobertN.Bellah,BeyondBelief:EssaysonReligioninaPost-TraditionalistWorld.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1991),168.SeeGarySmith,“FaithandtheAmericanPresidency,”inChristianityToday99,onlineatChristianityToday.org.16Bellah,CivilReligioninAmerica,1.17AugustMeier,NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1995:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeofBookerT.Washington(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963).206.18Dorrien.,TheNewAbolition,297;KimButterweck,“GaryDorrienWinsReligionAwardforExaminationoftheBlackSocialGospel,”inNewsReligion,1December2016,atGrawemeyer.org
58
contentionofthischapteristhatthenewabolitionmovementwasnotnewbuta
continuingtraditionoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligiontiedtoblackworshipof
heroesasfarbackastheriseofToussaintL’Overtureinhissuccessfulbutbrutal
slaverevoltinHaiti.BothhistoriansandDorrienasatheologianoverlookthework
ofbordercharactersinthemovementsuchasSojournerTruthandMelvinChisum.
Byhismid-twentiesChisum,likeothers,functionedinthismodeoftheblack
socialgospel.Hewasnota“cometoJesusmissionary”ofthemain-lineAnglo
denominations.ChisumdidbuildhomesinNewYork,buthewasalsoacrusaderof
theblacksocialgospeljusticeidealthatfollowedthehistoricallydominant
Americanblackhistorynarrativeofan“ontheground”commonmanministry.
CarterG.Woodson’sbooksonblackhistory,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch(1921)
andTheNegroinOurHistory(1922),alongwithHoraceTalbert’sTheSonsofAllen
(1906),andClementRichardson’sNationalCyclopediaoftheColoredRace(1919),
amongotherbookswrittenandeditedbyblackscholarsoftheearlytwentieth
century,weretheonesthatsetforththeblacksocialhistoryparadigm.Themen
theyhonoredfoughtracismonthelevelofthespiritualwarfareandwere
recognizedbyC.VannWoodwardinhisbookTheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,notby
namebutbyhistoricalcontent.19ForWoodward,JimCrowwasademonofdivision.
Blackpeopleneededaspiritualweapontofightthisdemon.Thishadtobepresent
intheirheroes.Theyheldontomysticismfromtheirpast,mixturesofAnglo,Indian,
AfromythandlegendsymbioticallylinkedtoMethodistChristianity.Thiswasnot
19C.VanWoodward,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1955).
59
addedtothe“whiteJesus”butitaroseas“awitnesswithin”themselves.The
liberatingSpiritinJesus,God’sownHolySpirit,camealivewithinthem.Whatwas
ontheoutsidedidnotmatter.Intheirwitnesstoatranscendentdeitytheyfounda
GodbeyondmainlineProtestantteaching.
ScholarslikeGarraty,Luker,andDorrien,erredinnotunderstandingthat
blacksdidnottakeinalltheyweretaught.Theylearned“toeatmuttonandsay
nutton.”20Theyhadbeenliedtosomuch,thatblacks,especiallythosethatfollowed
theMethodistchurch,sawthehypocrisyofthechurch,whenhelearnedtoreadthe
Bibleasachild(likeJackJohnsonchapter3).However,theytookmostinformation
toheartinordertodealwithitatalatertime.MethodistschoolsexpelledJack
Johnsonforsayingthat“their”Godwasnotreal.Laterinhiscareerhefeltthatthe
mainlinechurchwas“fullofhypocrisyinitsmostdeplorableforms.”21Johnson
discoveredtherevelationofGodandtesteditinhispersonallife.ThoughChisum
believedinGod,hissonanddaughteremphasizedthathedidashepreached.Hedid
notparticipateeverySundayinorganizedreligion.
HowdidboysevenwhilebeingindoctrinatedbyMethodistpastors
understandthehistoricalcriticalmethodofinterpretingscriptures?Inmany
respects,they–asSojourner–hadacriticalunderstandingofthescripturesto
whichtheeducatedelitewhitemalesoftheirtimeadhered–butevenwhiteliberal
pastorstaughtacontrollingtheology.TheboysandSojourner(whowasilliterate)20ThiswasphrasewelearnedintheSouthernAmericanblackcommunityaboutkeepingourmouthsshuttodealwiththeissuelaterwhenaroundwhitepeople.21JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927),234.
60
lookedattheBiblicaltextcriticallytoallowforerrorsonthepartofitshuman
writers.TheybelievedtheBiblewasthe“WordofGod.”However,itswritershad
incorporatedpartoftheirhistoryintothework,justasslaveowners,malepastors
andAnglowomen,hadassimilatedtheBibletofittheirneeds.Theblackmainline
witnesscameafteryearsofindoctrination.Theirsocialwitnesscamefromawitness
deepinsidethemselves.Itwaslikebeingbornwithaveil,ortheseventhchild,ofthe
seventhchildoftheseventhchild.Thehistoryoftheknowledgeofone’sgiftwas
passeddownbywordofmouthandfinallymadeexplicitinSojourner’s
autobiography.ItwasaChristianmysticwitness.ThestoryofSojournerTruth
revealedthegenesisoftheblacksocialgospelandpossiblythegospelofthe
dispossessed.
TheseAmericanBlackCivilReligiousideals,setthestagetounderstand
MelvinChisuminaframeworkfortherestofthedissertation.Linkinghislifeto
Sojourner,andaddingtheliberationtheologyofRichardNeibuhr,clarifieswhoand
whatChisumwastoagenerationofleaderswhoneededanespionageagentwith
skillstoworkbetweenblackandwhiteworlds,inthephysicalandspiritualrealms.
ThedevelopmentwithintheblackworldofaAmericanBlackCivilReligionin
juxtapositiontoageneralAmericanCivilReligion,providesanarchetypeto
understandthereasonblackslikeChisumwerecomparedtoSojournerTruth,
ToussaintL‘Overture,whowereoutlawstoAngloAmericanCivilReligionbut
heroestoAmericanblacks.PlacingChisumbackintohistorynotasanantagonist
butasablackprotagonistofthefirsttwodecadesofthetwentiethcenturyhelpsadd
toworksthatotherhistorianshavestarted.Inchapter4thisnewpresentationof
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ChisumbroadensthevisionofwhathistorianShawnAlexanderdescribedinhis
bookAnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(2012).22
Alexanderhowevercouldnotcompletelyfinishhispremise.Heneededthe
characterofChisumastheglue,spy,orsecrettoolcarryingouttheworkofthe
“ArmyofLions.”ThisisseeninthemissionthatChisumundertookforBTWof
spyingontheOklahomagovernmentbecauseoftheplightofOklahoma’sblack
Indianfreedmen.TheresultingriskshetookatthesouthernschoolledChisumto
arriveathisownbeliefsandtransformedhimintoanewbeing.Thisrisktakingwas
becausehis“spiritwithin”ledhimasafaithfulwitnesstotheGodwithintotakeon
actionsoverandabovewhatwasacceptedasthenorm.Thissametypeofactions
mayhavehadhimmurderedintheWorldWarIIperiod(chapter8).
TheChristologyofIsabella’sJourneytobecomeSojournerTruth
Faithfulwitnesstakesonthesameformthatithasforcenturies–liberation
fromtheworldtoacloserrelationshiptoGod.Thisnewrelationshiphelpsonesay
yestoone’sauthenticcalling,whetherpreacher,teacher,barber,clerk,doctor,spy,
provocateur,governmentagentoranyothercallinginlife.Renewedrelationship
withGodwiththis“otherliness”leadstoapersonalministry.Themissionusually
climaxesinbecomingaliberatorforothers.Ittakestheformofsacrifice,humility,
vulnerabilityandrisk.ThecloserrelationshipwiththeCreatorbringsapridein
22ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2012),xi-xvii.
62
beingGod’sadoptedheir.Thevilenessofskincolorcouldnowbeputaside.Heirsto
theacceptanceofsocietalnormswerenolongercentraltothewitnessofthe
Christian.Thenewradicalrealmcreatedthroughtheatonementbetween
humankindandGod,wasacceptedascentraltothehumanlifestyle.Thisrealmwas
whereoneseekstheauthenticself–nottheorganizedchurchbuttheselfwithinor
withoutthechurch–iswherefaithfulwitnessbecomestheactionofriskingall,
includinglifeandliberty,tobringinGod’skingdom.
Thispowerofthecrosshasbeenthesameinthepastandintoeternity.Ithas
transformedthedispossessedsincethebeginningoftime.AsanAmericanblack
man,ittransformedMelvinChisumSr.torespondtolifegoalsthatincludedfighting
demonsofracism,sexism,andclassisminhiscountry.Anunderstandingofthis
faithfulwitnessthroughliberationcanbecomprehendedthroughincorporatingthe
ChristologyinthebookNarrativeofSojournerTruth(1875)withRichardNeibuhr’s
ideaofrevelationinhisbookTheMeaningofRevelation(1941).23God’spowerto
liberatebeyondhistoricalbondageisshowninthestoryofIsabellaor“Sojourner
Truth,”anAfricanAmericanslave.ThisnarrativeinterpretshowtheSpiritofGod
eternallydwellsinthechurch(notabuildingbutthebodyofbelievers),offering
eachpersonachancetobeavesseloffaithfulwitness,whenandifthepersonsays
yeswithhistransformedlife.Niebuhr’sdisclosureofrevelationhelpsinthe
23ThebookwaswrittendownbyOliveGilbertbutdictatedbySojournerTruth.OliveGilbert,SojournerTruth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife"(Boston:Publishedfortheauthor,1875);RichardNiebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation(NewYork:MacmillanPublishing,1941).
63
understandingoffaithfulwitnessinthepast,includingSojourner’slife.Itgivesan
understandingoftheformfaithfulwitnesstookintheworldduringtheProgressive
Era,CivilRightsEraandintomodernity.
Neibuhr’stheoryofrevelationsuggestsaChristologicalreadingofthehistory
ofSojournerTruth’sexperience.Thisstandsincontrasttorecentstudiesby
AfrocentricisthistoriansofnineteenthcenturyAmericanblackreligiousnarratives
likethatofSojournerTruth.ThesewritersplacetheexperienceoflifeasanAfrican
overandagainsttheperson’sChristology.SuchwritersasMolefiAsanteandPatricia
CollinsclaimthatwomenlikeSojournercannotfindtheirtrueself-hoodunlessthey
understandandabsorbtheirAfricanheritage.24Thesewritersinterpretthe
ChristianexperienceofpeopleofAfricanancestrythroughtheexperienceofAfrican
traditionalreligions.Thisinsistenceoverlooksthesharpcontrastbetween
ChristianityandAfricantraditionalreligions.ThenarrativeofSojournerisclearly
oneofChristocentricideascontextualizingintheAmericanblackexperience.
SojournercenteredherlifestoryonherexperiencesoftherevelationofGod
throughrealizingwhatthehistoricalJesusmeanttoherandallpeople.The
historicalJesuscanbeatheologicaltermlimitedtothehumanJesus;aliberal
theologicaltermusedtolimitthepowerofJesustobea“greatteacher”linkedtothe
“Beatitudes.”HereJesusisChristos.Heistherevelation,“theChrist.”25Niebuhrused
24MoleAsante,FacingSouthtoAfrica:TowardanAfrocentricCriticalOrientation(NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2014).1-2.MolefiAsante,"TheRoleofanAfrocentricIdeology"(paperpresentedattheCommittmenttoCivilSociety,Dakar,Senegal,2009);PatriciaCollins,"TheSocialConstructionofBlackFeministThought,"Signs14,no.4(1989).745-747.25ReinholdNiebuhr,NatureandtheDestinyofManI:AChristianInterpretation
64
termsdevelopedbytheologianKarlBarthinChurchDogmatics(1936).Godthe
fatheristheRevealer.26JesustheSoniswhatGodrevealedofGod’sself.TheHoly
Spiritworksthroughrevealedness,whichenablesanindividualtoknowthe
ChristosortheChrist,andinputsChrist’sblueprintintheindividualofhowtodo
God’sworkonearth.
Neibuhr’stheologyofrevelationisrootedinthedisclosureofrevelationof
GodinJesusChrist.Revelationoccursinhistorybytheeventsofthelife,death,and
resurrectionofJesusChrist.OnecomestoknowChristianityinthiswaythough
Christasknowninthescripture.ThegraceofGodgivesfaiththroughtheSpirit.The
SpiritgivesfaithinChristimmediatepersonalreality.TherevelationinChrist
becomesthestateofrevealednessthroughtheworkoftheSpirit.AfterChrist’s
death,resurrection,andascension,God’sownHolySpiritbreaksbarriersbetween
thehumanandGodbringingfaith,asknowledgeofwhoJesusis,tothosewhoseek
God.God’spowercanbeinhumansliketheChrist.FaiththenisfaithinChristand
ChristpointshumanitytoGod.Faithisparticipationinthedivinelifeandcreatesa
noeticpossibilitythatistheinnerwisdomorabilitytoknowGod.ThroughChrist
thehumancanactuallymysticallycometoknowGodthroughasenseofrevelation.
Thus,Godtouchesone’smoral,intellectual,andspirituallifethroughthisrevelation.
HumansareclothedinChrist,giventhesamechancetoliveashedidintheworld,
aswellasgivenpowertocreatethroughChrist.Therefore,revelationisaliveand
presentinhumanlife.Neibuhr’sconceptionofrevelationinChristcountersthe
HumanNature(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1941).144-147.26KarlBarth,ChurchDogmatics,Vol.1(London:T&TClark,1936-1977).16.
65
claimsofthecentralityofAfricanreligiousexperiencemadebyAsanteandCollins.
TocenterSojourner’slifeChristologicallythusshowsthemiracletherevelationof
theblacksocialgospelasGod’sownworkwithintheslavecultureintheAmerican
past.Niebuhr’sanalysisofrevelationshowshowrevelationcanbepast,present,
andfuture.Sojournerwasliberatedbyrevelationintosalvation,freedom,and
justice.ShewasliberatedtobringglorytoGod(notherself)inthisworldevenasa
black,awoman,andasaslave.SuchaChristologicalreadingofSojourner’s
autobiographyismoreaccurateorauthentictoherexperiencethanissuggestedby
givingcentralitytoAfricantraditionalreligion.
ThisChristologicalversionallowsforrevelatoryparticipationinthedivine
life.ThepowerofthewordofGodpermeatestheworldthatGodhasliberatedand
redeemedthroughJesusChrist.Thatworldovershadowstheworldbuiltbyhuman
hands.ItisessentiallyGod’sgracethatreachedSojourner.InitiallySojournersought
GodbutbackedawaybecausetheGodshefoundwasnotherown.Finally,she
decidedtogiveherselftoGod,ifGodwouldhaveher.ThroughoutherlifeSojourner
hadheardthescripturesreadandexplainedtoher.Butsheneverfelttheywereher
history;touseNiebuhr’sphrasetheywere“anexternalhistory.”Somehow,she
realizedothers’interpretationsoftheBible(orLogos-theWord)werenotadequate.
Shechosetointerprettheessentialmeaningofscripturefromthewitnessornoetic
reality“withinher”ratherthanlistentowhatministersandteacherstaught.In
regardtointerpretationoftheScripture,she:
...wishedtohearthe[scriptures]withoutcomment;butifsheemployedadultpersonstoreadthemtoher,andsheaskedthemtoreadapassageover
66
again,theyinvariablycommencedtoexplain,bygivinghertheirversionofit;andinthisway,theytriedherfeelingsexceedingly.Inconsequenceofthis,sheceasedtoaskadultpersonstoreadtheBibletoher,andshesubstitutedchildrenintheirstead….ShewishedtocomparetheteachingoftheBiblewiththewitnesswithinher,andshecametotheconclusion,thatthespiritoftruthspokeinthoserecords,buttherecordersofthosetruthshadintermingledwiththemideasofsuppositionoftheirown.27
Howdidthisilliteratewomanunderstandthehistoricalcriticalmethodof
thinkingaboutscripture?InmanyrespectsSojournerhadthecriticalunderstanding
ofthescripturestowhichmainlytheeducatedelitewhitemalesofhertime
adhered.ShelookedattheBiblecriticallytoallowforcontextualizationonthepart
ofitswriterswhowere“inspiredbyGod.”ShebelievedtheBiblewasthe“Wordof
God,”butitswritershadco-optedpartoftheirhistoryintothework,justasslave
owners,malepastorsandAnglowomenhadincorporatedtheBibletofittheir
needs.
Niebuhr’sdefinitionoftherevelationleadstoanunderstandingoftheaction
ofGodwiththemarginalized.TherevelationofGodinChristJesusisGod’sgiftof
graceforhumankind.ForSojourner,theGodofthedominantcultureisanabstract
andremoteGod.Hedoesnotenterherexperience.Incontrastthereisahistorical
Godthatdoes.Shefindsouttheyareoneandthesame.“HeisalwaystheGodof
history,ofAbraham,IsaacandJacob,ortheFatherofJesusChristandnotonlythe
27Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”108-109.
67
Godofabstractthought.”28ItremainstruethatChristianfaithcannotescapefrom
partnershipwithhistory.
BornintheUnitedStatesofAmericaasachildofslaveparents,Sojourner
knewGodonlyastheonethingtolookforwhenshewaslostandinpain.Her
motherhadsaidtolookintheskyifyouareeverseparatedandGodwillleadyou.
Thisshealsorelated,“IcanmemberwhenIwasalittlebiggerthanthisere,pointing
tohergrandson,howmyoldmammywouldsitouto’doorsintheeveninandlook
upatthestarsandgroan.She’dgroan,groan,groan.”29Godwastranscendentand
notdefined.Inherreadingandunderstandingapartfromtheinterpretationby
adults,shegaveherselftoGodasinnocentlyasthechildrenthatreadtoher.God’s
wordbecametherevelationanddwelledwithinher.
UndergirdingNiebuhr’swork,TheMeaningofRevelation,isastrongbeliefin
thepowerofsin.Sinvitiatedcreation.Creationwasgoodbutthroughthefall
thoroughlydismantledbysin.OnlyGodcouldrecreate,rectifythesituation,and
bringjustification.ThatnewcreationisinJesusChrist.OnlyinJesusChrist,the
secondAdam,istherestorationofthe‘imageofGod’increation.Beforethis
restorationhumanitywasnottransformingbutbuildingonthepast.Humanswere
growinglikeweeds,runningwildinsinbecausethefallofAdamdismantled
creation;sinwasanintrinsicpartofcreatedpeople.Religionwasfundamentally
28Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,31.29Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”154.UntilshemetthisGodSojournerparticipatedinseveralparaChristianreligiousactivities.
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falsebecauseitbuiltoncreationthatwasdismantledbysin.ThroughGod’sworking
therevelation,thehuman-divineconnectionwasremadetorepairtheinitial
creation.InChristwastheneworrestored,‘ImageofGod.’JesusChristtakes
humansbacktocreationasGodintendedittobe.InJesusChristone’sverybeingis
transformed.HumanswhodidnotknowGodnowknowGod!OnlyinJesusChrist
caninnerredemptiontakeplace.OnlyinChristcanwholenesstakeplace.For
humankind,God’spresenceisdefinitelyexperiencedinJesusasthename
Emmanuel.JesusexplainsthecharacterofGodinthehistoricalactionsofJesus’life,
death,andresurrection.ThroughscriptureGod’sgraciousloveisrevealedto
humankind.Godisgrace.TosayGodisgraceistosaythatwhatisrevealedinJesus
ChrististhetruthofGod’sownself.SeeingthepresenceinJesusChristpreparesone
todiscovertheawarenessineveryactivityofGod.InSojourner’sexperienceone
seesthatthepresenceinJesusinherlifebecomesaguideforHispresencewith
others.Shelearnstoloveandforgive.
SojournerTruth’sstorydisplaystheintrinsicsinfulnessofacountrythat
allowedhumanstobeexploitedasanimalsinsteadofsistersandbrotherscreated
equallybyGod.WomenofAfricandescentinAmericawereatthebottomofthe
socialladder.TwentiethcenturywomensuchasMaryMcLeodBethunedeciphered
thestigmawithinblackwomanhood.“Shewasnotaperson,intheopinionofmany,
butathing–athingwhosepersonalityhadnoclaimtotherespectofmankind.She
wasahouseholddrudge,ameansfromgettingdistastefulworkdone;shewasan
animatedagriculturalimplementtoaugmenttheserviceofmulesandplowsin
cultivatingandharvestingthecottoncrop.Shewasanautomaticincubator,a
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producerofhumanlivestock,beneathwhoseheartandmindmorepotential
laborerscouldbebredandnurturedandbroughttothelightoftoilsomeday.”30
Ablackwomanwastheepitomeofsininculture.Sojourner’ssinwas
intrinsictoherlivingwhencolonial,ReconstructionandProgressiveculturesaw
blackwomenasvile,degenerate,sordid,andbase.Hersinwasintrinsictoherbeing.
Throughoutherchildhoodshewasremindedoftheoffensivenessofbeingablack
womaninawhiteman’sworld.Thisparticularityisseeninherexperienceof
meetingJesus.Shelookedathercolortoseeifithadchanged.Ithadnot.So,she
reasonedthatcolorwasnotsomethingthatwouldseparateherfromGod.
LaterinherworkSojournerasksthequestioninregardstothesinofslavery
andreligionintheUnitedStates.“Andwhatisthatreligionthatsanctionsevenbyits
silenceallthatisembracedinthe‘peculiarinstitution’?Iftherecanbeanything
morediametricallyopposedtothereligionofJesus,thantheworkingofthissoul-
killingsystem,whichisastrulysanctionsbythereligionofAmericaasareher
ministersandchurches,wewishtobeshownwhereitcanbefound.”31Her
conversionbearssomeexamination.WhatdoesSojournersayaboutJesus?Howdid
shegettoknowit?WhatSojournerknewaboutJesuswasherrevelatory
interpretationofwhattheBiblesaysinregardstoherexperienceintheUnited
StatesasanoppressedandexploitedAfricanAmericanwoman.Thiswas30MaryMcLeodBethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,ed.GerdaLerner,BlackWomeninWhiteAmerica:ADocumentaryHistory(NewYork:RandomHouse,1972),578.31Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,"154.
70
interpretedbythe‘spiritoftruth’shebelievedlivedwithinher.Aftertheabolition
ofslaveryinNewYork,SojournerTruthtoldaboutherfirstintimatemeetingwith
GodthroughJesus.
An'Iturnedrightroundan'comeintothehouse,an'setdowninmyroom;for'twasGodallaroundme.Icouldfeelitburnin',burnin',burnin'allaroundme,an'goin'throughme;an'IsawIwassowicked,itseemedasefitwouldburnmeup.An'Isaid,'Osomebody,somebody,standbetweenGodan'me!foritburnsme!'Then,honey,whenIsaidso,Ifeltasitweresomething'likeanamberill[umbrella]thatcamebetweenmean'thelight,an'Ifeltitwassomebody--somebodythatstoodbetweenmean'God;an'itfeltcool,likeashade;an'saysI,'Who'sthisthatstandsbetweenmean'God?IsitoldCato?'Hewasapiousoldpreacher;butthenIseemedtoseeCatointhelight,an'hewasallpollutedan'vile,likeme;an'Isaid,'IsitoldSally?'an'thenIsawher,an'sheseemedjes'so.An'thensaysI,'Whoisthis?'An'then,honey,forawhileitwaslikethesunshinin'inapailo'water,whenitmovesupanddown;forIbeguntofeelt'wassomebodythatlovedme;an'Itriedtoknowhim.An'Isaid,'Iknowyou!Iknowyou!Iknowyou!'An'thenIsaid,'Idon'tknowyou!Idon'tknowyou!Idon'tknowyou!'An'whenIsaid,'Iknowyou,Iknowyou'thelightcame;an'whenIsaid,'Idon'tknowyou,Idon'tknowyou,'itwentjes'likethesuninapailo'water.An'finallysomethin'spokeoutinmean'said,'ThisisJesus!'An'Ispokeoutwithallmymight,an'saysI,'ThisisJesus!GlorybetoGod!'An'thenthewholeworldgrewbright,an'thetreestheywavedan'wavedinglory,an'everylittlebito'stoneonthegroundshonelikeglass;andIshoutedan'said,'Praise,praise,praisetotheLord!'An'IbeguntofeelsechaloveinmysoulasIneverfeltbefore--lovetoallcreatures.An'then,allofasudden,itstopped,an'Isaid,'Dar'sdewhitefolksthathaveabusedyou,an'beatyou,an'abusedyourpeople--thinko'them!'Butthentherecameanotherrushoflovethroughmysoul,an'Icriedoutloud--'Lord,Lord,Icanloveevendewhitefolks!'
"Honey,Ijes'walkedroundan'roundinadream.Jesuslovedme!Iknowedit--Ifeltit.JesuswasmyJesus.Jesuswouldlovemealways.Ididn'tdaretellnobody;'twasagreatsecret.EverythinghadbeengotawayfrommethatIeverhad;an'IthoughtthatefIletwhitefolksknowaboutthis,maybethey'dgetHimaway--soIsaid,'I'llkeepthisclose.Iwontletanyoneknow.'"
"But,Sojourner,hadyouneverbeentoldaboutJesusChrist?"
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"No,honey.Ihadn'theerdnopreachin'--beentonomeetin.'Nobodyhadn'ttoldme.I'dkindo'heerdofJesus,butthoughthewaslikeGineralLafayette,orsomeo'them.32
SojournerTruthsaysthatJesusishermediatorbetweenherandawrathful
God.ShedefineswhatseparatesherfromGodas‘vileness’.Vilenessmeans
degeneracy,sordidness,orbaseness.Hersinisintrinsictoherbeing.Withthistype
ofdegradationoftheSpirit,thewomanisaprimecandidateforspiritualwholeness
thatcomesthroughGodwhovindicatestheoppressed.OnlyGodcanaccomplish
thisthroughJesusChrist.SheknowsshehasbeencleansedbecauseofGod’s
spiritualacknowledgmenttoher.Sheneedscleansingandsomeoneorsomethingto
bringherwithinGod’sreach.Jesus,theJesusofthe‘womanatthewell’,theJesus
whosegarmentboughthealingtothefilthybleedingwomanwoulddothisforher.
Jesuswhohaspassedtherealmofhumanity,wouldaccomplishthisforherthrough
resurrectionpower.
ShereferstoelementsofherownexperiencetoexplaintheentryofJesus
intoherlife.Therehasbeennoonetostandbetweenherandthetroublesofthis
world.TherewasnoonetomediateherneedtoGoduntilthisspiritualmeeting
withJesus.Shewasfreefromslaveryandfreefromotherpainsinaworldthathad
notchanged.Jesuswaslikeanumbrellaallowingcoolnessinadayofburningheat.
Hecooledlifeforherbetweenanewrealmofunderstandingandasocietyoffire.
JesusisamediatorbetweenherandGod,awrathfuladulteratedbridegroom;she
32Bethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,157-159.
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hasbeenseparatedfromGodnotonspirituallevel.LikeinthetheologyofLuther-
Godisaroaringfirethatmayburnone-unlessthereisJesustokeepyoufromthe
flames.NolongerdidsheseeJesusasaLafayetteorasoldierbutsomeonewho
lovedherenoughtostandinthefireandbringherthrough,likeGodhaddonefor
Shadrach,Meshach,andAbednego.
ForSojournerknowingthatfreedominJesuswaslikeapailofwateratthe
endofworkingalldayinahotfield-ohsogoodandcooliswater,changingthe
temperatureofthebody,coolingathirstythroatforonewhohasnochoicebutto
workinslaverybecauseonecannotquenchone’sthirstuntilpermissionisgranted-
thisJesusislivingwater,waterthatmakesonethirstnomoreandempowersoneto
goonwardtolife’scallings.ThelightofJesusinherlifeshonethroughthedarkness
thatencompassedthelifeoftheslavewoman.Shewasfreeandwasvindicatedlike
Jesushadbeenvindicatedoverallthosewhohadpersecutedhim.Somehistorians
saythisparagraphisoneofliberationnotonlyfromslaverybutfromAmerican
history;andthehistoryofSojournerandhermissionproveitisliberationfrom
worldliness.
Sojourner’sspiritwasvindicatedthroughChristandinunionwithGod
throughtheSpiritofGod.SheisjustifiedthroughthegraceofGodthathad
somehoweludedheruntilshewasdirectlyspirituallytransformed.Themiseryof
beinghumanlivestock,theagonyofnotbeingabletoofferherchildrenarefuge,and
thevilenessofbeingablackwomanwereexonerated.Sojournerbecameanew
creation.Godlovedher!ThecurseofbeingasecondEvewaslifted!Shewas
73
liberated.Inhermemoirs,HarrietBeecherStowedescribesSojournerasacting
“withasuperiorwayabouther.”33StowehadmetandassessedmanyAmerican
Blackwomen.FromthisinformationwemaydiscernthatGodtransformed
Sojourner.Sheis“superior”toStowe.Godwasinher.Eventhoughshewalkedwith
acane,shefeltequaltoothersbecauseSojournerpossiblynolongerwalkedwith
herheaddownasblackwomenhaddone.Ataheightofsixfeettallandwithself
knowledgeofredemption,shemayhavehadsuperiorcarriage.Godisinher.She
cannotthinkofherselfas‘vile’andthuspresentedasuperiorbeingtothewriterof
UncleTom’sCabin.34
TheindwellingofGodinherwasanactofgrace.Sojourner’sheartbeganthe
noeticexegesis,meaningtoknowdeepertruthsuncoveredbyscripture,inher
processofreasoning.35Atfirst,shewantedtokeeptheloveandknowledgeto
herselfoutoffear,“ButonenighttherewasaMethodistmeetin'somewhereinour
parts,an'Iwent;an'theygotupan'begunfortotellder'speriences:an'defustone
beguntospeak.Istarted,'causehetoldaboutJesus.'Why,'saysItomyself,'datman
'sfoundhim,too!'An'anothergotupan'spoke,an'Isaid,'He'sfoundhim,too!'An'
33Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”157.34PatriciaHillCollins,BlackSexualPolitics(NewYork:Routledge,2004),59.CollinssuggeststheimagerycouldbeusedbyStoweinamannertocontrolthereader’sideasofTruth.35ReinholdNiebuhr,BeyondTragedy:EssaysontheChristianInterpretationofHistory(NewYork:CharlesScibner'sSons,1937),301-303.Sojourner’sGermanmysticismislinkedwithhernoeticexegesisoftheBible.SeePaulTillich,PaulTillichMoralityandBeyond(NewYork:HarperandRow,1963),72-76.
74
finallyIsaid,'Why,theyallknowhim!'Iwassohappy!36Shefoundacommunity
whoexperiencedthesamegiftfromGod.Revelationcameassherealizedshedid
notthinkofGodbyherselfbutGodthoughtofitfirst.Godwasjustwaitingforherto
askforrevelation.“Revelationmeansthatinourcommonhistorythefatewhich
lowersoverusaspersonsinourcommunitiesrevealsitselftobeapersonina
communitywithus.”37
NiebuhrexplainsinrelationtoanexclamationsuchasthesefromSojourner
Truththatfaith“cannotbeexpressedinimpersonalwaysofcreedsorother
propositionsbutonlyinresponsiveactsofapersonalcharacter.Weacknowledge
revelationpersonallyandspecifically,”notlikehermotherwhosaidthereisaGod,
butonlythroughaconfessioncomingfromthehumanheartsayingthattheGodof
Abraham,Isaac,andJacob“is”and“’ThouartmyGod.’”38Thehistoricalscripture
givenbyGod,readinaparticularcommunity,bringsrevelation.Thisisconsidered
anactofGodingrace.Asimpleexplanationisthattoparticipateinthecommunity
oftheRevealednessthehistoryofGodintheBiblicalnarrativecannotbea“my
story”orbelongtoonlyonepeople,e.g.,ofAfrica,Asia,orEurope.39Thoseinvolved
mustacceptandacknowledgetheBibleastheChristianstory.Thedominantsociety
doesnotacculturateeveryonetobecomelikethem.Norarethemarginalized
allowedtoostracizethedominantsociety.Sojournercanevenlove“dewhitefolks.”
TheAfricanbecomestheAfricanChristian.TheAsianbecomesAsianChristian.The
36Ibid.,157.37Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,112.38Ibid.,81.39Ibid.,xxiii.
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AmericanBlackbecomesanAmericanBlackChristian.Thefirstwayof
interpretationleadstotheethnicidentitybecomingalowercase“g”forGod.The
secondleadstoacommunitywithacenterincludingGod’sgivenhistoryforGod’s
people.ThisisanactofgracethatisclimaxedintheresurrectionofChristthrough
newnessinbeing.TheScriptureGalatians3:28isappropriatehere:“(InGod’sgrace)
ThereisneitherJewnorGreek,neitherbondnorfree,thereisneithermalenor
female;foryeareaalloneinChristJesus.”JesusisGod’sgrace.Thehistoryofthose
inthechurchisthestoryof“ourfathers,”“ourmothers,”‘ourLord,”andtheactions
of“ourGod.”Thissameacceptanceisnecessaryforfaithfulwitnesstoday.
Sojournerdemonstratedthisrealizationinherministry.Shereasonedthat
peoplearealike.Inameetingforwomen’srightssheestablishedaprecedentfor
equality:
“’Well,chilern,whardarissomuchracketdarmustbesomethingouto'kilter.Itinkdat'twixtdeniggersofdeSoufanddewomenatdeNorfallatalkin''boutrights,dewhitemenwillbeinafixprettysoon.Butwhat'salldisheretalkin''bout?Datmanoberdarsaydatwomenneedstobehelpedintocarriages,andliftedoberditches,andtohavedebestplaceeverywhar.Nobodyeberhelpmeintocarriages,orobermudpuddles,orgivesmeanybestplace[andraisingherselftoherfullheightandhervoicetoapitchlikerollingthunder,sheasked],andar'n'tIawoman?Lookatme!Lookatmyarm![Andshebaredherrightarmtotheshoulder,showinghertremendousmuscularpower.]Ihaveplowed,andplanted,andgatheredintobarns,andnomancouldheadme--andar'n'tIawoman?Icouldworkasmuchandeatasmuchasaman(whenIcouldgetit),andbeardelashaswell--andar'n'tIawoman?Ihavebornethirteenchilernandseen'emmos'allsoldoffintoslavery,andwhenIcriedoutwithamother'sgrief,nonebutJesusheard--andar'n'tIawoman?Dendeytalks'boutdistingindehead--whatdisdeycallit?''Intellect,'whisperedsomeonenear.'Dat'sithoney.What'sdatgottodowithwomen'srightsorniggers'rights?Ifmycupwon'tholdbutapint
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andyournholdsaquart,wouldn'tyebemeannottoletmehavemylittlehalf-measurefull?'
Andshepointedhersignificantfingerandsentakeenglanceattheministerwhohadmadetheargument.Thecheeringwaslongandloud.
"'Dendatlittlemaninblackdar,hesaywomencan'thaveasmuchrightsasman,causeChristwantawoman.WhardidyourChristcomefrom?'Rollingthundercouldnothavestilledthatcrowdasdidthosedeep,wonderfultones,asshestoodtherewithoutstretchedarmsandeyeoffire.Raisinghervoicestilllouder,sherepeated,'WhardidyourChristcomefrom?FromGodandawoman.Manhadnothingtodowithhim.'Oh!whatarebukeshegavethelittleman.40
Abridgeconnectsthehistoryofhumanity.Thisrevelationiswhatblacks
thoughttheRepublicanPartyunderstoodintheirstandtofreeslavesandwhenthey
madeAbrahamLincolnpartoftheirBlackSocialGospelnarrativeandplacedhim
andtheRepublicanPartyundertheumbrellaoftheBlackAmericanCivilReligion.
However,thisisnottheendofthemovementofrevelationorthe
RevealednessofGod’sSpirit.Tostayinthecommunity“theheartmustreason.”41
Neibuhrdescribestherevelationlikereadingadifficultbookandseekingtofollowa
complicatedargument.Sometimesonehastogoforwardandbackwardtoattain
understandingofthewhole.“Thespecialoccasiontowhichweappealinthe
ChristianchurchiscalledJesusChrist,inwhomweseetherighteousnessofGod,his
powerandwisdom.Butfromthespecialoccasionwealsoderivetheconceptsthat
makepossibletheelucidationofalltheeventsinourhistory.”Neibuhrwrote,
“Revelationmeansthisintelligibleeventwhichmakesallothereventsintelligible.40Niebuhr,TheMeaningofRevelation,54.41Ibid.,74.
77
Revelationmeansthepointatwhichwecanbegintothinkandactasmembersofan
intelligibleandintelligentworldofpersons.”42
Sojourner’sstatementalsoincorporatesNiebuhr’sideaoftheHolySpiritas
theRevealedness.InhischapterinTheMeaningofRevelation,‘TheStoryofOurLife’,
Niebuhrsetsupaplaceofinterception.Heportraysaninstancewhentherevelatory
eventcanbereceived.TheHolySpiritworksincommunitytoilluminatethose
gatheredinthedivineselfthattheyhavethehistoryofthescriptureincommon.
ThisisalsoanactofGodingrace.FaithtobelieveisalsoagiftofGod.Theymust
participateinahistorytogether.Howdotheyknoweachotherinthehistory?That
historyisknownbyaninnerknowledgegivenbyGodingrace.Theconfessionof
thiswitnessisadmittedlyesoterictotheChristiancommunity.Thehistoryofthe
innerlifecanonlybeconfessedbyselveswhospeakofwhathappenstotheminthe
communityoftheotherselves.43
Niebuhrdevelopstherelationshipbetweenwrongimaginationandright
reasonsoftheheart.HeunderstandsthatbyRevelationinourhistorywemeanthat
specialoccasionwhichprovidesuswithanimagebymeansofwhichallthe
occasionsofpersonalandcommonlifebecomeintelligible.Revelation,understood
inthisway,interpretsthepast,thepresentandthefuturebecausetheChrististhe
sameyesterday,today,andtomorrow,destroyingthewrongimaginationsofthe
heart.Everypersonisnomorethanan“immigrantintotheempireofGod.”Niebuhr
42Ibid.,69.43Ibid.,54,57.
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believesonemustlearntorememberthehistoryofthatempireincludingtheirown
personaltraditionbutnotallowingthattooverridetheChristiantradition.
ThissetsaprecedentforapluralistsocietywithintheChristiansociety.As
immigrants,peoplecomeinallconditionssuchaswomanists,feminists,Afro-
centricists,Hispanics,Africans,Asians,--onecouldgoontotraceallthefactionsin
theChristianchurch.NeibuhrplacesJesusChristasthecenterastherevelationthat
everyoneknows.Peopleshouldworkouttheiridentityasachurchfromthis
Christologicalcenter.Chaosmayincurfromanyotherpositionthatdoesnothave
thepotentialofGodforrecreationofthecreated.Toomuchemphasisonexperience
leadstoanaturaltheologyofwhichhewasnotaproponent.Humansdonothave
thecapacitytothinkoftranscendentthingsontheirown.Theologiesofliberation
shouldnotbecenteredinexperiencesinceknowledgeofGodisnotderivedfrom
humanactivitiesbutinJesusChrist.
TheHolySpirit,whorevealstheworkofGodtotheworld,illuminatesa
communitytodiscernthattheyhavethehistoryofscriptureincommon.Sojourner
claimedthatsheknewtodothisbecauseofthe“spiritoftruthwithinher.”44
WithouttheinterventionofinterpretersSojournerrealizedtheirChristianhistoryis
herhistory.ButAnglosincommunitydonot.Women’ssuffragewouldnotinclude
theideaofthevoteforwomenofAmericanBlackancestry.Itwouldbemanyyears
beforetheinceptionofequalitywasreceivedbythelargercommunitywhich
surroundedSojourner.Sinwasstillpresent.Perhapsthatwaswhyherjourney
incorporatedsomuchtraveling.Shebecametheconduitofrevelationbygathering
44Shedevelopsherspiritualname“Truth,”fromthisidea.
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communityasshewentonherinterracialjourneys.Haditnotbeenforthe
“sojourners”ofthenineteenthcenturywouldacommunityhavevotedinthe1860s
forequalrightsinthefourteenthamendmenttobeaddedtotheConstitution?
RevelationthroughChristisinthepast,present,futureandintoeternity.Godnot
onlyworksincommunitybutalsodevelopscommunity.
InthisrevealednessSojournerknewtherevelationofGod.Shereceived
transformationalpowerthroughtheWordofGod.Thishistoryisknownbyaninner
knowledgegivenbyGod.ThiscontinuesGod’sactsingraceincludingthefaithto
believe.ByparticipatinginthehistoryoftheBible,togetherwithpeopleallherlife
whohadclaimedChristianitybuthadnotbutnotparticipatedfullyinwhatitmeant,
communicateditselfbeyondthecolorandgenderlineforSojourner.Thisisnosmall
issueconsideringthatSojournerwasawomanofAmericanblackancestryenslaved
inAmerica.Revelationoffreedomcameasshewasalsolivinginatimethatwomen,
especiallyblackwomendidnothaveequalrightswithmen.Thenshebecamea
“sojourner.”
AfterastruggletobeaChristianinherhistoricalsituationdespiteAnglo
dogma,Sojournermadeadecisionandrespondedbygivingherlifenotonlyforher
peoplebutforallpeople.Shehadneverbeenfarthereastthanhercity.Nordidshe
anyfriendswhomighthelpher.ButshefeltcalledbytheSpirittoleaveandtravel
easttolecture.Afterputtingafewarticlesofclothinginapillowcaseaboutanhour
beforesheleft,sheinformedMrs.Whiting,thewomanofthehousewhereshewas
working,thathernamewasnolongerIsabella,butSojourner;andthatshe“was
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goingeast!”45Hermissionwasnotmerelytotraveleastbutlectureasshedidso,
testifyingaboutthehopethatwasinher–exhortingthepeopletoembraceJesus
andrefrainfromsin,thenatureandoriginofwhichsheexplainedtothemwithher
own“mostcuriousviews.”46
Thisrevelationisopentomodernity.TobeinfaithfulwitnessforGod,each
Christianmustnotbecontentatanyjunctureinajourneyoffaith.Peoplemustbe
willingtoriskeverythingtofollowthemissionofthechurchofthelivingGod.
Therewerecertainlydifferencesintheblacksocialgospeltraditionfromthe
mainlinetraditions.WhereasAngloAmericansduringtheperiodfocusedonthe
Jesusor“Christos”asliberatorandmovedthisdogmaintoProgressiveErareform,
Americanblacksfocusedonthemysticalpowersofthe“Pneuma”ortheHolySpirit
oftheTrinity.Harlan’sreferencetoBTWas“blackJesus”inTheSecretLifeofBooker
T.WashingtonandreferencetotheimmoralityofhavingChisumasaspy,
contradictstheparadigmofAmericanBlackSocialGospel.Themetalanguageofthe
movementanswersthequestionwhichHarlandidnotunderstandwhenhewrote:
IfiteverseemedtoWashingtonincongruousforhimself,theconventionalandconservativeblackleader,theBaptistlayman,thepublicpurveyorofconventionalmorality,tobeinleaguewiththisplumplittlerogueinabullet-proofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingtheprivacyofothers,henevercommittedsuchanattitudetowriting.HisresorttohishumbleservantChisumisameasureofacertainmoralinsensitivityinWashingtonthatonedoesnotfindintheprivatelivesofhisopponentssuchasDuBoisorevenTrotter.ThoseHarvardgraduatesstartednearthetop.Washington,having
45Truth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth:ABondswomanofOldenTime,EmancipatedbytheNewYorkLegislatureintheEarlyPartofthePresentCentury,withaHistoryoftheLaborsandCorrespondence,DrawsfromHer"BookofLife,”100.46Ibid.,101.
81
startedinslaveryandpoverty,wouldgagatalmostnothingthatpromiseddominance.47
Blackswererealspookslikethewitchesandshapeshiftersfromthestories
ofBrerRabbitbutgottheirpowerfromGodinJesusandthroughtheHolySpirit
(seechapter4).Mostoftheworkhappenedinthedark,behindbarsaswithPaul
whentheAngelvisitedhiminjailandsethimlooseinthebiblicalnarrativewithout
theknowledgeofthelargerworld.BlackChristianmysticismdevelopedoveryears
ofslaveryinthestoriesofanimals,Zuluwordsofpowerandwisdomlikethoseused
byMerrittTrammellinLimestone,Texas,andincludedAfricanandAmericanIndian
religioustraditions(seechapter4).However,theblacksocialgospelmovementwas
fluid.Severaldivisionsweremanifestinthepoliticalreligiousmovement.Whilethe
movementoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurch(AME)wouldwindupon
AzusaStreetinCaliforniain1906,Chisum’sAmericanblackbaptisminthesocial
gospelledtojusticethroughespionage.ChristianmysticssuchasHarriettTubman
andotherlessknown“undergroundrailroad”leaderswerealiveduringthisperiod.
UndertheleadershipofBishopWilliamDerrick,BishopAlexanderWalters,Bishop
ReverdyRansom,andIdaB.Wells-Barnett,aggressivereligiousmovementsbroke
outamongyoungMethodistsonwhiteandblackcollegecampuses.48
Researchingtheblacknarrativeoftheirownheroes,theAmericanBlackCivil
Religiontemplateincludedtheworkofslaveuprisings,BrerRabbitstoriesteaching
47Harlan,TheWizardofTuskegee,92;LouisHarlan,"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,"JournalofSouthernHistory37(August1971).48MethodistEpiscopalChurch,NorthwesternChristianAdvocate52(23March1904).
82
aboutsurvival,menofaffairselevatingtheirrace,andpeoplecarryingoutactsof
espionage.FrederickDouglassandAMEBishopssuchasWilliamDerrickand
AlexanderWalterspressuredthegovernmentforrightswithincommitteerooms.
AmericanblacksandtheiraccomplicessuchasJohnBrowntookviolentactionto
gainjusticeandusedanymeansnecessary.Theirnarrativeselevatedrebellious
blackssuchasToussaintL’Overture,CowTom(InterpreterandfirstblackCreek
IndianChief),MerrittTrammell(chapter3),IsabellaBaumfree(SojournerTruth),
UncleTom,BishopWilliamDerrick,andHarriettTubman,aswellaswhitessuchas
JohnBrown.49Theseblackslivedaspeoplecalledtobemissionarytricksterswho
savedpeople’sphysicallivesfromtheenslaverJimCrow.Sometimesthey
outmaneuveredwhitesupremacistpoliciesthroughundergroundrailroads,court
hearings,mutiny,andotherrebelliousacts.Sometimes,likeUncleTom,theyplayed
whateverpartwasnecessarytogainanoutcomebetterthantheirexisting
condition.Chisumfitintothisnicheofpeoplewhofacilitatedchange,justasW.E.B.
DuBoisandKellyMorganhadintheworldofthetalentedtenthorhighlyeducated
blackworld.Theyallplayedagamewithwhitesandevenwitheachother.Unlike
Harlan’sassessmentthatBTWwastheexception–BTWwasactuallythenorm.
Blackleadersknewthiswasagame.ChisumplayeditwithBTWand
outsiders.Forinstance,whileundercoverandspyingforBTWamongthe
NiagaraitesonJune1,1907,MelvinChisumwrotetoBTWtoupdatehimonhis49CarterG.Woodson,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch(WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,1921);TheNegroinOurHistory(WashingtonD.C.:TheAssociatedPublishers,1932);HoraceTalbert,TheSonsofAllen(XeniaOhio:TheAldinePress,1906);ClementRichardson,TheNationalCyclopediaoftheColoredRace(Montgomery,Alabama:NationalPublishingCompany,Inc.,1919).
83
mission.HeexplainedthatAfricanMethodistEpiscopalBishopAlexanderWaltersof
theNiagaramovementsympathizedandapplaudedBTW’sadaptationofthis
accommodation(acceptingsecondclasscitizenshipwhilefocusingoneconomic
betterment).WaltershadnorealargumentwithWashington’swayofaccomplishing
reformeventhoughWalterswantedamoreaggressivepoliticalstance.Chisum
wrote:
Ihavebeenwithourmutal(sic)friendtheBishopTuesday,Wednesdayandtoday,andbegtoreport:“Heisalrightwithyou,butthinksyouaredispleasedwithhim.Hethinksthatsomebodymustkeepupthefightfortheradicalelementandfeelsthathecanbetteraffordtodosothanyou.Heremarkedtoday‘Dr.Washingtonisrightinhiscourse,itisforthethingmostneededwhichheisdoing–heisholdingfastthefriendshipofamostimportantelementofthewhitesthatwouldbeeternallylosttous,butforhistactandstatesmanship.’”50
ThefightforblackequalityintheUnitedStatescommencedin“all-out-war”
fromthestandpointofblacks.LikeEuropeanandglobalcounterpartsinwar,
Americanblacksusedthelucrativejobofspying.Theyadoptedthemindsetofthe
ancientproverbthat“theenemyofmyenemyismyfriend,”meaningopposing
partiescouldworktogetheragainstasharedenemy(chapter4).Whileblackssuch
asBTWandW.E.B.DuBoisheldintra-racialdisputesonhowtostrategizereform,
theystillhadthesameenemy,whitesupremacy,calledJimCrowlaws.Somelaws
werewrittenonplaquesandotherswereassumed.Blacksneverknewallofthe
50MelvinJ.ChisumtoBookerT.Washington,1June1907(BTWContainer344),inLouisHarlanPapers,Box41,Spies,Chisumfolder,SpecialCollections,UniversityofMarylandLibraries.HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers,UMDLibraries.
84
assumedlaws.Theyparticipatedinaspirituallifehopingtobeledtoliberationby
theirpersonalwitnessoftheDivine.
AChristologicalvisionallowsforrevelatoryparticipationinthedivinelife.
ThepowerofthewordofGodpermeatestheworldthatGodhasliberatedand
redeemedthroughJesusChrist.ItisessentiallyGod’sgracethatreachedChisumand
JackJohnsonlikeitdidSojourner.InitiallythesetwoyoungMethodistboyswentto
GodbutwithdrewbecausetheGodtheyfoundwasnottheirown.Throughouttheir
childhoodtheboysMelvinChisumandJackJohnson,IsaacWilliamYoung,and
EmmettScott,heardthescripturesreadandexplainedtothem(chapter3).Butthey
wereneverledtofeelthescripturesweretheirownhistory.TouseNeibuhr’s
phrase,itwas“anexternalhistory”–aChristianhistoryforwhitesonly.Through
experiencetheyrealizedothers’interpretationoftheWordwasnotadequate.They
chosetointerprettheessentialmeaningofScripturefromthewitnesswithinthem,
asSojournerTruthsaiditcamefrom“withinher.”Thisdevelopmentoftermsand
mindsetsetsapartialstageforareadingofthelifeandwitnessofMelvinChisum,Sr.
85
CHAPTERIII
ITISNOTTHESIZEOFTHEDOGINTHEFIGHT;
ITISTHESIZEOFFIGHTINTHEDOG
“Ifeveryouneedarealgenuinepieceofsteelsendforme . . . [I]wasborn,reared,andraisedinTexas,andmayIbepardonedforsaying,thatnatureinputtingmetogetherforgottoputinfear.”1
---MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.toBookerT.Washington
MelvinChisumisrepresentativeofmenfromhisrace,class,and
socioeconomicgroup.Justtoexist,theyfoughtagainstracism,thepsychological
warfarewagedagainstblackness,andeconomicbarriers.Somedied.Otherswere
killed.Someexcelled.2Chisumwasoneofthefewtogainnationalprominenceinthe
1MelvinChisumtoBookerWashington,4October1904,LouisHarlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,ed.LouisHarlan,vol.7(Illinios:UniveristyofIllinois,1972).121.HereaftercitedasBTWP;MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,LeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,Delaney-BrowneLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity,hereaftercitedasOKCU.2Woodson,TheHistoryoftheNegroChurch;TheNegroinOurHistory;Talbert;Richardson.ThesebooksgivebackgroundsofhundredsofblackmenborninthesameeraasChisum.Manyofthesemenfacedthesameburdensinlifeandtrodlikepathstosurvive.
86
FranklinRooseveltAdministrationalongwithAngloAmericanssuchasJamesFarley
who,thoughwhite,likeChisum,pulledthemselvesupbytheirownbootstraps.3
MelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.,revealedinaletterthathefeltforgedfromhis
birthtobe“TexasSteel.”Steelisrefinedfromimpuremetal.Unliketheprocessof
smeltingthatinvolvesachemicalchangetotherawmaterial,thefinalmaterialin
steelisidenticalchemicallytotheoriginalone,butitismuchpurer.Texaswasone
ofthemostdangerousplacesontheplanetforfreedmeninthe1870s.Theheritage
oflivingthroughReconstructioninTexasand,perhapsdespite,livingduringthat
periodforgedChisumintothe“Duke”thathisblackcolleaguesrespected.Inthe
1930sChisumreachedthezenithinhispoliticalcareer.Thischapterdescribesthe
earlylifeofChisum–asoneblackmanrepresentativeofmanyblackmenlikehim–
whostruggledtosurviveandfindhiswaypoliticallyandsociallyduringtheearly
partofthetwentiethcenturywhenblacksfaceddangerandinstability.Evaluating
thetorments,joys,andconcernsofhisfamily,friendsandmentorsinthefirstthree
decadesofhislifeassistsininterpretinghisunderstandingofrace,religion,andhis
practiceofaidingtheneedy.Itoffersalensintohisvaluesoflifeasafamilyman.
AtthepinnacleofhiscareerMelvinChisumwrotetwomorepertinentthings
abouthimselftoaboyhoodfriendandadultpoliticalally,Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,
presidentofLangstonUniversityinOklahoma.Inoneletterheclaimed,“Throughall
3JacksonandHarristalkaboutthepsychologicalwarfarewagedagainstblacksduringReconstruction.DavidJackson,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleagainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillian,2008).21-33;JoelChandlerHarris,UncleRemus(NewYorkAppletonandCompany,1880).xvii.
87
theyearsofmypublicexperience,Ihaveneveroncefailedafriend.Havealways
strivenarduouslytoservedisappointmentandmiserytomyenemieswithout
compunction,butfriendshipwithmeisasacredrelationandItreasureitasagiftof
thegods.”4Intheotherhestatedthat“whenIhadbutlittleexperienceandmy
influencewasnegligible,Iwentaboutservinganyandallmenatmyownexpense:I
donothavetodothatnow.”5ThelettersgiveglimpsesofhowChisumviewed
himselfandhislifeworkpsychologically,socially,andintellectuallyasafirst
generationfreedmanblack.Chisum’sonemajorantagonistinlifewouldbeonehe
couldnotoutrunandneveroutwitted–racism.BeinganAmericanblackwaslike
beingtrickedatbirth:Firstyouhavetorealizethereisatrick.Thenyouhaveto
admitthetrickisonyou.Thentosurviveyouturnthetrickbackonthetrickster.6
Oneneverletsdownhisguard.
FollowingthelifeofMelvinJacksonChisumfromtheearly1870sto1945is
likeplayingmoderngamesthatfollowuniquecharacterswhothoughever-present,
movearoundtheworldunnoticed.MelvinChisum,Sr.,cropsupbehindthescenesin
themidstofmajorAmericanhistoricaleventsandpersonagesintheUnitedStates;
fromtheSecondCivilWarinTexas,instoriesofrobberbarons,Pullmanporters,
BookerT.WashingtonatTuskegee,allthewayuptothroughWorldWarll.
4MelvinChisumtoDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,6September1933,OKCU.5MelvinChisumtoDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,14October1933,OKCU.6InterviewwithLeonBrooks,Mechanicsville,Virginia,23November2017,OKCU.AsanAmericanblack,BrookslearnedthepremiseinclassatthesegregatedVirginiaUnionUniversity,RichmondVAinthe1970swhenhestudiedtheUncleRemusTales.Inthe1990sBrooksbroughtsuitagainsttheVirginiaAirNationalGuardtohavetheConfederateflagremovedfromitsairplanes.Hewassoonletgo.In2018heisstillfightingforhisprivilegesfromtheVirginiaAirNationalGuard.
88
Chisumwasbornintheearly1870sinthelushTehuacanaHillsnearMexia,
Texas.Duringhisinfancy,ex-ConfederatesoldiersandotherAngloTexans
murderedhundredsofblackslivingintheheavywoodedlandalongthebanksofthe
NavasotaRiver.TheChisumfamilylookedtoGodfortheirsurvival,federalsoldiers
fortheirprotection,andmenofsteellikeMerrittTrammell(1832-1875)for
leadership.Trammellbecamethegrass-rootsleaderforblacksandpreachedwitha
loadedshotgunbyhispulpit.Anex-slaveoftheStroudplantation,hesnuckoutof
theMexiaarea,crossedtheregionbetweenLimestoneCountyandWaco,Texas,on
horseback,tobringaparticulartroopofUnionsoldierstoprotectAfro-Texansfrom
terrorists.
Asatoddler,ifnotlittlemorethananinfant,Chisumparticipatedinactsof
politicalandsocialintriguetoprotectAfroTexans.Onemustimagineasmallchild
withadarkcoffee-beancomplexion,whorolledhimselfsotightlyintoaballthatall
onecouldseewasthefluffofhisbabyhairbecausehishandscoveredhisfaceashe
washurledthroughtheairlikeaball.Chisum’sfirstmemorywasbeingpassedfrom
thehandsofoneUnioncavalrymantoanother.ThesoldiersinPrussianbluejackets
andHardeehatswererescuers.
ChildrensuchasChisumwerenotsafebuthandled,hunted,andtreatedlike
animals.Blackchildrenlearnedfromtheirelderstotransformtheirmindstofind
waystomanipulatetheirbodies,souls,andbeingstobecomeliketheanimalsin
89
UncleRemus’stale“PlantationWitch.”7Chisum’scontemporary,educatorMary
McLeodBethune(1875-1955),confessedthatblacks,particularlywomen,feltlike
animals,as“animatedagriculturalimplement[s]toaugmenttheserviceofmules
andplowsincultivatingandharvestingthecottoncrop.”WomensuchasChisum’s
twelve-year-oldchild-motherwere“automaticincubators,aproducerofhuman
livestock,beneathwhoseheartandlungsmorepotentiallaborerscouldbebredand
nurturedandbroughttothelightoftoilsomeday.”8Blackmenandwomenusedthe
stories,laterwrittendownbyJoelChandlerHarris,toteachsurvival.BrerRabbit
andhisassociateswereanextensionoftheirlivesandthestorieswerestoriesoflife
duringslaveryandReconstruction.
Thefirstcriesofyoungbabieswereprobablystifled,hushed,pushedbackin
theirmouthsbytheirmother’sbreath.Thesechildrenfrombirthweretaughttheart
ofdisguisingtheirinnerfeelingsandneedsinordertosurviveintheTexasworldof
whiteoppression.Sometimesintheblacklifeitisgoodtoliveoutthelowest
commondenominatoronecould,makingiteasytobecomeananimaloraball.
Chisum’sson,Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,(1921-2014),admittedhisfathertoldhimthat
beingpassedoffbetweensoldierswastheearliesteventhecouldremember:“Of
7JoelChandlerHarris,UncleRemus:HisSongsandHisSayings(NewYork:Appleton-CenturyCompany,1934),xvii.Harriswrote“UncleRemusdescribesReconstructionthroughhisstoriestotheyoungchildwhoisaproductofthatpracticalreconstructionwhichhasbeengoingontosomeextentsincethewarinspiteofthepoliticians.”8MaryMcLeodBethune,“ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,”n.d.,MaryMcLeodBethuneCollection,AmistadResearchCenter,TulaneUniversity;MaryMcLeodBethune,ACenturyofProgressofNegroWomen,ed.GerdaLerner,BlackWomeninWhiteAmerica:ADocumentaryHistory(NewYork:RandomHouse,1972),580.
90
course,hewasayoungboyandhethoughtthatwasthegreatestthingintheworld.
Thatwasgreatfunasfarashewasconcerned.”ForMelvinChisum,“beingaball”for
thecavalrymen,wasaprivilegeandlifeforachildofReconstruction.Hekeptthem
occupiedandhiscommunitysafe.Inhismemory,heparticipatedwithlittlefearin
actsofvalortoprotectbothhisfamilyandthedisenfranchised–andwoulddoso
untilhisdeathin1945.
Beforehelearnedtoreadandwritehewastaughtsurvival.Asinthestories
ofBrerRabbit,inhisyouthBrerMelvinacedtheartofshapeshifting,reachingto
thebackofhisneckandpullingoutanotherpersonalitytofitwhateverprecarious
situationthatcamehisway.IntheUncleRemusstory“PlantationWitch,”witches
sometimesshiftedintotheshapeofanimalsbyreachingintothemselvesand
becomingwhatevertheyneededtobeinordertosurvive.UncleRemusdescribes
thetransition:“datwitchfokesisgotaslitindebackerdeneck,enw’endaywanter
changederse’f,deyjuspulldehideoverderheadsameezif‘twuzashut,endardey
is.”9AfricanandIndianloretaughtblackstheycouldchangeintoravensandflyif
necessary.Blackauthorsstillpassonthetalesaboutblacksandtheirabilitytoshift
intobirdsandotheranimals.InThePeopleCouldFly(2004)theauthortreatstheact
asreal.10AccordingtoVirginiaHamilton,theartofshapeshiftingdidnotdie;the
peoplejustgottoofarawayfromtheexperience.BrerMelvin,whoshape-shifted
intoaball,justlikeintheUncleRemustale,keptthegovernmentsoldiersoccupied
sotheywould“tarryawhile”inMexiaorperhapstheystoppedbecausehisfather9Harris,“PlantationWitch,”inUncleRemus,154.10VirginiaHamilton,ThePeopleCouldFly:ThePictureBook(NewYork:RandomHouse,2004).
91
wasagroomforacavalryofficer,ormerelythathewasaccessible;eitherwaya
childwhowasaballoffersanotherlinktoReconstructionhistoryinTexas.Atleast
helived,unlikesomeblackbabieswhowereusedasalligatorbait.11
SuchdetailsdevelopanunderstandingofwhatitmeantforMelvinChisumto
comparehimselfto“Texassteel”inthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Itwas
notjustanoutsidewarthatChisumfoughtbutaninnerstruggleindealingwithhis
blackness.AccordingtoDavidJackson,Jr.,inBookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggle
AgainstWhiteSupremacy,Chisum’sgenerationfoughtagainstwhitebacklash.
Jacksondescribeditasthecultofwhiteness,“afullscalepsychologicalwaragainst
blacksinordertomakethemhatethemselvesanddevelopaninferioritycomplex”
aboutthemselvesandaboutotherblacks.12MelvinChisumdevelopedaformulafor
successduringhislifetime.Menlikehimwhohadto“pullthemselvesupbytheir
bootstraps”or,ashewasknowntosay,menwhowenttotheschoolof“hard
knocks,”wererefinedbytheirendeavors.LikeTexasSteel,hechoseforaperiod,to
servemenathisownexpense.13ThelegacyofachildinReconstructionplacating
boredUniontroopswhiletheyprotectedAfroTexansuncoversthepsychology
11DominiqueFoxworth,“TheGut-wrenchingHistoryofBlackBabiesandAlligators,”TheUndefeated,22June2016.Theundefeated.com.Whilesomehistoriansclaimitneverhappened,Foxworthdatesthepracticeoffeedingblackbabiestoalligatorsbacktothe19thcentury.SharonDraper,TheCopperSun(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006).12DavidJackson,Jr.,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleagainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillian,2008),21.SeeGeoffreyWard,UnforgivableBlackness:RiseandFallofJackJohnson,(NewYork:RandomHouse,2004).DeborahGabriel,LayersofBlackness:ColourismintheAfricanDiaspora,(ImaniMediaLtd.BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication2007.)13MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,14October1933,OKCU.
92
Chisumdevelopedthatturnedhimintoanefficiencyagent,detective,notjustasan
agentandinvestigatorforthePublicWorksAdministration,butalsoasamanfrom
whomGeorgeWashingtonCarveralwaysexpectedtohearnothingbutthetruth.14
Thus,psychologically,usinghisbodyforatoyisnotsofarawayfromusinghisbody
asabatteringram,asaninstrumentinthefightingringinordertosupportafamily.
ThischaptermoveswithMelvinChisumfromhisinfancyandthroughthenameshe
adoptedtofitthenicheswherehefoundhimself:fromMelvin,toJackChisum,to
TexasRosebud,andbacktoMelvinJacksonChisum;itwilldemonstratethathewas
refinedbyothers,butthathealsorefinedhimself.
Chisum’sUniqueLinkstoSlavery,ReconstructionandAfro-TexanHeroes
TheperiodinTexashistoryinwhichChisumwasbornissometimescalled
theSecondCivilWar.EventhoughtheCivilWarendedyearsbeforehewasborn,
racialbattlesspilledintoWacoandLimestoneCounty,Texas.AngloConfederate
soldiersreturnedfromwar,bitteraboutthelossoftheConfederacyandthelossof
land,sufferingfromangstaboutthefreeingofover4,000,000slaves,andthelossof
thewealththeyrepresented;theythenbecameenragedbecauseblacksgained
votingprivileges.Theyhadbloodontheirhandsandmurderintheirhearts.These
menspewedtheirfurytowardfreedmen.TheReconstructionnarrativeinTexas
takesonnewmeaningbyaddingthelifeofMelvinChisumandhisfamily.
14GeorgeWashingtonCarvertoMelvinChisum,3February1933,OKCU.
93
HistorianJohnHopeFranklindescribedthepubliclifeintheareaof
LimestoneCounty,Texas,ofwhichMexiawascarved,asbeinginthemidstofakind
of“guerillawarfare.”15SomeAfro-Texanstoleratedwhateverneededtobedonein
ordertosurvive.Blackfamilies,suchasJohnChisum’s,Melvin’sfather,liveddailyin
fearofbeingattackedandkilledbymurderers.Someblackssnipedbackat
Confederatevillainswithguns,usingguerillawarfarethemselvesastheybattledfor
theirlives,liberties,andfreedomagainstasystemofwhitesupremacyandviolence.
OtherblacksintheLimestoneCountyarea,alreadybadlybattered,wereoftenso
afraidofactsofvengeancefromreturningex-confederatesoldiers–historianJames
Smallwoodcalledthem“terrorists”–thattheybarredtheirdoorsandwindowsand
cuttheirlampsandcandleslowiftheyremainedintheircabinsatnight.Others
sleptinthewoods.Moreover,nopersonofcolorwassafe,eveningoingtotheriver
tofishduringthedaylighthours.ReturningsoldierSimp“Dixie”Dixon,rumoredto
bearelativeofoutlawandmurdererJohnWesleyHardin,madeanelderlyfreed
slavewomandanceasheshotather.Hetoldhertopray,thenassheprayedheshot
herinthebackofherhead.16
Underthesecircumstances,asaconcessiontomurderingblacktownspeople,
JohnChisumlookedonas“oneoftheUnioncavalrymanwouldhavehim[Melvin]
underhisarm,andanotherUnionCavalrymanwouldbeonahorsefacinghim.Then
15JohnHopeFranklin,FromSlaverytoFreedom:AHistoryofAfricanAmericans(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1994),249.JamesM.Smallwood,MurderandMayhem:TheWarofReconstructioninTexas(CollegeStation:TexasA.&M.UniversityPress,2003).16WalterCotton,HistoryofNegroesinLimestoneCounty(n.p.;n.p.),11,MexiaPublicLibrary,Mexia,Texas.
94
theywouldridetowardeachotherandpasshimoffbetweenthem.”17Throughhis
earlyexperiencesMelvinChisumprobablylearnedthedynamicsofsurvivalbut
learnedtheideaofinvincibilityfromAfricanAmericanstories.Laterinlifewanted
postersdidnothavehisnamebutsoughtamanwhothoughthimselfinvincible
enoughtorunthegamutofhelpingfieldworkers,guardedbyarmedmen,steal
awayfromthesouthernfieldsduringthelightofday.
ChildrensuchasMelvinChisumquicklylearnedtodowhatwasrequiredto
surviveinsituationsofwarfare.JohnChandlerHarrisinUncleRemusputinwords
whatyoungstersofChisum’stimeperioddealtwithdaily.Chandleragreedwith
historianDavidJackson,Jr.,whonotedthatwhitesupremacyandthecomingJim
CrowlawswereatypeofpsychologicalwarfareplayedonReconstructionAmerican
blackadultsandchildren.TotheAngloboytowhomUncleRemustoldthetale,Brer
Rabbitmayhavebeenatrickster,buttoAfro-Texansheborenobadgeastrickster
buttaughttheartofsurvival.WilliamTwine,anewcomertoMexiaintheearly
1870s,describedtheartofsurvivalonthepartofchildren:“They[children]were
strong,industrious,willingtopleasetoanyextremeandquieterthanmice,
educationwastheiropiate,journalismatoolforliberty.Itwasthevoicefromthe
abyssthatletothersknowtheirordeal.”18Storiesofterrorwerepassedacrossthe
state,mouthtomouth,andbythenewspapers.AccordingtoSmallwood’sresearch,17UtriceLeid,TheTwine,Twyne,GogginsFamilyReunion2013,(NewYork,unpublished)67;LindaTwine,Conversations:OklahomaTwinesCentennialCelebration,1891-1991,(Oklahoma:SelfPublished1991),3.18MuskogeeCimeter(Oklahoma),8May1915.TwinewasacontemporaryofChisumwhoeventuallymovedtoOklahoma.Hisnewspaperwaswellknown.HissonsstartedthefirstblacklawfirminOklahoma.Hisgranddaughter,GloriaTwine,latermarriedMelvinChisum,Jr.
95
terroristgroupsorganizedandroamedTexascallingthemselves“NiggerKillers.”
Theywouldkillafreedmanforseventy–fivecents.Inatleastoneinstanceablack
childwaskilledinhistracksjustbecausehehadhishandsinhispocketsanddidnot
standatattentionwhenagangmemberrodeby.Sometimesthesegunmenwenton
six-andseven-dayshootingspreeskillingblacks.19BrerRabbittaughthowtohide
inplainsight;childrenneededtoknowhowtoaccomplishthisfeat.
Thelinguistictermof“childhood”wasnotpartofslaveorearly
Reconstructionmeta-language.Ablackchildservedasaslaveorworker.Becauseof
thedestructionofthefamily,theneedforlabor,andtheuseofmenasbreedersat
thefirstsignoffemalepubertyduringslavery,childrenduringReconstructioninthe
LimestoneCountyareahadnoconceptofnewborn,infant,andtoddler.Asachild
begantowalk,heorshecouldworkandlearnedtechniquesofsurvival.Onegetsthe
impressionthattheageoftwelveseemedtobe“adulthood,”butactuallyitwas
simplytheaverageageoftheonsetofpuberty.Itappearsfromrecordsofmarriages
betweenthe1870sandthe1890sthattheageof“consent”forgirlstowedwas
betweentwelveandfourteenyearsold–againobviouslytiedtoageatpuberty.
MelvinChisumwasbornwhenhismotherwasbetweentwelveandfourteen,andas
atoddlerheworkedinthefields.Teachingchildrenthepossibilitiesforjustice
throughnewspapersandtheprovidenceofamightypowerknownasGodprobably
startedinwhatmodernitytermsnewborn.
19Smallwood,MurderandMayhem,47-49,99.NormanBrownandChuckParsons,ALawlessBreed:JohnWesleyHardin,TexasReconstructionandViolenceintheWildWest,(Denton:UniversityofNorthTexasPress,2013),29.
96
Anglo-TexannewspapereditorsplayedamajorpartintheTexasracialcivil
warfareduringReconstructionbypittingwhitesagainsttheirblackcounterparts.
DavidBlightinRaceandReunionobservedthat“inthemindsofmanywhite
Democraticeditors,racetheoryandracialfearworkedhandinhandwith
antiradicalpolitics.Republicanmisrule,wenttheargument,hadstolentherightsof
whitesanddisruptedthenaturalplaceofblacksinsociety.”20Blackslistenedto
preacherMerrittTrammellwhospokeofGod-givenvalorandpoweratMt.Zion,the
firstblackchurchintheLimestoneCountyarea.TheGodthatTrammelltaught
aboutwasdifferentfromthewhiteGodwholabeledthemslavesfromthecurseof
HamortheCalvinisticteachingthattheywerebornslavesandthereforecreatedto
remainsubservienttowhitemalelandowners.21
HowdidtheirlocalunderstandingofTrammellasaraceleaderandpreacher
pithimagainstwhitenewspaperswholabeledTrammellatroublemaker?Dr.Henry
Ponder(1928),educatorandpresidentofseveralblackcollegesanduniversities,
learnedthestoryofalioninhisyouth:“Thelittlelionwalkeduptohisdaddyand
said,‘Daddyifwearethekingofthejunglewhydoesthehunteralwayswin?His
fathersaidwhenlionsstartwritinghistorythelionswillwin.”Somewhereblacks
learnedthatnewspaperswereavehiclefortheir“voicefromtheabyss,”asTwine
describedit,tobeheardandtoletothersknowoftheirplight.InLimestoneCounty
20DavidBlight,RaceandReunion:TheCivilWarinAmericanMemory(Cambridge:BelknapPress,2001),101.21Basedon1674WestminsterConfessionoffaithCatechism#1,OfProvidenceV.andBaptismXXVIII.BornasGodhadchosen,slaveswerenotbaptizedintofreedom-“whomthesonsetsfreeisfreeindeed”(BibleJohn8:36)-butbaptizedintobeingthebestslavestheycouldbe.
97
blackssuchastheChisumfamilywaited,watched,andhopedfor,liberationfrom
theintrinsicevilintheircommunity,intheircountry.MelvinChisumwouldlearnto
write.
ChisumwasbornJanuary12,1873?(circa1870)intheTehuacanaHillsof
Texas.Hisfather,JohnChisum(1847/1854-1919),wasbornaslaveinMacon,
Georgia,andwasnamedafterhisownerJohnChisholm,acousinofJesseChisholm
wholaidouttheChisholmTrail.WhilelivinginGeorgia,JohnChisholmrealizedthe
SouthmightjustlosetheCivilWar.“Hemusthavebeenamanofsubstance,the
headofaprosperousfamily,”accordingtoDr.Chisum.“Hehadtheforesight,
strength,resourcefulness,andinitiativetoputhisfamilyandwhatpartofhis
personalpossessionshewasabletotransport,includinghisslaves,ontowagons
andmovethemtoTexaswhenheforesawtheSouthlosingthewar.”22Theowner
tookhispossessions,followedthetrailofotherslaveholdersfromArkansas,
Louisiana,andMississippiwhohadmigratedtoTexasattheoutbreakoftheCivil
War,andencampedintheTehuacanaHills.OtherslaveownerssuchastheStroud
familyinLimestoneCountyandtheHarlanfamilyinRobertsonCountyhadsettled
thereinthe1830s.AftertheCivilWar,someofthesegroupsofdisenfranchised
slaveowners,theirextendedfamilies,andreturningfightersdevelopedintothethe
gangsofmurderersinMexiaandsurroundingterritories.
TheMexiaEveningLedgerdescribedJohnChisum,Melvin’sfather,as“aquiet
peaceablecoloredcitizen”whichmeanthewasunlikehiswife’srelativeswho
22Dr.MelvinJChisum,Jr.,toCeceliaBrooks,21March2006,OKCU.
98
warredagainstwhitesinthe1870s.23JohnChisumlookedlikeamaturedcopyofhis
son,aboutfivefeetsix,dark,nappyheaded,openlyniggardlywhenhewantedbut
inwardlyclear-sightedandMachiavellian–theideal“DaddyBrerRabbit”tohisson.
Hedealtwiththeadversityaroundhimthroughmeanslearnedintheoppressionof
slavery.LookingbacktoatimeofguerillawarfareinMexia,JohnChisumdisplayed
cunninginallowinghissontobesowellrecognizedbythesoldiers.Thelegend
behindJohnChisumishardtoprovebutinteresting.AccordingtoDr.Chisum:
Severalyearsafterthewarwasover,PresidentGrantsentCavalrysquadronsdowntoTexastorepatriatethesesouthernerswhohadfledtogetawayfromthearmy.WhenthisparticularUnitedStatesCalvaryofficerhadfinallycaughtupwithJohnChisholm,hetoldJohnChisholmthathewasgoingtoconfiscatehishorserightthenbecausehehadaverybeautifulhorse.JohnChisholmreplied,“Well,ifyouaregoingtotakethathorse,takethatyoungboyrightthere.That’shisgroomandhe’stheonlypersonwhoknowshowtotakecareofthathorse.”Thatwasmygrandfatherandthatishowhetookonthismaster’sname.Iguesshewasfreedtechnicallyatthatmomentandhewenttoworkforthisarmycaptainwhotookthehorse.24
PossiblyitwasthisgroupofsoldiersthatMerrittTrammellenlistedtohelp
Afro-Texans.Thereismoretothestory.IntheMexiaareaformerslaveholders
refusedtofreetheirformerslavesaftertheCivilWarwasoverandevenafter
CongresspassedtheThirteenthAmendmentonJanuary31,1865,thenratified
December6,1865.Itstatedclearlythat“Neitherslaverynorinvoluntaryservitude,
exceptasapunishmentforcrimewhereofthepartyshallhavebeendulyconvicted,
shallexistwithintheUnitedStates,oranyplacesubjecttotheirjurisdiction.”Onthe
23MexiaEveningLedger(Texas),24June1899.24Twine,Conversations,3.
99
StroudplantationtheEmancipationProclamation(1863)wasreadinJulyof1865.
AccordingtoresearchbySmallwood,JohnChisholmwithdrewdeeplyintothe
confinesofEasternTexasanddidnotfreehisslavesuntilthenextyear.25Blacks,
thinkingtheyweresoldiersafterthewar,laboredforquartermastersand
plantationsinTexas.Smallwood’sresearchbridgesthetwostories.Itispossible
JohnChisumwasfreedyearsaftertheendofslavery.
AfterJohnChisum’sarrivalbackinMexia,hejumpedthebroomwithRachel
ArveliaHenderson(1858/1860-1904),afreedslavefromtheStroudplantation.
Thesedatesoverlap,givingMelvin’sbirthyearsomethreetofouryearsinquestion.
IncomparisontootherfreedgirlsintheareaduringReconstruction,twelveto
fourteenyearsofageseemedtobetheageofconsent.Smallwoodrecountsthat
manyadultwomenfromtheStroudandsurroundingplantationswere
psychologicallybatteredfrommandatoryrapeatpuberty,whichcontinuedinto
adulthood,andtheyhaddifficultywiththeideaofmarriageintheReconstruction
years.Slavenarrativesrevealthatwomentooyoungtohavehadsexsufferedfrom
shock,developedfearsofmen,andnevermarried.26Therefore,itseemsyounggirls
whocametopubertyafterslaveryended,suchasRachelandhercousinMittie,
marriedwithacleanslateortheymarriedquicklytokeeptheoldcodesforwomen
25JamesM.Smallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,1865-1874.”(PhDdiss.,TexasTechUniversity,1974).JamesM.Smallwood,TimeofHope,TimeofDespair:BlackTexasDuringReconstruction,(NewYork:KennikatPress1981),34.26SamJonesWashington,SamJonesWashingtonFortWorthTexas,manuscriptFromLibraryofCongress,BorninSlavery:SlaveNarrativesfromtheFederalWritersProject,1936-1938,https://www.loc.gov/item/mesnp164138/(accessedMarch11,2016);Smallwood,“BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,”48.
100
atbay.JohnandRachellatertooktheritesofmatrimonyonSeptember15,1884,at
Groesbeck,Texas.
RayWalker,inAHistoryofLimestoneCounty,reported,“Noestimated
damagehaseverbeenmadeoftheatrociousactscommittedduringthese
troublesometimes,butitissafetosurmisethatliterallyhundredsofNegroeswere
murdered.Variousgroupsattemptedtodestroytherecordsandevidentlydida
goodjob;fewrecordshavebeenlocatedpriorto1874.”27MelvinChisumwasborn
toyoungparentsinthemidstof“anunrecordedreignofterror.”Hisepisodeof
“flying”depictedtheendofyearsofracialtensionthatgrewandexplodedinto
outrightracewarinLimestoneCounty.DuringtheCivilWarwhenwhiteswentto
fight,amixofilliterateblacks,whohadnotbeeninvitedtojointhewar,alongwith
“Impudentwhite[s]whodidn’tthinkenoughoftheSouthtofightforherduringthe
war,”remainedinLimestoneCounty.28
AnunbiasedaccountofwhathappenedinLimestoneCountyhasnotbeen
written.AccordingtoRayWalker,“areignofterror”beganwithCharlesCulver’s
appointmentbytheFreedman’sBureautoaidblacksingainingproperty.However,
WalkercitesthereadingoftheEmancipationProclamationontheLoganStroud
plantationasthemoment“whentherealtroublebegan.”29Walkermeantthatafter
thewarblackshadthepowertovote,andwiththeirvotestheyelectedAfro-Texans
27RayWalker,AHistoryofLimestoneCounty(Austin,TX:VonBoeckmann-Jones,1959),55.28Ibid.,62.29Ibid.,54;WalterCotton,HistoryofNegroesinLimestoneCounty(n.p.;n.p.),18,MexiaPublicLibrary,Mexia,Texas;Smallwood,MurderandMayhem,124.
101
intoprominentpositions.WhenhostilewhiteswhofoughtfortheConfederacy
returnedafterthewar,theareaflamedintooneofthemostraciallyintensezonesin
thecountry.MelvinChisumgrewupinwhatFreedman’sBureauagentAlbertEvans
calledavolatilearea.Texans’bloodflowedcrimsonintheriversfromthemurders
ofblacksandwhitesintentonredefiningtheirownershipofproperty,rights,and
racesuperioritythathadnotexistedpreviously.DuringReconstructionreturning
soldierscontendedwithblacks,whooncehadbeenslaves,withoutprotectionsof
Americancitizenship.Theseblacksnowclaimedtheirrightsoflife,liberty,and
justiceinplacesandspaces,tangibleandintangible,whichoncebelongedonlyto
whites.AprimaryproblemwasthataccordingtoJasonWarreninDrawdown,after
thewartheonlyorganizedrebelarmyleftoverfromtheConfederacywasin
Texas.30
MembersofMelvinChisum’smother’splantationfamilyplayedstarrolesin
theguerillawarfare.AtthereadingoftheEmancipationProclamation,Merritt
Trammellmadeapulpit,knelt,andprayedfordeliverance.In1870Trammellhad
“felttheurgetobecomeaministerandfoundedachurchandnameditMt.Zion.”31
Fromthepulpitofthefirstblackchurchinthearea,Trammellpreachedvalor,
Africancourage“ushujaa,”andAfricanZulu“amandla”power.32Hepreachedand
taughtmuchthesamemysticismthatMelvinChisumwouldfindinBishopWilliam
DerrickoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopalChurchinthe1890s.Trammelbecame30JasonWarren,Drawdown:TheAmericanWayofPostwar(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2016),124.31Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,12.32BarryA.CrouchandDonalyE.Brice,TheGovernor’sHounds:TheTexasStatePolice,1870-1873(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2011),103.
102
“theacknowledgedleaderofNegroes.”MelvinChisum’smother,RachaelHenderson
Chisum,waslinkedtoTrammell.TrammelwasaHarlanfamilybastard.Hecarried
themaidensurnameofhisowner’smother.
LikeJohnChisholm,(thepriorownerofMelvinChisum’sfather),Logan
Stroud(1814-1911),wasoriginallyfromMaconCounty,Georgia.WhileChisholm
wasasmallslaveowner,StroudwasthelargestslaveownerinLimestoneCounty.
Stroud’swifewasJaneElizabethHarlan.Stroud,hisfather,andbrotherswere
amongthefirstpermanentsettlersin1837intheareathatbecameLimestone
County.Usingbetweenonehundredandonehundredfiftyslaves,theStroudsraised
cattle,corn,andcottononsixhundredacres.33
Afterthewarblacksgainedthepowerofthevoteandelectedmenfromtheir
ownraceintopoliticalpositionsfromlocalpoliceforcestoseatsinthestate
legislature.BytheReconstructionActs,someAnglosbecameRepublicans.
DemocraticAnglosweredisenfranchisedintheLimestoneCounty.RalphLong
becameaRepublicanPartyboss,butMerrittTrammellremainedthegrass-roots
leader.TammellbecameamemberoftheTexasStatePolice,anewgroupoflawmen
inchargeofenforcinglawandorderinTexas.NegroessuchasGilesCotton(bastard
oftheStroudfamilywhowasusedtoimpregnategirlsatpuberty),andDave
Medlock(bastardoftheStroudfamilywhodrovecropstomarketinGalveston),
bothilliterateformerslaves,wereelectedasstaterepresentatives.UncleBurk
33RandolphCampbell,AnEmpireofSlavery:ThePeculiarInstitutioninTexas,1821-1865(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1989).275.
103
SimpsonfromtheStroudplantationinterpretedtheracialenvironmentduring
Reconstructionthisway:
Itmustberememberedthatthese[Black]menwhowereelectedasrepresentatives,couldnotreadorwrite,neitherdidtheyhavetheremotestideaofconstitutionallaw,yet,thrustinstantlyintopositionsofgraveimportancewherebytherebuildingofawar-torncountryandtopromoteafriendlyrelationshipbetweenthetworacesthatweredestinedtolivesidebysideandworkouttheirownsalvation.Thesemeasureswereconsideredbythesouthern,whitemanasaslapinthefacewhilehewasdown,andtheregerminatedintohisbrainterrorizingorganizationstofrightentheilliterateNegroawayfromthevotingpollsaswellasafeartoattempttoholdapublicoffice.34
RalphLongwaspaidtolooktheotherwayasblackswerefrightened,
maimed,andkilled.Whiteshadplannedon“terrorizingorganizationstofrighten
theilliterateNegroesawayfromthevotingpollsandanyattempttoholdpublic
office.”35Trammell,MitchCotton,andanunnamedblackpoliceman,oneofatleast
threeblackpolicemeninPrecinct1ofLimestoneCounty,resistedwhitedomination.
Withoutthesupportfromlocalstodealwiththeoutrightviolentactsagainst
AfroTexans,MerrittTrammellsnuckoutonhorsebacktoWaco,returningwitha
companyofUnionsoldiersstationedinWacoandCorsicanacommandedby
SergeantAdamDesch.TrammellhelpedthecompanysurpriseSimp“Dixie”Dixon
34Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,25.GeorgeRable,ButThereWasNoPeace:TheRoleofViolenceinPoliticsofReconstruction(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2007);DavidMarkChalmers,HoodedAmericanism:TheHistoryoftheKuKluxKlan(CharlotteNorthCarolina:PawPrints,2008).35Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,25.
104
“inadesertedcabin,cuttinghimofffromhistrainedhorse.”36Hewasshot
attemptingtogetawayfromthesoldiers.TheUnionforcethendeputizedTrammell
andotherblacks.Intheaftermathofanotherhangingofablackmanbywhites,the
deputiesfollowedthemurderersintoasaloon.Twowhitemen,DanGallagherand
formermayorD.C.Applewhite,andthreeblackpolicemeninuniform,Trammell,
Cotton,andanotherunnamedblackman,hadashowdownatClark’sSaloonon
NavasotaStreetinGroesbeck,Texas.Applewhitewaskilled.Afterthepivotal“shoot
out,”onlyoneman’swordsrangacrossthestateabouttheincident.J.D.Parish,a
friendofApplewhite’s,claimedthatafterkillingApplewhite,theblackpolicemen
brandishedtheirsix-shootersandcalledoutinaloudvoicethatblackswouldhave
thetown“flowingwithwhitebloodbeforethemorning.”Bythefollowingmorning,
October1,blackswerereportedlyrallyingtoattackthetown.Intimeanillegal,
radical“RumpSenate”putthecountyundermartiallaw.Allblackpolicemenand
officeholderswereremovedfrompower.TrammellandCottonwereconsidered
outlawsinsteadoflawmen.
CottonmanagedtofleebecausetheAnglosdeterminedthathewasmortally
wounded.Theylefthim“onacottodieinthejail,”whiletheyhuntedTrammell.
CottonescapedacrosstheRedRiverintoIndianTerritory.Trammellchangedhis
nameandlivedinexile.RacialtensionsremainedhighintheLimestoneCounty-
WacoareasolongafterwardthatCottondidnotrevealhislocationtohisrelatives
until1926.Cottondiedin1929.Trammellwentrogue,buthedidnotgiveuphis
causeasleaderoftheblackcommunity.Instead,hebecamedescribed–asChisum36Ibid.,19.
105
inhislatteryearswouldbe-an“outlawbynatureandademonbypractice.”37He
movedintoacaveonthewestbankoftheNavasotaRiver,and“likealionatbayhe
foughtoffhisattackers.”38Thecavefrontwasprotectedbytheriverandplankedin
therearandonbothsides.Itwasafortressagainstinvaders.Trammell’sdemise
camethroughhisfriendshipwithM.D.L.Harcrow:“Awhiteman...whowasalso
afoulofthelaw,madeadealwiththeauthoritiesforhisreleaseinreturnforputting
Merrittonthespot.”39
WhileTrammellslept,Harcrowpoisonedhisfriend’swhiskey.TheDaily
DemocraticStatesmannewspaperwrotethatHarcrowthenfilledTrammell’sbody
withbuckshot.HetookittothesheriffinGroesbeck,remarking,“here’syour“n-----
.”Harcrowreceivedarewardof$300(somebookssay$500).Hopeofasatisfactory
ReconstructionEraendedforblacksinLimestoneCountyafterthemurderof
Trammellbyawhitecohort.Therewasnolongerhonoramongfriends.
NewAngloleadersinLimestoneCountyinstitutedblackcodesthatlimited
thelivesoffreedmen.Dixon’sdesperadofriendspulledjailedblacksoutintothe
streetsandhangedthem.RebelliononthepartoftheAfroTexansfailed.Therewas
littleelsetohopeforexcepteducationandtherailroadthatnowpassedthrough
Mexia.Thestruggletosurvivegavedignitytothechoicesblackshadtomake.There
37MaryHintz,EarlyHistoryofLimestoneCountyOrganizedAsAStudyForTeachingaLocalHistoryUnit,MastersThesis,SouthwestTexasStateTeachersCollege,1943.38Cotton,HistoryofNegroes,12.39DonaldBriceBarryCrouch,TheGovernor'sHounds:TheTexasStatePolice,1870-1873,(Texas:UniversityofTexasPress,2012).Leslie,FreedomAfterSlavery:TheBlackExperienceandtheFreedmen’sBureauinReconstructionTexas(Indiana:TraffordPublishing,2012),61,113.
106
wasnoperfectchoicefortheAfroTexansinLimestoneCountyorotherpartsofthe
South:Firstyoufindoutthetrickisonyou.Thenyouturnthetrickbackonthem.
Inaworldofseverelylimitedopportunities,economicdepression,andracial
oppression,whatdoesaslaveparentturntoinordertohelpachildidentifyhimself
intheworldwherehisdarkcolorspurshatred?Whatkindofideascanbegleaned
fromthehistoryofAmericanblackstosetastandardforachildtoachieve?How
doesonedefineoneself:bytheexternallabelsandlimitationstheworldsets,orby
thepower,themover,andmanipulatoroftheirworld,theonewhosilentlybut
surelyleaveshismarkuponhistory?Whatquietself-assuranceandskillswould
guideamantoclaimhimselfasachameleonandatricksterforhisowntime,the
manwhomakesandunmakesthepowerfulandwhostudiessituationsand
masterfullymovestheworldasifitishischessboard?Howdoesoneclaimthe
powerandnotgetentrappedbyitstrappings?AboysuchasMelvinChisumstrides
silentlyupontheworldstage.Hedrawsnotattentiontohimselfandhis
maneuvering.
Whilemodernitylooksbackinhorroratsuchwildhorrendousnarratives,
likethemysticalBrerRabbit,theoppressedlearnedtomanipulatesituationstogain
positiveresults.ThenaturethatdevelopedinmensuchasChisumwassurely
differentfromthatofthe“Negroresolve”indicatedbyRobertCrudeninTheNegro
inReconstruction,theblackswhojustwantedeverythingtobeequal:“Thatwehave
nofeelingofresentmenttowardourformerowners,butwearewillingtoletthe
pastbeburiedwiththepast,andinthefuturetreatpersonswithkindnessand
107
respectwhoshalltreatuslikewise.”40TheTexaskindofoppressiondevelopeda
needforblackstobecometricksters(survivors)andledtotheirworkasvaluable
politicalWarwicks.WarwickwasapoliticalmanipulatorinEnglandinthefifteenth
centurywhowasthepowerbehindthethrone.SomemenlikeWarwick,learned
thatmakingkingsratherthanbeingthekingofferedjustasmuchpowertothat
individual.Thispartofhistoryseemstohavebeenpasseddownfromfathertoson.
LeavingMexia:FindingAWayOut
Whatdoesonedowithaquick-witted,fast-thinkingblackyouthoutsideof
thefieldandranchwork?InthecontinuingSecondCivilWarinhishometownof
Mexia,onecanspeculatewhyattheageoffourwithonlyhiswit,hisstrength,family
backing,andcunning,MelvinChisum’sfamilysenthimonajourneywitha
Methodistcircuitrider.InsteadoflaboringinMexiaunderthetutelageofhisteacher
WilliamTwineandworkingasasharecropper,Chisumwouldreceivethegiftofan
education,amajorsteptowardpsychologicalandphysicalfreedom.PerhapsRachel
Chisumhadnotlearnedtotreathersondifferentlythangenerationsbeforeher.
AccordingtoSmallwood,duringslaverycompulsorybreedingruinedrelationships
betweenmothersandtheiroffspring.Mothershadnotimewiththeirbabiesand
40RobertCruden,TheNegroinReconstruction(EnglewoodCliffs:NJ:Prentice-Hall,1969),4.
108
weresentdirectlyintothefieldsafterbirthlettingolderfemalestocareforbabies.
Inthiswaytherewasnotalotoftimeforbondingbetweenmotherandchild.41
Educationwasthepanacea–akindofmagicportion–fortheilliteratewar-
torncommunity.Theybelievedthatperhapseducationcoulddestroyracism,deliver
themfromtheburdenoftheirslavepast,andopentheirlivestosuccess.Education,
likethetreeoflife,wasdeniedtotheminslaveryandoutofslavery.
Educationbecamethecentralthemeinthestruggletosurvive,orasJames
ConereferstoinTheGodoftheOppressed,“thebeliefthatthereismeaninginlife
thatextendsbeyondthestructurescreatedbytheoppressors.”42TheChristian
dialecticorcontentionwasthatGodentersintothesocialcontextofhuman
existenceandappropriatestheideasandactionsoftheoppressedasGod’sown.
Cone’stheoryhelpsshowthattheplightoftheblackfamilyintheReconstruction
narrativewasthesameplightofBrerRabbit,andthatbothweresameastheplight
ofamannamedJesus.BrerRabbit’sfreedomwascomparedtoJesus’sbiblical
resurrection.Blacksfoughtforeducationthatledtofreedomandjusticebecause
theirfuturewasgroundedinthestruggleforliberation.Achurch-centered
educationwaslikemagic.MagicwasthespiritofGod’sliberation.TherewasGod’s
spiritinthebooks,inlearning,inothers’histories,anditcouldbeappropriated.In
education,blacksdevelopedtheirowngenreofChristianityandwouldfindwhat
41Smallwood,BlackTexansDuringReconstruction,JamesSmallwood,"BlackTexansDuringReconstruction1865-1874"(TexasTechUniversity,1974).48;FrancisHunter,“SlaveSocietyontheSouthernPlantation,”JournalofNegroHistory,VII,January22,1922.42JamesCone,GodoftheOppressed(NewYork:OrbisBooks,1975),96-97.
109
theyneededinahistoricalfaith.Methodism,withitsprevenientgraceanddialectic
ofchoice,appropriatedthatfaithasfarbackasthecreationoftheAfricanMethodist
EpiscopalChurch(AME),whichgrewoutoftheFreeAfricanSocietyin1787.
AsMelvinChisum,nownicknamed“Jack,”traveledhisjourneytoan
education,allthestoriesaboutanimalsandtheirmagicalways,andofcourse
survival,probablystayedinhismindnightandday.Hehadtosurvive.Perhapshis
lifewaslikethegenerationsofchildrenbeforehim.Historydoesnotrevealthe
routeChisumtookonhisjourney,orthenamesofthepeoplewhoaccompanied
him.Perhapsoneorbothparents,oranothermemberofthelocalblackcommunity,
orarepresentativeoftheMethodistschool,wentalongwiththeyoungboy.
Whatevertheanswerstotheseunknownsmaybe,theirstoryandhisareprime
examplesofaspirationalbravery.
Thequestionoftheeducationofthefirstgenerationoffreeblackchildren
plaguedtheSouthduringReconstruction.Itwasdifficultenoughtoestablishand
maintainschoolsforwhites,muchlessdevelopschoolsforblackchildren.However,
thedutyofthegovernment’sFreedman’sBureauwastogather“theneglectedand
perishingorphansofcoloredUnionSoldiers,scattered,lostasdyinginthestreets,”
andplacethemintoschools.43TheMethodistChurchNorthexperimentedwith
educationofblackchildrenacrossthecountrythroughtheirownFreedman’sAid
Society.Theybelievedthat“whoeverfurnishedtheeducationofapeoplecontrols
43W.D.Goodman,GilbertAcademyandAgricultureCollege,WinsteadLouisiana:SelectionsfromaJournal(NewYork:Hunt&Eaton,1892),49.
110
thecurrentofthought,andmoldsfuturegenerations.”44Thechurch’sgoalwasto
selectthemostpromisingblackpupils,placetheminthenormalschools,and
preparethemasrapidlyaspossibletoprovidethecountrywithwell-qualified
guidesandeducatorsforblackpeople.45
NochildlaborlawsexistedinTexas.InTexas,planters,withfewexceptions,
viewededucationofblackchildrenasathreattotheraciallaborsupplyonwhich
theirlivelihoodsdepended.Blackcodesmandatedthatblacks,evenchildren,who
werenotworking,werevagrantsandsubjecttojailorlabor.Planterswere
pragmaticintheiraimstostopyoungchildrenfrombeingeducated.Fromthemid-
tolate-1870s,thelandownersdominatedandcontrolledstategovernmentsand
virtuallyfrozetheex-slaves’educationalopportunities.Theysuppressedtaxes,
opposedcompulsoryschoolattendancelaws,andblockedpassageoflawsto
strengthenpubliceducation.“Force,ratherthanrationalfreechoicewasthebasisof
theSouth’spoliticaleconomy.”46Aboyhadtohavecunningtoremainfreeduring
theperiodandhavewitenoughtostayoutofbondagetogetaneducation.
AccordingtohistorianEricFonerinAShortHistoryofReconstruction1863-1877,all-
44Freedmen’sAidSociety,AnnualReportoftheFreedmen’sAidSocietyoftheMethodistEpiscopalChurch,(Cincinnati:WesternMethodistBookConcernPress,1869),7.45Ibid.,8.46JamesAnderson,TheEducationofBlacksintheSouth1860-1935(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1988),22-25.
111
whitepoliceenforcedcomplexlaborregulations,criminallaws,andjudicialsystems
called“fencelaws”tokeepblacksdisenfranchised.47
BookssuchasJamesBrawley’s,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern:Bondage,
FreedomandtheEducationofBlackPeopleshowstheconscious,intentional,effort
onthepartoftheNorthernMethodistchurchtodealwiththewholebeingoftheex-
slavesandfirstgenerationoffreedmen.48InhisprefaceBrawleywrote:
Therewasaneedforself-discoveryasFreedmeninanewsocietyandself–appraisalaspersonswithlargehumanpotential,ratherthanchattelpropertyorinferiorbeingsinasocietyofso-calledsuperiors.TheFreedmenhadtoberehabilitatedfromtheannihilatingravagesofpersonalityofslavery,andtocreateself-confidenceandgroupconsciousness.Theyhadtoovercomeconditioningexperiencesandstigmaofacasteclassification,designationaschattelproperty,andthelabelofinferioritywithoutabilitytolearncomplexlessons,consignedtoa“place”insocietyasonly“hewersofwoodanddrawersofwater.”49
ThelivesofyoungsterssuchasChisumandhisfriendswereactuallyanythingbut
simple.Gaininganeducationwasmorethanjustgoingtoschool.Aslittlemorethan
toddlers,youngboys(rarelyyounggirls)wereturnedovertowhite,itinerate,
northernMethodistpreachersforaneducationunderthechurchesFreedman’sAid
Society.Thechurchactedmuchlikethegovernment’sFreedman’sBureauunder
majorGeneralOliverO.Howard.TheFreedman’sBureaucoveredfreedmenand
47EricFoner,AShortHistoryofReconstruction1863-1877(NewYork:HarperandRow,1988),95.48JamesBrawley,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern:Bondage,Freedom,andEducationofBlackPeople(NewYork:VantagePress,1974).49Ibid.,2.
112
refugees.Toestablishtheirschoolsandexperimentwithblackeducation,thewhite
Methodistdenominationmovedaroundthecountrylookingforsmartboyswho
couldbeleaders.Chisumfellintothisclassification.Barelyfreefromthehandsof
soldierswhotossedhimbetweentheirhorses,ChisumwascarriedtotheDallas
areatobetrainedtofunctionasaleaderinAmerica.
ReverendGeorgeWarrenRichardson,aredhaired,fire-and-brimstone,
MethodistNorthministerfromMinnesota,whohadalamearmandaheartfor
Christianity,hadnocompunctionintakingboysintohistravelingschool.
RichardsonwasborninErieCounty,NewYork,in1824.Hewasamanofstrictpiety
andardentlyopposedslavery.HehadservedasalinkintheUndergroundRailroad,
chaplaintothe7thU.S.ColoredArtilleryRegimentatFortPickering,Tennessee,
duringtheCivilWar,andcontinuedhiseffortstosupportthefreedmenasa
Methodistpreacherandteacher.WhilehistorianJohnHopeFranklindescribes
manycarpetbaggersaspreoccupiedwithbuildingallianceswiththebusiness
communityandtheRepublican-controlledgovernment,Richardsonconcentratedon
servicetothecommunityandinstillingtheChristianethicandeducationinyouth.50
St.Paul’sMethodistEpiscopalChurchinDallas,Texas,beganinabrusharbor
nearaslavecemeteryinanareacalledFreedman’sTown.Theattractionofthejobs
associatedwiththeHoustonandTexasCentralandtheTexasandPacificRailroad
companiesledmanyblackstothearea.WiththeaidofRev.Richardson,black50JohnHopeFranklin,ReconstructionaftertheCivilWarSecondEdition(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1961,1994),102-103;JamesD.Richardson,“MyJourneytotheCrossroadsofRace,FaithandFamilyinAmerica:TracingmyAncestor’sFootsteps,”AliciaPattersonFoundation,http://aliciapatterson.org.
113
preachersCharlesMadison,MackHenson,JeremiahWebster,H.Boliver,and
WilliamBushestablishedthechurchandschoolinashabbily-built,cold,wood-
framebuilding.Studentspaidonedollaramonthintuition.Underharshconditions,
livingintimatelywiththeirteachers,dayinanddayout,students“masteredhigher
elementsofEnglish,literarycriticism,highermathematics,Latin,Greek,philosophy,
tradesandotherculturalbranches.”51InAprilof1876theKuKluxKlanburned
downthechurchandschool.AccordingtoRichardson,“Ourscholarsstoodaboutus
cryingbecausetheycouldnotgotoschoolanymore....Weassuredthemthatwe
wouldnotleavethem.”Workingwiththechildrenandtheblackcommunity,“we
pressedintoserviceeverycoloredmanthatcoulduseasawordriveanail.Thatwas
abusyafternoon.Thesoundofhammersdidnotceasetill9o’clock,thenwecarried
theseatswehadsavedfromthefireandourbuildingwasreadyfordedication.”52
Theschooleventuallygrewtoonehundredandtwentystudents,butChisumdidnot
finishhiseducationintheschool.DuringthisperiodJimCrowenteredthegeneral
churchandtheMethodistEpiscopaldenominationsegregatedintoblackandwhite
conferences.Between1877and1878theschoolandthechildrenbecamemobile,
movingfromnortherntosouthernTexas.Therationalebehindthis,accordingto
Richardson’ssonOwen,wasthattheschoolfacedbacklashbecausethey“upstaged
thewhitepupilsinDallasinacitywideexhibitionoflearningskills.”Soonafterthe
exhibition,theschoolsystemappropriatedatestforallteachersthatblackscould
51Brawley,TwoCenturiesofMethodistConcern,99.52Richardson,“MyJourneytotheCrossroads,”18.
114
notpass.Thereafter,theDallasPublicSchoolSystemclosedtheSt.Paul’sSchool.
Thechurchremained,buttheschoolmovedtoHoustonandthentoAustin,Texas.53
Fromagefourtoapproximatelytwelveyearsold,MelvinChisumtraveled
thiseducationalnetworkacrossTexas.Throughhisschooling,hemetand
befriendedafirst-yearstudent,“Jack”Johnson(1878-1946),whowouldlater
becomethefirstblackheavyweightboxingchampionoftheworld,whileChisum
becamealocalpugilisticlegendinDallas.Chisumalsometotherswhowould
becomelifelongfriends,EmmettScottandIsaacWilliamYoung.Littleinformation
existsonblackschoolsorthechildrenwhoattendedtheminthearchivesofTexas
Methodisthistory.54Historicaldatadoesnotinformspecificallyhowandwhenthese
menmeteachother.However,theywereallinthesamenetworkoftheblack
MethodistWestTexasConference.Intheirprofessionalcareers,theyadmittedin
letterstoknowingeachotherfromchildhood.WhileScott’sandYoung’sfamilies
hadmeansofsupportfortheirboys,ChisumandJohnsonliterallyfoughttheirway
outofTexas.
WhiteMethodistsattemptedtosteerblacksawayfromincidentssuchasthe
guerillawarfareinMexia,Texas.TheFreedman’sAidSocietysetupduringthe
ReconstructionwassupposedtoprovidefundsforMethodistministerstoaidinthe
developmentofyouththroughMethodistprinciplestobecomeleadersinthe
53Ibid.,20.Richardson’snamedoesnotappearinotherhistorybooksonTexas.Attheendofhiscareerheliterallyranforhislifebecauseofhisendeavorsintryingtoeducateblacks.54WalterVernon,MethodistExcitementinTexas:AHistory(Dallas:TexasUnitedMethodistHistoricalSociety,1984).
115
church,andtosteerthemawayfromcivildisobedience;theyweretrained“to
toleratecertainthingsforexpediency.”Dr.MatthewDugan,presidentofthe
historicallyblackWileyCollegeinTyler,Texas,explainedthatblackMethodist
“youthweretrainedtobediscreetleadersandrecognizecertainthingshadtobe
toleratedasameansofexpediencywiththehopeofgainingguaranteedrightsinthe
end.”55Thus,inasense,ChisumlearnedtheprinciplesandstrategiesofNiccolo
Machiavelli(1469-1527),anItalianRenaissancepolitician,historian,and
philosopher,whosecomplexmoralandethicalbeliefsareperhapsbestknown,in
thesimplestofterms,byhisstatement“theendjustifiesthemeans.”Healso
cautioned,“Allcoursesofactionarerisky,soprudenceisnotinavoidingdanger(it’s
impossible),butcalculatingriskandactingdecisively.”56Thislanguagewaslinked
totheidealtricksternarrative.Machiavellianprinciplescouldbelikenedtotheslave
survivalphilosophy:tellpeoplewhattheyneed—dowhatmustbedone.They
solidifiedtheanticsofBrerRabbit,BrerFox,andothercharactersinthestoriesof
survivalthatchildrenheardatthefeetoftheirblackmentors.
Usingidealsoflife’sfulfillmentthatJohannPestolazzitaught,theseblack
studentsweretrainedinthestructureandmethodofoperationtobepolitically
active,tocreatehighereducationresources,toenableAfricanAmerican
communitiestoovercomeinjusticeandpoverty,andtoattaineconomicpower.
Therewerenorepetitivememorygames.Pestolazzi’stheoriesinvolvedlearning
55WarmothT.Gibbs,PresidentMatthewW.DuganofWileyCollege:ABiography(Marshall,TX:Firmin-Greer,1936),41.56NicolloMachiavelli,ThePrince,trans.LuigiRicci(London:GrantRichards,1903),71,91.
116
throughsenseperception,theemphasisofideasaboutthings,andtheuseofmoral
powersintheprocessofeducation.Histheoryinstilledthemesofmorality,thrift
andindustry,economicindependence,andmaterialsuccess.Theeducationleftmen
wrestlingwithwhatitmeanttohavealife“fulfilled.”Blackyouthwere
indoctrinatedwithspecificprinciplesofhowtofulfilltheirpublicandprivatelives.
TheseweretheprinciplesChisumstruggledwithmostofhislife.Thisdissertation
willshowthatsomehekept,whileothersheletride.
Blackyouthsalsoweretaughtthesacrednessoflifeandtheimportanceof
the“useofone’slifeasbeingassacredaslifeitself.”Perhapsthissacredness
resonatedinChisum,becausehislifehadbeenusedforhispeoplesinceinfancy.The
philosophyunderlyingthisemphasismadeexplicitthatlife’sfulfillmentcomesin
theusemadeofone’slife.57Theireducationpreparedthemtoentercollegesin
theology,teachertraining,medicine,dentistry,orlaw.Throughhisstudies,Chisum
becameintriguedwithamanofEnglishhistory,theDukeofWarwick,Richard
Neville(1428-1471)whoservedKingEdwardIVasa“manofaffairs.”Somewhere,
daydreaming,ChisumdecidedhealsowantedtobeakingmakerlikeTheDukeof
Warwickwhomhestudiedaboutinschool.ChisumdiscoveredthatNevillewas
knownas“WarwicktheKingMaker,”atitlethatcamewithlargeestatesandhelped
tomakehimoneofthemostpowerfulmeninEngland.ThroughNeville’s
manipulationsin1461,EdwardIVachievedthethrone.Later,in1470,Warwick
helpedthedeposedHenryVIregainthethrone.Hissignificantpoliticalinfluence
andwillingnesstochangecamps–orplaybothsidesatthesametime–inorderto57Ibid.,99.
117
maintainpowermadeWarwickpowerfulEnglishLord.Nevillewasamaster
strategistnegotiatingforhisnuclearfamily.Amanofaffairstookcareoftheking
andexercisedthepowerofthethrone.TheMethodisteducationalsystemsomehow
tooktheformofindoctrinationtomakeChisumnotwanttobetheking,butthe
powerbehindamanofinfluence.Warwick,then,forblacksinpoliticsisthesameas
“UncleTom”forblackpersonsinsociety.
ProbablytheunderstandingthatChisum’sfamilyneededhimtohelpthem
getoutofMexiawasalwaysinhismind.Accordingtothewritingsofmostblack
historiansontheblackfamily,theChisumfamilywasdifferent.InTheBlackFamily
inSlaveryandFreedom1750-1925,HerbertGutmansurmisedthatthebondageofa
pastinslaverymadeblackfamiliesshirkfromseparationofanykindforfearof
neverreuniting.58ThiscalculationprovedincorrectfortheChisumfamily.They
deliberatelysenttheirsonfirsttogainaneducationandthentofindthemaplaceto
settle.WhentheMethodistchurchrenegedonpromisesoffinancialsupportforRev.
Richardson’sschool,becomingeducatedtooknewtwists.
ForallthegoodintentionsoftheMethodistFreedman’sAidsociety,
Richardsondidnotreceivethemoneyaspromisedbythegeneralchurch.Thus,
studentsnotonlyhadtoallowtimeforclassinstruction;theyhadtoworkfortheir
educationandforsomesendmoneyhometosupporttheirfamilies.Exceptfor
newspaperclippingsaboutChisum’svisitshome,littleremainstoshowhowhe
survived.AshortbiographyofJackJohnsoncanbeusedtoillustratethelifestyleof58HerbertGutman,TheBlackFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom1750-1925(NewYork:PantheonBooks,1976),436-437.
118
theyoungblackMethodistyouthsduringtheirschoolyears.Itisclear,fromthe
informationbothprovided,thatJohnsonandChisumgrewupinthesamestreetsin
Texas.ForboyssuchasJohnsonandChisum,thesojournwasnotallschoolwork.In
theseyearstheirexperiencesincludedworkingonthedocks,breakinghorses,
gambling,andfightingwithfistsformoney.59
Boxingdevelopedasasportineighteenth-centuryRegencyEngland.Itwasa
gentleman’ssport,displayingself-defensethatsignifiedmasculinehonorandaless
lethalformofdueling.ForthemostpartinEngland,upper-classmensponsored
working-classmentofight,bettingontheoutcome.Thegamblingaspectburdened
thesportwithfixedfightsandcorruptionfromthebeginning.Thoughthesportof
boxingwasillegalinTexas,inthe1880stheboysearnedhatsfullofmoneywhen
theyfoughtforspectatorsinthestreetsandpainwhentheyfoughtforhonor.60
JackJohnson(1878-1946)claimedhehad“roaminginstincts”whilein
school.Hisfamily,likeChisum’s,includedbothparents.HenryandTinaJohnson
wereformerslaves.BothwereMethodists.Henryworkedforthewhiteschool
districtasacaretakeroftheschoolbuilding.Theyhadninechildren;Jackwasthe
secondandthefirstson.HeandChisum,evenwiththeirsix-yearseparationinage,
ranaroundtogetherandfoughttogetherinthestreetsofGalvestonwhentheywere
lads.FromdescriptionsinJohnson’sautobiographyandletterstoChisum,the59JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927).TheauthorattainedthisworkbycourtesyofJamekaB.Lewis,Guthrie,Oklahoma.60AmyLouiseWood,LynchingandSpectacle:WitnessingRacialViolenceinAmerica,1890-1940(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2009);Freeman(Indiana),22July1899.
119
youngstersfoundalottodo.Accesstotrainyardsyieldedmobility,andusually,if
theywereslyenough,theboyshidinboxcars.BlackPullmanporterswhospotted
themdidnottaketheirfreetravellightly.Theyliterallypickedthemupandused
theirfeettokickthemoffthetrains.ThereweretimeswhenJohnsonwoundupwith
bruisesandsorespotsfromhisattempts.61AtagetwelveJohnsontraveledtoNew
Yorkonhisown,usingbothtrainsandships.Therehefoundthatworkingonthe
dockandgamblingprovidedasourceofincome.
MelvinChisum’sindoctrinationintofightingmayhavebeenmuchlike
Johnson’s.Fightinginthestreetsprovedlucrative.Hatswouldbe“brimming”with
moneyaftertheirbrutalbattles.Ifso,thenonewaytheylearnedtofightwasby
fisticuffsatthedocks.ThisisJohnson’stale:
Thementhereweretoughandhardboiledmen.Fightingwasoneoftheimportantfunctionsoftheirexistence.Theyfoughtuponeveryoccasionandonanypretext.ItwasuptometoholdmyownwiththemandIenteredintotheirlivesandoccupationswithasmuchenergyasanyofthem.AlthoughIwasoneoftheyoungestinthisroughandaggressivegroup,Ihadtodomyshareofthefighting.Itwasnecessaryformetofightyouthsmucholderandlargerthanmyself.Isufferedmanybeatings,butevidentlyascapableofstandingmuchpunishment.Iwonmanyoftheroughandtumblebattles,andbecauseoftheill-matchedaffairsinwhichIengaged,Iattainedmoreorlessareputationasafighter.ItwasatthistimethatItookupboxing,notwithanyintentionofengaginginitasaprofession,butbecauseitseemednecessaryformetolearnsomethingofthescienceinordertopitmyselfagainstthefightinggroupswithwhomIassociated.62
61JackJohnson,JackJohnson:IntheRingandOut.(Chicago:NationalSportsPublishingCompany,1927),28.62Ibid.,32.
120
UnlikeChisum,JohnsondidnotlastinFreedman’sAidSocietyschools.Even
asachildheobservedthesubtlechangetowhiteradicalismandridiculedtheshift
inteachingthattaughtblackstoacceptsecondaryrolesinsteadofleadershiproles.
JohnsonwasexpelledfromMethodistschoolsforsayingGoddidnotexistandthe
churchwantedtocontrolpeople’sminds.Laterinlifehewrotethathefoundpeople
inthechurchmoredishonest“intheirconductthanallthecare-free,thoughtless
andirreverentspiritsintheworldofsportandquestionableliving.”Johnsonwas
proofofthesuccessoftheMethodistexperimentineducatingboys.Withonlya
partialnormalschooleducationunderhisbelt,Johnsoncouldreadbooksinthree
languagesEnglish,French,andSpanish.LikeChisum,hiseducationwasextensive.J.
B.LewiswrotethateventhoughJohnsonwasexpelledfromgrammarschoolhewas
“conversantwiththeworksofShakespeare,andcandiscussandquoteplaysofthe
greatestofallEnglishwriterswithaneasewhichrevealsthathehasdelveddeeply
intohisvolumes.”ItamazedmanythattheMethodistexperimentworkedwithblack
youth.LewisstoodastoundedthatJohnsonwastrainedearlyinlifeindignity.“The
classicsarequitetohislikingandhenotjoys[enjoys]inhearingthefinest
compositionsoftheoldmasters,butheplaystheircompositionhimself.”63Some
forceotherthanbrutalitywouldhavetochallengeagroupofeducatedblackmen,
withpowerandprowess,withtheideathattheycouldsucceedinAmericabeside
theirbrothersofthesamehumanspeciesbutadifferentskincolor.
Theboys,ChisumandJohnson,alsometotherswhowouldbecomelife-long
friends,IsaacWilliamYoungandEmmettScott.WhenJohnsonwasapproximately63Ibid.,6.
121
fifteen,hestartedhisheavyweight-fightingcareer.ForatimeheandChisum
traveleddifferentpathwaysthantheotherfriends.Butastheymovedaroundthe
countryandtheworldthroughouttheirlives,theircareerswouldinterminglein
Chisum’sashepursuedhisgoals.
LikeChisum,IsaacWilliamYoungchosethesamedaytocelebratehis
birthdayinJanuary,1872,buthegrewupquitedifferentlyonaplantationin
Glencoe,Louisiana.HewasbaptizedintomembershipoftheMethodistEpiscopal
Church(M.E.)ateightdaysold.64Younggarneredoneofthebesteducationsablack
couldfromthegovernment’sFreedman’sAidSocietyatBaldwinAcademy,in
Louisiana,whichmayhavereceivedmoneyfromtheGeneralBoardoftheMethodist
Church.65Inthe1900censusYoungreferencedhisfather’sancestryasFrench.
FamilylegendandBaldwinaccountingrelatethatYoung’sbiologicalfather,a
shipper,paidforhiseducationthroughdonationstoBaldwinAcademy.While
Chisumusedhisbodyinprizefightinginthemid1890s,Young’sbiologicalfather
senthimonaworldtouronhisfleetofshipsbeforeheenteredmedicalschool.
YoungplannedonteachingLatin.ButwiththeoutbreakoftyphoidinLouisianahe
chosetogointomedicine.However,Youngdidhaveafatherfigureinthehomeby
agefour,afterJosephD.BrownmarriedYoung’smother,abeautifulCreolewoman,
ElizabethYoungheadoptedYoung.ThroughhisstepfatherYoungwasintroducedto
politicallife.AfterReconstruction,theDemocraticPartyinLouisianacontinuedto
useblacks,andJosephBrownwasappointedtohisfirsttermasmagistrateoverthe64H.T.S.Johnson“LifeSketchofDr.IsaacWilliamYoung,PresidentofLangstonUniversity,”(OklahomaCityOK)BlackDispatch,10May1923.65Goodman,SelectionsfromaJournal,49.
122
thirdwardofLouisianain1881.LocatedinSt.Mary’sParish,theareaincludedthe
FranklinandtheSaintJosephdistricts.Astheyearspassed,blacksgraduallylost
groundandweresubjectedtoincreasedsegregationandlossofpoliticalinfluence.66
YetYoungdevelopedatasteforthepoliticallife.Itseemsthetransitionofthe
Methodistexperimentonblackyouth–fromleaderstokingmakers-neverreached
BaldwinAcademy.Youngwantedtobeaking,notakingmaker.
ThroughtheMethodistschoolsandmeetingsandtravelingsomeofthesame
roadsinTexas,MelvinChisummetEmmettScott(1873-1957),whowouldbecomea
centralpoliticianintheemergingeducationandpoliticalmovementsforAmerican
blacksinthenationalarenainthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Thesonof
HoraceandEmmaScottattendedMethodistFreedmanschoolsforatime.Whilehis
biographersemphasizetheWileyNormalSchoolinhisletterstocolleagues,Scott
admittedthatheandChisumwereschoolladstogether.In1887-1888Scottcarried
mailfortheMarshall,Texas,postofficetoWileyNormalSchool,amileandahalf
away.Healsoheldseveralpositionsfortheschool,includingfeedinghogsand
choppingwood.Accordingtolegend,Scottsharedhisearningswiththeother
childreninthefamilyandeventuallyleftschool,sothatotherfamilymemberscould
attend.ScottbeganwritingfortheHoustonDailyPostbetween1891and1894,
whileChisumwasdrawnintothelifeofpugilism,travelingontrainsaroundthe
country,andgettingahighschooleducation.ScottalsohelpedestablishtheHouston
TexasFreemannewspaperandediteditfrom1894to1897.
66MauriceThompson,TheStoryofLouisiana(Boston:D.LothropCompany,1888),264.
123
Astheoldestson,in1887MelvinChisumreturnedhomefrom“education”to
workandallowothermembersofhisfamilytogetaneducation.Hisfoursiblings
wereWilliamWoodruff(1882),SamuelSylvester(1883),Benjamin(1884),and
Clarisse(1885).LikemanyblacksstuckintheheatofTexasracismandduringthe
post-Reconstructionyears,thefamilydreamedofmovingNorth.Chisumalsohada
namechangewhilehewasaway.HewasnolongerknownjustaslittleMelvin
Chisum,butbyashortenedversionofhismiddlename,Jacksonto“JackChisum.”He
alsohadacquiredastreet-fightingname,“TexasRosebud.”
TheappearanceofGeorgePullman(1831-1897)inChisum’slifeinthemid-
1880sposesthequestionofwhetherPullmanhiredChisumentirelyasaporteror
alsoasafighter.Pullmanwasanengineerandindustrialistwhodesignedand
manufacturedtheluxuryPullmansleepingcars.HetouredtheSouthlookingfora
specialkindofpersonalityinyoungblackboystohireforhisburgeoning
businesses.MuchlikeChisum’splight,Pullmanhadstoppedhisformaleducationat
theageoffourteenandwasaboutthesameageasChisumwhenhestarted
supportinghisownfamily.By1853Pullmanhelpedmovebuildingsawayfromthe
ErieCanalinordertowidenthewaterway.HelatermovedtoChicagoandformeda
partnershipwithBenjaminFieldwhooperatedsleepercarsontheChicagoAlton
andGalenarailroads.In1880heconstructedacompanytownintheCalumetregion
ofChicago.Hislife,likeJackChisum’s,wasforgedintheschoolofhardknocks.
SomethinginChisum’sstatureandcharacterhadgivenhimawayoutof
Texas.PerhapsPullmanwasdrawnnotonlytoyoungman’spersonality,butalsoto
124
hissize,leanness,andspeed.PullmanalsohadhisownfightingringintheChicago
yards.Accordingtosourcesandlegend,PullmanpersonallytalkedtoChisum’s
familybeforehiringhimasarailroadporter.67
DidPullmanchoosehimbecausehecouldfight?DidPullmanusehisporters
asfighterstoraisemoneyordidheallowthemtofightfortheirpleasure?WasJack
Chisumanexception?DidPullmanknowthatChisumwasastreetfighterthrough
theporterswhokickedhimofftrains?Thereisnoanswertoanyofthesequestions,
butitiswelldocumentedthatChisumwasclearlyaPullmanmanbythe1920s,
especiallyinarticleswrittenabouthiminnewspapers.MostbooksaboutPullman
portersaddresstheintimatepersonalrelationshipbetweenChisumandPullman
afterPullmanhiredhimasaporter,andparticularlyinChisum’sfightagainstunions
inthe1920s.68
Porterswerepersonalservantstopassengersonrailwaysystems.They
madetheirwagesfromtips.PullmanstartedhisPullmanPorterPalaceCompany
justaftertheCivilWar.Heestablishedastandardforcomfortabledeluxetrain
travel.Asaporter,Chisumworkeddirectlywiththecustomers:hereceived
passengers,carriedtheirluggage,attendedtotheirrooms,servedbeveragesand
food,kepttheguestshappy,andmadehimselfavailabletopassengersatallhours.
Healsocameintocontactwithpowerfulwhitesandinfluentialblacks.Littleis67WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977),15;BethBates,PullmanPortersandtheRiseofProtestPoliticsinBlackAmerica1925-1945(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001).68RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior:TheLifeandTimesofRobertS.Abbott(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),263-264.
125
writtenaboutthepersonalrelationshipsbetweenportersandtheirattendees,buta
specialrelationshipwasforgedbetweentherichmenandtheirpersonalporters
whosawindiscretions,lookedtheotherway,andprotectedthereputationsoftheir
clients.AsChisum’spublicimagegrewintheearly1920s,theserelationshipswould
helphimsupportTuskegeeInstituteandotherphilanthropicendeavors.The
Roosevelts,Vanderbilts,Fords,Morgans,Carnegies,Harrimans,Goulds,Fricks,and
theirfamiliesrodeinluxurycars.Agoodporterandbodyguardwasremembered
formanyyears.
FromPullmanPortertoPugilisttoJournalist
ThePullmanCompanyalsomadeitpossibleforporterstoacquirean
educationbyprovidingthemwithemploymentthroughthesummermonths.69The
HarlanschoolofresearchrecordsthatChisumattendedtheBostonSchoolof
Technology,theChicagoTheologicalSeminary,andtookclassesatColumbia
UniversityinjournalisminNewYorkCity.Healsotrainedinhisvocationinthe
newspaperbusinessasadaylaborer.Heengagedinanothercareerthatbrought
himfameacrossthecountryandaroundtheworld,aswellaspain.Hebecamean
actorforThomasDruryforhisgenteelneeds,butalsodonnedhistights,usedhis
fistsatfirst,andthengloves,tobecomeatitledpugilistforincome.
69WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37,(Illinois:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977),53.
126
Thoughitwasadangeroussport,Chisumcontinuedboxingbecausehewas
goodatitanditcarriedwithitbothsocialandfinancialrewards–quickmoneyand
fame.ChisummadehisdebutasaboxerintheDallasOperaHouseinTexasas
“TexasRosebud.”Asbrutalashischallengers,Chisumeventuallyboxedhiswaytoa
NewYorkinternationaltitlematch.
DuringhisschoolyearsChisumfoughtinthealleyways,streets,anddocks
withotherboyssuchasJackJohnson,gainingnotonlyaneducationbutknowledge
inthepracticeofpugilism.SomeofhisfirstfightstookplaceonasandbarintheRio
Grande.70WithinfiveyearsofleavingMexia,Chisum’snameappearedin
newspapersinthestatesofIllinois,Texas,Ohio,NewYork,andKansasasapugilist
orboxerofsomemerit.71AsChisumbeganhisfightingcareerduringthelate1880s
andearly1890s,boxingrulesshiftedfromusingbareknucklestousinggloves,and
wrestlingwasomitted.Roundsweretimedatthreeminutes.Regularrestperiods
wereinstituted,andadeterminedlengthofroundswassetinsteadoffightinguntil
oneofthetwomencouldnotcontinue.Theideaof“ringgeneralship”wasinstituted
forthebestmanwithall-aroundfightingskills.
As“TexasRosebudofDallas,”Chisumtooknomercyonhisopponentsnor
theyonhiminthering.“TexasRosebud”wasTexassteel,hardandunmerciful,
attunedtomakingmoneybyusinghisbody.Theboxinglifewasbrutalforboth
70MelvinChisum,“DefendsTheSouth,”DallasMorningNews(Dallas,Texas)13August1900.71InterOcean(Illinois)13August1893,FortWorthDailyGazette(Texas),4July1891,5July1891,2July1891.DailyNews,(Texas)2July1891,8July1892,Freeman(Indiana),24October1891.AustinAmericanStatesman(Texas),2July1891.
127
Chisumandhisopponents.Someofthegreatestboxersofalltimecameofage
duringtheperiod.In1891therewerenoJimCrowstatutesinthering.InJuly,1891,
the(colored)TexasRosebudofDallasbeatthe(white)TommyDentonofHot
Springsinfiverounds.ThetwomenfoughtsohardandinearnestthatDentonfailed
torespondwhenthefifthroundwascalled.TexasRosebudalsowentnineteen
brutalroundswithTonyHollis,onlytohavethematchdeclaredadraw.Mostof
Chisum’sboxingmatcheswereunderMarquisofQueensburyrulesformen
weighing135poundsorless,andthewinnertookthepurseof$100and75percent
ofthegatereceipts.72Mostboutstookplaceinprivatefieldsorhomesandwerenot
coveredbynewspapers.
WhileChisumusedhisfistsandbodytoraisecash,continuedhiseducation,
actedonstage,andworkedinrealestateinNewCityandNewJersey,his
schoolmateandfriendEmmettScottcontinuedhiseducationatWileyCollegein
Tyler,Texas,editedanewspaper,andworkedwithalocalpoliticianinHouston.
IsaacYoungcruisedaroundtheworldonhisbiologicalfather’sfleetofships.As
thesemenattemptedtousetheirbodiesandmindstofindjusticeandfairnessinthe
UnitedStates,theyranintosituationstheycouldnotfightwithglovesorwiththeir
wit.
UncleJimCrow,disguisedasthestates’lawsthistime,swoopeddownon
Chisumandhiscolleagues.Itdidnotmatterhowhisnamechangedortowhatpart
ofthecountryhemoved.JimCrowlawsslowlymaneuveredtheirwayintothe
72“TheColoredLight-Weights,”ForthWorthDailyGazette(Texas)5July1891.
128
boxingworld.VannWoodwardtalksabouttheJimCrowlawsasiftheywereanevil
spiritenvelopingAmerica.Themovementproceededtodimthelightofsportsfrom
declaringthebestinsportsinAmericaracialsuperiorityinAmerica.Woodward
wroteinhisbook,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow,that“Its[theoryofJimCrow
whitesupremacy],spiritisthatofanall-absorbingautocracyofrace,ananimusof
aggrandizementwhichmakes,intheimaginationofthewhiteman,anabsolute
identificationofthestrongerracewiththeverybeingofthestate.”73Likefeudal
laws,JimCrowlawsassignedblacksafixedlowerstatusinallthingsAmerican.
Theconstructofwhitenesscausedthedegenerationofblackness.Itfinally
triumphedoverthe13th,14thand15thAmendments,eventhoughtheMethodist
experimentprovedthatracialequalityworked.TheReconstructionEraendedin
late1877.WiththeSouthbackingcongressionalpolicyby1895,anationaltrendof
“JimCrow”wassetagainstthepossibleupwardmobilityofpeopleofcolor.By1877
theintegraleconomicrationalebehindtheCivilWar’sgenesisismoreapparentthan
simplyafightagainstslavery.Thewarwasafightoverslavery,yes,butalsoafight
overtheeconomicbasisofslavery—land,labor,andcapitalism.Theendof
ReconstructionopenednewperspectivesforlowersocioeconomicgroupsofAnglo
Americans,butonlyifsomeothergroup’scivilrightswereconstricted.The
experimentsoftheMethodistchurchshowedarecurringproblemwithblackson
theAmericanstage.Theslavepastshowedthatblacklaborcouldindeedfulfillthe
needsoftheAmericanlaborshortage.Theycouldexcelphysicallyandmentally,but
73C.VannWoodward,TheStrangeCareerofJimCrow(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1974),108.
129
asGlendaGilmoreprovesinherbook,GenderandJimCrow,blacksinthe1890s
failedtofindtheir“place”insociety.74Thesamelanguageof“place”inthemindofa
killergotachildmurderedfornotsalutingapassingriderasa“NiggerKiller.”The
understandingof“place”hadschoolboyspeltedwithdirtandkickedoffofsidewalks
inDallasbecausetheydidnotwanttogettheirclothesdirty,andtheir“place”was
nowbecominglawinAmerica.However,theblackhistorian,Brawleywrotethat
oneofthetasksofMethodists’schoolteachingwastobreaktheunderstandingof
“place”insociety.75
JimCrowsegregationgavethegenerationofEuro-Americanimmigrantswho
wereonlythenbecomingincludedinAmericannativism,includingJewishrefugees
fromRussianviolence,achancetomaketheirmarkonAmericawithoutthe
competitionofpeopleofcolor.ForexampleJewishimmigrantsmovednearAtlantic
Cityandotherareas,settingupfarmsandschoolsinvillagesassecuritynetworks
fortheirrace.However,Jewishpeoplewouldconvertintowhiteness,leavingbehind
theirenclavesforblackssuchasJackChisum’sfathertoinhabitattheturnofthe
century.Blackscouldneverbecomewhite;onlyafewmulattoeswouldpassfor
white.
Inaperiodofnationaleconomicdepression,inthe1890s,thestate
governmentsslowlyinstitutedJimCrowcodestotakeawaytherightsofAmerican
blacksinsports,industry,andsocialareas.Theyearsweremalevolentandtheir
74GlendaGilmore,GenderandJimCrow:WomenandthePoliticsofWhiteSupremacyinNorthCarolina1896-1920(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1996).75Brawley.2.
130
civilrightswerealwaysquestionable.YoungblacksofChisum’sgenerationfaceda
degenerationoftheircivilrightsandthesuffocatingpsychologicalblanketofthe
cultofwhiteness.ThenFrederickDouglass,theblackreformleader,died,leaving
themwithoutanationalleaderinthemidstofanoutrightpushforpersecution,
pogrom,andslaughter.TheNegroworldneededhope.DavidRoediger’sbook,The
WagesofWhiteness:RaceandtheMakingoftheAmericanWorkingClass,challenges
oldernarrativesonthegrowthoftheideologyofwhitesuperiorityintheUnited
States.76Theconceptofracismintheformof“whitesuperiority”forthehistorian
doesnotwhollypiggybackonEuropeanprejudicesfrompriorcenturies.The
divisive,demonicconcepttookitsshapefromwithinthedevelopingworkingclass
astheystruggledwithclassidentity.
Underconditionsofaneconomicdepressionthecountryexperiencedaneed
forlaborers.Theriseofcorporationsandbigbusinessunwillingtosupportthe
workingclasswithwageshighenoughtomaintainaconventionalstandardofliving,
ledtohugeviolentstrikes.Underthesecircumstances,itseemstherulingclassused
racismtoquellwhitelaborunrest.Theworkingclassmadetheirownchoicesand
perpetuatedtheidea.Theyalignedthemselveswiththedominantethnicgroupand
abusedpeopleofcolor.AsDavidJacksonsuggestsinBookerT.Washingtonandthe
StruggleAgainstWhiteSupremacy,theworkingclassperpetuatedallthenegative
attributesascribedtopeopleofanyAfricandescentinacultofwhitenessorracial
76DavidRoediger,TheWagesofWhiteness:RaceandtheMakingoftheAmericanWorkingClass(NewYork:Verso,1991).
131
superiorityinordertofitintothedominantwhitesociety.77The“cultofwhiteness”
wascreatedtoslowdownorstopblacksfrombecomingsuccessful.
Inordertodampenlaborcompetition,whitelaborersmadeblack-skinned
people“anti-citizens”–enemiesofasocialcontract–inordertomakethemselvesfit
intoanewwhiteculture.TobroadenJackson’spoint,laborerswhotooka
whitenessmentalityearnedakindofpsychologicalcompensation,eventhoughthey
earnedlowwages;atleasttheyhadracialclassprivileges.Theywerenot“black”but
white.Therefore,whitenessmatteredeconomicallyandsocially.Theideaof
whitenesswasnotimposedonwhites.TheBritishdidthesamethinginIndia.
Whitenesswaslinkedtocapitalismoraneconomicsystem:non-whiteswere
automaticallybarredbecausetheywereunqualifiedtoparticipateinthenewly
orderedsocietywithatypeofsocioeconomicwhitenessasthekeyelement.In
Oklahomainorderforblackstoreceivetheirmoneyfromoiltheyneededwhite
guardianstocontrolthefunds.78InTheFirstBlackBoxingChampions,ColeenAycock
supportsthisidea.Shewritesthattheriseofblackpugilistsupsetthewhitestatus
quobecauseblackprowessinthering“directlychallengedideasofwhite
supremacy.”79
77Jackson,JacksonIntheRingandOut,20-21.78AngieDebo,AndStilltheWatersRun:TheBetrayaloftheFiveCivilizedTribes(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1940).OklahomaFoot-LooseandFancyFree(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1949).104-105.MartinHauan,Oklahoma'sLeglaGraft,IllegalGraftandJustPlainStealins(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma:MidwestPoliticalPublications,1993).75-95.79ColeenAycockandMarkScott,TheFirstBlackBoxingChampions:EssaysonFightersofthe1800stothe1920s(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,2011),xiv.
132
Evenwiththechangesinlaborandwithracismenteringtheboxingring,Jack
Chisumboxedhiswaytothetopinonefight.Recordsarehardtolocate,butthe
GalvestonDailyNewsreportedthatbyAugust8,1892,M.J.Chisum,knownas“Texas
Rosebud,”washailedasthecoloredlightweightchampionoftheSouthwest.
Afterwardhewasinundatedwithchallenges.Themoneyrolledintohiscoffers.M.J.
Chisumassertedthat:
Thechallengeinyesterday’snewssayingIwouldfightTonyHollisifhewouldputup$150dollarswasamistake.IftheDallasamateurathleticclubwillhangupthepurseof$150Iwillwhiphimforit.Ihaveknockedhimoutonce,asIcanwinnoreputationbywhippinghimagainImusthavethecashornochin.TexasRosebud:thecoloredlightweightchampionoftheSouthwest.80
Onehundred-fiftydollarsin1892wasworth$2509in2018.Hollis
respondedwitha$100purse;Rosebud’schoicewasasidebetof$50or$100.
However,TheWichitaBeaconreportedinAugust,“TheRosebudofTexas”willnever
bloominWichita.”Ina“rattlingfight,”theRosebudwasheraldedasahardhitter,
neverwhipped,andastopperofchampions.ButevenusingtheleftjabChisumwas
knownfor,hewasknockedoutinfourroundsbyDenverJack.Aswiftright-hand
swingtoChisum’sneckknockedhimoutforafullthreeminutes.Afterlosingthe
fightwithDenverJack,Chisum’snextdisplaywasinChicago’sPullman’sCity.81
Perhapshewenthometohealorrest.Orwereheandotherfighterscalled
hometoprotecttheirgodfatherGeorgePullman?Pullman,likeaplantationowner,80“SportingNews:RosebudandHollis,”GalvestonDailyNews(Texas),8August1892.81InterOcean(Illinois),13August1893.
133
ranhiscityasifhisworkersweresharecroppers.Chisumwasthenhisfavored
handyman.DepressionloomedovertheUnitedStatesintheyearsof1893-1894.
Pullmansystematicallylaidoffworkersandcuttheirwages.TheAmericanRailway
UnionledastrikethatshutdownPullmanCity.TheInterOceanNewspaperof
ChicagoonAugust13,1893,reportedthatJohnHolmesat118poundsandTexas
Rosebudat130poundswereanxioustomeetanybodyathisweighttofightat
PullmanCity.ItisinterestingthatthefighterswerealsogatheringaroundGeorge
Pullmanwhenhisownutopiancitywasinanuproarandworkerswerepreparing
forastrike.OnMay11,1894,threethousandPullmanworkerswentonstrike.
PerhapsChisumwasanegotiatorwithhisoldbuddies.Theepisodemusthavemade
animpressiononhim,ashebecameanti-unionandwouldfightagainstA.Phillip
Randolphinthe1920sandbeagainstunionizingblacks.82Theboycottwasbroken
inJulybyuseofaninjunctionupheldbytheU.S.SupremeCourt.Therelationship
betweenChisumandPullmanatthatpointisnotwelldocumented,butfortherest
ofhislifeChisumhonoredandsupportedtheentirePullmanfamily.83
Likeaboltofspirituallighting,BookerT.Washington’s(BTW)callforAfrican
Americansto“casttheirbucket”togetherasabrotherhoodmusthavebeenlike
findingcoldwaterinthemidstofahotsummerday.Chisum,EmmettScott,andI.W.
Youngattendedthe1895CottonStatesExpositioninAtlanta,Georgia,andheard
BTWdeliver“TheAtlantaExpositionSpeech”encouragingblacksto“castdownyour
bucketwhereyouare.”Togethertheyheardhiscallforaccommodation.Hisspeech82EricArnesenHarris,BrotherhoodsofColor:BlackRailroadWorkersandtheStruggleforEquality(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2002),91.83Harris,KeepingtheFaith,54-55.
134
wasinaccordwiththeindoctrinationoftheFreedmanSocietyschools,suggesting
“tolerationasameansofexpediencywiththehopeofgainingguaranteedrightsin
theendandtogaineconomicpower.”Theyfollowedhim.
FormanyblackswhofelttheAmericanlegalsystemwasstranglingthemand
holdingthemunderwatertodrown,hearingthewordsoftheAtlantaExposition
speechofferedhope.AndChisumfoundthatforthefirsttimehisdreamhada
chanceofbecomingreality.Blackshadaking.Hecouldbecomea“ManofAffairsfor
theKingofBlackAmericans.”ScottalsowascapturedinBTW’sweb.Theyoungman
fromHoustonhadmoretoofferthanjusthisskillsasanewspapermanandhis
politicalworkforGalvestonlaborleaderNorrisW.Cuney.Scotthadaphotographic
memory.Aloyalmanwiththeabilitytoremembernamesandvastamountsof
informationwasanassettoanyleader.By1897,Scottmaneuveredhiswayinto
beingBTW’sconfidante,personalsecretary,speechwriter,andghostwriter.As
Scott’slifechanged,sodidChisum’s.
TexasRosebudhadearnedhisglobalboxingID546553in1897.Hefought
onefightundertheworldnumberinAprilof1897againstAlbertGriffith,a.k.a.
“BlackGriffo.”TherewasnosoldierinUnionbluetocatchhim.YoungGriffo,a
world-classpugilistfromAustralia,knockedoutJackChisuminNewYork’sArena
Clubboxingtournamentinoneminuteandfiftyseconds.Griffowouldgoontobe
beatenbypossiblythegreatestlightweightorheavylightweightchampion,ofthe
worldofthattimeperiod,JoeGans.
135
SeveralotherblowswouldknockJackChisumintothinkingaboutchanging
hislifefromthedangeroussportofboxingtoeducatinghisraceandrearinga
family.ThatyearChisum’sbacker,friend,andmentorGeorgePullmandiedatsixty-
sixyearsold.However,hislinkstothePullmanfamilywouldcontinuethroughhis
personalrelationshipwithPullman’sdaughterFlorence(1868-1937)andbotha
politicalandpersonalrelationshipwithherhusbandFrankOrrenLowden(1861-
1943),whotookoverthePullmanempire.Lowdenwouldlaterbecomegovernorof
IllinoiswithChisum’shelp.Chisumgaveupthelifeofboxingforapositionas
assistanttoBishopWilliamDerrick;healsobecameanewspaperwriter,realestate
developer,andhotelmanager,andfulfilledthefamilyresponsibilitiesofson,
brother,andhusband.
Inthewinterof1898,Chisum’sbrotherWilliammovedtoNewYorkwith
him.Subsequently,brothersBenjaminandSamuelfollowed.Thebrothersaided
Chisumintherealestatebusiness,ashotelclerksanddoormen.In1899,Chisum’s
fatherJohnveryquietlysoldhisrestaurantinMexia,sailedoutofGalvestonharbor,
andmovedwithhiswifeanddaughtertoNewYork.84JohnChisumfoundworkasa
doormaninaNewYorkhotel.HoweverafterheandMelvinwerealmostkilledina
NewYorkriotinSeptember1900,hemovedawayfromthecityandstartedaturkey
farminanoldJewishenclave.85MelvinChisumsettleddowninanapartmentwith
hiswife,whocamewithhisfamilyfromMexia,andwithapartmentmatesPauland
84MexiaEveningLedger(Texas),24June1899.85SeeW.H.Brooksetal.,“StoryoftheRiot,”(NewYork:Citizens’ProtectiveLeague,1900),16.Whenleavingwork,awhitemobchasedChisum’sfatherinanattempttokillhimbecauseablackmanhadkilledpoliceofficer.
136
AliceDunbar.OtherthaninformationgarneredfromChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers
andGiveUsEachDay:TheDiaryofAliceDunbar-Nelson,littlecanbeexposedonthe
Chisum-Dunbarepisode.86Aswell,littleisknownabouthiswife.Whatisknownis
thatby1921Chisumwasdivorced.
JackChisumgaveupthename“TexasRosebud”toclaimhisrealname
“MelvinJ.Chisum.”In1900MelvinChisumwroteanexposeonhimself:
Afewyearsago,whenexhibitionsofthestrenuousartofself-defenseandfisticattackswereallowedunderTexaslaw,therewasayoungNegropugilistinDallasknowntoringfameasRosebud.HemadehisdebutintheringintheDallasOperahouse.Pugilismbeingdiscouragedhere,RoseBudmovedtoNewYork,abandonedtheringforthemorepeacefulpursuitofmanagingahotelandwritingforthepapersunderhisrealnameMelvinJ.Chisum.87
Withthisacknowledgment,M.J.Chisum’scampaignto“defendthegood
peopleoftheSouth,thecountrywhichfromwhichIhailandwhichIlove,”shows
hisemergenceintothenewspaperfieldandwhathelaterbecomesasacultherofor
poordestituteblacks,Indians,andplainwhitesfrom1914untilthe1930s.His
journalisticcareerstartedwhenChisumlashedoutattheragingbrutalwrathof
MississippiwhitesagainstblacksinJulyof1899.Chisumlashedoutatblack
newspapersthatassumedthatthelynchingofSamHoseinGeorgiawasjustified.
Challengingtheirconservativeeditorialsandreports,hechargedthattheymust
stopmakinghastyconclusionsandadmittherealcrimeamongblackswas
conservatism,insteadofdefense.Hewrote,“Conservatismisanexcellentqualityin86GloriaHull,GiveUsEachDay:TheDiaryofAliceDunbar-Nelson(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,1984),120.87MelvinChisum,“TheSpecialNeed,”Freeman(Indiana)22July1899.
137
theabstractandtherearecertainspheresofactivityinwhichwecannotwellhave
toomuchofit.Butthisisnotoneofthem.”AsanoutsiderinNewYorknot
connectedtotheTuskegeemachinebutonewhohadfeltthestingofterroristsinhis
homevillageofMexia,Chisumpushedthepresstotakeactiontodefendsouthern
blackslivingunderthesiegeofhatecrimes.88
Inhiswritingwasamountingfrustrationabouttheblackpress.Hewentone
stepfurthertoadmonishamanwhowouldbecomefriendandfoe,T.Thomas
Fortune.ItseemsFortuneblamedthesouthernracewarsonthedemeanorofthe
blackslivingthere,callingthem“lowelements”oftherace.Chisumexplainedto
Fortune,ashavemodernhistoriansJacksonandRoediger,that“Thecommon
lumberofthewhiterace,likethatofourown,issofarinexcessnumericallythat
whentheirbrutalwrathisragingtheyareunsafe,irresponsible,anduncontrollable
citizens.Itisanestablishedfactthatpoorwhitesofthesouth,whoownnothingand
representless,areourbitterenemies,regardlessofhowwellbehavedand
progressivewemaybe.”89Withintherace,asocioeconomicdivideamongblacks
becomesapparentintherhetoricofnewspapersattheturnofthetwentieth
century.ThedivisiontakesplaceoutsideoftheBTWnetwork.Openingupthislifeof
MelvinChisumshowsthathedidnotimmediatelygotoBTWforwork,but
88MelvinChisum,“TheSpecialNeed:AmongtheNegroes-ThePressandItspowertoSurpress[sic],AtrociousCrimesoftheSouth-viewedbyMelvinJ.ChisumofNewYork-Aliens-TheNegronotontheList-FactsPlainlyStated,”22July1899;M..J.Chisum,“T.T.FortuneCriticised,”NewYorkTimes(1857-1922),10June1900.Retrievedfromhttp://argo.library.okstate.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.argo.library.okstate.edu/docview/96003408?accountid=41189Chisum,“TheSpecialNeed,”Freeman(Indiana),22July1899.
138
attemptedtostartaschoolforblacksonhisowninNewYorkwithouttheaidofthe
Tuskegeemachine.
Sometimein1900-1901,theMelvinJ.ChisumTrainingSchoolforColored
Servantsopenedforbusinessat414West36thStreetinNewYork.Chisumandhis
familyplannedtotrainandfindemploymentforblackmaidsandmanservants,
mentorthem,andwatchoverthemastheyenteredprivatehomestowork.He
admittedinaletterthathewasnota“missionarybutdoingtheworkinorderto
gainanhonestincomeandelevateblackpeople.”Itwasnotsuccessful.
AsChisumwiththeaidofhisfamilytriedtostarthisownschoolforcolored
servants,afterBTW’sAtlantaExpositionspeech,andafterBTW’sacceptanceby
PresidentTheodoreRooseveltastheleaderofblacks,othermovementsin
educationtookplace.InMarch,1897,W.E.B.DuBois,KellyMiller,FrankGrimke,
JohnCromwell,JohnLove,andWalterB.HaysonestablishedtheAmericanNegro
AcademyinWashingtonD.C.Thisgroupofsophisticatededucatorsattemptedto
fosterblackscholarlyandculturalendeavors.Theirstancewastomoveawayfrom
theemphasisonpropertydevelopmentandpullingoneselfupbyone’sbootstraps
tomorelearnedendeavors.ThegroupwasmoreincompetitionwithChisumthan
BTW.However,thedeathofCromwellslowedtheirmission.DuBois,whofollowed
Cromwell,didnothavethepanachetoleadthegroup.NotuntilArchibaldGrimke
rosetoaleadershiprolein1903didtheacademygrowpositivelywithitspapers
andsessions.
139
ManyothergreatAfricanAmericansgatheredinNewYorkduringthistime,
includingChisum’sfriends,JamesWeldonJohnsonandhisbrotherJ.Rosamond
Johnson,co-authorsin1900ofLiftEveryVoiceandSing.Thetheaterwasfilledwith
theleadersofNewYork’sAfricanAmericansocietyfortheperformances.Chisum
alsobefriendedactorsBertWilliamsandGeorgeWalker.AtthesametimeChisum
alsocontinuedatradehelearnedattheAndrewsNormalSchoolthroughhiswork
fortheCompositePrintingCompany,atheatricalandcommercialprintingconcern
locatedat121West40thStreetinNewYorkCity’sTheaterDistrict,remainingthere
anumberofyearsasheaddedajournalismcareertohisrepertoire.Chisum’sworld
tookhimwhereverthetrainswouldrun,fromDallastoChicagotoNewYork.From
aboyhislifewasmobile.Inthesameperiod,anotheryoungjournalist,whowould
laterfactorinChisum’slife,wasmakinganameforhimselfinChicago.HaroldIckes,
anup-and-comingRepublicanpolitician,wasajournalistlikeChisumandworked
fortheChicagoRecordandtheChicagoTribune.90
AfterChisumbecamequitewellknownacrossthecountryforhisboxing
feats,healsodevelopedareputationasbodyguardforBishopW.B.Derrick,oneof
themosteminentmenoftheraceandabishopoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopal
Church(AME).DerrickwasborninAntigua,WestIndies,in1843.Derrick’sstyleof
preachingblendedcultureandfaithinaunionwithmodernmysticism.Derrick’s
backgroundincludedheroism.DuringtheCivilWar,DerrickservedintheU.S.Navy
ontheflagshipMinnesotaduringthebattleoftheMonitorandMerrimac.According90HaroldIckes,TheAutobiographyofaCurmudgeon(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1943)27;JohnMazeandGrahamWhite,HaroldIckesoftheNewDeal:HisPrivateLifeandPublicCareer(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1985),32-34.
140
totheAMEChurchReview,Derrickwasaninspirationtoyoungpeoplebecausehe
talkedtothepossibilitiesofhisraceandwasuncompromisinginhisdemandsfor
freedomandjustice.91PresidentWilliamMcKinleydescribedhisfriendDerrickas
oneoftheforemostcitizensoftherepublic.Hesaidtoablackaudience,“Yourrace
hascontributedtothiscountrysomeofthebestmenwithinitsconfinesanditwill
pleaseyoutoknowW.B.Derrickisoneofthem.”92MelvinChisumbraggedthathe
meteverypresidentfromMcKinleytoFranklinD.Roosevelt.Inarolesuchas
bodyguard,hisboastingseemslegitimate.Chisum’srelationshipwithDerrickand
thedeathofGeorgePullmanseemedtomovehimawayfromalifeofusinghisbody
forsurvivalandpushedhimtomoveindifferentcircles.
ThelivesofChisum,Scott,Young,Twine,andJohnsonrevealthebackground
andnatureoftheblackpoliticianswhowouldforgethetideforcivilrightsinthe
1930s.Throughtheirliveshistorianscantracethetrialsthataccommodationput
beforeagenerationofmenseekingreforminanintolerantsystemthatdidnotkeep
itspromisestoblacks.Theirinterconnectedstoriesshowhowandwhyblacksbegan
creatingtheirownmeterorplumlinefortheirracetomeasurejustice,equality,and
moralitytoultimatelygaincivilrightsoutsideoftheestablishedAmericanmodels.
DuringtheProgressiveErayearsfrom1900-1917theylikeotherscontinuedtheir
searchforrecognitionasAmericansintheirnativeland.
91AMEChurchReview,October1893.92NewYorkTimes,30May1896.
141
142
CHAPTERIV
THESTROKEOFAPEN
THEVILLAINIZATIONOFMELVINCHISUM
IfiteverseemedtoWashingtonincongruousforhimself,theconventionalandconservativeblackleader,theBaptistlayman,thepublicpurveyorofconventionalmorality,tobeinleaguewiththisplumplittlerogueinabullet-proofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingtheprivacyofothers,henevercommittedsuchanattitudetowriting.HisresorttohishumbleservantChisumisameasureofacertainmoralinsensitivityinWashingtonthatonedoesnotfindintheprivatelivesofhisopponentssuchasDuBoisorevenTrotter.ThoseHarvardgraduatesstartednearthetop.Washington,havingstartedinslaveryandpoverty,wouldgagatalmostnothingthatpromiseddominance.1
---LouisHarlan,TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915
LouisHarlancreatedaMelvinChisumcaricature.Heoverdrewthemuscles
anddidnotinsertthebrain.Harlandidso–notsomuchtoshowwhoChisumwas–
buttoshoreuporjustifywhathethoughtofBookerT.Washington(BTW).Several
aspectsoftherealMelvinChisumandhislifeneedelucidation.Thetruthisthat,in
retrospect,ifHarlanhadnotdevelopedChisum’scharacteras“Washington’smost
1LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1983),92.
143
activespyandeventuallyBTW’sspyandprovocateur,Chisummayhaveremained
anunknowncharacterinAmericanhistoryinsteadofheadingtheA-listfor
America’s,andpossiblytheworld’s,topAmericanblackspies.Chisum’sworkin
blackespionageisnowonflashcardsandintheglobalclassroomthankstoDr.
QuintardTaylor.TayloristheScottandDorothyBullittProfessorofAmerican
HistoryattheUniversityofWashington,Seattle.Theblackprofessorisalsothe
websitedirectorofBlackPast.org,toutingitselfas“theOnlineReferenceGuideto
AfricanAmericanHistory.”Thewebsitepostsfifteenthousandpagesonblack
history.Anotheronlinesite,Textarchive.ru,offersTaylor’slectureson“Twentieth
CenturyAfricanAmericanHistory”inadownloadablePDFformattobeusedby
teachersaroundtheglobe.Fortunately,TaylorincludesChisumas“Washington’s
mostactivespy.”Unfortunately,Taylor’sonlineclasslecture,“Washingtonianand
EspionageandAccommodation,”isbasedonHarlan’sbook,BookerT.Washington:
TheWizardofTuskegee.Harlan’sconclusionsarethusTaylor’sconclusions.Taylor’s
conclusionforsomeintheworldistheonlyknowledgetheypossessofChisumand
BTW’snetworkofespionage.BecauseChisumisestablishedworldwideasaspyand
aniconofblackspyhistory,hislegacyneedsclarificationandupdatingbecause
currentlythroughthedistortedinterpretationnooneisabletoseetherealChisum.
ThoughHarlancomparedhisuseofthesubtitle“TheWizardofTuskegee”to
contemporariesofBTWsuchasTheWizardofOz,hismetaphorgoesbeyondthe
EmeraldcitytoCamelot.Inthebook,TheWizardofTuskegee,Harlanused
metaphorssuchas“hehadtheuneasinessofeveryheadthatwearsacrown”
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associatedwithKingArthur.1HarlanattemptedtouseEuropeanworldstandards
setbytheWesternChurchforSaintsandthemedievalknightstojudgepeople
strugglingforjusticeandsurvivalinaworldofwhitesupremacy.BeforeHarlan’sin-
depthresearchinthe1960smostbooksaboutBTWwereautobiographies.2
Chisum’scloseassociateswroteabouthim.Harlan’sarchetypeforChisumwasthat
ofthegenieinthebottle–thespiritofaccommodation.Ageniewascontrolled.
In,TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington,Harlansuggeststhatnomatter
whatheuncovered,BTWwasstillonlyaman.Hispointseemedtobethatmost
historianswantedBTWtobeaSirGalahadwhoshouldhavegainedtheHolyGrail
forblacks.TothewhiteworldintheearlytwentiethcenturyBTWwastheperfect
leadertoregaintheHolyGrail(asmuchasthewhiteworldwouldallowablackman
tohaveapowerfulvesselthathealedsickness,renewedtheland,andsatisfiedthe
wantsofpeoplewhodrankfromit).ForpeopleinvestinginBTW’sblackleadership
theideaofBTWbeingaSirGalahad–amilquetoastkindoffigure–hadbeenideal.
TheidentityofGalahadwasfilledwithaccommodationmetaphors.Galahaddid
whattheKingsaid.HewentwheretheKingsent.Healwaysgavehislifefullyforthe
king.Thoseweretherightstandardsforasubservientmanbutwrongstandardsfor
BTWandChisum.
WhatHarlanfoundintheBookerT.Washingtonpaperswereblack
MachiavelliansbeforewhomevenBrerRabbitwouldhaveblushed.BTWwasnotSir1Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Vii.2LymanStoweEmmettScott,BookerT.Washington:BuilderofaCivilization(NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Company,1918);BookerT.Washington,UpfromSlavery(NewYork:Doubleday,1901).
145
Galahadtheknight.HewastheWizard,hewasaMerlinsuperimposedoverArthur,
agreatleaderandengineerofalltheblackpeoples.Merlincouldnotbecontrolled.
AsBTWdidnotknowhisfather;likewise,Merlindidnotknowhis;legendhadit
thatMerlinwassiredbyanincubusandamortalwoman.Whiletherewasnogenie
inKingArthurthelegendisthatwizardscastspellsanddirectedgenies.Harlancast
ChisumasBTW’sgenie.3Well-behavedgeniescanonlyworkmagicwhenthemaster
tellsthemtodosoandonlyasthemastertells.Perhapsusingsuchmetaphors
HarlansubconsciouslyattemptedtokeepChisumundercontrol,inalamp,instead
ofrelatinghisentirelifestory.
HarlanunderstoodthatsurvivingJimCrowtookadifferentsetofoperating
mechanismsinblackculturebutfailedtoestablishtheminhiscritiqueofBTW.He
worenomask.BTWrepresentedtheoldblackleadergivenlittledignityinAmerica
history.NotonlydidHarlandiscoverBTWwasUncleTombutmostUncleToms
wereWizards.BTWlikeChisumshouldhavebeencomparedtoToussaintL
’Overture,leaderoftheHaitianRevolution,JohnBrown,Americanabolitionist,
visionaryandmartyr,orSojournerTruthabolitionistandwomen’srightsleader.
ComparingBTWandhislieutenantswithEuropeanstandardsinsteadofattempting
toplacethegroupintotheirownarena,asdidhistoriansShawnAlexanderinAn
ArmyofLions(2012)orDavidJacksoninBookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggle
AgainstWhiteSupremacy(2008),doesnotwork.4Harlanusedhisownwandtocast
3Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.93.4Jackson,BookerT.WashingtonandtheStruggleAgainstWhiteSupremacy:TheSouthernEducationalTours,1908-1912.ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,
146
BTWandChisuminCamelot.Heshowedthattheystruggledwithanotherworldly
powerthatonlyaholygrailcouldrectify.Theirstrugglewasdiscountedwhenthe
dignityofthosewhowentthroughitconsciouslyorsubconsciouslywereperceived
throughapurelyAmericanCivilReligionlens.Whenthejusticesystemallowed
violence,injusticeandeviltoreign,newstandardsshouldhavebeensetwhen
writingaboutblackleaderslikeBTWandChisum.Blackminorityleadersemployed
differentstratagemsinachievinggoals.Theycreatedtheirownrealmsbyadding
theirownblacksocialgospel;theychangedAmericanCivilReligiontoanAmerican
BlackCivilReligion(seechapter2).5Livingtheremeant-beinginakindof
inbetweeness–residinginadifferentrealmthanthemainstreamUnitedStates
culture.
HarlansawthisdifferentstratagemofblackAmericanreligiousculture
withinChisum’scharacter.Itwasnotsimpletounderstand.HowdidHarlanjustify
theactionofalearnedman,suchasChisum:aneducator,spy,provocateur,
journalist,arealestateentrepreneur,banker,whoranlooseallovertheSouthern
countryside,actinglikealowlyUncleTomorfieldworker,whoputhislifeatrisk–
freeingpeopletiedtotheeconomicsofagriculture?Harlan’sunprocessedarchival
collections,whichheusedtowritebooksandarticles,areheldattheLouisR.Harlan
Papers,SpecialCollectionsUniversityofMarylandLibraries.Unearthingthose
2012.)5Thereisnoonehistoricalconsensusonwhenthesocialgospelmovementbeganorended.ForAmericanCivilReligionseechapter2Bellah.SeeJeanJacquesRousseau,TheSocialContract:OrthePrinciplesofPoliticalRights,trans.RoseHarrington(NewYork:G.P.Putnam'sSons,1893).EmileDurkheim,TheElementaryFormsofReligiousLife,trans.KarenFields(London:TheFreePress,1912).
147
papersdisclosesthatwhilehavingwell-researchedinformationonChisum,itseems
thatHarlanpurposefullychosethestrandsofChisum’sbackgroundthatclearlyfit
thelifeofavillainousspy.Trueenough,vilifyingChisum’scharactertofitChisum’s
secondarycareer,asaspywasnomajorleapininterpretation.Chisumentrapped
journalistBruceGritbyusingthenewspaper,theImpendingConflictasa
“strawman”fortheTuskegeeMachine,anddidoddspyjobsforTuskegeeuntil
1915.6However,HarlanwroteintheWizardofTuskegeethat“After1906
WashingtonfoundlessuseforChisum...andhisspyingforWashingtonceased,”
andin“TheSecretLife”that“after1906Chisumengagedinasuccessionofsmall
businessenterprises.…”Harlanusedmetaphorsfromtheworldofwizardrywhen
hecontinued,“Chisumremained,ashesaid,Washington’s‘obedient,humble
servant,’butthemasternolongerrubbedthelamp.”7Thisassessmentsteeredthe
audiencedownthewrongroad.ForHarlan’sandTaylor’sstudentstherestof
Chisum’slegacyremainsnotonlyanticlimacticbutalsoslightlydeceitful.Thetruth
wasthatChisumworkedforBTWrightuptoWashington’sdeath.AfterBTW’s
death,Chisum,alongwithotherlieutenantsorsocialandpoliticalactivistsincluding
EmmettScottandRobertRussaMoton,continuedtheBTWlegacyuntiltheirdeaths.
6Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915;"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington.";CeceliaBrooks,"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker"(OklahomaStateUniversity,2014).7Harlan,WizardofTuskegee,1901-1915,93.
148
Wizards,GeniesandJimCrow:HarlanRedrawsChisum
WhatmusclesdidHarlansuperimposeoverthecharacterandbeingofthe
originalMelvinChisuminordertodeveloptheChisumcaricature?Theexaggeration
ofChisum’svillainyincludedchangesinhisappearance,statue,andachangein
name.HarlanalsooverdevelopedtherelationshipbetweenChisumandBTWduring
theperiodthatChisumspiedfortheTuskegeeMachine.ThentostigmatizeChisum
asaspyandprovocateur,HarlanattributedaccessoriesandbrashnessChisumused
inhisworkasagovernmentagentinthe1930stodevelopChisum’spersonaof
“spy”intheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury.
Asreferencedinthepreface,Harlanmanipulatedhisreader’smindsby
choosingthedescriptionofChisumprovidedbyG.W.A.Scottinaninterviewin
1968,insteadofchoosingtodevelophischaracterfromthenotesofhis
researcher(s)forthecorrectunderstandingeraoftheBookerT.Washington–
MelvinChisumrelationship.HarlanchosetodescribeChisumas“amanofno
particulardistinction”and“resemblinganarmadillo...short,stubby,ugly...witha
bigbelly.”8Harlanhadatleastthreechoicesindevelopingthephysicalstatureof
Chisum.Inbox41oftheunprocessedHarlancollection,afilecitedas“Chisum,”one
ofHarlan’sresearcherspresentedadescriptionofChisumfroma1915handbill.The
personwrote“[sic]photographofMelvinM.Chisum[sic]onahandbillforaspeech
hewastogiveinDallas,presumably,((1915))[sic]...heisahandsome,oval-faced
8LouisHarlanandRaymondSmock,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Volume7,1903-4(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970),219.HereaftercitedasBTWP.
149
Negroofyoungmiddleage,billedasofBaltimoreandpres(sic)ofthenational
NegroPrssAsso(sic).”9HarlanalsohadadescriptionfromWendellPhillips
Dabney’sbookChisum’sPilgrimage(1927).Chisumwas“cladinsouthernattire,five
feetsixinchesinheight,superabundanttissueun-corseted,complexiondecidedly
brunette,andhairtruetonature...whiteflannelpantsandcoat,whitesilkshirt,
softcollar,flowingtie,largePanamahatsombrerostyle.[He]wasanimposing
personality....Everyonewith“whomChisumcameincontactwithrendered[him]
homage.”10Thethirddescriptioncamefromtheoralhistoryinterviewdonein1968
byamanwhoadmittedhedidnotlikeChisum.OfthethreedescriptionsHarlan
chosethemorevillainousonetodevelophisinterpretation;hedidsotoplayoffthe
ideaofWashington’s“moralinsensitivity”intheparagraphthatrevealedmoral
depravityinBTW.Usingthelanguageofaknownantagonist,thenrevisingthequote
asa“plumplittlerogueinabulletproofvestwhomadehislivingbyinvadingthe
privacyofothers”inTheWizardofTuskegee,isartistry,butthedescriptiongivesthe
writingflavorandatteststoChisum’sandBTW’svillainy.However,thedescription
isnotonlyanachronistic,itisfalseevidence.Deconstructingthisanalysisbrings
otherinterpretationsofHarlan’sunderquestion.Didhehaveaproblemwithpeople
whostartedinslaveryandpoverty?
9HarlanPapers,Box41,UMDLibraries.10WendellPhillipsDabney,“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb,”inNegroCaravan,ed.SterlingAllenBrown,ArthurPaulDavis,UlyssesLee(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941).Dabney’sChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers(1927),notedinHarlan,WizardofTuskegee,81-94.
150
Withnosourcecitedforhisresearch,Harlanwrotethatin1900Chisumwas
a“plump,possumshapedyoungTexan.”11Washingtondiedin1915whenChisum
wasayouthfullookingmanoratmostasuavemiddle-agedone.Thedescriptionby
Harlan’sresearcherseemsthemostaccurateofthethree.TheHarlancollection
includesthefulloralinterviewwithScottonNovember7,1968byoneofHarlan’s
students,historianPeteDaniel.12IntheinterviewDanielseemedtohintatwhat
valuesheneeded.RememberingChisumasasortof“secretserviceman,”the
elderly,Tuskegean,G.W.A.Scott,underthescopeofthewhiteinterviewer,admitted
thattherewere“nodata”behindhisdescription.Yet,whenledonbythe
interviewerusingthequestion,“DescribeChisum.Dr.LouisR.Harlanwroteapaper
andmentionedthatChisumlookedlikea‘possum.’Doyouagree?”Theinterviewer
pushedScottwiththequestionof“HowbigwasChisum?AboutthesizeofJackie
Gleason?”Consequently,Scottrecantedthesizeissuewith,“Nonotthatbig.He
mighthaveweighedasmuchas225poundsandwasabout5’6or5’7.”Neither
Harlannorhisstudentsattributedtheprejudiceinarticlesorbooks.Accordingto
thetranscriptoftheinterview,Scottpausedtospeaktohiswifebeforehetalkedto
theintervieweraboutChisum.ThenScottprefacedhisdescriptionwiththewords
“Yes,IknewChisum.ButanythingIsayabouthimwillbeprejudiced.”Inhis
memory,hedubbedChisum“likeanArmadillo”becauseofhisbulletproofvest,
11Harlan,“TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington.”405.12SundiataDjata,BlacksattheNet:BlackAchievementintheHistoryofTennis,(NewYork:SyracuseUniversityPress,2006)7.DjatadescribesScottasatenniscoachatTuskegee.
151
adding,“Hewasshort,stubby,andugly.Hehadabigbelly.”13Duringtheinterview
ScottallegedthatChisumcarriedapistolallthetime.14
ChisumcarriedagunwhenheworkedfortheUnitedStatesGovernment.
WhenChisummetScottintheTuskegeeUniversityparkinglotinhemid-1930s,
thoseyearswerethezenithofChisum’scareerandpowerintheDemocraticParty.
AtthatpointChisumwastheonlyblackmanworkingforthePublicWorks
Administration(PWA)fortheNewDealAdministrationasaninvestigatorfor
SecretaryoftheInterior.ThePWAwascreatedasapartoftheNationalIndustrial
RecoveryActinJune1933asaresponsetotheGreatDepression.Inhisownsphere
asagovernmentagent,ChisumwasaspowerfulafigureinhisspecialtyasOscarDe
Priestwasinpolitics.Chisumhadpowerandprestigeoverpeoplethatneededhim
topasstheirclaimsthroughthePWAinordertoprocuregovernmentpayoutfor
theirprojects.Hemadeanequalsalarytowhitesinthesameposition.Hewasused
tosuppressproblemsintheblackworldoftheUnitedStates.Heessentiallywasthe
topblackspy,detective,orinvestigatorinthecountry.15
Becauseofthischangeinpartyaffiliation,hebecametheapowerful
AmericanBlackinpolitics.Inthe1930sHaroldLeClairIckes,asSecretaryofthe
Interior,wroteinhisoriginaldiarynotes,foundattheLibraryofCongress,that13HarlanPapers,Box43,envelope,UMDLibraries.14Ibid.15HaroldIckes,"Diary,"inHaroldL.IckesPapers,ed.ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress(WashingtonD.C.:LibraryofCongress,1937),Box29.OnMarch15,1937IckessentChisumtoclearthewayforblackJudgeWilliamHastie’sappointment.ReferencestoChisumhavebeentakenoutofIckesautobiographyandbooks.SeethesamedateinHaroldIckes,TheAutobiographyofaCurmudgeon(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1943).
152
Chisumwasoneofhisinvestigators.HenamedanddescribedChisumas“aclever
Negro”whoknewhiswayinworkingwithblackpeople.Ickesdescribeddispatching
Chisumtogetlawyer,WilliamHastie,appointedasthefirstblacktoFederalDistrict
CourtintheVirginIslands.Ickeswroteseveralotherpositivecommentsaboutthe
workChisumdidforhim.16
G.W.A.Scotttoldhisinterviewerthisstory.Scottwaswashinghiscarat
TuskegeeandsomehowgotwateronChisum’scarbymistake.Healsosplattered
Chisum’sshoes.ForbothDr.Chisumandhisfather,shoesweresomewhatsacred.
ChisumandScotthadwords.ScottdescribedChisumasgettinginto“awildbulldog
rage.”ThenChisumpulledhisgunonhim.Scottthreatenedtothrowapailofwater
onChisum.Thematterrested.WhenScottcomplainedtoRobertRussaMoton,
principalofTuskegeeUniversity,“Dr.Motontookupforhim[Chisum],andtoldme
howmuchChisumhaddonefortheschoolandhowvaluablehewastotheschool.…
OnthisvisittoDr.Motonhewas,ashehadbeeneversinceourfirstmeeting,very
fatherlyinhisattitude.Hegavenoindicationwhateverofhostilitytowardmefor
whatIhaddone.”17HarlanusedScott’sdepictionofChisuminhiswritings.
Chisum’ssondidnotdenythathisfathercarriedagunwithhiminthe1930s
whenheworkedforthePWA.Nordidheclaimhisfathercouldnotbemean.Melvin
Chisum,Sr.,himselfsaid,“Throughalltheyearsofmypublicexperience,Ihave
neveroncefailedafriend.Havealwaysstrivenarduouslytoservedisappointment
andmiserytomyenemieswithoutcompunction,butfriendshipwithmeisasacred16Ickes,“Diary,”Box29.17Ibid.,HarlanPapers,Box41,Chisumfile,UMDLibraries.
153
relationandItreasureitasagiftfromGod.”18Readingthebiographiesofblacksby
blackauthorsthisideaofservingdisappointmentonenemiesisnotnewtoChisum.
SeveralAmericanblackleaders,includingWilliamChase,feltthesameway.19There
weretimeswhentheyhadtobemeaninordertogettheirworkdone(chapter7).
HadHarlandoneanoralinterviewwithChisum’ssonitispossiblehewould
havegottenabetterportrayalandtimelinetojudgeMelvinChisumSr.Though
HarlanknewofDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,becauseofthearticleintheNegroBulletin,
withinthecollection,nocorrespondencewasconductedwithalivingrelativeof
Chisum.Chisumdescribedhisfatherwithalacrity.“Iwasalwaysamazedbythe
similarityinthephysiquesandphysicalmovementsofmyfatherandtheHollywood
actor,EdwardG.Robinson.Dadwasdignityandsuavitypersonified.Hehadthe
appearance,theapproachofthetechniquesofadiplomat.”20MelvinChisumSr.’s
pictureappearedonthefrontpageoftheMinneapolisMessengerin1922,the
WashingtonEaglein1927,andtheLouisvilleLeaderin1928.However,whenandif
Chisumworeasuitwithagun,heprobablyacteddifferentlyaroundTuskegeethan
intheprofessionalrealmsofhisjob.
Accordingtohisson,Chisumcarriedagunandworeavest.Manyofhis
picturesfromyouthtoadulthoodhavehimdressedinsuitandvest.Hisdangerous
occupationcausedhimtocarryapistolwithhimwhenhetraveled.Inthe1930s
18MelvinChisumtoIsaacWilliamYoung,6September1933,LeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,OklahomaCityUniversity.HereaftercitedasOKCU.19InRichardson,NationalCyclopedia,seeWilliamCalvinChase,P.B.S.Pinchback,ToussaintL’Ouverture,andothers.20Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor,April13,2007.OKCU.
154
Chisum’sworktookhimtotheSouthbyautoandbytrain.“ThentheSouthwasa
moredangerousplaceforblackpeoplethanitistoday.Iwasaccustomedtoseeingit
(thegun)inhissuitcase,”Dr.Chisumwrote,“Icannotrecallhiseverhavingtoldme
thathehadoccasiontouseit,butherecalledoneoccasionthattheytalkedaboutthe
gun:
SomeoftheprojectsonwhichheworkedasResidentEngineerInspectorwhenhewasemployedbythePublicWorksAdministration,tookhimtothedeepSouth.HedescribedanepisodewhenhewasworkinginAlabama,maybeontheMusselShoalsDam.Itwashisjobtobecertainthatthematerialandspecificationsrequiredinthespecificationsforthesegovernmentworkswerebeingmet.This,ofcourse,didnotalwayssitwellwiththecontractorswhowerelocalpeopleandsometimesinclinedtocutcornersinordertoincreasetheirprofitonajob.Whatismore,theywereunaccustomedtoablackmaninauthorityinthefirstplace.Dadheard“bythegrapevine”thatthewhitefolkshaddecidedtoridehimoutoftownonarailthenextday.Soearlythatmorning,hewenttotheshopofthelocalgunsmith,toldhimhewantedtobuyapistolandindicatedtheoneintheshowcasethathewishedtopurchase.Theshopkeeperaskedhimifhehadalicensetocarryagun.Theoldmanthrewhisgovernmentcredentialsonthecounterandtoldhim,“Thereismylicense.”TheshopkeepersoldhimthegunandDadlefttheshop.Ofcourse,hehadhisownpistolwithhim,buthewantedthetown’speopletoknowhewasarmed.Heknewthattheshopkeeperwouldinformthemofthepurchase.Heneverheardanymoreabouttheattemptstorunhimoutofthattown.Hehadseveralsimilarstories.Thatisthekindoflifeheled.Itwasdangerousandhebelievedinbeingprepared.21
However,asamedicaldoctor,thelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,ofPhiladelphia,
Pennsylvania,hadastrongunderstandingofhisfather’scharacterandbuild.He
provedtobeausefulresource.DuringtheperiodthatChisumknewBTWhewasin
21MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,23June2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.
155
hislatetwentiesandearlythirties.Chisum’sappearancesuggestsamoderate
height,clean-shaven,successfulblackbusinessmanwithpiercingeyes.22Asheaged
hebecamestouter.WhenDr.Chisumwasbornhisfatherwas49yearsold.“I
rememberhimbeingaboutfivefeeteightinchesinheightandweighingbetween
210and215pounds,”hissondescribed.“Hewasmoremuscularthanfat–-whatwe
asphysicians,wouldcallameso-endomorph.”Hewasstocky.Tolookathispictures
withJackieGleasoninmind,heandChisumhadsimilardimensionsinthe1930sbut
ScottneveradmittedthatideatoDaniel.
Dr.Chisum’sdescriptionexplainswhatjournalistandauthorWendell
PhillipsDabneywroteinashortstory.Dabney,editoroftheUnionnewspaper,
wrotethatChisumwasinfineshape“financiallyandphysically”inhis1927
publicationofChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers.23Dabneyonlypublishedonehundred
copiesandgavesignedcopiestofriends.InthestoryChisumtookDabneyoutfor
theday.Arrivinginalimousinewithmoneytospend,ChisumenticedDabneyto
ridewithhimtothegravesiteofChisum’sdeceasedroommatePaulLaurence
Dunbar.Theadventureiscomical.ChisumalienatesDunbar’smotherandis
practicallythrownoutofherhouse;butwithoutaglimmerofremorse,hecontinues
thejourney.
TwodefinitedescriptionsofChisumwithagunaregivenbyanenemyand
thenbyChisum’sson.However,thedescriptionbytheresearcherwholookedupa22MissouriMessenger(KansasCity),14January1922.23ThisdissertationisnamedChisum’sPilgrimageIIinresponsetotheoriginalbook.WendellPhillipsDabney,Chisum'sPilgrimageandOthers(Cincinnati:SelfPublished,1927).
156
pictureforHarlanofChisumin1915istheclosesttohowChisumwouldhave
lookedduringthetimeoftheTuskegeeMachine.ItispossiblethatHarlansetthe
stageforhisvillainousportrayalbyfindingsomeonewhoknewthevillainousside
ofChisum.However,theanswertohowChisumlookedduringtheperiodheworked
withWashington(1903-1915)isclearlythathelookedlikeayounggentlemanof
upwardmobility.PossiblythearticlesthatcirculatedaboutChisumbeingchased
outofOklahomawithachargeoflibelpromptedtheneedforhavingChisumlook
villainous.Whateverthecause,lookingatresearchfromHarlan’sownfilesshows
thatHarlanchosethevillainousapproachovertherealChisum.
Harlan’sdescriptionregardingtheepisodesBTWusedChisumtoagainst
BruceGritandtheNiagaraMovementneedrevision.Duringhisearlyperiod(1895-
1900)ChisumwasnotjustapawnoftheTuskegeeMachine.Themachinedidnot
reallyformuntiltheearly1900swhenEmmettScottjoinedtheteam.Duringthe
periodofthelatenineteenthandearlyinthetwentiethcenturyChisumattempted
todevelophimselfintoareformerandabusinessmaninhisownright.Hetriedto
startaschoolforservantsatthesametimeinNewYorkthatW.E.BDuBoisand
otherssoughttodevelopaschoolforthetalentedtenthinWashingtonD.C.The
schoolhadnothingtodowithTuskegee.Actingonhisown,Chisumattemptedto
fosteravocationaltrainingschoolforblacks.Itwasanefforttomakemoney.Hedid
notwanttoberegardedasa“missionary.”24Neithermanfulfilledtheirdreamswith
theirschools.However,EmmettScott,Chisum,andW.E.B.DuBoisallultimately24MelvinJ.ChisumtoMadam,18March1901,HarlanPapers,Box40,UMDLibraries.
157
formedrelationshipswithBTW.DuBoisformedhisrelationshiponanacademicand
professionallevel,whileChisumstruggledtogetBTW’sattentionthroughhis
childhoodfriendEmmettScott(chapter5).
AsHarlandocumented,duringthelastfewyearsofthenineteenthcentury,
Chisum’schildhoodfriendEmmettScottdevelopedaplacewithintheBookerT.
WashingtonadministrationatTuskegeeInstitute.TogetherbothBTWandScott
developedtheTuskegeeMachine.ThegenesisoftheTuskegeeMachinebeganwith
ScottwhobroughthistrainingfromHouston,Texas,toTuskegee,Alabama,as
Washington’sspecialassistant.Amongotherjobsuntil1897,EmmettScott,
Chisum’schildhoodMethodistfriend,workedunderNorrisWrightCuney(1846-
1898),apowerfulRepublicanPartyblackleaderinHouston,Texas.TheTuskegee
MachinewaspartiallypatternedaftertheCuneypoliticalmachine.Thelikelihood
thatChisumworkedunderScottinHoustonisverypossibleconsideringthetimes
ChisumwashomeinTexas.
PhilipMinorCuneyownedNorrisCuney’smotherduringslavery;Norriswas
hisson.PhilipeducatedhissonasEnglishLordseducatedtheirnaturalchildren.
ThoughbornaslaveinTexas,NorrisCuneywasemancipatedbyhisfatherat
thirteenyearsofageandreceivedapreparatoryeducationatWylieStreetSchool
forblacksinPittsburgh,Pennsylvania.CuneyreturnedtoTexasandthroughhis
whitefamily’sconnectionsbecameoneofthemostpowerfulblacksofhistime.
GovernorEdmundJ.DavisoftheRadicalRepublicanReconstructionPartyinTexas
supportedCuney.IntheHoustonareaCuneyliterallycontrolledthevoteofblack
158
people.Throughpartyalliancesandthestudyoflaw,Cuneybecameablackboss.He
becamepresidentoftheGalvestonUnionLeaguechapterandlaterservedasthe
RepublicanParty’snationalcommitteemanfromTexas.In1883,hewontheposition
ofaldermaninGalvestonandfoundedtheNegroScrewman’sBenevolent
Association,acollectivebargainingassociationforAfricanAmericanlongshoremen
whoworkedthedocks.25Somehow,Scottbecamehispersonalassistant.Chisum
sometimesworkedthedocksalongwithhisfriendJackJohnson.Possiblyheknew
CuneyandhedefinitelyknewScott.Cuney,Scott,andChisumparticipatedinsome
ofthesamefraternalorganizations,PrinceHallMasonsinTexas,KnightsofPythias,
OddFellows,andtheMethodistChurch.26
EmmettScott,abrilliantyoungmanbyanystandards,recognizedthathe
wouldneedanotherpositionin1897whenCuneylayillanddying.Scott,
resourcefullikeRichardNevilletheKing-Maker(1428-1471)plottedhisnextmove.
HeinvitedBTW,therisingleaderofAmericanblacks,tospeakatahallinHouston,
Texas.ScottshowedWashingtonhisworkupclose,howhesupportedCuney,and
howhecouldsupportBTW,andmakehima“king.”Scotthadaphotographic
memory.WhilecorrectinhisdescriptionofScottas“asmall,ratherdelicate-looking
yellowmanwithapince-nez”Harlan’sstatementthatScottheldoutfortwoweeks25MaudCuneyHare,NorrisWrightCuney:ATribuneoftheBlackPeople(NewYork:Crisis,1913);VirginiaNealHinze,“NorrisWrightCuney,”Master’sThesis,RiceUniversity,1965;PaulDouglasCasdorph,"NorrisWrightCuneyandTexasRepublicanPolitics,1883–1896,"SouthwesternHistoricalQuarterly68,no.4(April1965):455–6;ErnestObadele-Starks,BlackUnionismintheIndustrialSouth,(CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2000);DouglasHale,ASouthernFamilyinWhiteandBlack:TheCuneysofTexas(CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2003).26JohnandEthelynM.Collection,MA8:3-5Box2folder1.
159
isdeceivinginthiscriticaltwo-pagenarrativeofhistory.27Yes,Scottsawthecoming
ofanewstarwhenhebroughtWashingtontohisownarenainHouston,Texas.
Washington,observingandacknowledgingwhatScottcoulddoforhim,knowing
Scott’sMethodistpassiontobe“amoonratherthanastar,”orakingmaker,wooed
the24–year-oldScottthroughhisletters.
Inordertogainasasecretaryoneofthemostbrilliantblackpoliticiansinthe
country,BTWin1897hadtomeetScott’sterms.Scottneededtofinishthebusiness
leftinhishandsbyCuney.Scottdestroyedmuchofhisownmanuscriptcollection;a
fewmanuscriptsleftbyhisfamilyweredepositedinMorganStateUniversity.When
hewasaboy,Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,rememberedtakingletterstothemailboxfrom
hisfathertoScottalmostdaily.However,notoneletterremainsinScott’s
manuscipts.Scottprobablydidthedestructionhimselfashewastaughttodosoby
Cuney.Inthemeantime,withfewresourcesathishands,BTWalsohadtooffera
decentsalarytoonesuchasScottthe“kingmaker.”28AftertheynegotiatedScott’s
salary,theresultwasatrainedAmericanblackProgressiveErateamthatdeveloped
politicalpowerinthedeepSouth.TheTuskegeeMachinebeganwithEmmettScott
andBTWandmethodsinstilledinleadersoverhundredsofyearsbyMachiavelli,
BrerRabbitwit,andCuney’straining.
PerhapsChisumcarriedoutmissionswithScottundertheCuneyregime.No
informationexiststoverifythisassertion.ScottadmittedthatheandChisum27HarlanLouis,BookerT.Washington:TheMakingofaBlackLeader(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1972).261.28EmmettScotttoBTW,2July,6August,and4September1897,HarlanPapers,Box41,UMDLibraries.
160
remainedfriendsfromchildhood.Thepossibilityremainslikely.However,in1897
whileScottremainedbusybuildingtheTuskegeeMachine,Chisumremadehimself
intoafreelancenewspaperwriter,assistanttoBishopWilliamDerrick,andwent
intotheprofessionalboxingringforthelasttime.
EventhoughMelvinChisumunderstoodhimselfasTexasSteel,afteraperiod
oftimethebrutalpunishmentofthebodyledhimtochangehisoutsideappearance
evenashisinsidebecamemorejaded.Whilebeingthepugilistearnedhimfameand
incomeintheearlierpartofhiscareer,TexasRosebudrealizedonApril19,1897,
thatthereweretougher,moreaggressivepugilists.ThePittsburgPressclearly
reportedthatsuchwasthecaseonRosebud’sfirstandlastdayintheprofessional
boxingringwhenhefoughtanAustralian.Rosebudwasoutofhisleaguewhen
comparedtoworld-classpugilists.Ormaybehehadenoughofthe“strenuouslifeof
self-defense.”PerhapsinarevelatorymomentlikeHarriettTubman’s,afterbeing
hithard,hemadeadecision.Duringoneminuteandfiftysecondsintheringof
“alleged”fighting,Rosebudcaughtthefatalblowofhisboxingcareerbetweenhis
shoulderblades.Rosebudstoppedhis“blind”gallopingaroundtheringandsank
down.Notunconscious,“stillinpossessionofhissenses,theRosebudrefusedtoget
upinsidethetimelimitandGrifforeceivedthedecision.”29Heputasidethevocation
ofboxingforeducationinlawandprintingand“themorepeacefulpursuit”of
managingahotelandwritingforthepapersunderhisrealnameMelvinJ.Chisum.
Outoftheringheworkedasanexus,amanofaffairs,determinedtomakeitinthe
businessarenawithhismuscle,Machiavelliantechnique,andeducation.Chisum29PittsburgPress(Pennsylvania),19April1897.
161
attemptedtopatternhisworklikeoldermenfromBTW’sgeneration–journalists
WilliamBruceandT.ThomasFortune.Chisumhadfightleftinhimandhechoseto
fightforrightsnotonlyagainstthewhitesupremacybutagainstblacksintellectuals
whocaredlittleaboutgrassrootsblackpeople.Hestudiedinfreedmen’sschools
andtheatre;nowhechosetoworkinthefourthestatetocontendagainstthe
gentrifiedblackcultureoftheUnitedStates–thatwas–togathersouthern
grassrootspeopletodisputetheculturalaspirationsofestablishedblacks.However,
healwaysremainedopentomissionsforcash.
ChisumnevermovedbacktoTexas.Inthelastdecadeofthenineteen–
century,NewYorkwashisprimaryheadquarters.In1898hisbrotherWilliam
joinedhim;by1900hiswholefamilyleftMexiaundercoverofdarkness.Whenhis
father,mother,andsistercametheyalsobroughthiswifefromTexas.Thereareno
indicatorsastowhen,where,andhowChisummethisfirstwifeMaeJohnsonor
marriedher.However,researchshowsthatChisumandhisfirstwifeMaesharedan
apartmentwithfriendsAliceandPaulLawrenceDunbar.Maewaseducatedinthe
tradeofcosmetology.Inhisleisuretime,ChisumactedwiththeTheodoreDrury
Company,anmixedraceactingcompany,playingseveralpartsincludingOthello.
Withoutthelucrativecareerofboxingsupplyinghisneeds,Chisumengagedinother
commercialandindustrialbusinessaffairs.Hisfamilydependedonhimforfinances,
security,andguidanceinNewYork.HeandhisbrotherWilliamstudiedlawand
rentedapartments,andmanagedahotel.Chisumallegedlymanagedablacktheatre
company.HewrotefortheColoredAmericannewspaper’s“GreaterNewYorkGossip
Column.”Chisumtriedtofindhisplaceinthegenerationofthosewhohadbeen
162
slavesandwerethenfree.LikeW.E.B.DuBoistoBTW,ascrabsinabasket,manyof
theblackleadersfoughtforrecognitionandwerewillingtopulleachotherdownto
gainit.ThroughScott,Chisumsoughthiswayintothemostpowerfulblack
communityinthecountrybybeingwhoeverorwhateverBTWneededhimtobe.
BTWneededaspy.
ChisumTheEntrepreneur
TheTuskegeeMachineneededChisumtobeaprovocateuragainstjournalist
JohnEdwardBruce“BruceGrit”(1856-1924).Brucewasaformerslavewho
throughconnectionwithMissouriSenatorThomasBentongainedacareerin
journalismasamessengerfortheassociateeditoroftheNewYorkTimes.In1884
hispennamebecameBruceGrit.30HeandChisumhadanantagonisticrelationship
asearlyas1898.GritbroughtChisum’smanagementofWilliamBarker,anactor
fromPortauPrince,Haiti,undersuspicion.ChisumadvertisedthatBarkerwasan
actorfromthePortauPrinceTheatre,hadbeentrainedintheAcademeofHaiti,and
wassupportedbyablackcompanyunderthemanagementofChisum.Eventhough
Barkerreceivedastandingovationandencoresforhispresentation,BruceGrit
revealedtotheworldthattherewasnoPortauPrinceTheatreandnoAcademeof
Haiti.Barker’sbackgroundwasfraudulentandChisummadeupthelie.Onthefront
30RalphL.Crowder,JohnEdwardBruce:Politician,Journalist,andSelf-TrainedHistorianoftheAfricanDiaspora(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2004);WilliamSeraile,BruceGrit:TheBlackNationalistWritingsofJohnEdwardBruce(Knoxville:UniversityofTennesseePress,2003.)
163
pageofTheColoredAmericanonApril16,1898,BruceGritchargedChisumwith
goingtoofarbycreatinga“fictitiousreputation”forBarker.31Chisummadeno
response.Hecontinuedmovingaroundthecountry,stillapugilisticcelebrityforhis
communityinTexas,buthenowhadanantagonistoutsideofthering.
Chisumfoundhisnicheinthenewspaperworldbyrespondingasan
antagonisttoarticleswrittenbyblackmenaboutthecrisisintheSouth.Hestroveto
steadilydevelopaniche,centeringontheethosofbeinga“Negro”fromtheSouth
concernedaboutprotectinghispeopleandtheirrelationshipwithwhites.Not
unlikeGritwhouncloakedChisum’santicsbeforeallNewYork,Chisumattacked
journalistT.ThomasFortune(1856-1928)forhislackofunderstandingaboutthe
relationshipbetweengrass-rootblacksandplainwhites.Chisumprobablyhadno
ideahehadsteppedoutagainstoneofBTW’smostintimatefriends.Heperhaps
knewFortunealsoco-foundedthemoreradical,sometimesmilitant,NationalAfro-
AmericanCouncilin1898.32BishopDerrickheldsharesinthenewspaperFortune
edited.OnJune4,1900,asblacksgatheredtocelebratetheanniversaryofJohn
Brown’sRaid,Fortune’sspeechstartledsomeintheaudiencethatincludedChisum
whenhecalledforretaliationagainsttheSouthfortheirattacksonNegroes.Chisum
wrotethatthelight-skinned,firebrandFortunelectured,“Youmustorganizeand
keepyourpowderdryandbereadytodemandaneyeforaneye,afootforafoot;
31ColoredAmerican(Washington,D.C.),16April1898.32EmmaLouThornbrough,T.ThomasFortune:MilitantJournalist(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1972).
164
thereiscomingagreatcrisisfortheNegrointhiscountryinwhichmuchbloodmay
beshed.”33
Fortuneeditedthreenewspapers—theNewYorkGlobe(thatlaterbecame
theNewYorkFreeman),andtheNewYorkAge.Fortune’spoliticalandjournalistic
careerlandedhimonbothmajorsidesofthereformmovement.Uptolastthe
decadeofthenineteenthcenturyhewasaproponentofintegration.However,
duringthesameperiod,likeotherblacksas“enemiesofthesameenemies,”he
workedcloselywithBTWandW.E.BDuBois.34HisworkpointedtoMalcolmXofthe
twentiethcentury.Athismostextreme,FortunecalledforAmericanblackstofight
backagainsttheirwhiteenemies.ChisumreportedinalettertotheNewYorkTimes
thatFortunesaid:
ThereisbutonewaytoputaperiodtotheforceandviolenceofaBourbon–usemoreforceandviolencethanheuses.Ashebelievesinbruteforce,herespectsit,evenwhenitisusedbythosehehatesandstabsinthedark....Letthecoloredmanstandhisground.Thereisfarmorehonorindyinglikeafreemanthanlivinglikeaslave.35
33NewYorkTimes(NewYork),4June1900.34SeeAugustMeier,NegroThoughtinAmerica,1880-1915:RacialIdeologiesintheAgeofBookerT.Washington(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1963).EmmaLouThornbrough,T.ThomasFortune:MilitantJournalist(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1972);AlexanderShawn,T.ThomasFortunetheAfroAmericanAgitator:ACollectionofWritings,1880-1928(Florida:UniversityofFloridaPress,2008).35NewYorkGlobe(NewYork),10November1883.Thefirstestatewastheclergy(prayer),thesecondestatethenobility(fighters),thethirdestatecommoners(workers).Thetermfourthestatewascoinedin1837toshowtheincreasingpowerofthepress.
165
Inonearticle,TheVirtueofAgitation,hewrote,“Webelieveindissatisfaction;
webelieveinthemanifoldvirtuesofagitation.”36Harlancalledthephenomenathe
“dividedmindoftherace.”37WhetherChisumwroteattheinsistenceofBishop
Derrick,oronhisown,ChisumrespondedtoFortune’sspeechbothonJune4and
June10intheNewYorkTimes.ChisumclaimedthatFortunegavea“firebrand
speech”whichcouldhurtSouthernblacks.HereprovedFortunebysayingthat
Fortuneneededtomovetothehouseofconservatismand“keepquiet”because
Fortune’swordsas“BigNiggerfoolishness”hurtgrassrootsblacks.38Chisum
developedananti-revoltagendaasapowerfulblackmanfromtheSouth.Hewrote,
“WeknowthatFortuneisamanoflargeexperience.Hehasmadegreateffortsin
variousways,butinitishistoryofthatgentleman’sownmakethatalmost
everythingthathehasbeenlefttorunhasturnedafailure,notforlackofearnest
prosecutionbutuseofbadjudgmentinstead[sic].”39InaconservativeeffortChisum
attemptedtoquellthestormofanxietyinwhitesouthernersintheDallasarea
aboutanuprisingofblacksagainstthem.Chisumwrote,“Mr.Fortune[,]riotand
pillagearenotatallfeasible.”Heexplainedthatitwasnotthedepravityofblacks
thathadwhitesturningonthembut“poorwhitesareenemiesofblacksinthesouth
regardlessofhowwellbehavedandprogressiveblacksmightbe.”40Chisum’sarticle
intheFreemannewspapercalledfor“SpecialNeed”inregardstotheSamHose
36NewYorkGlobe(NewYork),18August1883.37Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.,39.38NewYorkTimes(NewYork),10June1900.39DallasMorningNews(Texas),13August1900.Thewordingisaswritten.40NewYorkTimes(NewYork),10June1900.
166
murder.41AnAnglo-Americanmobincludingmen,women,andchildreninPalmetto,
Georgia,hadburnedHosealiveforallegedlykillingandrapinghisbossandwife,
chargesthatwereneverproven.Thewhitecrowdcheered,cutHose’sbodyinto
pieces,andsoldthemassouvenirswithintheircommunity.
ThreemonthslaterChisumchargedthatalltheblacknewspapersassumed
Hose’sguiltinsteadoflookingforthetruth.There“wasnotasingledoubtexpressed
inanyofthepaperswhichIreadastoHose’sguiltoroutrage,noteventothepoint
ofusingtheterm‘allegedoutrage,’butitseemstomethatthecoloredpapertookit
forgrantedthatHosewasguiltyofallthatwaschargedagainsthimandwereonly
sorrythathedidnotgetatrialbyalawfulcourt.Whateverelsetheymaymeanthis
isthegeneralcensus[sic]ofopinionformedoftheirconservativeeditorialsand
reports.”Chisumaskedforinvestigationsintoreportsonblackcrimeinthe
newspapers.Hewrotethat“Conservatismisanexcellentqualityintheabstractand
therearecertainspheresofactivityinwhichwecannotwellhavetoomuchofit.But
thisisnotone.”42Chisum’sidentityattheturnofthetwentiethcenturywasthatof
bodyguardforBishopWilliamDerrick,conservativejournalist,realestateman,
holdingappetitesfortheartsincludingthesport,theatre,andmusicbutknownonly
toScottasaspy.
CorrespondencebetweenChisumandBTWintheBookerT.Washington
PapersrevealedthatChisum,muchlikeotheryoungmenofthetimeperiod,was
41Freeman(Indianapolis),22July1899.42Ibid.
167
captivatedbyBTW’sphilosophiesofinterracialpeaceandeconomicopportunityto
thepointofheroworship.43
ThetermBookeritewasaplayonBTW’sfirstname.Chisum’sphilosophyof
work–baseduponChristianprinciplesofeconomicopportunitiesforblacks–was
refinedbyBookeriteprinciples.Churchaffiliationwasfluid.TherewasoneLord,
onefaithonbaptism.MostleaderslikeChisummovedfromdenominationto
denominationwithlittleproblem.Heheldnoallegiance.Churchdenominationwas
treatedasabusiness.Hefoundworkfromtimetotimeinchurcheschecking
credentialsforpastorsthatwerecalledtothepulpit.Theoverarchingidealsof
AmericanBlackCivilReligioncenteredonwhotheenemywasforallblacks.Their
enemywasthesame.BTW’sphilosophyofreformwasgrassroots-bottomup-not
topdown-Machiavellianism–“flylikeabutterfly,stinglikeabee.”Tellthemwhat
theyneedtohearandformanundergroundnetworktocareforthedispossessed
usingtheirpatronage.WhileonthesurfaceitseemedthatBTWadvocated
accommodationonthepartofAfricanAmericanstoAngloAmericansintheUnited
States,hisworkfitintotheparadigmofblackcivilreligionandthesocialgospel
movement.Totheworldhisparadigmofreformincludedarationalethatblacks
shouldavoidpoliticstopursueaprogramofeducation,business,andself-reliance,
butunderthecoverofeducationhesupportedpoliticalandsocialreform.BTW’s
ideawasthatblackeconomicself-improvementwouldleadtosocialelevation.He
believedthateconomicmarketforceswouldeventuallyunderminediscrimination
43RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),6-7.
168
andprejudice.Heperseveredinthemodeofwhateverittakes,doit,aslongasyou
donotpointtome.WitnessingfirsthandthebuildingofBTW’snetworkofpower
andhissocialgospel-pragmaticapproachtoreform,Chisumlikeotheryoungblack
menofhistime,believedthatBTWwasaherowhocametosavetheblackrace.44
UncleTomworeacrown.BlackshadfinallymadeaplaceinAmerica.Itwasin-
betweenworldsbutitwastheirplace.WitnessingfirsthandthebuildingofBTW’s
networkofpowerandhissocialgospel-pragmaticapproachtoreform,Chisumlike
otheryoungblackmenofhistime,believedthatBTWwasaherowhohadcometo
savetheblackrace.45
WhileHarlanquestionedthemoralityofBTWbybeinginleaguewithChisum
ashishumbleservantheneglectsthehistoryofthesignature“yourhumble
servant.”InthefirstletterdatedOctober1,1904,fromChisumtoBTW,Chisum
acknowledgedthathewasadiscipleofBTWbeforethegovernmentdecidedto
makeBTWthespokesmanforblackAmerica.46Chisumwrotethathewasnota
“recentconverttotheprinciplesoftheWizardofTuskegee.IamanoriginalBooker
44LouisHarlan,andRaymond.W.Smock,eds.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,OpenBookEdition,1979,Volume8:1904-1906(onlineatUniversityofIllinoisPress,1979),77.InOctober1904ChisumsentalettertoBTWexpressinghisadorationfortheblackleader.SeealsoOttley,TheLonelyWarrior,6.AbbottworshippedWashingtonandconsideredWashingtonhishero.45LouisHarlan,andRaymond.W.Smock,eds.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,OpenBookEdition,1979,Volume8:1904-1906(onlineatUniversityofIllinoisPress,1979),77.InOctober1904ChisumsentalettertoBTWexpressinghisadorationfortheblackleader.SeealsoOttley,TheLonelyWarrior,6.AbbottworshippedWashingtonandconsideredWashingtonhishero.46RobertWiebe,TheSearchforOrder1877-1920(NewYork:HillandWang,1967),58.
169
Washingtonite.”47ChisumwasconvincedthatWashingtonwastheonlymaninthe
blackAmericawhowasactually“workingfortherace...millionsofusloveyou,
worshipyournameandacceptyourcounselinthefullestmeasure.”48WhileHarlan
belittledtheideaofhumbleservitudethatChisumshowedwhenheendedtheletter
“fromyourobedienthumbleservant,”itwasasincereaddressandalsooneusedby
manywhostudiedEuropeanliterature.49Classicalstudy,includingthewritingsof
AbrahamLincoln,showsthatthesentimentisinorderforoneasChisumwritingto
BTW.Outofregardforhisphilosophy,Chisum,asaneophyte,offeredBTWhislife
touseasdesired.“Ifeveryouneedarealgenuinepieceofsteelsendforme...mayI
bepardonedforsaying,thatnatureinputtingmetogetherforgottoputinfear.…”50
Whilethephraseseemssarcasticbytwentieth-andtwenty-firstcenturystandards,
andnowarchaic,itwascommonlyusedinpoliticallettersbypresidentsandother
personages.Chisum’suseoftheterminologywasatestamentofhimbeingan
educatedman,yethumbledtobeakingmaker.Bytheturnofthecentury,racial
tensionsflaredhigh,andJimCrowlawswerebeinglegislatedthatlimitedAfrican
AmericanfreedomsbyreplacingReconstructionstatuesthathadguaranteed
politicalandcivillibertiestoblacks.
47MelvinChisumtoBTW,1October1904,inHarlanandSmock,BTWP,Volume8,77.48Ibid.49Ibid.PatrickHenrytoRobertPleasants,18January1773,inRobertMeade,PatrickHenry:PatriotintheMaking(Philadelphia:J.B.LippincottCo.,1957).HenrywrotealettertoaQuakercorrespondentusingthesameaddress,“Yourhumbleservant.”50MelvinChisumtoBTW,1October1904,inHarlanandSmockBTWP,Volume8,77;MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.
170
BlackjournalistsservedasfreedomfightersduringtheProgressiveEra.
Theyfoundthesupporttheyneededfromoutsideoftheblackworld,bypublishing
informationfortheworldtosee,believingliberalwhiteswouldreadtheirpapers
andhelp.By1903,Chisumenteredthepublicstageasajournalist.Hehadthe
traininginprintingfromhisearlierschoolyears.Hiswritingskillswereonparwith
hisadversariessuchasThomasFortune.Hisworkandknowledgeofjournalismwas
wellreceivedwithintheNewYork,Boston,andWashingtonpublishing
communities.BlacknewspapermensuchasWilliamTrotter,whograduatedfrom
Harvard,trustedhimandinvitedhimtocovertmeetingsandplanningsessions.
TheseblackleadersdidnotrealizethatChisumwasapaidspyfortheTuskegee
Machine.Inthebusinessofnewspaperediting,Chisumwasonparwiththebest
journalistsandnewspapereditorsinthecountry.Healsohadothermissionsgoing
onforBTWandpossiblyforothersoutsideofTuskegeeatthesametime.By1903
ChisumlefttheemployofBishopWilliamDerrick(1814-1913)topursuehisown
entrepreneurialendeavorsandattemptedtoworkcloselywithBTWthroughScott.
TosayChisumwasanassistantandbodyguardtoBishopDerrickbeforehis
workwithBTW,wastosayhewasmakingpoliticalconnections.Originallyfromthe
WestIndies,asachildofaplanterandslave,BishopDerrickhadanextensive
Moravianeducation.BishopDerrick,becameanaturalizedAmericancitizenduring
theCivilWar.HeservedasintheNavyandfoughtinthebattleoftheMonitorand
Merrimac.DerrickworkedwiththepresidentialcandidateGovernorWilliam
McKinleyasBTWworkedwithvicepresident-to-beTheodoreRoosevelt.Hisfriend
EmmettScottingratiatedhimselfwithoneoftheupcomingblackleadersinthe
171
UnitedStatesbyworkingwithBTW.Chisumfoundhimselfanationalicon.Hisyears
withBishopDerrickgroomedhispoliticalcharacterandambitions,missionary
fervor,hisstyleofdress,andhismodeofcarryinghimself.LikeBTW,BishopDerrick
ownedseveralnewspapers,includingpartownershipoftheGlobe.51
WithsomuchemphasisondifferingreformmovementsbetweenW.E.B.
DuBoisandBTW,thehistoriographyoftheriseoftheAMEChurchinpoliticsdoes
notreceiveitsequitableplaceinpoliticsinthelastquarterofthenineteenth
century.FrederickDouglass’smantledriftedinthefirstyearsafterhisdeath.
ConstructiveleadershipwasvacatedintheAmericanblackworld.In1895when
BookerT.WashingtonspokeattheAtlantaExpositionhedidnotimmediatelytake
onthetitleofthenationalleaderofblacks.PriortoBTWbecoming“the”national
blackleaderthroughPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt’sactions,BishopDerrickwas
thecenterpieceforblackpoliticsunderPresidentWilliamMcKinley.McKinley
handedDerricktheprivilegeofappointingseveralpatronagepositionsforblacks
duringhisadministration.52AspowerfulasDuBois,BishopReverdyRansomand
BishopAlexanderWaltersalignedthemselveswiththeNiagaramovement.Their
namesgavethemovementcredibility.53However,withPresidentMcKinley’sdeath,
thepowerstruggleforthetopblackleaderended.
51FrankThomasMarthaSimmons,PreachingwithSacredFire:AnAnthologyofAfreicanAmericanSermons1750tothePresent(NewYork:W.W.Norton&CompanyInc.,2010).257-261.52ColoredAmerican(Washington,DC),8February1900;IowaBystander,(DesMoines),28August1900;Freeman(Indiana),6March1897;ColoredAmerican(Washington,DC),9August1900;Recorder(Indiana),29August1900.53RalphLuker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite(ChapelHill:NorthCarolina
172
ChisummayhavelearnedfromDerricktoswitchcampswhennecessary.In
Virginiapoliticsinthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury,BishopDerrick
switchedpartiesandidealswhenhefounditnecessarytobenefithispoliticsand
beliefsforhisrace.BishopDerrickwithmanyotherAmericanBlacksjoinedthe
ReadjusterParty.Theycollectedtaxestopaythewardebt.Theyalsoabolishedthe
polltaxes,eliminatedthewhippingpostforpunishmentofblacks,andcreated
VirginiaStateUniversity.Inthe1880ssevenblackReadjusterswonseatsinthe
UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives.AttheendofReconstruction,whenDerrick
foundhimselfnotonlyonthelosingendofapoliticalbattletoConfederatessuchas
GeneralFitzhughLeewhobecameGovernorinVirginiabutthathewasinharm’s
way,ofVirginianswhowantedtokillhim,BishopDerrickandhissecondwifewent
onalongvisittohishomeintheWestIndiestowaitthepoliticalclimatetocalm
down.Later,hereturnedtoministryinNewYorkStatewherehemetandarranged
forChisumtobeabodyguardandassistant.
WhileBishopDerrickwasliberalaccordingtoexcerptsintheBookerT.
WashingtonPapers,DerrickandBTWdidnotconsiderthemselvesatodds.The
relationshipwastumultuousthough.InhislaterletterstoBTW,itseemedChisum
mayhavebeenpaidtospyontheBishopafter1906whentheNiagariteswere
forming.However,becauseofthecrypticlettersitishardtoconcludewhetherit
wasBishopWaltersorBishopDerrick.WhilebothAMEbishopsjoinedtheNiagara
movement,theycontinuedarelationshipwithBTW.DerricksupportedBTWinthe
Press,1991).173-176.Frazier.33,35,37.C.EricLincoln,TheBlackChurchSinceFrazier(London:UniversityofLiverpool,1974).148.
173
NewYorkGlobe,butasreportedbyWilliamAndersontoBTW,behindthescenes
DerrickfoughtforamoreradicalmovementagainstJimCrow.54
WhileChisumallowedScotttousehisfirstnewspaperforespionage
purposes,itwasalegitimateentitysupportedbysubscribersalloverthecountry.
ChisumwrotetoScottinJulyof1903thathewoulddohisbestasaTexantopaythe
billswhentheycamedue.“YouunderstandthatIhaven’tamillion,youunderstand
alsothatIamaTexasNegroandkeepmypromises,andwhensalariesareduethey
willbepaid,millionornomillion;andthe‘ImpendingConflict’,Ihope,through
observingourTexasprinciplestogivealifeofusefulness.”55Scottsupported
Chisum’suseoftheImpendingConflictnewspaperinordertofurtherBTW’sagenda
againsthispoliticalenemies.ThereislittleevidencethattheTuskegeeMachine
helpedsupportthepaperatall.AtthebeginningoftherelationshipScottwroteto
Washingtonin1903,“OurNewYorkfriendcanuseChisuminanywaythatwe
desire.”56Thenewspaperwasoneofthestrongestweaponsblacksusedinthe
defenseoftheirrace.Thewrittenwordwasalsoapowerfulinstrumentofespionage
whenusedasamanipulatorofpublicopinionwithintheblackcommunity.Editors
“achievedlittlemonetarysuccess,and[newspapers]wereprimarilyvehiclesforthe
editorstoexpoundtheirviews,punishopponents,andadvancetheirpersonal
politicalambitions....Journalismwasadistinctivelyunprofitableventure.”57
54HerbBoyd,"TheBlackPress:ALongHistoryofServiceandAdvocacy,"Crisis98,no.3(March1991).55MelvinChisumtoEmmettScott,23July1903,inHarlanandSmock.BTWP,Volume8,222-223.56EmmettScotttoBTW,28July1903.BTWP,Volume8,272.57Ottley,TheLonelyWarrior,86-87.
174
However,likethepreachers,newspapereditorswereconsideredleadersinthe
blackcommunity.BlackleaderssuchasFrederickDouglass,A.PhilipRandolph,
WilliamTrotter,andwomensuchasIdaB.Wells-Barnettalleditednewspapers.
UsingthenewspaperseemsChisum’sfirststeptoestablisharelationship
withBTW.Utilizingthestrugglingnewspaperasa“strawman,”Chisumattempted
towaylayeditorJohnEdwardBruce,orBruceGrit,intoBTW’spoliticalcampby
trappinghimintosigninganagreementthathewouldnotwriteanythingnegative
aboutBTW.58GritwrotepositivearticlesaboutBTWandTuskegeeuntil1900.But
havingbeenpaidbyanadversaryofBTWinApril1903,Gritcondemnedaprogram
BTWheldatMadisonSquareGardenintheRichmondPlanetcallingBTWa“political
pariah.”59GritandChisumhadapastandGritwassmartenoughtokeephisoptions
open.So,Gritcoveredhisback.Inordertowritewithouttheburdenofpolitics
dictatinghisagenda,Grittookonfull-timeworkattheNewYorkPortAuthority.
ThisworksupportedhiscontinuedattacksonBTWwithoutworryofhavinghis
financescutoff.Essentially,Gritsoldhiswritingskillstothehighestbidder,ignoring
hiscontractwithChisum.“Brucewasforhire.Andforthisreason,Brucedemanded
additionalmoneytocompensateforwhathiscolleaguesmightwelldenounceas
inconsistenciesandopportunism.”60ThoughBrucetookChisum’smoney,asGrit,he
58Harlan,"TheSecretLifeofBookerT.Washington."405.HarlandescribesChisum’spaperas“ashakylittleNegromagazine.”Manysmallblackandwhitepaperswereshakyduringthattimeperiod.59PeterGilbert,TheSelectedWritingsofJohnEdwardBruce:MilitantBlackJournalist(NewYork:Arno,1971),1-9.60RalphCrowder,“FrederickDouglass,BookerT.Washington,andJohnEdwardBruce:TheRelationshipofaMilitantBlackJournalistwiththeFatherofCivilRightsand‘theWizardofTuskegee’,”Afro-AmericansinNewYorkLifeandHistory22,no.2
175
lackedtheintegritytostandbyacontracthesignedwithChisumto“notpublishnor
causetobepublished,anylettersorarticleswhatsoever,thatcanbe,evenremotely
constructedasbeingantagonistictoDr.BookerT.Washington.”61
ChisumfoundoutthattobeforhireundertheTuskegeeMachinewasnot
thesameasbeingapartofthemachine.ThoughChisumusedthenewspaperasa
strawmantofightforBTW,theTuskegeeMachinedidnotsupporthisnewspaper’s
finances.Chisumputhismoneyfromotherjobsandhisnameonthelineforthe
TuskegeeMachine,buthegainednomoresupportthanthefeeshewaspaidforthe
spyingjob.AftertheabruptclosureoftheImpendingConflictinFebruary1904,
Chisumfacedbacklashfromthesubscribers.IttookChisumthreeyearstorepayall
thesubscribers.AdmittingintheYonkersStandardthatthe1903foldingofthe
ImpendingConflictruinedhim,the“well-knownrealestateoperator”MelvinChisum
kepthisgoodnamebypayingbackeveryonewholostmoney.62
Insteadofsupportinghimafterheaskedforfinancialhelp,theTuskegee
Machinerespondedbyaskingfornamesofsecretsocietymembersforwhichthey
werepayinghim.BTWorScottaddeda“congratulations”forrepayingformer
subscriberswiththesubscript:“thisisanactofhonestythatveryfewwhitepeople
everperform.Iamgoingtogiveyoubroadcirculationtothefact.Ishalluseyouin
asmanypapersasIcan.Yousetahighexampleinthedirectionofstraight
(31July1998),6;onlineatProquestEthnicNewsWatch.61MelvinChisumtoEmmettScott,23July1903,inHarlanandSmock,BTWPVolume7,222-223.SeealsoCrowder,JohnEdwardBruce,89.62“Mr.ChisumMakesGood,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),12September1907.
176
forwardnessandhonestytotheentireraceinthismatter.”63Harlanmustbe
correctedonthismatter;theImpendingConflictdidnotserveasacoverforspying.
ItwasalegitimateeffortonChisum’sparttoestablishabusiness.Ittookfouryears
forhimtoregainhisname.Yet,ChisumdidcontinuetodoworkforBTWafter1906.
Hediversifiedfromundercoverspyandprovocateurtoothercovertwork.
LikehisroommatePaulLawrenceDunbarandhiswife,itseemsthatChisum
andhiswifeMaestruggledduringthisperiod.Hiswifebecameahairdresserto
supplementhisincome.Chisumdidnotwanthiswifeworkingbutgaveinto
necessity.Chisumdidnotchangetobecomeafamilyman.Hecontinuedtotravel
extensivelyandatwillashedidbeforehiswifebecameapartofhishome.Chisum
alsoworkedasaspecialrepresentativeoftheEquitableLifeAssuranceSociety,
publishedandsoldTheTeachYourselfHowtoPlayEitherOrganorPianoBook
authoredbyProfessorTheodoreDrury,becamealeasemanagerfornewlyopened
apartmentsforblacksinNewYork,andbecamealicensedrealestatebrokerto
negotiateandarrangerealestatetransactionsforblacks.
AsforHarlan’snegativeterminologyofChisumasspy,asfarbackassomeof
thefirstoftheJudeo-ChristianBiblicaltexts,spieswereashonoredaswarriors.
SpiesplayedcriticalrolesintheCivilWar.64WhileChisum’sidentityinLouis
Harlan’sbooksandarticlescontainedonlythenegativespectrumofChisum’scareer
asspyandprovocateur,hislabelingofotherfacetsofhislifeasmainlyacoverfor63BTWtoChisum,18October1907,HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder,UMCLibraries.64ThomasRyan,Spies,Scouts,andSecretsintheGettysburgCampaign(California:SavisBeatie,2015),xxi.
177
hisspyingendeavorsisastretch.Harlan’sownexcellentresearchnotesonChisum
attheUniversityofMarylandshowthatChisum’sspyingdidnotpay.Unlikeother
warsandbattles,Chisum’sworkwasdonerelativelyintheopen.Ifhewasdetected,
thespyingended.Chisum’scareerasboxer,bodyguard,newspaperman,andrealtor
couldnotbeseparatedintoseparateidentities.HewasnotlikeaClarkKentwho
hadasecretidentityasSuperman.Hecouldbeeasilyidentifiedinthemarketplace
inNewYork,NewJersey,andWashington,DC.
ChisumwasdoublyundercovernotonlyfromNiagaraites(forerunnersof
NAACP)butalsofromBookerites.ChisummadecontractswiththeTuskegee
Machinefordeliveryofinformationasonlyoneoftheirdetectivesinthenorthern
partoftheUnitedStates.Chisumhadanetworkofhenchmen.Hisdetectivework
crossedracial,political,economic,andsocialbarriers.Hisbusinesswasabout
makingmoneyforhisenterprise,payinghisworkers,takingcareofhisfamilyas
wellashelpingpeopleinhiscommunitybasedfromTexastoNewYork.
Harlan’sworkonChisum’slifeduringthefirstquarterofthetwentieth
centuryseemedtoimplythattheterm“spy”wasunacceptableamongpoliticians
andwarriors.Spying–itsimplementationofstrategyandtacticsfortherightcause–
canbeperceivedashonorable.Whoishonoredwasascertainedbywhocomesout
thewinner.IfW.E.B.DuBoiswonthecampaignagainstBTW,thenChisum’slifewas
nothonorable.However,theBTWandDuBoissituationwasnotthatsimple.
Washingtondiedin1915.Hislieutenantscontinuedhisworkof“civilization
building”fromwithin.EmmettScott,Chisum,andothersworkedwiththeUnited
178
Statesgovernmentuntil1940.Withinthattimeperiod,1915-1940,W.E.B.DuBois
andothers–evenblacksocialists,“enemiesofenemies”-beganworkingwith
Bookerites.Bythe1930sevenDuBoiswouldthrowinhishatwithBookerites.65
Washington’ssecretlifewasnottheexceptionbutthenormofonewhogota
chancetoexcelandbecomeanationalleader.Therewereallinthebriarpatch
together,ditchingthenooseandthefryingpanthatcamewithgettingcaught.Unlike
someotherblacksduringtheirlifetime,SamHose(1875-1899)wasnotonlysetup
byhistown’speople,butlynchedinCowetaCounty,Georgia,hisbodywasfriedin
public,choppedup,sold,andhandedouttohiswhitecommunityforbeinga
successfulblackman.Harlanwaswrong.Washingtonwasneverjustamaninhis
timeperiod.Amanwithoutdignitytostandforjusticewasnotaman.Hehadto
remaincloakedinmysteryandhandlehiswandmightily.Thefightforequalityin
theUnitedStatescommencedin“all-out-war”fromthestandpointofblacks.Like
Europeanandglobalcounterparts,inwarAmericanblacksusedthelucrativejobof
spyingwhileadoptingthemindsetandancientproverbthat“theenemyofmy
enemyismyfriend,”meaningopposingpartiescouldworktogetheragainsta
sharedenemy.MelvinChisumwrotetoBTWtoexplainthenuancesofthegrowing
NiagaramovementthateventuallybecametheNAACP.Intheletterhelinksthe
psychologyofblackstothetimeperiod.Forsomereasonthemissivewasnotused
inanyofHarlan’slectures,articles,orbooks.Theletterinterpretstheblackmindset
recognizedinthebooksofblackauthorsincontrasttothewayHarlanandother
65DavidLeveringLewis,W.E.B.Dubois:TheFightforEqualityandtheAmericanCentury1919-1963,vol.2(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,2000).
179
historiansinterpretedtheDuBois-BTWconflictduringthefirstquarterofthe
twentiethcentury.
RefittingChisum’scharactertothetimeperiodandshowinghisrelationship
toBTWservesthepurposeofopeningthelensesofhistorytoseehowblacks
manipulatedchangeinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Theymaynothave
wonmajorcampaignsintheProgressiveErabutasaunittheymanipulated
outcomes.AsShawnLeighAlexanderdescribedinhisbook,AnArmyofLions
(2012),blackfactionscametogethertofight,usepropaganda,tolobby,toboycott,
andtoemployothermeansasearlyas1906inthecivilrightsstruggle.66Yet
Alexanderdidnothaveaspecificcasetoexplore,becauseoflackofsomeonesuchas
Chisumtobridgethetheory.However,understandingthatChisumworkedwith
BTWlaterthan1906helpsdelineatewhathappenedintheMidwestduringthemid-
teens.Activatingaspy-cum-journalistwhoworkedforbothliberalsand
conservativesintheMidwestmadeadramaticdifferenceintheoutcomeofthe
blackstruggleforcivilrightsacrossthenation.
ShawnAlexanderconcentratedonthepre-NAACPera.Addingtheworkof
undercovermensuchasChisumtohisbookdevelopsaclearerpicture,and
exploringthepost-NAACPperiodduringthelifeofBTWilluminateshowthese
factionsstillcarriedouttheworkofanarmyoflions.WithaspylikeChisum,meta
language,andanunderstandingofAmericanblackcivilreligion,blackleaders
achievedbreakthroughsinjusticebyactinglikecatswhochasedamouse,quietly66ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012),xii.
180
andconservatively.ChisummadewavesinstateslikeOklahomathatultimately
changedthefaceofpoliticsacrossthecountry.Chisum’sundercoverworkinthe
Midwestchippedawayatthegood-old-boys’networks.Thisisthepointthat
historianNancyWeisspickedupinherbookFarewelltothePartyofLincoln.67
TheseeventsalsogiveinsighttothelargernarrativeofChisum’slifeasan
entrepreneurandbusinessmanstrugglingtomoveintotheTuskegeeMachineand
theeconomyofhistimeperiod.Chisumattemptedtokeepworkasareformerinthe
early1900s.Blacksunderstoodthatdividedtheywouldfail.Duringthefirstquarter
ofthetwentiethcenturytwodivisions–segregatedbythefunctionofvocationor
education–emergedasthecentralorderofreformbuilding.Onefactionincluded
whitesocialists,includingtheJewishpeoplewhosupportedW.E.B.DuBois’andhis
developingNAACP.Theotherfaction’sfollowedPresidentWilliamMcKinley’s
supportofBishopWilliamDerrickandPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt’ssupportof
BTWasnationalleaders.SometimesoverlookedbecauseoftheissuesbetweenBTW
andDuBois,theAfricanMethodistEpiscopal(AME)churchwasalsoapowerful
entityinthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.68
67NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),3-33.Brooks,"Oklahoma'sFirstBlackGovernor":Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung.";"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker.";MaceoCrenshawDailey,WhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScottandtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(ElPaso,Texas:SweetEarthFlyingPress,2013).DaileyroundsouthisstudybyexplainingthenuancesoftheBookeritecommunity.68Luker,TheSocialGospelinBlackandWhite,158-190.Frazier,TheNegroChurchinAmerica,41-48.C.EricLincoln,TheBlackChurchSinceFrazier,(London:UniversityofLiverpool,1974),135-152.
181
Duringthisperiod,agreatmigrationofAmericanandforeignblacksflowed
intoNewYorkCityandFlushing,NewYork.AccordingtoFortune’snewspaper,the
NewYorkAge,thearrivals“withinrecentyearsfromallpartsoftheSouth[have]
madeitpossibleforagreatnumberandvarietyofbusinessenterprisestobe
controlledandoperatedbymenandwomen.”69Asinotherpartsofthecountry,the
availabilityoflandwascentralindevelopingthelandscapeforblacks.Severalblack
realtycompaniescameintoexistence.Notabletosecurelargecapitalforoperating
purposes,severalofthemattainedplacesofdistinctioninfinancialcircles.The
MetropolitanRealtyCompanyownedover$100,000ofrealestateandboastedof
$15,000worthofmercantilebusinessannually.TheAfroAmericanRealtyCompany,
withPhilipPayton,Jr.,aspresident,foundsitesforblackhomesinlocalitieswith
lowcrimeandoutsideoftenementdwellingsinNewYorkandothercities.Emmett
Scottsatontheboardofdirectorsthatownednineofthebuildingsandcontrolled
seventy-fiveNewYorkCityapartmenthousesvaluedatover$900,000.Fortune
wroteintheNewYorkAge,thatothermenwhowereaggressiveintheirventuresas
brokersincludedM.A.Simmons,JohnMosley,MelvinJ.Chisum,andJ.P.Bourkeand
Son.70
Chisum’sventureintotherealestatemarketprovedbothpositiveandfatal.A
lettergleanedfromthePeabodypapersinthefileoftheHarlancollectionshows
thatduringthisperiodChisumcontinuedworkingformissions,ontheside,forthe
69NewYorkAge(NewYork),28February1907.70Ibid.
182
FrankDoubledayandG.F.Peabodyfamilies.71Thesemensupportedhimwhenhe
sufferedproblemsintherealestatemarket.TheGreaterNorthernRealtyCompany
wasincorporatedat308West119thStreetinNewYorkCitywithcapitalstockof
$20,000sharesat$5apiece.ThegoodnameofthepresidentoftheGreater
NorthernRealtyCompany,MelvinChisum,landedthecompanymajorsupport.
Anothernameheldprestige,AMEBishopAlexanderWalters.However,thepowerof
theblackpressreareditsheadagainstclergymen“takinganactivepartinthe
variousfinancialconcerns.”BishopWaltersresignedwiththewords“Theonly
reasonforhavingconsentedtogointoyourandotherenterpriseswastohelpthe
raceandsofarasmymoneygoesIshallcontinuetohelpthoseIbelievetobe
worthy,forIbelieveinthiswayonlycanoldermenofourracehelptheyounger
ones.”72Itisapparentthattheenterprisewaslegitimate.However,inthetime
periodChisumwasundercoverandspyingontheNiagaramovement.Chisum
reportedtoBTWconversationsthathethoughtworthyofBTW’sknowledge.
Chisum’sinfluencegrewinNewYork.Thehousingmarketboomedand
ChisumoperatedinLongIsland,NewYork,representingtheGreatNorthern
Company.OnSundayOctober6,1907,thecompanylaunchedapubliccelebration
fortheerectionofa“colony”ofblackhomes,arowofimprovedhomesforupwardly
mobileblacks.Heproposedcombiningthesavingsofworkingblacks.Togetherthis
groupwoulderecttheirexclusiveneighborhoods.TheyboughtlotsonForest
AvenueinFlushing.Theworkonfivehousesstarted.AMEpastorRev.Dr.WilliamH.
71HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder,UMDLibraries.72“BishopWaltersResigns,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),5March1908.
183
Lacey,(1869-?)whopastoredatFlushing,NewYork,purchasedthefirststockfor
$450.AnunidentifiedFlushingcontractordevelopedtheplansandcontractsto
buildthehomes.However,beforethehomeswerebuilt,thehousingboom
collapsed.Theworkonthehomesstopped.Thecontractorwentbankruptandleft
FlushingforNewJersey,andwassubsequentlykilledinacaraccident.Chisum,
underduress,triedtokeeptheprojectafloat,buttonoavail.Ultimatelythe
investorssuedChisumpersonallyinsteadoftheGreatNorthernRealtyCompanyfor
theirinvestments.
184
CHAPTERV
CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEINOKLAHOMA
WHERETHEWINDCOMESSWEEPINGDOWNTHEPLAINS
“MyfathertoldmethatBookerT.Washingtonwasawarethatthepoliticiansand officials of Oklahoma were stealing much of the money the U.S.Government was spending in the region for the care and upkeep of theIndians.WhyBookerT.WashingtonwasupsetaboutthisIdonotknow,buthewantedtoexposethisfraud,misappropriationoffunds,andthievery.Hesent my father to Oklahoma City with the instructions to establish anewspaperwhoseprimaryfunctionwouldbetopublicizethissituation.”1
---Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.toAuthor
ThereisasayinginOklahomathat“ifyoudon’tliketheweather,waitfifteen
minutes,itwillchange.”Inthemiddleoffirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury,
predictingpoliticaloutcomesforAmericanBlackOklahomanswasasturbulentas
predictingtheweather.Awintrymixcameinthesummerof1914whenMelvin
JacksonChisum,thenaslender,nappy-headed,charismaticbutshrewdespionage
agent,acceptedamissiontofindoutwhatwasgoingonwithIndianmoneyfor
BookerT.Washington(BTW)whohadchargeofaportionoftheIndianwork
1Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor29November2006heldinauthor’snotebook.
185
ofthenationalgovernmentthroughTuskegeeInstitute.1However,Chisumwound
updeposingtheAmericanBlackleaderinOklahoma,InmanPage.Chisum’s
interlopinginAfroOklahomapoliticsbecameacatalystforpoliticalchangeinthe
countryoverthenextfiftyyears.HisrashundercoverworkinOklahomaelevated
RoscoeDunjeefromatruckfarmertoanewspapereditor.Inthe1940sDunjee
becamenationallyknowncivilrightspolitician.Chisum’sworkalsopositionedDr.
IsaacWilliamYoungintobecominganAmerican“FatherofBlackDemocracy”inthe
1920sandintothe1930s.
In1897theTerritorialBoardofEducationopenedthefirststatesegregated
collegeforblacks,OklahomaColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity(Langston)
inLangstonCity,Oklahoma.Rev.JohnDunjee,BaptistmissionarytoOklahoma,
adeptinpoliticalprotocol,helpedestablishLangstonandotherblackcollegessuch
asShorterBaptistCollegeinWestVirginia,HamptonInstituteinVirginia,and
SpellmanUniversityinGeorgia.UsinghisshrewdnessDunjeemanipulatedthe
OklahomaRegentschoiceforpresidentofLangston.Underhisguidancetheir
choice,JeffersonDavisRandolph,declinedthepositionattheverylastmoment
leavingtheregentsnooptionbuttohireInmanPage.In1897Pagewastheother
giantinAmericanBlackeducationinthecentralwestverysimilartoBTWat
TuskegeeInstitute.Pageperformedastheblackpoliticalandsocialleaderin
Oklahoma.
1Chisumhadthesametightcurlpatternthathisfatherhad.Blacksrefertoitasnappy.
186
Thirtyyearsaftertheemancipationofslaves,nineyearsaftertheendof
Reconstruction,Page’smissionincludedthedevelopmentofsocialreform,
establishmentofideologicalfoundationsandinstallationofaneconomicstructure
forblacksinthestateofOklahoma.Pagewassoonrecognizedasthe“Giantof
UniversityHill.”UnderPage’sguidancestudentsofLangstonformedaleadership
classofAmericanBlackssometimesdefinedasthe“TalentedTenth.”Slowlyhe
guidedhiselementarygraduates,collegegraduatesandcertifiedteacherstobecome
trailblazersinOklahoma.Inspiteofhissuccess,insteadofcelebrationofhis
accomplishments,seventeenyearslaterasquickasaflashoflightingacrossthe
prairiesky,inAugust1915,InmanPagewasnolongerpresidentofLangston!What
happened?TheGuthrieDailyleaderreported:“Pageresignedofhisownvolition
statingthathewassickandtiredofcombatingthecontinualattacksmadeonhimby
politicalenemiesofhisownraceandinhisownschool.”2TheTulsaStarreported
thatPagewasundergravechargesandthathe“resignedtoavoidadealof
unpleasantnotoriety.”3Hislawyer,MoormanPruiett,stated“thedevilishworkthat
hasbeendonetoinjurePresidentPagemaybechargedtoagroupofblack
Democratswhowanttogetridofhiminorderthatsomeofthemmaysucceedhim
atLangston.”4TheHarlow’sWeeklyreported:
2“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute:PresidentInmanPageWillNowGoAfterEnemiesWhoPersecuted,”GuthrieDailyLeader(Guthrie),1September1915.3“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedTheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.4“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.“SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedtheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3
187
OklahomahadaverysuccessfulNegroschoolatLangston.TheBoardofEducationfoundtheDuBoisideahadbeenadopted.DuBoisheldthattheNegroesdevelopedbyattainingpoliticalandsocialequalitywiththewhiterace.InmanE.PagecouldnotbeconvincedoftheinapplicabilityoftheideainOklahoma.Itwasnecessarytoremovehim.ThenewpolicyfollowstheteachingofBookerT.Washington.5
Mosttwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturyhistoriographyfollowedZellaPatterson’s
non–controversialevaluationinher1970sbookLangstonUniversity–Page
resigned–tobecomePresidentofMaconCollegeinMissouri.6Herhistoriography
stretchedthetruth.
Whatwasthetruth?Afterseventeenyears,whywasInmanPagesoabruptly
letgofromLangston?Whatweretheattacksandunpleasantnotorietyhe
complainedof?HowdidtheBoardofEducationfindouthisideologicaldifferences
fromBTW?WasitconspiracyorthecodeofAfroTexanstocareforeachother?The
TuskegeeMachine,anationwidenetworkofinstitutionsincludingbanks,
newspapers,businessesintheblackcommunitycontrolledbyBTWatTuskegee
Institute,inAlabama,wasnotatthecenterofPage’sdownfall.MelvinChisumnever
reallybecameapartoftheinnercircleofTuskegeeuntilafterthedeathofBTW.
PagewasaliberaleducatorindirectcontentionwiththeconservatismofBTW.
FromhisarticlesintheTribunenewspaper,ChisumattackedPageforwhathe
consideredunacceptableconditionshefoundatLangstonUniversity.Itcanbe
September1915.5Harlow’sWeekly,(OklahomaCity),3June1916.6ZellaPatterson,LangstonUniversity(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979).32.
188
questionedifChisumhadmoreofanagendathanBTW’smissiontocheckonthe
welfareofIndiansandtheirincomewhenhewenttoOklahoma.Chisumseemedto
havehisownagenda.Researchhasuncoveredthattheremayhavebeenafamily
relationatLangstonUniversity.Perhapshesawachancetodevelophisideaof
vigilantejournalismbasedoftheplightofIndians;howevernoevidenceabouthis
mindsethasbeendiscoveredexceptthearticleshewroteintheTribune.
InNovemberof1914,MelvinChisummademovesrelatedtohisespionage
effortinOklahoma.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,whowasmayorofBoley,welcomed
ChisumtoOklahoma.Youngintroducedhimtomembersofthecommunitythrough
thenewspapertheBoleyProgress.In1914Chisumwasalreadymakinghishomein
OkfuskeeCounty,Oklahoma.7Hewasnotnewtothearea.Heparticipatedinpast
eventswithhischildhoodfriendDr.Young.In1911ChisumhelpedYoungsecurea
railroadcarandorganizearailroadcaravantoArkansas.Thepartytraincaravan
traveledtoBTW’sLittleRockArkansasforNationalNegroBusinessLeague.8
SupportnetworksofBookeriteslikeDr.YoungwerealreadysettledinOklahomaby
1914.9InOklahoma,Chisum’sjournalisticandbusinessreputationprecededhim.
7BookerT.WashingtontoMelvinChisum,14December1914,vol11,BTWP.Alsoarticle“Washington,”DailyOklahoman,(OklahomaCity),19November1905.TherewasconsiderablerivalryamongtheblackleaderstoentertainWashington.InmanPageintroducedBTW.E.I.Saddlerwasthetoastmaskeratthebanquet.8BoleyCommercialClub,BoleyOklahoma,FactsAboutBoleyOklahoma:TheLargestandWealthiestExclusiveNegroCityintheWorld,(Boley:BoleyProgress,1911).6.9E.I.Saddler,alaborerwhoalsoworkedasalawyer,wasoneofWashington’sfirstagentsinthestateofOklahoma.J.W.AdamsmovedtoOkmulgee,IndianTerritoryin1904.C.W.Perry,amachinistandbrakemanfortherailroad,settledinBoley,Oklahoma’slargestblacktown.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,medicaldoctorandphilanthropist,“castdownhisbucket”inOklahomain1908.YoungalsostealthilymovedintothepositionofmayorofBoley.Theyattemptedtoimplement
189
Evenwhitesacceptedhimas“oneofthebestinformedNegroesinthecountry.”10
ThroughWashington’spolitically-positionedmenandsupportivenewspapers
ChisumquicklygainedastronginfluenceamongOklahomansincludingbutnot
limitedtoDr.IsaacYoung,mayorofBoley,E.E.McDaniel,ofSouthMcAlester,E.I
SadlerofGuthrie,CoodyJohnsonofWewoka,B.DouglasRussellofLangston,W.H.
TwineofMuskogee,M.A.SorrellofVinita,J.D.SpringerofArdmore,E.OTylerof
Kingfisher,J.D.RandolphofOKC,C.T.TaliferroofPerry,John–ofPawnee,Charles
YatesofEnid,andJohnHogan,mayorofLangston.11
TheBoleyProgressnewspaper,thatYoungsupportedfinancially,published
anarticlethatstatedChisumwasaleadingjournalistinthecountryandwelcomed
inBoleybytheeditorandmayor.12BTWhadaspecialplaceinhisvisionofBoley.
BoleywasanallblacktownthatBTWinvestedinheavily.13WashingtonsentYoung
toBoleyin1901tolookaround.UnderBTW’spersuasion,Youngrelocatedhis
familytherefromAlexandria,Louisianain1908.He“laiddownhisbucket”and
openedthelargestcottonginBoleyeverhadin1908.14AsmayorofBoley,Young
championedChisumthroughthenewspaper.15Youngwassuccessfulasamedical
Washington’splansofbuildingbusinessesandtradesamongBoley’speople.10“ChisumMakesLeapforFreedom;Captured,”TheLeader,(Sentinel)6April1916.ThearticletalksaboutChisumasaleadingblackjournalistinthecountry.11DailyOklahoman,(OklahomaCity)August8,1906.12BoleyProgress(Boley)5April,1908.13NormanCrockett,TheBlackTowns,(Kansas:TheRegentsPressofKansas,1979)157-163.14BoleyProgress(Boley),5April1908.15Ibid.
190
doctor,philanthropist,andcalledtheleadingblackRepublicaninthestate.By1912
YoungwasBoley’smayor.16
BecausetheBoleyProgresswasaleadingblacknewspaperinOklahomathe
editor’sandmayor’sacceptanceofhimgaveChisumthecatalystthathelpedsethim
upforhisassignment.TheBoleyProgressreportedthatChisumtraveledaroundthe
stategainingacceptanceforthepaperandsupportforhiseffort.Inthespringof
1915ChisumstartedtheTribunenewspaperinOklahomaCity.InAugust1914,
Chisum,nowconsideredanOklahoman,waselectedpresidentoftheNationalNegro
PressAssociation(NNPA).Thiswasapowerfulindicatoroftrustfromhisfellow
newspapermenandahighhonorforOklahoma.Thenewspaperwashisweaponof
choice.ItseemsthatitwasintheCentral-WestthatChisumdevelopedhistechnique
ofusingnewspapersforespionage.Chisum’svisionwasto“makehisadministration
standoutasadistinctivepromoterofcloserrelationsbetweenthepressandplain
people.”17
Whatseemsatrapwassteadilylaid.TheAugust15,1915issueofthe
TribuneexplainedthatwithintheNNPAastrategywasdevisedforblackeditorsto
beapartofanationalvigilancecommittee.18Thegroup’spurposewastoinform
affluentwhitesofthehorrorscommittedagainsttheblackcommunitybyblack
16BoleyProgress(Boley),30July1915;BoleyProgress(Boley),16July1915;BoleyProgress(Boley),6August1915.17Freeman(Cincinnati),3October14.18“NationalNegroPressAssociation,”TheTribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.Eachmemberoftheexecutivecommitteewasamemberofvigilantecommittee.TwopapersinOklahomalinkedH.W.TwineinMuskogee,andA.J.SmithermaninTulsa.
191
leaderssothatwhitescouldstepintostopcorruptionofblackleadershiptowards
theirownrace.Theirmissionwasto“provideameanswherebyafavorable
commentbypress,telegramorlettermightreachalargebutsilentclassofwhite
menwhobelieveinfairplay.”19Apparentlytherewassomevaliditytothisprogram.
NewspapersnamedasmembersoftheNNPAincludedtheTulsaStareditedbyA.J.
Smitherman,andtheMuskogeeCimetereditedbyW.H.Twine,acceptedthe
programalongwithotherpapersacrossthecountry.Blackleadersharmingtheir
ownracemusthavebeenanationwideproblem.
ANewArmyforBlackIndiansInOklahoma
TheChicagoDefender’s,March14,1914,headlineaboutSarahRector,
“ColoredGirlKidnapped?NotAtTuskegee:RICHESTCHILDOFTHERACE
MYSTERIOUSLYDISSAPPEARS”servedasafuse.Thischaptercontendsthat
TuskegeeleaderEmmettScott’ssignatureonthearticlewasacovertcallfor
nationwideattentiontofocusonOklahomapolitics.Itsuggeststhatjustasthe
assassinationofArchdukeFerdinandservedasoneofthecatalystfornationsto
combineinwaragainstanenemy,inthesamewayScott’ssignatureonthearticle
alertedthecountrythatitwastimetoformaringoffirearoundOklahomato
containexploitationofmixed-black-Indianracechildrenandfreedmen.20
19“NNPAVigilanteCommittee,”Tribune,(OklahomaCity),20August1915.20MixedblackIndianraceasadesignationcontainstheideathatnotallIndianchildrenhadoncebeenslaves.Freedmenwerechildrenofslaves.MixedblackIndiansweresometimesofotherrelationshipsbetweenIndiansandblacks.
192
WhileJimCrowseemedanoverwhelmingadversary,Americanblackswere
notcompletelyhelplessintheschemeofthings;theyplayedhighlycovertgamesin
gettingwhattheywanted.AsShawnAlexandercritiquedinanArmyofLions(2012),
civilrightsactivistscrossedlinesofcontentiontoorganizeevenwhentheyheld
opposingbeliefs.21SupportingblackOklahomans,blacksfromaroundthecountry
soughttoaiddispossessedfreedmenandIndianswhoinheritedoilrichlandsbut
werebeingswindled.Sourcesfromblacknewspapers,letters,andmanuscripts
confirmhowblackleadersorganizedinracialsolidarityinanattempttostopwhite
andblackflagrantmisuseofpolitical,socialandeconomicpoweragainstblackheirs
towealthyestatesinOklahomabetween1913and1915.
TheTuskegeeMachine,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColored
People,(NAACP)andotherfactionsorganized:BookerT.WashingtonatTuskegee,
AMEBishopsWilliamDerrickandAlexanderWalters,IdaB.Wells-Barnett,Mary
ChurchTerrell,MaryTalbert,ArthurSpingarn,WilliamPickens,andCharles
ChesnuttoftheNAACP;TuskegeepatriotsEmmettJ.Scott,HenryHunt,J.Rosamond
Johns,andJamesWeldonJohnson;NiagaraitesCharlesBentley,L.M.Hershaw,and
MasonHawkins;andeducatorsKelleyMillerandLucyLaneytorectifyblack
problemsacrossthenationthroughinterventionandorganization.Nationalleaders
understoodthatblackIndianchildrenbecamejustanothergroupofblacksinthe
ProgressiveEra.Thisgroupofblacksusedtheirbesttools–newspapers,national
meetings,andacetrickstersandspiessuchasefficiencyagent,realestatedeveloper,21ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStruggleBeforetheNAACP(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).Thisisthegeneralthesisofhisbook.
193
andnewspapermanMelvinChisum.Theydidnotwinovertlybutintheircovert
waystheychangedtheoutcomesofthelivesofmanyIndiansandfreedmen.
Oklahomapoliticsandnetworksprovedtoostrongaforcetobreak.Yet,they
establishedanetworkprominentenoughtoletOklahomaandtheUnitedStates
governmentknowtheywerebeingwatchedandjudgedbyotherAngloAmericans.
By1914Chisum’sspyingbackgroundwasknownamongthehigherechelons
orleadersoftheblackcommunity.Thisgroupofblacksusedtheirbesttools,
newspapers,nationalmeetings,andacetrickstersandspies,suchasrealestate
developer,andnewspapermanMelvinChisumtotacklenationalproblemsofthe
blackrace.ThelateDr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,wrotethathisfathertoldhimthathis
missioninOkmulgeewasto“exposetheexploitationofIndianandFreedmen.”22It
wasrareforblackstoovertlywinagainstJimCrow.EvenwithMelvinChisum,inthe
longrun,Oklahomagreed,politicians,andnetworkswithinthefederalgovernment
provedtoostrongaforcetobreak.Yet,thecommunityofleadersestablisheda
network.TheworkhedidinthisperiodbecamepivotalforChisuminthefollowing
years.Forthefirsttimerecorded,Chisummovedfrombeinganeophyteandhe
turnedoneofBTW’smissionsintoapersonalmission.Duringtheperiodhe
attackedInmanPage,thepresidentofColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversityin
Langston,Oklahoma(Langston).LouisHarlanshouldhavewrittenthatthegenieleft
thebox.
22Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,15August2005.Heldinauthor’snotebook.
194
InsteadofcomingtoOklahomaasBTW’sespionageagent,Chisumusedhis
presidencyoftheNNPAashiscover.ChisumwasonthegroundinOklahoma,
workingwithotherBookeritenewspapermen.Already,theowneroftheBaltimore
TribuneinMaryland,ChisumboughttheOkmulgeeLightnewspaperandallegedly
movedtoMuskogee,thehomeoftheIndianBureau.Eventhoughhewasmarried
Chisumhadnorealhomebutroamedthecountry.BythisperiodChisumwas
estrangedfromhiswifeMaewholivedinMarylandandworkedasahairdresser.
HundredsofmilesawayfromMarylandChisumestablishedanewnewspaperin
Oklahoma.TheOkmulgeeLight’smottowas“TheBestforHim:FightingFabrication
inChurch,StateandBusiness.”The“non-denominationalandunbiased”newspaper
cameintoexistenceinMayof1914intimefortheNationalNegroBusinessLeague
meetinginAugust.23ArticlescoveredmostlynationalnewsfromtheTuskegeenews
services.WhileChisumstartedanewspaper,astheCrisiseditor,newspaperofthe
NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),W.E.B.
DuBoisandhissleuthandlawyerpummeledOklahomanswithletters,andthelocal,
state,andnationalnewspaperskepttheirwatchonOklahomaheiressSarahRector.
BTWalsoremainedinvolvedinOklahomapoliticsbymovinghisNational
NegroBusinessLeaguemeetingtoMuskogee.Blacksfromalloverthecountry
convenedinMuskogeeforthelargestgatheringofblacksinAmericathatyear.
MelvinChisum,thejournalistandBaltimoreTribuneeditor,waselectedpresidentof
theNNPA,amajorpartoftheTuskegeeMachine.InDecember1914MelvinChisum,
spyandprovocateurtoBTWandefficiencyagentforotherswhopaidhim,and23OkmulgeeLight(Okmulgee),3May1914.
195
formerassistanttoabishopoftheAfricanMethodistEpiscopal(AME)Church,came
toOklahomaonwhatseemedlikeamissionofretribution.Hewasthebestcovert
blackspytheblacknationhadtodealwithdifficultissuesofraceintheJimCrow
South.WilliamHarriswrotethatChisumwasoneofmanyblackmenwhodidsecret
missions.24WendellDabneywroteaboutChisum’scapacityforshiftingcharactersto
meettheneedsofthecommunity.25InChisum’sPilgrimageandOthers,Dabney
describedChisum’spredilectionforsavingtheneedy.26TheeditoroftheFreeman
newspaperinIllinoiswroteinhis“ShortFlights”columnthatChisum,presidentof
theNNPAandeditoroftheBaltimoreTribune“hadsomethinguphissleevesand
wouldsurprisethecountrysoon.”27
AccordingtoinformationpublishedintheOklahomaCityTribune,theNNPA,
undernewlyelectedMelvinChisumaspresident,startedacampaignin1914totake
careofplainpeopleorpeoplewholivedasimplewayoflife.Chisumandmorethan
seventyothereditorsacrossthenationformedavigilantecommitteetofightcrimes
committedbyblackleadersagainstplainpeoplearoundthecountry.Theeditors
wouldfindand“informaffluentwhitesofthehorrorscommittedagainsttheblack
communitybyblackleaderssothatwhitescouldstepintostopcorruptionofblack
24WilliamHarris,KeepingtheFaith:A.PhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-47(Champaign:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1977).25WendellDabney,Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens(Cincinnati,OH:DabneyPublishingCompany,1926),122.26WendellDabney,Chisum’sPilgrimageandOther’s((Cincinnati,OH:DabneyPublishingCompany,1927),7.27Freeman,(Indianapolis),28November1914.
196
leadershiptowardstheirownrace.”28TheagendahadtwoprongsinOklahomafor
ChisumtheblackIndianinvestigationhedidforBTWandhisownvigilanteworkfor
undertheauspicesoftheNNPAatLangstonCity,Oklahoma.
TheDawesCommissionallottedtomanyoftheCreek,Choctaw,Seminole
blackIndiansandfreedmenlandthatwasunfitforagriculture.Inthelongrun,these
blacksseemedtoprosperbecauseunderatopsoiluselessforfarmingtheiracreage
wasrichwithnaturalgasandoil.Itturnedoutoilwasseepingoutoftheground.
AllotmentwasacolonialpolicythatforcedCreekstoreducetheirnationhoodtoa
carveduppieceofland.ForhistorianDavidChang,“imperialwhitenesswastheir
inbornnatureofstealingland,remainingonitandgoverningtheland.”29Blacksand
Indians,andblackIndians,becamerichovernight.Someofthemdidnotevenknow
oftheirwealth.Oklahomaseemedaperfectvenueforusingthenewvigilantetools
ofcrimefightinginstitutedbytheNNPA.
AcrypticcodewassentoutbyScotttoblacksandtheirsupportersaround
thenation.TuskegeeleaderEmmettScott’ssignatureonthearticle,“BlackGirl
Kidnapped?”servedasacovertcallfornationwideattentiontofocusonOklahoma
politicsregardingblackIndiansandfreedmen.Whatagencydidblackshavetofight
againstthegovernmentduringJimCrow,“lily-white”politicalpartiesinCongress,
andblatantracismandoutrightcrueltyagainstblacksandIndianstohelpbring
justicetothesenon-AnglosinOklahoma?Anetworkofnationalblackleadersarose
28“NNPAVigilanteCommittee,”Tribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.29DavidChang,ColoroftheLand:Race,Nation,andthePoliticsofLandownershipinOklahoma,1832-1929(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2010).81.
197
toemploythemostpowerfulweaponstheyhad–thenewspaper,theirhonor,
subterfuge,andtheirspies–todilutecrimesofpolitical,social,andeconomicnature.
ThisgroupofblackleadersusedtheiragencyinthetimeofJimCrowtofight
powerful,sometimesdishonest,governmentforces,seekingpowerandmonetary
gaintohelpmixed-raceIndiansandfreedmenmaintaintheirinheritedfortunes.
RufusLoganwrotealettertotheeditoroftheProfessionalWorld,anIndiana
newspaper,in1914statingthat,“InnostateintheUnionhaveNegroesbeen
robbed,actuallyrobbedwithimpunityandopenly,asinthisState(Oklahoma),and
todaywhitemenareworthmillionswhohavebuiltuptheirfortunesbythievery.”30
HislettermimickedwordssentfromMuskogee,Oklahoma,totheWashingtonBeein
November1913.31Hegainedinformationthroughanetworkonlydescribedas
“Muskogee,Ok”andthedate.Thenewspapersource,whichgeneratedthe
information,remainedunnamed.Blackleadersandnewspapersfoughttogether,
bombardingtheworldwithinformationaboutOklahomapoliticswhenblacksheld
noothertangibleweaponbutthewrittenword.Wheredidtheygettheinformation
-from“AnArmyofLions”-withaspywhosettledinOklahomanearthelandsofthe
freedmenandIndianslinkingtheplainpeoplewiththejusticeleague.
Nowrittenrulesofhowblacksreceivedvariouspropertiesremain.Itseems
thatfullbloodormixed-racewhiteIndianswhounderstoodthevalueoffarming
hadachoiceinselectingtheirland.However,otherhistorians,throughoralhistory
andinterpretation,haveuncoveredvagueideasabouttheIndianallotmentprocess.30ProfessionalWorld,(Illinois),14December1914.31“NegroesRobbed:DemandforFairPlay,”WashingtonBee(WashingtonD.C.),29November1913.
198
HistorianofOklahomaIndians,AngieDebo,wrotethat“therichvalleylandaround
Muskogeewaslargelytakenbyfreedmen,whohadsettledinthatvicinitywhen
theirmastershadfledfromNorthernarmiesduringtheCivilWar.”32StacyPatton’s
viewwasthatthe“thewhitesettlersreceivedthemoreideallandforfarmingwhile
therockyandhillylandswereallottedtoIndiansandfreedmen.”33Howeverthe
allotmentsweredistributed,manymixedbloodblacksgainedoilrichlands.Inthe
Crisis,W.E.B.DuBoisrepeatedinformationfromtheMuskogeeCimeteraboutthe
landofDannyTucker,aten-year-oldboy.The160acresallottedtohimforfarm
purposesis“rockandhilly,notenacresslantingthesamewayandisvirtuallyunfit
forfarming.”Indianlandwasablessingandcurseforundereducated,
underprivileged,indigentland-poor,mineral-richblackswhocouldnotpaytaxeson
theirlandandhadlittlelegalknowledgeoftheirrightsinOklahoma.DuBoisended
theSeptember1914articlewiththesewords,“[I]tisneedlesstoaddthatawhite
manhasbeenmadeDannyTucker’sguardian.”
Inordertofiltermoneyintothemainstreamandallowwhitestoprofitfrom
Oklahomalandsandwealth,in1912thefederalgovernmentgrantedtheOklahoma
statecourtsjurisdictionandtheabilitytodeclareallotteesincompetentandto
appointcaretakersforprotectionoftheirproperty.Oklahomapoliticiansusedthe
positionsofguardianshipaspartofthepoliticalpatronagesystem.Accordingto
AlexandraHarmoninherbookRichIndians(2010),politiciansembracedtheritual
ofguardianshipaspartoftheirpayoff.AccordingtoHarmon’svastresearchof32Debo.98.33StaceyPatton,"TheRichestColoredGirlintheWorld:SarahRector'sUnusualTaleIsaSingularStoryofRaciallyMotivatedGreedandCorruption,"Crisis2010.
199
FederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI)records,UnitedStatesHouseandSenate
reports,andcourtdocuments,theFBIfilesshowedthatlegalpredatorswerenot
abovemurderingIndiansfortheirmoney.Harmonexplainsthattheidiom“federal
guardianship”becamenomorethanatacticbetweenwhites“tolimitfederalpower
inordertosiphonoffIndianwealthforthemselves.”34Thisunderstandingof
guardianshipwasusedasapoliticalandeconomictoolinOklahomacommunities
forprivateguardiansandlawyerstomakemoneyoffrichIndiansbydeclaringthem
incapableofhandlingtheirwealth.Itwasalsotheexhibitionofwhites’beliefintheir
entitlementintheageofprogress.Asdidwhitesacrossthecountry,whitesin
Oklahomabelievedintheirracialsuperiority.BlacksandIndianswerelesser
membersofthespecies.
ArthurSmitherman,editorofaMuskogeenewspaperandlatertheTulsaStar
wrotethatwhiteguardians,sanctionedbyMuskogeejudges,usedmoneyfrom
SarahRector,anheiress,andLutherManuel,atwelve-year-old,mixed-race,black
Indianboy,tobuildsegregatedapartmentblocksandbusinessdistrictsin
downtownMuskogee.Theareaswereindistrictsinwhichthechildrencouldnot
shopbecauseoftheirblackness.Forthesewhitesupremacists,peopleofcolordid
notdeservetohavewealthwhenwhitesremainedpoorinthesamestate.However,
intheirview,minoritywealthcouldbeusedtosupportwhiteprogress.35
34AlexandraHarmon,RichIndians:NativePeopleandtheProblemofWealthinAmericanHistory(ChapelHill:TheUniversityofNorthCarolina,2010).196-197.35ArthurSmitherman,“SegregationGetsSolo-PlexusBlow,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),23September1915.
200
Skimmingmoneyfromtheircharges’accountswastooeasytoresist.
Harmondescribestheexploitationas“blatantandcruellyillegal.”In1925awitness,
GeorgeHewitt,admitted,“TheGuardianshipbusiness...wasoneoftheinstitutions
oftheStateofOklahoma.”36AngieDebo’sbookAndStilltheWatersRun:The
BetrayaloftheFiveCivilizedTribes(1940)corroboratesHarmon’sreferences.Debo
wrotethatforgery,embezzlement,criminalconspiracy,misuseofnotary’sseals,and
otherformsofswindlingoccurredwithregularity.Thecourtsremained
overwhelmedwithguardianshipfraudsontheirdockets.SometimesOklahoma
courtsshortenedjailsentencesforcriminalguardiansbasedonlettersfrom
communityleadersandtheGovernor.However,severalattorneysweredisbarred
andotherssuspendedformalpracticeoftheirguardianshipduties.37IntheTulsa
Star,editorArthurSmithermanrecountsthatnotonlywhiteguardiansbut“some
Negroguardiansonaccountoftheirdislikefortheartofbookkeepinghaveafforded
examplesthatnecessitatedtheirbeingsenttoMcAlestertosplitrocks.Yet,allthe
same,thereareafewNegroesinMuskogeewhocouldtakepropercareofthe
Rectors,Manuels,andotherestates.”38
Severalheirsoffreedmenbecameentangledintheweboffortune-hunting
whitesandtheOklahomagovernment.StaceyPattonobserves,“Oklahoma’snewly
electedstateofficialsquicklyrecognizedthatthepresenceofthousandsofland-
owningchildrenofcolorsuchasSarahRectorrancontrarytothewhite
36Harmon,RichIndians,198.37Debo.312-314.38Smitherman,“SegregationGetsSolo-PlexusBlow,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),23September1915.
201
fundamentalideasaboutAmericancitizenshipandracialhierarchy.Therewastoo
muchlandandmoneyatstaketoallowthefederalgovernmenttomaintain
‘protective’policiesthatwouldallowsomanyblackchildrentocapitalizeonthe
resourcesandbecomefull-fledgedcitizensoncetheyreachedtheirageofmajority.
ThestrategiccontrolofblackIndianchildrenandfreedmenwasunderstoodasa
necessarystrategy“inafluidpoliticalsituationwithtopsy-turvyracerelations
threateningtotheireconomicsuccessandindependence.”39Thispaternalistic
controlwouldpitatleastoneOklahomaguardianagainsttheplansmadeforSarah
RectoratTuskegee.SarahRectorwasadescendantofslavesownedbyCreeksat
thebeginningoftheCivilWar.In1914,shewasoneoftherichestwomenin
Oklahomaifnottherichestwomanintheworldwithanincomeof$112,000–
118,000ayear.Shehad160acresofoilrichland.
SarahRector’splightasablackIndianwithrootsfromslaverymadeherthe
perfectcandidateforMargaretMurrayWashington’sprogramforreformingyoung
womenatTuskegeeInstitute.TheNationalFederationofAfroAmericanWomen
choseMrs.Washingtonasitsfirstpresidentin1895.BookerT.Washingtonchose
herashisthirdwifein1893.Mrs.WashingtonservedasdeanofwomenatTuskegee
Institute.Shealsoorganizedwomen’sclubs.Anactivistaroundthecountryon
severaloccasions,Mrs.Washingtonspoketoaudiencesfromthepodiumafterher
husbandfinishedhisspeeches.TuskegeeInstitutewasthepremierblackcollege
withthepremierblackcoupleinAmericaduringtheProgressiveEra–thepolitical,
beautiful,educatedleadersoftheblackrealm.BTWmadeitclearthataspresident39Patton,"TheRichestColoredGirlintheWorld,”34.
202
oftheNationalColoredWomen’sClubs,hiswife,asthefirstladyofblackAmerica,
wouldbeamentorforSarahRector.“ItisthedutyofthenationalFederationof
Women’sclubs,”thenewspaperarticleasserted,“ofwhichMrs.BookerT.
Washingtonispresident,toseeasfaraspossibletheparentsofthislittlegirlisnot
“boneyed”withanyloveaffairsbybankersorgrafters,butthatontheotherhand,
thatshebecomeswelleducatedandencouragedtomarryoneofherownrace.”40
InMarchof1914,keepingtrackofSarahthroughblacknewspapers,the
worldapplaudedthemovingoften-year-oldCreekFreedmanmillionaireSarah
RectorfromlivinginashackinMuskogee,Oklahoma,toresidewiththemost
influentialblackleadersinAmerica.41Buttherewasahitch.Notwillingtoletthe
heiressoutoftheirsight,T.J.Porter,SarahRector’scourt–appointedwhite
guardian,andherparentsswappedanunnamedchildforSarahRectoratTuskegee.
Peoplearoundtheworldbelievedforoveramonth,asAmerica’spremierblack
couplebelieved,thatTuskegeehoused,fed,andtutoredthe“richestcoloredgirlin
theworld.”Exceptfornewspaperarticles,noevidenceremainstoexplainhowor
whentheWashingtonsrealizedtheyhadbeentricked.TheheadlineintheChicago
Defender,writtenbyEmmettScott,themastermindbehindtheTuskegeeMachine,
alertedthecountrythatOklahomanshadattackedTuskegeeleaders.
40BlacknewspapersassociatedwiththeTuskegeeMachineranthisarticleoriginallypublishedbytheMuskogeeCimeter(Muskogee),3April1914.SeeChicagoDefender(Illinois),4April1914.41WashingtonBee,(WashingtonD.C.),7March1914;ChicagoDefender(Illinois),14February1914.
203
IfSarahRectorwasnotatTuskegee,andanothergirlmasqueradedinher
stead,thentherewerequestionsthatneededansweringbyherguardians,the
nation,andworldfromOklahomapoliticianswhohadcontroloverthe
guardianship.HadsomeonekilledRector?Hadshebeenmarriedofftothehighest
bidderorintothefamilyofherguardian?Thebannerheadlinemeantthatanswers
neededtobemadetoaworldwideaudiencewhichwaswatchingOklahomapolitics
andpracticesthroughthelensoftheblacknewspapers.
MoreinformationpouredoutofOklahomaintothenationalnewspapers
abouttheplightofIndiansinOklahoma.SarahRectorwasnottheonlymixed-blood
blackIndianwhosestoryhadtobepublicized.ZekeMoorewasaquitedestitute
fourteen-year-oldCreekfreedman.Homelessandhungry,ZekeandhisbrotherGabe
Mooreresortedtotheftin1903inordertosurvivefromdaytoday.Capturedfor
stealingfoodGabewasheldintheMuskogeecityjail.Lessthanaweeklaterhis
brotherZekefollowed.Prisonsofferedfreelaborforfarmersandstateauxiliary
departments.AccordingtotheMuskogeeDailyPhoenix,aweekafterGabewasjailed;
AlToddplacedarewardfor$50fora$45saddlestolenfromhisporch.Mr.
Hendricks,aworker,placeditthere,andthenextmorningitwasgone.Hesuspected
theblackIndianfreedmanZekeMooreofthetheft.Followinghishunch,Todd,and
HendrickstrackedZeketoablackman’shouseinDirtyCreek.
Arrivingattheshantythetrackerssawthestolensaddlehangingonthe
porch.Thoughtheblackman,Mayberry,deniedthatZekewasthere,thewhites
bulliedtheirwayintothehome,foundMooresleeping,andarrestedhim.Moore
204
repeatedlyexplainedtothementhathehadtradedforthesaddleinMuskogee.
Pitifully,onthewaytojailsomeonerecognizedthehorseherodeasbelongingto
thelocalmedicaldoctor.FiveyearslaterMoore,livingouthissentencefortheftin
theLeavenworthpenitentiary,wasdeclaredtherichestmaninOklahoma.42
Publicitybynewspapershelpedprovehewasswindledoutofhispropertywhilea
minorinjail.However,whilecatchinggraftersintheirworkanddisplayingthe
problemsinOklahoma,blackmobilizationdidnotstoptheflagrantabuseofIndian
blacks.However,theirworkopenedissuetotheworldduringtheProgressiveEra
andatthebeginningofWorldWarI.
MelvinChisumversusInmanPageatLangston,Oklahoma
TheconceptofthevigilantecommitteealsosetthestageforChisum’sattack
onPage.ThefollowinginformationisrepeatedfromtheoriginalTribunearticle.No
othernewspapersdisputedthefactsabouttheincidents.WhenanAfro-Texangirl,
RebeccaJohnson,alertedChisumthatPageandhiswife’streatmentofthepoorest
socio-economicclassesofblacksattheLangstonschoolseemedunacceptable,
Chisumwillinglyputhiscareerasanewspapermanatrisktouncoverthetruth.
42“CaughtWithProperty:AnotherofaGangofHorseThievesLandedinJail,”MuskogeeDailyPhoenix,(Muskogee,Oklahoma),5December1903;“CaseOfZekeMoore’sDisputedLeaseswillComeUpBeforeJudgeLawrenceTomorrow,”MuskogeeTimes-Democrat(Muskogee),17June1907.
205
ElevenissuesintohispublicationoftheTribuneadamningbackpagearticle
followed:43
Acareful–impartialinvestigationofconditionsatLangstonUniversitydisclosesthefactthattheCommonwealthofOklahomahasbeenforyearsbeingdupedandthecoloredpeopleoftheStatehavebeenandarebeingviolentlywronged,whiledecencyandmoralitylieprostratebeforethosegiantcursesofChristianity,LustandGreed....ThedecentselfrespectingNegroesofthisstateoweittothemselvestodoaswehavedone,takethetimetogotoLangstonUniversity,lookatthedilapidatedconditionofthings,observedthefilthintheMessHall,inthekitchenthebrokenandbatteredfurniture,standinghereandthereinthehallwayinthebedrooms....visitedthepowerhousenoticingthatsmokewasrisingfromthecoalbin.Thecoalbecameignitedbyspontaneouscombustionandtheyhadnotbeenabletoputitout.44
Chisummadeapersonal,socialandpoliticalattackagainstInmanPage.
ChisumdidnotthinkPage,asablackleader,wasadmirablyservinghiscommunity.
WhetherthedisputewasoverPage’slackofsupportfornationalblackcauses
remainsobscure.PerhapstheattackcamebecauseitwasChisum’sownpaybackto
PagefortheembarrassmentsurroundingSarahRector’sswapatTuskegee.Another
interestingpointwasthatRebeccaJohnsonfromTexas,agirlwithhiswife’smaiden
name(chapter3),alsohadpersonalissueswithhertreatmentattheschool.Using
thenewspaperashisweapon,MelvinChisummobilizedaviciousattacknotonlyon
theculpritswhostolefromandkilledinnocentIndiansbutonOklahoma’sblack
powerstructure.
HecreatedtheOklahomaTribunenewspaperinOklahomaCity.Fourteen
monthslaterhisarticlesintheAugust15,1915andSeptember1,1915editions43Ibid.44Ibid.
206
attackedPage’santi-Bookeritephilosophy,Page’streatmentofstudentsandhis
neglectofpoorblacks.BecauseofthevigilanteapproachPagewasfired/resignedin
September1915.WithinsevenyearsDr.IsaacWilliamYoungtookthepositionof
presidentor“KingontheHill”establishinghisown“bullypulpit’atLangstonin
1923.Conversely,therewasoneverysignificantincidentneithertheBookeritesnor
MelvinChisumforesaw.WhileMelvinChisumtheespionageagentslewthe“Giant
onUniversityHill”–MelvinChisumthe“kingmaker”madeaking.Ayoung,truck
vegetablesalesmanrosefromthestreetsofOklahomaCitytofightbackatMelvin
ChisumusingChisum’sownconfiscatedequipment–RoscoeDunjee.Dunjeewrote
“in1915theBlackDispatchwasbornwithitsarmsupfightingagainstChism
[Chisum]andhispoliticalassociateswhowerethenforthefirsttimeinthehistory
ofOklahomatryingtomakepoliticalfootballofLangston.”45Dunjeewassold
Chisum’sconfiscatedequipmentwhenChisumwasrunoutoftown.PerhapsDunjee
forgotabouthisfather’sgamepoliticalfootballinhavingInmanPagehiredinstead
ofJeffersonDavisRandolph.
Newinformationrevealsthattheissuesandoutcomewerenotassimpleas
folkhistorian,CurrieBallard,wroteaboutaLoganCountyjuryfindingtheTribune
editor,MelvinChisum,guiltyof“libel”forattackingPage.46ThefactthatChisumwas
givenunconditionalpardonbyGovernorM.E.Trappin1916forthecourtruling
opensupthecase.AlackoflegaldocumentsaboutPages’sideoftheepisodeleave45RoscoeDunjee.“MelvinChisumformerOklahomaCityNewspapermanGetsViewsonOscarDePriest.”BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),2March1933.46CurrieBallard,"Page,InmanEdward,"TheEncyclopediaofOklahomaHistoryandCulture,www.okhistory.org,(accessedSeptember23,2015).
207
questionsontheexactvalidityand“politicaltrickery”newspapersmentionedinthe
courtcase.47MissingpaperworkonthelegalproceedingsbetweenChisumandPage
(StateofOklahoma)fromLoganCountyarchivesleadstoquestions.Theoriginal
recordsofthecourtcaseshowsthecriminallibelchargedidnotsticktoChisum.
OnlythepaperworkforthechargesforbailandcourtcostsforChisumremainin
LoganCountyCourtrecords.Researchishamperedbecausetherearenorecordsof
thestudentsoftheclassesintheyearsPagewaspresidenttofollowuponthe
incidents.DuringthecourtcaseallfileswereturnedovertoLoganCountycourtsin
Guthrie,Oklahoma.Theyarenotaccessible.Evidencethatremainsfromtheepisode
isoverwhelminglyinfavorofMelvinChisum’sgeneralchargesagainstInmanPage.
ToscrutinizethislegendaryepisodeinAmericanhistoryistolookattwo
menfightingforcontrolofblackreforminAmerica.Understandthatasaleaderand
educator,InmanPagewasapowerfullegendaryfigureintheProgressiveAge.
LangstonhadthepotentialofbecomingasgreatasTuskegeeInstitute.Pagehadhis
newspapers,businesses,andbackersacrossthecountry.Itcomesdowntoataleof
thetwomenInmanPageandMelvinChisum.InmanPagewasaprofessor,exslave,
purportedtobetheslave-grandsonofPresidentJohnTyler,theonetimepresident
ofLincolnInstitutewhobuiltaregionalcollegeforblacksdoinghisbesttomoldand
reformblackpeopletosucceedagainstinhumaneodds.Theotherman,Melvin
Chisum,workedasabusinessman,journalist,andaheroofsortsfor“plainpeople.”
Asarisingpolitician,kingmaker,andaracemanheattemptedtobeawatchdogfor
47“ChisumPardonedbyTrappisRe-Arrested,”OklahomaLeader(Guthrie),7September1916.
208
thepoorblacksagainstthepowerandenergyofthetalentedtenthandpowerful
blackmenwhowouldharmthem.Chisumattemptedtostopblatantpracticesof
dehumanizationofthepoor.HewasanespionageagentfortheTuskegeeMachine,
andotherswhopaidhim.
In1914attheNationalBusinessLeagueConventioninMuskogee,Oklahoma,
sponsoredbyTuskegeeInstitute,andmembersoftheNationalNegroPress
Association(NNPA)electedChisumastheirpresident.Newspapermenfromover
thirty-sixstatesandsixothernationsrespectedtheposition.Newspapermenand
womenendorsedChisumas:
…aleaderofsturdyinitiative,readyresourcefulnessandfar-seeingvision.Helearnsofthepast,andguideshisstepstowardsthefuturewithwisdom,courageandconstructiveforce.Hebelievesinforwardpoliciesandgivesearnestsupporttomenandwomenwhoseembestfittedtocrystalizethosepoliciesintoactualities.48
ChisumfoundacauseatLangston,orhepossiblytookouthisfrustrationon
nothavingmuchinfluenceontheIndiansatLangston.Blacksinthenewspaper
gamehadapenchantforattackingblacks(chapter3).ItseemsChisumheardthat
blackOklahomanswerenotsatisfiedwiththeLangstonschool.Chisumwrotethat
peopleknewofactivitiesattheschoolwherePagehadsuchpowerthatbutwere
afraidofhisLangstonnetworkorthe“wonderfulpoliticalpowerofthegiantof
UniversityHill.”Chisumwillinglyplacedhislifeandreputationonthelineforsaving
livesofthepoorandneedyinhis“campaignofdecencyversusImmorality.”Hewas
48R.W.Thompson,“ShortFlight,”Freeman(Cincinnati),22August1914.
209
notaneasymantobefooledbyyounggirlsoroldmen.Chisumstatedthathisattack
wasnotonPagebecauseofpoliticsasPagecontinuedtotellthecommunity.He
pushedtheagendabecauseChisumwantedpeopletoknowwhatwashappening.
“Fromthebeginningwithus,”hewrote,“itwasthesafety...ofourraceandforthat
honorwearewillingtosufferandifneedbe,todie.”49Perhaps,itLangston’s
leaningtowardsupportingthetalentedtentheducationalreforminsteadofBTW’s
educationandvocationsthatwastheproblem.
In1914InmanPagewasthefirstpresidentofoneofthe“leading”Colored
AgriculturalandNormalUniversitiesinthecountryatLangston,Oklahoma.50He
wasbornaslaveDecember29,1852inWarrenton,Virginia.Afterheandhisfamily
ranthroughUnionArmylinestofreedomheworkedintheFreedmen’sBureau
underGeneralO.O.Howard.Pagewasaconstructionworkerintheerectionof
HowardUniversity.LaterheattendedtheallblackHowardUniversityfortwoyears
studyingindustrialeducation.HethentransferredtopredominatelywhiteBrown
University,inProvidenceRhodeIsland.In1877Pagegraduatedwithabachelor’s
degreeinliberalarts.Becauseofhismagnificenceasaspeakerhewaselectedthe
classoratorinhisgraduatingclass.Itwasthehighesthonorforoneoftheonlytwo
blackAmericansintheclass.AsaconsequenceofhisorationPagewasinvitedtobe
theonlyblackwhotaughtatNatchezSeminaryinMississippi.
PagemarriedZeliaBall,agraduateofWilberforceUniversity.Whileontheir
honeymooninWashington,D.C.PagereceivedaletterfromLincolnInstitutein49Tribune,(OklahomaCity),7September1915.50Harlow’sWeekly,(OklahomaCity),3June1916.
210
Missouri.“Theletterrevealedthatthetrusteeswereanxioustomakepresidenta
manofcolorwhocouldprovehisadministrativeabilitybyservingfirstasvice
president.”51TogetherheandZeliamovedtoLincolnInstituteinJeffersonCity,
Missouri.LincolnInstitutewasestablishedin1866throughpensionmoneyofblack
veteransofthe62ndand65thRegimentsoftheUnitedStatesColoredTroops
InfantryoftheCivilWar.Pagewastheonlyblackfacultymember.Assoonashe
becamePresidentPageinstitutedhisownagenda.Hereplacedthewhiteworkforce
withNegroteacherswho“wouldserveagreaterinspirationtoNegroyouth”in
1888.52
Page’slongtimefriend,Rev.JohnDunjee,wassentbytheBaptistMissionary
societytoOklahomaTerritoryinOklahomain1892.HesettledinChoctawjust
outsideofOklahomaCity.BlackTownshipsandcitiesroseovernightinthe
OklahomaTwinTerritories.Yet,OklahomahadnoAmericanblackleaderforits
Negropeople.ThroughpoliticalconnivancehisfriendRev.JohnDunjee’sin1897
InmanPagehadtheopportunitytobuildhisowncollegefromscratchinaterritory
thatwasripewithpromiseforhimtodevelophisownreformmovementforNegro
Americans.
AseriesofrelatedincidentsledtotheestablishmentoftheColored
AgriculturalandNormalUniversityinLangstonin1897.AccordingtoOklahoma
historians,WillisBrownandMarkLyons,regentsreferredtoastatementbyBTW’s
51ZellaPatterson,ZellaBlackPattersonCollection,OklahomaHistoricalSociety,Folder3.52Ibid.,21.
211
AtlantaExpositionspeechwhenponderingOklahoma’smandateforablack
university.Theybelievedinthequote“separatefingersonthesamehand.”Afew
monthsafterthePlessyvsFergusondecision,inthesummerof1896,ablackfemale,
CynthiaWarewasdeniedadmissiontoenrollintheNormalSchoolinEdmond
(UniversityofCentralOklahoma).“TheTerritoriallegislaturenowfacedwitha
choiceofintegratingorcreatingseparateinstitutionsfortheraces,optedforthe
later.”53ThebilltoestablishauniversityatLangstonwasadoptedMarch12,1897.
Oklahoma’sTerritorialBoardofEducationdidnotrealizetheyplayed
“politicalfootball”whentheyhiredPageaspresident.Territorialleadersassumed
PagewasaBookerite,givinghim“blanketpowertoactashesawfittingandproper
andintheschool’sbestinterest.”54TheBoardofEducationmeantthistohappen
undertheauspicesofBTW’sparadigm.TheregentsrecognizedtheAmericanBlack
InmanPageforhisraceandnotrealizingthedepthofeducationandcolleaguesPage
acquiredovertheyears.Pages’classmatesfromBrownUniversity“became
prominentintheaffairsofthenation....politicians,educators,andprofessional
menofthehighestrank.”AtLangston,hewouldreinas“GiantontheHill,”since
Langstonwasbuiltonahilltop.AstheeditorofHarlow’sWeeklylaterreferredto
Page’sadministrationatCA&NU-Langston,thatPagewasanassimilationistlike
W.E.BDuBois.TheybelievedthatthetalentedtenthoftheAmericanblackrace,
53WillisBrown,andMarkLyons,LangstonUniversity:ItsHistoricSocio-PoliticalCircumstances1897-1986,(OklahomaCity:SelfPublished,2000),12.54ZellaPatterson,LangstonUniversity:AHistory,(Oklahoma:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1979),31.RoscoeDunjee’sfatherandRandolphplannedtogetPageintooffice.
212
mustbeseparated,trainedandguidedtoleadthemassesinracereform.55
Educationledstudentstowantequalityimmediately.Sometimeshastyequality
causedthemtoexploitothers.
Duringsegregation,thebruntofpoliticalpowerandthepowertoreform
blacksinOklahomawascenteredinthehandsofthepresidentofOklahoma’sonly
stateuniversityforblacksatLangstonCity.By1914Pagewasknownasthe“Giant
onCollegeHill.”Otherprivateblackcollegessurvivedinblackcommunitiesin
Oklahoma,however,thelegislatureandgovernorspokedirectlytothePresidentof
thestateuniversity,Langston,foravisionofreformforthetwopercentofthe
populationinOklahoma,whichwasblack.WhenPagecametoOklahomatherewas
nosetpatternforblackreform.PageplannedasystematLangston.56
IntheearlyyearsPagefelttheavenuesthatofferedthegreatestinducements
werethoseoffarmers,stockraisers,blacksmithsandcarpenters.57Langstonwasno
bigcityin1897whenPagecametotheTwinTerritories.OtherthantheCatholic
Church,thebestbuildingLangstonCityhadtoofferwasthePresbyterianChurch
thatwaslittlemorethanaframehouse.Atitsinceptionin1891whites,blacks,and
IndianslivedinLangston.Whenawhitemannamed,Coylewasrefusedthebuilding
ofabusinessinLangston,hearrangedfortherailroadtogothreemileseastof
LangstonCity,andallthewhitefamiliesfollowedhimtoestablishthecityofCoyle.
55W.E.B.DuBois,“TheTalentedTenth,”fromTheNegroProblem:ASeriesofArticlesbyRepresentativeNegroesofTo-day(NewYork,1903).InformationonPage’sbackgroundfromthePlaindealer(Kansas),26March1911.56Ibid.57ZellaBlackPattersonCollection,HistoricalSociety,folder3,25.
213
ItbecameanallwhitecommunityandLangstonanallblacktown.Thecollege
startedinawoodframedchurchbuildingdonatedbythecommunity.Pageandthe
facultyhehiredrodeonhorsesandhorsedrawnbuggies,surreys,gathering
studentsandfundsthroughoutthestate.WhenPagewashiredtheschoolwasmore
anideathananactualplace.“Intheearlyyearsresidentswhohelpedfoundthe
universityhad“paternalisticinterestinitsdevelopment.”
OklahomaCity’sblackpoliticscoveredaforty-mileradiusfromOklahoma
CitytoLangston.WhileAfricanAmericanlifeinTulsa,Oklahoma,centeredonan
upcoming“BlackWallStreet,”ablackenterprisecomparedtothefinancialdistrict
ofNewYork–blacksinOklahomaCitywere“sleepinginOklahomaCity,un-
thoughtful,unpreparedfortomorrow,disorganizedandconfused.”58Theircenter
wasLangston.AshehadinMissouri,Pagelearnedtousethestatelegislaturetohis
advantage.HecontinuedhispoliticalexpertiseinhispositioninOklahoma.He
graduallyworkedwithlawmakersinthestatecapitalinGuthrie,Oklahomauntilhe
gotnewbuildingsandsupportforthegrowinguniversityatLangston.Three
studentsfromoutofstate,NolanPrytle,MaryPrytleandThomasSlaughterallof
OhiowerethefirsttoreceiveBachelorofSciencedegreesfromtheUniversity.Page
increaseduniversitylandholdingsfromfortyacrestothreehundred.Inhis
administrationtheschoolbuiltPhyllisWheatleyHall,adormforwomen,Marquess
Hallformen,thefirstpresident’sresidencewasbuiltandafullyequippedindustrial
plant.Theschoolwentfromheatingwithcoaltosteam,addedalibrary,a
58BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),21September1917.
214
farmhouse,amuseum,dairybarnandinfirmary.Thefacultyincreasedfromfour
professorstothirty-five.
ForseventeenyearsPage’spoweroverpolitical,socialandeconomicreform
inOklahomawascomparableonlytothatofBookerT.Washington’spowerfor
reformnationally.UnderPage’sguidancetheuniversityformedhisleadershipclass
tothinkofthemselvesas“thetalentedtenth.”AstheirinfluencegrewfromLangston
inthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury,thisgroupwrestledpoliticalpatronage
positionsfromblue-collarworkers,controlledthedevelopingschoolsandmanaged
postalpositionsaroundthestate.59Afailingfarmeconomydrewpeoplefromrural
areasintotheOklahomaCityArea.Insteadofthetalentedtenthbeingleadersofthe
growingmassesofilliteratepoorinLangstonandOklahomaCity,thetalentedtenth
begantodespise,andrejecttheminhopesofunitingwithwhites.
Theseupwardlymobileblacksarguedthattheunculturedoftheirracekept
thetalentedfromreachingtheirgoalsinracerelations,prosperityinhousingand
acceptancebywhites.60ThepointsthatMelvinChisumwouldpersecutePagewith
startwiththisagenda.InordertogettherightblacksinplaceChisumbelievedthat
Pagedeniedthepoorestblacksanicheforupwardmobilityandusedsomeblacksas
steppingstonesduringatimewhensocialrelationswithwhiteswaschangingfor
thebetter.Chisumbelievedthatheusedthemaspawns.61Overtheseventeen-year
59RoscoeDunjee,“RegentsAppointed,”BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),18April1919.Inhiseditorial,hestatedblue-collarworkerswerethewrong“sort”ofblackstoworkwithwhites.60BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),18April1919.61Tribune,(OklahomaCity),15August1915.
215
periodatLangston,likeatLincolnUniversity,Pagefacedpoliticalandsocial
obstacles.
Astheeducatedcommunitygrewaroundthem,indicationsofinnerracial
conflictcamefirstfromwithinthecommunityatLangstonCitywiththeformation
ofaneweducatedmiddleclass.AttheinceptionofLangstonUniversity,thecitythat
donatedthelandcommunityhad“strongrapport”withPageandhisideas.
However,aseparationoccurredas“bitterresentment”oftheoldsettlersatbeing
“leftout”ofcollege“activitiesandaffairs”asPage’stalentedtenthgroupcameof
age.62By1903citizensfromLangstonCitywantedPagefired.Athisreappointment
somepeopleintheLangstonCitycommunityburnedpublicpropertyinanguishand
protest.However,Pagehada“strongbackbone”andfoughttobringachangetothe
blackcommunitiesinOklahomaparticularlyinLangston.Pagecontinuallyputupa
“stifffight”againstlocalswhodidnotwantchangeandotherswhowereambitious
tosucceedhim.63TheoBraughmanwroteinApril1915,thatduringhisseventeen
yearsPage“didnothavetheco-operationofsomeofourpeoplethatheisentitledto
andmanylittleknockershavetriedtoimpedehisprogress;buthehasbeenequalin
emergencyandhavingrightonhissidesuccessfullymarchedon.”64Theideathat
Democratsattemptedtotraphimappearedinnewspaperreportsbutlittlecanbe
foundtosupportfortheargument.
62MozelleC.HillandThelmaD.Ackiss,“CultureofaContemporaryAll-NegroCommunity,(Langston:LangstonUniversity,1943),8.63OklahomaStateRegister,(Guthrie),22July1915.64TheoBaughman,“AlongtheColorLine,”TopekaPlaindealer(Kansas),16April1915.
216
DidChisumhaveaplanpriortocomingtoOklahomaagainstthe“Gianton
UniversityHill?”IncodeTheoBaughmanwroteinJuneof1915.
ThenumerousfriendsofProf.InmanE.Pageregrettonotethatthewatershavebeenmademuddyandatthiswritingthingsdonotlookveryrosate[sic]forhimbeingattheheadofLangstoncollegelonger.ThewiseoneshaveitthatacommissionhasbeenappointedtostudyTuskegeemethods.Whoeverisappointedtofillhisplacewillcertainlyhavetonotbea“Snipe.”ItseemsthatmayorJohnR.HoganofLangstonteacherofHistoryatLangstoncollegeisthebiggestinOklahomaandwhathecannotdo,withthepowersthatbeisbecauseBro.Hogandoesn’tcaretodoit.CatchmeSteve?ThisoldtimerreceivedhispoliticaltrainingdowninTexasandhe’smostlikelytoputoneoveratmostanyoldtime.65
Chisummusthaveknownthatthedilapidatedpremisesattheblackcollege
wereaproductofJimCrowpolitics.Thecausewastheracisminherentin
segregationpoliticsoftheProgressiveAge,notjustinPage’slackoforganizational
skills.Oklahoma’sonlyblackuniversitylackedequitablefundingbytheBoardof
EducationandLegislatureofOklahoma.AppropriationsfortheCA&NUwereone
quarterofthoseoftheAgriculturalandMechanicalCollegeatStillwater(OSU).Yet,
allblackscouldonlyattendtheonesegregatedschoolinOklahoma.Theothermore
comparablewhitenormalschoolsatEdmond,Alva,Ada,Weatherford,Durantand
NortheasternOklahomawereallallocatedmorethantheoneblackuniversity.66
65TheoBaughman,SpecialScribe,“BusinesswithColoredPeopleonFirmFoundationOklahoma,”18June1915.66SessionLawsoftheStateofOklahomaPassedbytheRegularSessionoftheNinthLegislatureofOklahoma,HarlowPublishingCompany,OklahomaCity,Oklahoma.SpeechJ.WilsonPettus,“ProblemsoftheNegroSchools,”DeliveredbyJ.WilsonPettusbeforeCountyTeachersAssociation,Stillwater,March1923,BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),5April,1923.Thewhiteschoolshadseventy-sevencountysuperintendents,astatesupervisor,andthreeassistants.Theblackschoolshad
217
Lessthanonethousanddollarswasallocatedforsupportandmaintenanceother
thansalaries.Racialsegregationallowedfordiscriminationinschoolexpenditures.
ThelongdrawnoutcourtfightbetweenChisumandPagewouldbeoneof
thedirtiestinthehistoryofOklahoma.67PagechargedChisumwithcriminallibel
becauseoftheattackonhiswife’sandhisownreputationintheAugust20,1915
issueandinformationintheSeptember1issue.PagefoughtChisumwiththecharge
oflibelthat“wasaweaponintheintensewarwithintheAmericanblackracefor
politicalandsocialdominance.”68BTWhadusedthelegalsystemagainstTrotter
andotherswhowroteinflammatorywordsabouttheblackleaderinblack
newspapers.69ChisumreportedthatPageallowedstateteachersexamquestionsto
beopenedearlierthanscheduledandstudiedpriortotestingforhisstudentsto
keepupwithwhitestudent’sscores.70ThereisnoquestionthatChisumknewthe
legalriskofbeingjailedfor“criminallibel”inattackingInmanPagethoughthe
Tribunenewspaper.OnSeptember16,1914thedistrictAttorneyinWashingtonnone.“WhentheruralNegrochildentershisclassroom,heisbroughtfacetofacewithwantonpenury,niggardliness,repulsivesurroundings,andinmanyinstancesgrossincompetency,aspartofteachersforchildrenoftodayarenotthefoolsweoncewere.Manyofthemindisgustquitschoolratherthanendurethegloomandmonotonyoftheirschoolsurroundings.”In1915thestateofblackschoolsinOklahomawasadisgrace.TheOklahomabudgetforeducationevenin1920was$22,826,481.Ofthissumwhitesreceived$22,028,000;blacksreceived$798,431.Foreverywhitechildofschoolageinthestate,$31.50wasexpendedforeveryblackchild$14.05.Ofthetotalexpended,thewhitesreceived96.5%andtheblack3.5%.Inotherwordstwoandonehalftimeasmuchwasspenttoeducatethewhitechildaswasbeingspenttoeducatetheblackchild.67OklahomaStateRegister,(OklahomaCity),9March1916.68StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston,WilliamMonroeTrotter,(NewYork:Athenaeum,1970).68.Harlow’sWeekly(OklahomaCity,Oklahoma),2October1915.69StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston,54,55.70TheLawandExaminations,”Tribune(OklahomaCity),20August1915.
218
D.C.,“struckatellingblowforcleanjournalisminthenation’scapital”whenan
editorialina“localsheet,”perhapstheSunnewspaper,publishednegativepersonal
informationonblackCitizensofthecity.Theoutcomewas:
Menandwomeninthepubliclifemayexpectcriticismofcourse.Itmustbepresentedonlinesofdecencyanddevoidofmaliceandunjustifiableassaultsontheircharacterorintegrity.Theprivateaffairsofpeoplearesacredandthelawdoeswelltoprotectthemagainstvandalsandvampireswhoseektofrightenthetimorousandplaycheaptheirfearsforfinancialprofitortoaccomplishamaliciouspurpose.71
Theoutcomeoftheincidentwas“asimilaroutrageperpetratedagainstany
first-classmanorwomaninthistownwillleadtoproceedingsincriminallibelor
prosecutedunderthecorruptpracticesact.Weareapproachingthebeginningofthe
endofdirtyjournalisminthislong–sufferingtown.72Chisuminterviewedboththe
editoroftheSun,T.ThomasFortune,andassociateeditorontheweekofOctober3,
1914.Thus,heknewbeforehandtheriskshewastakinginOklahoma.
Chisumdidnotstophisinflammatorywork.TheSeptember1,1915issueof
theTribune,insinuatedthatPageflimflammedthelegislatureandinsinuatedthathe
preparedthepoorercollegegirlsforprostitution.AshorteditorialrevealedPage
wasafollowerineducationaltrainingofDuBoisandnotBTW.InJuneof1914BTW
appointedacommissiontostudyTuskegeemethodsintheLandGrantcolleges.
Langstonfellintothiscategory.InmanPageknewtheweatherwaschanging.
71R.W.Thompson,Freeman(Illinois),3October1914.72Ibid.
219
TheepisodeofChisum’sviciousattackagainstPageleavesoverarching
questionsunanswered.WhywouldanationalleadersuchasChisum,justelected
presidentofthemostimportantblacknewspaperfraternityinthecountry,riskhis
reputation,hispositionasagovernmentefficiencyagent,bypresentingalietothe
world?Accordingtoothersourceshewasnotavindictiveman.Hewasabout
“Service,Service,Service”tothepoorandneedy.Duringthisperiodofthetrialhe
wasriskinghislifemovingpoorsouthernersnorthtoOhioandNewJersey.Whyisit
soimportantforhistorianstomakeOklahomahistorysoonedimensional,without
rifts,andproblemsamongblacks?Reconstructingevidenceofthetimeperiod,with
newsourcesincludingtheonlyremainingsetoftheOklahomaTribunenewspapers,
showsChisum’sattackonPagewasawayofdemandingreformforeducationfor
thepoorblacksinOklahoma.
SinceInmanPagehadservedforseventeenyearsasthefirstpresidentof
Langston,Oklahomansralliedaroundhim–whetherthearticlesweretrueornot.73
Hisnewspaperfriendshelpedhimbuthisbackersfromotherstatesandhiscollege
alumniremainedquiet.Theyear1915TheClevelandGazette,TheTopeka
Plaindealerandothernon-Bookeritenewspaperscarriedspecialstoriesonhowwell
PagewassucceedingattheLangstoncampus.However,hedidnotkeephisposition
atLangston.HisleavecameaftertheSeptember1issueoftheTribune.Theday
Pageleft,thestateBoardofEducationtookchargeoftheschool.Lessthanaweek
aftertheirinvestigation,insteadofreinstatingPage,ProfessorI.W.McCutcheon,73OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity),9September1915;GuthrieLeader(OklahomaCity),14November1915;OklahomaGuide(OklahomaCity),21October1915;OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity)7October1915.
220
formerprincipaloftheblackschoolsatAtoka,wasnamedhissuccessor.Mrs.E.E.
McDanielwasappointedaschaperone,companion,confidentialfriend,andmatron
forthegirlsoftheuniversity.74
AspredictedbyChisum’seditorialthemechanicalbuildingburnedtothe
ground.75AccordingtoSmithermanoftheTulsaStartheappointmentof
McCutcheoncameasashockto“leadingcoloredpeopleofthestate.”76Thiswasso
notbecausetheywantedPagebackbuttheywantedsomeonefromtheoutsideof
OklahomawithbetterqualificationsatLangston.Pagewasledtobelievethathe
couldhavehispositionagainifhehadChisumimprisoned.77Someoneplayedhad
liedtohim.
SeveralOklahomapapersreportedPage’sdepartureasaresignation.Their
reportsoffereddivergentaccountsofthesituation.TheGuthrieDailyleader74“PopularMcAlesterWomanChaperonsLangstonGirls,”MuskogeeStar(Muskogee),23October1915.75“LangstonUniversityMechanicalBuildingBurned,”OklahomaGuide(OklahomaCity),6September1915.76“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstmanwhostartedTheSchool17yearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.Smitherman’sreferenceprobablydoesnotrepresentPage’ssupporters.HewasmemberofChisum’sNationalNegroPressAssociation.Politicsmayhavebeenatplay.SmithermanwastheleaderoftheDemocratsfrom1917untilYoungsteppedinin1919.77“PagewillStayInLangston,”OklahomaGuide,(OklahomaCity),10September1915.SeealsoStateofOklahomaversusMelvinChisum,Answer,March24,1916,E.I.SaddlerAttorney.ThebrieftoldthateveryonethoughtifChisumwasincarceratedthatPagewouldgethispositionbackatLangston.TakingacloserlookattheblackpoliticalsceneinOklahomain1915-1917--thedensecommunityofAfricanAmericansrepresentedabouteightpercentofthetotalpopulation.In1910,26.9percentofOklahomaNegroeslivedintownsandcitiesaftertheendofthewarandintotheearly1920ssthepercentagerosetoapproximatelythirty-twopointpercent.Censusreportsof1910showedthatinelevenpointsixpercentoftheurbanpopulationofOklahomawasAfricanAmerican.
221
reported:“Pageresignedofhisownvolitionstatingthathewassickandtiredof
combatingthecontinualattacksmadeonhimbypoliticalenemiesofhisownrace
andinhisownschool.”78TheTulsaStarreportedthatPagewasundergrave
chargesandthathe“resignedtoavoidadealofunpleasantnotoriety.”79Chisum’s
ordealwasnotover.Washingtonwasdying.TheTuskegeeMachinewasin
shambles.ThepoliticalandjudicialsystemsofOklahomaralliedbehindInman
Page.AcourtdatewassetforGraham,Chisum’sprinter,whowasaccusedofasking
Pageforfourhundreddollars“hushmoney”todestroythepapersor“suppress”the
article.80Hewasarrestedandchargedwithattemptedextortion.81
LawofficialsfromseveralcountieswoveanetaroundChisum.Ifheentered
theircounties,hewouldbeprosecutedinsomewayrelatedtothecaseofcriminal
libel.82TheGuthrieLeaderreportedthatOkmulgeelawyer,DaveWallace,andthe
countyattorneyofClevelandCountyhadchargesagainstChisumofsubordinationof
perjuryandoutstandingbonds.NorecordsofanychargesagainstChisumareinthe
filesofthesecourts.InsteadthesemensentsignalstoChisumthathewasnotgoing
torunaway.TheGuthrieDailyLeaderwaspro-Pageinreportinginformationabout
78“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute:PresidentInmanPageWillNowGoAfterEnemiesWhoPersecuted,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.79“FatherofLangstonUniversityResigns:SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhostartedTheSchool17yearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.80“GuthrieNegroisChargedWithAttempttoExtort,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),9September1915.81“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,”GuthrieDailyLeader(Guthrie),1September1915.“SeriousChargesBroughtUpAgainstManWhoStartedtheSchool17YearsAgo:AppointmentofAtokaManComesasSurprise,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),3September1915.82GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.
222
thesuit.“ChisumisBadRisk:WantedElsewhere”headlinedastorythatwas
completelyfictitious.83Thepaperprintedseveralotherpro-Pagearticles.According
toJohnC.Leftwich,editoroftheWesternWorldNewspaper,publishedinKingfisher
fortheOklahomacommunity“theTerritoryClaimsPageasherown.”84
Thetrialstartedoutinabizarreway.ChisumwasinDallas,Texas,collecting
moneyfromhisuncleforhisdefenseonthemorningofOctober28,whenhistrial
started.Hesentatelegramtohislawyer,E.I.Saddler,informingSaddlerthathe
missedhistrain.HeplannedonreachingOklahomaatfiveintheevening.Chisum’s
trialcontinueduntiltheevening.Meanwhile,approximatelyonehundredandfive
peopleshowedupintheGuthriecourttowitnessthetrial.WhenChisumdidnot
arriveintime,thejudgeturnedtotheGrahamcase.AsthecaseforGrahamstarted,
afightbrokeoutbetweenthetwolawyers.Moorman(Moman)PruiettofOklahoma
CityattemptedtointimidateE.I.SaddlerofGuthrie.
Pruiettwasknownforhistheatricsinacourtroom.TheChisum-Grahamtrial
wouldbenodifferent.Pruiettwasan“ex-convictandmoralandmentalpervert...
wasjustasliabletopunctuateapointwithabulletasanepigram.”85Pruiettwas
usuallycalledforquestionablecasesthatneededunethicalskill.Itwashighly
unusualforhimtostepintoatrialbetweentwoblackpeople.Pagehiredamanwho
“vouchedforpersonschargedwithfiendishcrimeswhentheevidenceoftheirguilt
83“NegroSchoolHeadResigns;WillProsecute,"GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),1September1915.84WesternWorldNewspaper(Shawnee),9December1915.85Berry,HeMadeItSafetoMurder,14.
223
wasoverwhelming.”86Pruiettbeganthetrialbyattemptingtointimidatetheblack
lawyer,E.I.Saddler,aBookerite,bybrandishingaBarlowknifeathim.87Ashe
walkedtowardsSaddler,Pruiettranhisthumbalongthebladesaying,“Fellow,right
hereandnowI’mgoingtocutoutyourblackspottedNiggerheart!”88
Saddlerwasnottheatrical.Hewasalaborerwhoalsopracticedlaw.Saddler
whiskedoutaMexicanMoochabladeandsaid,“Lethimcome;Icallhisbet.”People
intheaudiencerippedoutknivesoftheirowninthemidstofthecourtroom.89
Therewasaswishastheoveronehundredbystandersinthecourtroompulledout
theirknives.BeforeanythingcouldhappenPruiettasked,“Isn’tanybodygoingto
holdme?”Atthispointthesheriffanddeputiessteppedintostoptheruckus.90
SaddlerwasdubbedtheonlymanfromwhomPruitteverbackedaway.
AfterdeliberationsGrahamfacedahungjuryandChisumwasfinedone
thousanddollarsfornotappearingincourt.Anewcourtdatewasset.Chisum
arrivedonFridaymorningat5a.m.BeforeChisumcouldgettothecourthouse,
studentsfromLangstonwhospiedonhimtoldthesheriffChisumhadarrivedin
86Ibid.,11.87“PruiettSeekstoCarveoutHeartinCourt:TensemomentinGrahamTrialWhenUglyKnivesFlash,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),29October1915.InformationhadtobetrumpedupbecausethereisnorecordofChisuminOkmulgeeorClevelandCountyfilesforarrestsorinacourtcase.88Berry,HeMadeItSafetoMurder,11.89Ibid.,11.90“PruittSeekstoCarveoutHeartinCourt:TensemomentinGrahamTrialWhenUglyKnivesFlash,”GuthrieDailyLeader,(Guthrie),29October1915.ThereisnorecordofMelvinChisuminOkmulgeeorClevelandCountyfilesforarrestsorinacourtcaseduringthisperiod.
224
town.Thesherifflockedhiminthebackofthejail.91Theactionwasinviolationof
thecourtrulesbutfewpeopleknewabouttheincident.Itseemedjustpaybackfor
hisworkagainstPage.“He[Chisum]wasputinjailtosatisfytheprosecuting
witness,whohadbeentoldthatunlesshe[Page]hadChisumputintothe
penitentiarythathewouldlosehisjobatLangston.”92Chisumhadnoaccesstohis
lawyerorofficersofthecourtfordays.Hewasfinedanothertwothousanddollars.
Chisum’strialwascontinueduntilMarch16,1916.SwankrepresentedPage.
TwonewspapersreportedonlythatChisumwasfinedandreleasedpending
appeals.Afteraten-day-trialhewasfinedtwohundredandfiftydollars.Hehad
overfivethousanddollarsoutstandinginbonds.Nojailsentencewasgiven.Trial
recordsdonotexistthatsubstantiatethecriminallibelcharge.Chisumsoughtnew
trialsbutnojudgeallowedhimtoforfeitureofthebonds.Chisumtriedtoescape
Oklahoma.HebookedaticketontheRockIslandTrain.WilliamHarrison,aspyfor
PageandcovertfriendtoChisum,toldtheauthoritiesthatChisumwastakingthe
RockIslandTrainonTuesdaynightApril4,1916at9:30.WhenChisumrealizedthe
sheriffwasafterhim,hejumpedfromthemovingtrainintothelocalyards.“Deputy
SheriffFateSanders,afterashortsprint,recapturedtheNegro.”93
Perhapstheanti-Chisumnewspaperswerehostilebecauseoftheworkhe
diddealingwiththeIndianagenda,andaswelltheycouldhavebeensupportersof91IncidentreportfromfilesofDistrictCourtofLoganCounty,StateofOklahomaversusMelvinChisum,M.W.Wright,J.W.Conrad,1916.NolongeraccessibleasofJuly2018inLoganCountyfiles.Acopyfromresearchin1999existsinauthor’sfiles.92Ibid.93“ChisumMakesLeapforFreedom:Captured,”GuthrieLeader,(Guthrie),6April1916.
225
InmanPage.TheypostedfalsedatasuchasChisumwaswantedfornothavingpaid
histwohundreddollarfine.However,Chisumdidnothavetopaybecauseofthe
pendingappeal.Technicallyhecouldhavelefttown.However,heranbecausehe
fearedforhislife.HehadLangstonUniversitystudents,Pages’friendsand
supporters,andpolicemenalloverthestatewhowereupsetwithhisreportsabout
policemenandsheriff’sdepartmentsparticipatinginaprostitutionringfrom
GuthrietoTulsa.Chisumwasarrestedoncemore,booked,andchargedbail.After
beingfreedthelasttimebyhislawyer,Chisumdidnotgobackbytrainbutbytrail.
HemadethelongarduoustripfromGuthrietoMuskogeeonhorseback.Therehe
metfriendsandcaughtatrainoutofOklahoma.Hislasttrialforthebondswasin
Mayof1917.Whenhegotoffthetrainhewasputintojail.Thechargewasthathe
hadtopayoutstandingbondsoftwothousanddollarswithinninetydays.Finally,
GovernorM.E.Trapp,gaveChisumunconditionalpardon.Thedefendantwas
releasedfromjailthegripsofOklahomalawmen.HeleftGuthrielikePaulandSilas
leftDerbe–veryquickly.
InmanPageleftOklahomaforawhilebutwouldreturninthe1920storun
OklahomaCityblackschools.J.SmithermanaDemocraticleaderandeditorofthe
StarnewspaperinTulsaquestionedPage’smotivesforresigningandleaving
Langston.“IfthechargesweretrueMr.Pagedidtherightthingtoresign;ifthey
werenottruewhyshouldheresign?”94HoweverHarlow’sWeekly,thepolitically
savvy,newspaper,andamainstayofwhiteOklahomans,explainedPagehada
termination–notaresignation.ThatwasthereasonheleftLangston.94“LangstonUprising,”TulsaStar(Tulsa),17September1915.
226
Perhaps,itwastheChisum’stimetospreadhiswings,leavetheshadowof
BTW.ChisumwrotetoBTWexplainingtheconditionsatLangston,andhisresponse
tothesituationinthemannerofanhumbleservant.Histonechangedfromservility
toequality;toareportfromacolleague.Chisum’sfinallettertoBTW–locatedinthe
BookerTWashingtonPapersintheLibraryofCongressnow–wasdatedNovember
10,1915.BookerT.Washingtonmayhaveneverreadit.HediedonNovember14,
1915.95EmmettScottprobablypackeditawayashedidNorrisWrightCuney’sfiles.
OneonlywonderswhathedisposedfromtheBookerT.WashingtonCollection.
95LouisHarlanPapers,UniversityofMarylandCollegeParkMaryland,HarlanPapers,unprocessedcollection,Box39.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,10November1915.
227
CHAPTERVI
SERVICE,SERVICE,SERVICE:CHISUMINTHE1920s
“Thiswriterhasbeeninthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,highbindersandmoralreprobatesformorethan20years.Thiswriterhasbeensued14timesforlibelbythissamelitterofratsandhehasneverdoneadayinanypenitentiaryforhisexposingofthevastcrowdoffakersineightdifferentstates.”1
---MelvinChisumSr.PittsburgCourierNewspaper
Itisstillimpossible,withallthedigitizeddocumentsandestablished
manuscriptcollections,tofindoutaboutMelvinChisum,Sr.’s,fourteenlawsuitsand
workof“exposinghisvastcrowdoffakersineightdifferentstates[UnitedStates].”
However,thereareenoughprimarysourcestoverifyhisclaimforexposingfakers
inOklahoma,Alabama,andChicago.ThelistincludesInmanPage(1853-1935),at
LangstonUniversity,whosuedChisumforlibel.Hemayhaveincludedexposing
WilliamMonroeTrotter(1872-1934)inBostonforBookerT.Washingtonandhis
workagainstthenationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople
(NAACP)whenitwasstilltheNiagaraMovement.2Itcouldalsoinclude
1MelvinChisum,PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),12April1924.2Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.44-47.
228
theOklahomagrafterswhostolefromtheAfroIndians,chapter5,“Chisumin
Oklahoma,”andtheproposedlibellawsuitagainstChisumbyRobertMaysin
Chicagoin1925.1Chisumwasnotaneasyindividualtoclassifyorunderstandinhis
owntimemuchlessnowinthetwenty-firstcentury.PercivalPrattis’description
thatreferencedtheword“operators”establishedaclue.2ForChisum,amandoing
missionsandcommissionsforpay,thelabelan“operator”intheunderworldcould
havebeenahitmanforagangster,mobboss,businessmanorrescuerofaman’sson
fromabadloveaffair.Thischapterlooksatthesecondhalfofthefirstquarterofthe
twentiethcenturygrowthofMelvinChisum,Sr.,inpolitics,familylife,personal
entrepreneurialendeavors,andshowshowhisworkintheteensaddedtothe
structureoftheAmericanBlackCivilReligionmakingChisumaherotothosethat
followedhisantics.Itdevelopsalenstointerprethisabilitytocollectblackvotes
acrossthecountry,thusmakinghimapotentialpoliticiantobenoticedandusedby
NewDealDemocratsinthe1930s.
Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,whoneverbelievedhisfatherwasactuallyaspyuntil
thisresearchrevealeddocumentation,explained,“Daddescribedhimselfas‘an
efficiencyexpert.’Ilearnedthistomeanthatifsomeonewantedtogetsomething
doneanddidnotknowhowtodoithewasyourman.Thiswasbecauseheknewthe1JohnHopeFranklin,MyLifeandEratheAutobiographyofBuckColbertFranklin(Louisiana:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1997).53.BuckFranklindescribedhisunderstandingofChisum’sworktoremoveInmanPage.Alsotheresearchiscoveredinaconferencepaper;seeCeceliaBrooks,"SkeletonsintheCloset:AtWhatCost?HearingtheCallforHelpWhenAfricanAmericanLeadersOppressedTheirOwn1914-1915,"inAssociationfortheStudyofAfricanAmericanLifeandHistory,ed.TracieMayesStewart(Atlanta,Georgia,2015).2LouisHarlanPapers,UniversityofMarylandCollegeParkMaryland,HarlanPapers,unprocessedcollection,Box39,(HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers.)
229
peopleorpersonwhohadtobepersuadedtoco-operateinyourendeavor,heknew
howtoapproachthemwithyourproblemandhowtoconvincethemtodowhatyou
wanteddone.Hehadthe‘knowhow.’Hewasamostuniqueindividual.In
accomplishinghisends,heruffledmanyfeathersasyouhaveseen.”3Whenasked
whyhethoughthisfathernevertoldhischildrenabouthisworkasaspyand
provocateur,Dr.Chisum,dark,charismatic,withtwinklingeyeslikehisfather,took
timetothink,andadmitted,hedidnotknow.
Severalpivotalmomentspriortothe1920srefinedthe“TexasSteel”to
becomeadetectiveandpoliticianofworth.First,whenRobertRussaMotonbecame
principalofTuskegeeInstitute,afterBookerT.Washington(BTW)died,Moton
allowedChisumtosupporthisadministrationasmorethanaspy,butasMoton’s
politicalbackersandphilanthropistknew,Chisumhelpedhimleadthepowerful,
politically–situateduniversity.Chisum’sworkfortheDepartmentofLabor’sU.S.
EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomicsduringWorldWarIfitsthis
paradigm.
WhileLouisHarlanportrayedChisumandBTWasclose,friendly,gangsters,
thesittingonbenchesdevelopingplanstofoiltheirfoeswastrue:however,the
perceptionthattheywerepersonalbuddieswouldbealongwayfromcorrect.
Chisum’sletterschosenfortheHarlan’s,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,pulledout
andsortedalongwiththosenotpublished,showsChisum,asaneophytealways
3Dr.MelvinChisumtoauthor23June2005,MelvinChisumPapersintheLeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,ArchivesandSpecialCollections,Delaney-BrownLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity.HereaftercitedasOKCU.
230
longingtopleaseorbean“humbleservant”notonlytohismasterbuttoBTWasa
worldrenownmaster.PeoplefromIndia,Africaandothercontinentsalsoreached
outtoBTWforadvice.Earlyontheresearcherorinterpreterseesthatitwas
EmmettScottwhohired,associatedwithChisum,andhelpedChisumandBTWtrust
eachother.ScottintroducedChisumasusefulbecauseheknewChisum’spotential.
FollowingthelettersinvolumesevenofBookerT.WashingtonPapers,thesequence
showsthatChisum’snewspaperwasbeingusedbyScottatleastamonthbefore
BTWaskedaboutwhoMelvinChisumwasandcheckedhisbackground.4
HarlanmisleadsthereaderbyrelegatingChisumasalieutenantofTuskegee
duringtheBTWyears.BeforeMotonbecameprincipaltheTuskegeeunderEmmett
Scott,BTWdidnotsupportChisum’spersonalventures.WhileChisummayhave
actedasifhewasBTWdeniedChisum’spresenceasaTuskegee“man.”Harlandid
havesomeresemblanceoftruthwhenhewrotethatafter1906themasterdidnot
rubthelampforChisumtodancetohistune.However,bythenChisumseparated
himselffromthecommunitytoseekhisownentrepreneurialendeavors.Because
Chisumwasself-employedasadetective,realestateagent,bodyguard,amongother
positions,theTuskegeeMachinepaidonlyaportionofhisincome.Hewasalways
lookingformoremissions.DuringtheProgressiveErahefoundlucrativestartups.
AccordingtoaletterwrittentoBTW,threeyearswentbybeforeChisumsaw
WashingtonandScottorventuredtoTuskegee.Chisumdistancedhimselffromthe
TuskegeeMachineforthreeyearsbetween1907and1910hedidnotgotoAlabama
4Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.219-228.
231
orfollowBTW’snetwork.5InthattimeheprovedScott’sdescriptionofhimin1903
as“notabrainyman”asanincorrectevaluation.Thoughnotalwayssuccessful
Chisumcontinuedhisrealestateventure,startednewspapers,andbankswithout
thesupportoftheTuskegeeMachine.Hedidhoweverusehislinktothemfor
introductions.ItispossiblethatChisumlearnedoftheduplicityoftheTuskegee
Machineinregardstohim.HisboyhoodfriendfromTexas,EmmettScott,remained
Chisum’sdearfriendandhecontinuedtoofferhisworktoBTWforinvestigations.
Butsomethingchangedbetweenthem,orperhapsitwasinthereportsoftheir
relationshipinhistoriographicalrecordsthatblindsresearcherstocertaincrucial
facts.Scottdestroyedhisrecords.Chisum’sarchivescontinuetobebuilt.
ChisumandScottdiffered,notonlyinlooksbutalsoincalling.Chapterthree
introducedChisumandhisMethodistcolleaguesI.W.Young,EmmettScott,andJack
Johnson.JohnsonandChisumtaketheideologysetbySojournerTruthofalways
takingrisksandpositionsanti-establishmentwhileYoungandScottleanedtoward
JohnGarraty’sNewCommonwealth.Whilethereisnoindicationinwritings,
perhapsskincolormadethedifference.YoungandScottgainedunderstoodthey
hadupwardmobilitybecauseoftheirlightcomplexions.WhileChisumandJohnson
couldpulloffanticswithlowerclassesofblacks;YoungandScottcoulddealwith
thosewhofeltskincolormeanttheyweremoreapartofthewhitecommunity.
ChisumandJohnsonweredark,sturdilybuilt,blackmen,whileScottandYoung
weremoremixedwiththeyellownessintheskinassociatedwithAnglobloodlines.
Whereas,ChisumwasaltruisticintheblackcommunityScottwasdedicatedto5MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington28July1913.Box42.HarlanPapers.
232
becomingawealthycapitalistratherthanbeingself-sacrificingfortherace.6Chisum
andJohnsonstrayedfromorganizedreligionasadultsfortheChristologyofthe
blacksocialgospel,theyassociatedmorewiththeAfricanMethodistEpiscopal
Church,YoungandScottweremainlinechurchmen.TheMethodistEpiscopal
Church(North)remainedtheirbaseforsocialandpoliticalneeds.7MuchofYoung’s
climbtofameinOklahomacamefromwhitechurchmemberswhosupportedhis
politics.8HischurchwasmainlineandtheonlydifferenceintheirserviceatQuayle
andSaintLukeUMCinOklahomaCitywasthecolorofthepeople.9Youngtendedto
movebetweenworldswhenitwasnecessarytogainthevote.HewasMachiavellian.
YoungcarriedthemantleofBTWtomaintainhisfaçadetothewhiteleadershipof
Oklahoma.10
AnotherLookAtEmmettScott
LookingatScott’srelationshiptotheblacksocialgospel,hisworkismore
relatedtothesocialgospelasexpoundedinJohnGarraty’sTheNewCommonwealth,
6Dailey.WhentheSaintsComeHobblinIn.178-180.7Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”37-40.WhenDr.YoungfoughtforlibertiesforblacksinOklahomatheMethodistChurchsupportedhim.AnglomembersinSt.Luke’sMethodistChurchinOklahomaCityhadhimhiredanttheYMCAandsupportedhisworkintheblackhospital.BeforethedivisionofblackandwhiteintotheMethodistChurchinthe1930sYoungsatontheBoardofEducationinthe1904GeneralConferenceasadelegateandalsointhe1920sand1930s.8Ibid.,37-39.9InterviewErmaThreattandAuthor,3April1999,OKCU.10Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”45.
233
orRalphLuker’s,TheGospelinBlackandWhite.11Scottdidnotsacrificegoalsfor
himselfevenforhislong–timefriendwhomheconsideredhonorablebutwasnot
verybrainy.12ItseemsChisumhadtoprovehimselftoScottbutScottneverlethim
intothenesteggatTuskegee.However,afterBTWdied,Chisumsharedthe
accomplishmentsofScott’sprogress.13PerhapspartofthereasonBTWhadtomeet
withChisumonbencheswastobypasstheevasivenessofScott;however,withouta
writtenrecordthatinformationmayneverbeknown.Whatcanbeisseeninseveral
episodesrecordedintheHarlancollectionandMaceoCrenshaw’sbook,Whenthe
SaintsGoHobblinIn,thatScotttookcareofhisowncoffersfirstbutChisum
eventuallybecameaclosercolleagueafterScottleftTuskegee.14
AccordingtolettersbetweenChisumandScottChisumtookonthefinancial
burdenofproducinganewspaper,theImpendingConflict.HeusedittoaidBTWby
stoppingBruceGrits’criticismoftheblackleader.However,Chisumheldtheburden
ofreimbursingsubscriberswhenthepapercollapsed.Afterwards,Chisumhad
boardmembers,FredMoore,andRev.ChasMorris,F.H.Gilbertamongothers
supporters,willingtorevivethepaperunderanewname,whichwouldhave
alleviatedChisum’sfinancialproblems.Moorewroteinaletterunpublishedinthe
BookerT.WashingtonPapersthat“Iamoftheopinionthat…thiscanbeputinto
11Inchaptertwo,adescriptionoftheblackgospelnarrativewasgivenwithcomparisonsofAmerican–Europeansocialgospelandtheblacksocialgospel.12EmmettScotttoBookerT.Washington28July1903,HarlanPapers,Box41,UniversityofMaryland,CollegeParkMaryland.(HereaftercitedasHarlanPapers.)13TheNegroEconomicsJobinWWIandtheSunShipbuildingpositioninthe1930swerebothgottenthroughScott’sinfluence.14Afterdecades,theScottmanuscriptcollectionisstillnotaccessibleatMorganStateUniversity.SeeDailey.WhentheSaintsGoHobblinIn,178-80.
234
operationandmadeasuccess....”15However,Scottdeniedtheireffortofhelpto
Chisum.Heplannedtosecurehisownneeds.HisresponsetoMoorewasnohe
wouldnothelpChisum.“IhavejustenteredintoanagreementtoserveasAssociate
Editoronanewpublication.”Scottdidnotwanttoworkwithanewspaperovera
longdistance,andbecauseofa“substantialincreaseinsalarythatJanuary”hemade
thedecisiontostayatTuskegeeinsteadofseekingotheremployment.Hehadplans
forgrowingwealthyatTuskegeeUniversity.Headvisedhisfriend,“Surelythere
mustberoomformorethanoneataplacelikethiswheretherearesomany
opportunitiesforservice.”16
SeverallettersofinquiriescametoScottaskingforlettersofreferenceabout
Chisum.WhileChisumhadaletterofreferenceheusedfromTuskegeetoshow
perspectivesupporters,continuallyBTW’sorScott’sdecisionwasnottosupport
Chisumpersonalentrepreneurialadventures.Theyredirectedrequestsforgiving
ChisummoneytogivingthemoneytoTuskegeeUniversity.BTWstatedthatall
mattersofendorsementsconcerningmoneyshouldcomethroughhimandnotgoto
otherswithouthisapproval.17Consequently,becauseofalackofendorsements
fromtheTuskegeeMachine,ittookChisumfouryearstorepaythesubscribersof
theImpendingConflictforunfulfilledsubscriptions.Harlanwrotethenewspaper
hadbeenastrawmanfortheTuskegeeMachine;insteaditwasChisum’spersonal
financialburden.Hefrettedabouthavinghisnametarnished.Chisumdidnot
15FredR.MooretoE.J.Scott,8December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers16E.J.ScotttoFredMoore14December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.17EllenCollinstoBookerT.Washington26November1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.BookerT.WashingtontoEllenCollins2December1903.Box41.HarlanPapers.
235
becomeanopenmemberoftheTuskegeeMachineunderBTWandScott.Perhaps
thereasonwasthatacloserelationshipwithChisumwouldhaveexposedthe
espionageChisumdidforthemearlierinhiscareerandtheydidnotwantthe
TuskegeeMachinenametarnished.
ChisumandhisbrotherWilliamdevelopedasuccessfulrealestatebusiness
inNewYorkcalled“ChisumBrothers.”Theyrentedapartments,foundpeople
positionsinhotels,andwerecaretakersforapartmentcomplexes.Astherealestate
marketforblacksboomedduringthegreatmigration,theybranchedoutbyworking
withseveralotherblackbusinessmenandclergyinformingtheGreaterNorthern
RealtyCompany.ScottsatontheboardofacompetingcompanyinNewYork,the
Afro-AmericanRealtyCompany.ItwasassociatedwiththeTuskegeeMachine.
Afteradeclineinthehousingmarket,combinedwiththedeathofChisum’s
businesspartner,andcontractorinacaraccident,Chisumasthedirectorofthe
“GreaterNorthernRealtyCompany”waspersonallysuedbyhisinvestors.Thistime
ChisumsoughttheassistanceofwhitephilanthropistsandEllenCollinsofNew
York.CollinswaslinkedtoTuskegee.GoingfurtheroutsideoftheTuskegee
Machine,Chisumfoundwhitephilanthropists,WilliamBuckleySr.(1881-1958)and
GeorgePeabody(1847-1936)toaidhim.Havingwitnessed“hishonesty,persistence
andabilitytogatherlargenumbersofpeoplefortheirbenefit”BuckleyandPeabody
bailedhimout.However,EllenCollinssentalettertoTuskegeeaskingfor
referencesaboutChisumandabouthischaracter.Theletterrevealedtwothings.
FirstthiswasnotthefirsttimeEllencontactedtheTuskegeeMachinetoinquire
236
aboutChisum.Secondly,whenChisumdesperatelyneededmoneyTuskegeechose
nottosupporthisefforts.ThefirstlettersfromEllenwerein1903.TheTuskegee
MachinerespondedtoEllen“tokeepclearofhim[Chisum].AsfarasIcanrecollect
hisnamewasNegro.”18Ellenrepeatedthisinformationinher1908letterto
Tuskegee.ButtherewasnoletterinresponseintheHarlanfiles.
ScottandBTWknewChisumdesperatelyneededcashbecausehehad
recentlypaidhisdebtstoImpendingConflictsubscribers.Theyhadlettersfromhim
andtheinformationofChisum’ssuccessfulrepaymenttoallhissubscriberswas
printedinnewspapers.KnowingChisumwasindireneedofhismoneywhenwrote
forhispay–amissionofgatheringover100namesofpeopleinsecretsocieties–
theTuskegeeMachineattemptedtodefaultonthemuch-neededpaymentsfor
services.19Perhapstheytoolackedmoney.Perhapstherewasabreakdownin
communications.WhateverthereasonChisumhadtopickhimselfupbyhisown
bootstraps.Overall,thelettersintheHarlancollectionthatwerenotusedinthe
publishedcollectionoftheBookerT.Washingtonpapers,showthatinsteadof
allowingChisumtobecomeapartoftheTuskegeeMachine,BTW,andScottplayed
MachiavelliangameswithChisumtokeephimfrombecomingabusiness
entrepreneur.20ChisumseparatedhimselffromtheTuskegeeMachineoverthenext
18EllenCollinstoBookerT.Washington,19June1908.Box41.HarlanPapers.“NameNegro”isasluronChisum’scharacter.19WilliamL.BuckleytoGeoFosterPeabody,9March1908.Box41.HarlanPapersHarlan’sresearchersfoundthisinformationinthePeabodyCollection.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,22May1908.Box41.HarlanPapers.20Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.
237
twoyears.Chisumworkedmissionsforrichmenandinturnsoughtthemtoaidhis
causes.
WilliamBuckleysupportedChisuminacquiringthe$5,500topayhisdebt.
FromtheLouisHarlancollection,theletterBuckleywrotetoGeorgeFosterPeabody
reads:
ThechiefreasonwhyItakeinterestinthematteristhis:Mr.Chisumthroughhiscandorandunquestionedhonestyhassucceededingettingtogetheralargenumberofpeople,possiblyahundred,whooutoftheirsmallmeanshavecontributedtowardtheinaugurationoftheGreatNorthernRealtyCo.,andtheyweregettingdowntothebusinesswhenthefinancialcrashcamelastOctober.ThefailuresoftheCompanywouldcosteachoneonlyafewdollarsloss,butthegreaterdamageisinthelossofconfidenceinbusinessundertakingsbytheirownpeople.IbelievethatMr.Chisum’shonestyandpersistencewouldwinout,ifhecouldgettheencouragementhedesires.21
Chisum’sbusinessesbecamestable.Againin1910hesoughtworkfromthe
TuskegeeMachine.HecontinuedtoqueryBTWaboutothermissionshecoulddofor
pay.Electedin1914,asthePresidentoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation,
(NNPA),Chisum’slastandgreatestmissionforBTWoccurredfarawayfromNew
YorkinOklahoma,thelastoftheSouthernstates.However,thecorrespondence
betweenChisumandBTWseemedcoded,seechapterfive,ChisuminOklahoma.
OnthebackcoveroftheHarlanbookTheWizardofTuskegee,wasanexcerpt
fromtheJournalofSouthernHistory,thatanalyzedHarlan’s“combiningsympathy
21HarlanPapers,Box43,Spies,Chisumfolder;Wm.L.Buckley,PrincipalofP.S.80,BoroughofManhattan,toGeorgeFosterPeabody,8March1908,Box1,G.P.PeabodyPapers.HarlanPapers.
238
andcriticaldetachmentwithasureeyeforcomplexityandambiguity”intheBTW
character,onlyonehistorian,MaceoCrenshawDailey,hasbrokenthecodeofthe
heroworshipofEmmettScott.22InWhentheSaintsGoHobblingIn:EmmettJayScott
andtheBookerT.WashingtonMovement(2013),DaileyuncoversScott’scharacter
flaw.Scotthadaselfishpreoccupationwithbusinessopportunitiesratherthana
deepcompassionforpeople.DaileysurmisesthatevenW.E.B.DuBoisattacked
ScottforthelackofcompassionaboutsoldiershewaspaidtocareforduringWorld
WarI.DaileydescribedScottbyusingwordsofW.E.B.DuBoisintheCrisis,a
magazineoftheNAACP.Hewrote,“IntheMay1919issueofCrisis,DuBoistook
Scotttotaskfornotusinghispositiontobettertheconditionsofblacksoldiers:Was
ScottawareofthetreatmentofblacksoldiersinFrance?Ifnotwhydidhefailtofind
out?Ifheknew,whatdidhedoaboutit?”23Scottdestroyedmostofhispapers
beforehedied.TheEmmettScottCollectionwaspilferedandclosedatMorganState
Universityforyears.Daileyconcludedfromwhatprimarysourceswereavailable
thatScottwasmoreacapitalistthananaltruist—and,thoughDaileydidnotsayit,
howmuchScottwasunlikeChisumwhenitcametobeingaheroforthedestitute.
Tuskegeechanged.Washingtondiedin1915andRobertRussaMotonwas
appointedPrincipalofTuskegeeInstitute.EmmettScottandMotonhadan
antagonistrelationship.Afteryearsofrivalryoverleadership–Scotthadbasically
runthecollegeunderWashington–Scottleftin1919forHowardUniversityin
22Harlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915.Thiswasoneofseveralexcerptsfromreviewersthebackofthepaperbackcopy,1983edition,oftheWizardofTuskegee.23Dailey.162-165.
239
WashingtonD.C.AccordingtoDailey,Scottwasoverlookedforthepositionof
Principalbecausehestayedsecond-in-commandsolong.Duringtheperiodof
WorldWar1,ChisumacquiredapositionofefficiencyagentfortheDepartmentof
Labor’sU.S.EmploymentServiceDivisionofNegroEconomics.Alreadygood
acquaintances,RobertRussaMotonandMelvinChisumbecameclosefriendsand
businessassociates.WhileAlbonHolseywasMoton’ssecretary,Chisumbecamea
personalaidtohimandperformedthetasksthatwereoncecarriedoutinthe
TuskegeeMachinebyScott.
Chisum–ACultHero?
Chisumchanged.HispersonalsuccesspairedwithhisworkinOklahoma
openedafloodofaltruistfervorinChisum.Thisfervorwasbolsteredbyhis
experiencesasagovernmentappointedefficiencyagentduringtheWWI.He
regainedtheinvincibilityfromyouthhehadwhenhewasusedasaballpassed
betweenUnionSoldiers.Havinganintimateinsightintotheexploitationby
employersofthousandsofsouthernblacksthe“tothedegreeofslavery,”Chisum
shape-shiftedoncemore;hecombinedaBrerRabbitmentalityofinvincibilitywith
histrainingasagentleman,entrepreneurtobecomeanefficiencyagent–a“fixer”in
postwartimesforbusinessesandthegovernmentandaheroformany.24
24HenryGudza,"LaborDepartment'sFirstProgramtoAssistBlackWorkers,"MonthlyLaborReview,no.June(1982).41.
240
AswellasbecomingalaboragentChisumachievedanotherstepinbecoming
atypeofbold,bravefreedomfighterinthewayofSojournerTruthorHarriett
Tubmanbytakingunheardofriskstosavepeoplehedidnotknowpersonally;to
savethemfromtheirplightashumanagriculturalorbusinessimplementswithout
choiceorvoiceovertheirplight.However,asalaboragentChisumwentfurther
thanotheragents.Heaidedinescapesduringdaylighthoursfromfieldsandcoal
minesbypeopleguardedbymenwithguns.Heplayedthe“UncleTom”torescue
blacksfromtheSouthduringtheperiodofWorldWarI.25Accordingtofamilylegacy
bynighthebecame“ahandsome,tall,thin,lightskinnedNegro.”26Chisum’sfriend
andcolleagueWendellDabneywroteaboutChisum’sambiguousworkinthat
“someonehadtorunthegauntletanddoseductivemissionaryworkbelowthe
Mason-Dixon’sline,andnoonewasbetterfittedinappearance,dramaticability,
diplomacy,andintellectualequipmentthanMelvinJ.Chisum.”27Dabneywrote,“At
firstChisumworkedlikeSojournerTruthandLeviCoffinand[the]great
‘undergroundrailroad’”heroesoftheantebellumdays.Theyhelpedtheslave
NegroescomeNorth.Theslavetradeended,butnooneknewhowmanyAmericans
stilllivedinslave-likeconditionsintheSouth.
WhileworkingfortheDivisionofNegroEconomicsasanefficiencyagent,
ChisumwasalsoalaboragentforNorthernbigbusiness.InRobertRussaMoton’s
autobiography,MakingaWayOut,heexplainedtheterm,“efficiencyman,”using
25WendellPhillipsDabney,Cincinnati’sColoredCitizens;Historical,SociologicalandBiographical(Ohio:NegroUniversityPress,1926),19626LindaTwine,Conversations(Oklahoma:SelfPublished,1991),OKCU.27Dabney,Chisum’sPilgrimageandOthers,1-10.
241
Chisumasanexample:“…thereisatendencytowardgreaterconsideration,
especiallyonthepartofmanylargemanufacturingestablishments,forthewelfare
oftheircoloured[sic]employees.Intheseplantsmaybefoundwhatareknownas
‘efficiencymen,’whosebusinessitistolookafterthemoraleofcoloured[sic]
workers.”28AccordingtoWilliamWayneGiffin,inAfricanAmericansandtheColor
LineinOhio(2005),ChisumandJosephLyons,establishedalabor-recruitingcenter
inOhio.Throughtheagencytheyrecruitedthousandsofsoutherners–atonedollar
apiece–whowentnorthtoworkin“manufacturingandmunitionsplants.”29
Chisumwassupposedtogointobusinessesandidentifyhowtomake
workersandbusinessesharmonizemoreefficientlybutChisum,beingChisum,
workedbothsidesofthelabormovementandputhisownmoneyintotrainfares.
Duringtheday,hewentintofactoriesandworkedwithSouthernbusinessmen;all
hisothertimesChisumliterallyroamedthefieldsofsouthernstatesincluding
Louisiana,Mississippi,Alabama,andriskedhislifeto“free”Negroessotheycould
receivebetterlivingconditionsintheNorth.In1916ChisumwentSouthintothe
fieldsasoneofthemfrompickingcottontotobacco,fishedwithlongshore-menand
28RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(NewYork:Doubleday,Page&Company,1922,281-282.29InthetwentyfirstcenturymorebooksmentiontheworkofMelvinChisumasalaboragent.See:WilliamGiffin,AfricanAmericansandtheColorLineinOhio,1915-1930(Columbia:OhioStateUniversityPress,2005).11-12;JamesGrossman,BlackWorkersintheEraoftheGreatMigration1916-1929,BlackStudiesResearchSources:MicrofilmsfromMajorArchivalandManuscriptCollections(Maryland:UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,Inc,1985).Chisum,MelvinJ.,RG183,BureauofEmploymentSecurity,0708,Container14,Reel16,andCharlesPayneandAdamGreen,TimeLongerThanRope:ACenturyofAfricanAmericanActivism,1850-1950(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2005),281.
242
livedwithplainblacksandpoorerwhitesgatheringlaborfornorthernindustry.30
Dabney’sstoryofthousandsbroughtoutofservitudeconditionsiscollaboratedby
Chisumfamilyhistory,CarterG.Woodson’sbookonmigration,andDepartmentof
Laborpamphletspublishedintheyears1916and1917.Whiletherearenorecords
orstatisticstheNegroLaborpamphletreferredto“largenumbersleft”duringthe
periodChisumworked.ThevolumeofmigrationseemedtogoupbasedonChisum’s
movements.31
Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.’s,storyofhisfathercontinuesthetaleofDabney’s
writingsandtheeffortsoftheNegroefficiencyagents.Hetoldthestory.“Dadwas
alsoinvolvedineffortstogetblackpeopletomigratefromSouthtoNorth.He
workedforJudgeGary(1846-1927)atonetime.JudgeGarywasthemanwho
operatedifnotwhoownedtheUnitedStatesSteelCorporation.”Gary,Indiana,was
namedforhim.HeexplainedthathisfatherwouldgodowntotheSouth,during
WorldWarIandaskblackpeopleiftheywouldliketogo“upNorth”forjobs.The
reasonmanyblacksstayedintheSouthwasbecauseofalackoftransportation.
“Dadwouldtellthematsuch-and-suchatimethereisgoingtobeatrainatsuch-and
–sucharailroadandyoucangetonthattrainanditwilltakeyoutoDetroit,orthat
trainwilltakeyoutoChicagoasthecasemaybe.”Dr.Chisum’snarrativecorrelates
withinformationprintedintheBroadAxe,anewspaperin1928.32Thefrontpage
30WendellDabney,CincinnatiColoredCitizens,122.31T.R.SnavelyR.H.Leavell,T.J.Woofter,"NegroMigrationin1916-1917,"inDivisionofNegroEconomics,ed.U.S.DepartmentofLabor(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1916-1917),52-65.32JuliusTaylor,“Col.MelvinJ.Chisum:FieldSecretaryoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation,WidelyTraveledknowstheBigMenoftheNationinPoliticsandin
243
spreadoftheAnglonewspaperexplainedhowChisumhelpedanorthernrailroad
ownerwhohadgivenuphopefindenoughmeninordertogetastalledtrainstation
backonthetracks.
WiththeunderstandingofagreaterSpiritwithin,Chisumattemptedand
achievedsupernaturalfeats.ItispossiblethatwithoutBTW,asblackleader,Chisum
felthehadtodosomethingtangibletoaidpeopleintheProgressiveErawhenbig
businessandtheneedforwarmaterialsseemedtorecreatetheageofslavery.His
workaidedpoorerblackAmericanstobecomeapartoftheprogressivezealin
society.Laboragentsboughttheideaofa“progressiveera”downtothecommon
human.ItgavetheclassofAmericansachancetoparticipateintheexcitementof
thetimeofreformandnationalgrowth.Dr.Chisum’sconversationcontinued,“This
wasthewaymanyoftheworkerswererecruitedtooperatetheindustrialbaseof
thenationduringWorldWarIandalsohowmanypeoplecamefromMississippi,
Georgia,AlabamaandLouisianaandwenttoCleveland,Detroit,Chicagoandother
placesintheNorthtotheindustrialheartland.”Chisum’s“peopleraids”were
dangerous.Chisumevenhadabountyonhim.Dr.Chisumacknowledgedthat,“Dad
saidthatthiswasadangerousbusinessbecausenaturallythesouthernersknew
thatitwasgoingonandtheywerenotatallanxioustoseethesepeoplewholived
andworkeddownthereandwhowerealsoanimportantpartoftheireconomy
leave.So,itwasadangerousthingandithadtobedonequietlyandsecretively.And
Business,”TheBroadAxe,(SaltLakeCity),20October1928.
244
that’swhathedid.”However,asintheBrerrabbittales,Chisumdidnotcompletely
escapewithoutatrace.Therewerebountiesfortheunknownsuperman.
UnlikeChisum’srelativeMerrickTrammell(chapter1)literallybackstabled
byawhitecolleague,theChisumfamilystoriesexplainedthatawhitereporter
helpedwithChisum’sescapades.Dr.Chisumexplainedthat,“Therewasonewhite
reporterwhoknewthatDadwasinvolvedinthisbusiness.Hesaidtohim,‘Chisum,
youcangetkilleddoingthis.WhatcanIdotohelp?’”Dadsaid,“Describeme.Tell
themthatI’matall,thin,lightskinnedNegro.”ThedescriptionofMelvinChisum
duringthisperiodisveryimportantinthestoriesofAmericanBlackCivilReligionin
ordertotellthehistoryofblackrebellion.Dr.Chisumrecalledhisfather’sstory.
“Dadsaidthatiswhathisfrienddid.Thereporterwroteanarticleaboutarecruiter
ofblackmenfortheindustryupNorth.Hewasdescribedinthepaperasa
handsome,tall,thin,lightskinnedNegrowithamustache,whichwasaboutasfar
awayfromMelvinJ.ChisumSr.asyoucanget.”AtthatpointDr.Chisum
rememberedastoryfromlate1950’sorearly1960’swhenanincidentoccurredin
thehospital.
IwastalkingtomypatientinahospitalroomatMercyDouglassHospital.
Themanwhosharedtheroomwithmypatientinquired,
“IsyournameChisum?
“Ianswered,“Well,mynameisMelvinChisumandtheonlyotherMelvinChisumI’veknownismyfather.”
Hesaid,“Oh,I’mcertainlygladtomeetyou.Yourfatherwasagreatman.Hecamedowntotheeasternshoreandstartedabank.Wefarmersweredownthereanddidn’thaveanywaytoborrowmoney.Nobodywouldloanusany.Mr.Chisum
245
camedownthereandstartedabank.Ihaveneverforgottenhimforthatreason.HeloanedmethemoneyandIdidn’tlosemyfarm.”33
IntheMiddleAtlanticStates,MelvinChisum,Sr.,establishedthein1912
HoustonSavingsBankofSalisbury,Maryland,“intheheartofoneoftherichest
farmingsectionsoftheMiddleAtlanticStates,surroundedbyblacksofwonderful
possibilities,”ontheEasternShoresofMarylandandVirginia.34In1910Chisum
incorporatedtheBrickhouseBankingCompanyinNorthamptonCounty,Virginia.
LivinginNorfolkatthetime,hehelpedorganizeandservedasthefirstpresidentto
HareValleyBankwithotherofficersfromsurroundingcounties;ReubenUpshur,
JacobGriffith,CharlesBrickhouse,TaylorJefferson,PeterBivins,andB.T.Coard.
TheBaltimoreSunnewspaperreportedthatwhilecelebratingEmancipation
ProclamationDayinSalisbury,MelvinChisum,whoatthattimewasstillpresident
oftheHareValleyBankinHareValleyVirginia,sawthepossibilitiesofabankin
Salisbury.WithouttheaidoftheTuskegeeMachinein1910,Chisumfoundfinancial
backingtoestablishthebankfromthreedonors;S.T.Houston,Rev.P.O’Connelland
Rev.R.G.Waters.BackedbyS.T.Houston,ChisumestablishedtheSalisburybankin
Decemberof1910.35HewrotetoBTW“P.S.Mybankhereisabigsuccess....”36
33Twine,Conversations,3-5,OKCU.34MonroeWork,NegroYearBook:AnAnnualEncyclopediaoftheNegro(Alabama:TuskegeeInstitute,1913),177.EdwardReuter,TheMulattointheUnitedStates(Boston:GorhamPress,1918),296.MelvinChisum,PresidenttheBrickhouseBankingCompanyExmore,Va.toBookerT.Washington,8April1910.HarlanPapers.35NegroBankforSalisbury:ProgressiveCityGetsFirstofaKindinitssection,TheBaltimoreSun(Maryland)8December1910.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington27December1911.Box42,HarlanPapers.
246
Chisumprovedhimself.Depositsfromsecretsocieties,churches,andindividuals
thatwhitebankerswouldnotaccepthelpedmakethebanksfortheblack
communitiesthathestartedasuccess.
GuardiansusingmoneyfromblackIndiansandNativeIndianstobuildTulsa
fueledOklahoma’sProgressiveErareform,whileblacksontheeasternshoreof
MarylandandVirginiahadthemoneybutnoProgressiveEraleadertoestablish
newreformsuntilChisumcrossedoverthehorizon.Hisresumeincludedworking
forBookerT.Washington(BTW),workinginrealestateinNewYork,pugilism,a
successfuljournalistcareerandheidentifiedhimselfwithvariousphilanthropists.
LiketheindividualinthehospitalwhowouldspeaktoDr.Chisum,theyunderstood
ChisumasafolkherowhoswoopeddowntoliftthemoutoftheclutchesofJim
CrowracismjustatthepointwhentheycouldhavegivenupProgressiveEra
restructuring.Inmodernity,itseemsfinanciallyfeasiblethatsomeonewouldstarta
bankforblacks.However,blacknessremainedacurse,likethemarkorstainon
Cain’sforehead,forblackcommunitiesthatneededfinancialinstitutions.Chisum
wasnotafinancierbuthewasanentrepreneurwillingtotakeachanceonblacksin
atimeofsocialreform,atimesooverwhelmedwithideasofSocialDarwinism,
racisthistoriography,andledbyPresidentWoodrowWilsonwhosteadilytook
awayprivilegesoftheblacknationbybringingracistideologybackintothe
36MelvinChisum,publisheroftheTriStateNewstoBookerT.Washington,27December2010.MelvinChisumtoBookerT.Washington,27December1910.Box41,HarlanPapers.
247
presidentialadministration.Chisumpulledblackcommunitiestogetherbygiving
hope.
Forthoseinblackskin,hewaslikeawizard,genieoramanwithaHoly
Spirittochangethings,theonewhosawwhatothershadandthoughitmaynot
havematchedthestatuequoinmagnitudeorbeauty–theirBrerRabbit–made
suretheyhadthesameopportunitiesonascaletheycouldhandle.Whiteshad
newspapers.Hedevelopednewspapersforblacks.Whiteshadbanks;hemadesure
blackshadbanks.Hereversedthecurseofhavingblackskinbygoingintotheblack
communityfindingtheblackswhocouldleadandgivingthemthechancetobein
chargeoftheirowninsteadofhavingtowaitforwhitestoopentothemontheir
terms.AfterChisumsettledtheirbanks,heleftthemintheirhandsandmovedto
anotherplace.Brerrabbitnotonlybroughtcarrots;heboughtthecarrotseeds
home.DuringtheperiodChisumalsopublishedTheColoredMannewspaper(1914),
TheTriStateNews(1911),theTriStateTimes(1913),BaltimoreTribune(1912)the
OkmulgeeLight(1914),andTheOklahomaTribune(1914).
DuringWorldWarI,hisbrotherWilliamWoodruffChisumjoinedthe15th
NewYorkNationalGuardRegimentthatbecame369thInfantryregimentnicknamed
“theHarlem-HellFighters.”Asefficiencyagent,whenChisumworkedforthe
TennesseeCoalandIronCompany(TCI),theChickasawShipbuildingCompany,and
theFederalShipBuildingCompany,asubsidiaryofUnitedStatesSteelhisworkat
TCIhelpedstop“someofthemoreflagrantabusespracticed.”37However,practices
37MelvinChisumtoGeorgeHaynes,5October1918,file8/102a.MotonPapers.
248
ofthebusinessestowardsblackandpoorwhiteworkerseventuallygrewsoharsh
evenChisumcouldnothandletheracialsituationwithoutdevelopingasortof
reverseMachiavellianplan–somethingBrerRabbitorToussaintL’Overturewould
haveappreciated.Evenworkingasagovernmentofficial,Chisumcoulddolittleto
helppeopleagainstthemoneybehindtheunitedsouthernindustries’politicalforce.
HealertedGeorgeHaynesabouttheproblem.HayneswasthefirstAfrican
AmericantoreceiveaPh.D.fromColumbiaUniversity,andwhowasappointedhead
oftheDivisionofNegroEconomics.HayneswenttoAlabama,calledthenational
chairtodealwiththewhitebusinessownersbutHaynes’wordsfellondeafears.
HaynescontactedthewhiteAssistantSecretaryofLabor,LouisPost,todealwiththe
issue.
AfterSecretaryPostvisitedTCI,ChisumwrotetoHaynes,explainingthat:
Mr.Post’svisitheredidalotofgoodinthematterofputtingastoptosomeoftheinjusticespracticedagainstcoloredlabor.IdonotmeantostatethattheseSoutherngentlemenhavecomeovertotheLord’ssidebyanymeans,buttheyhavedesistedfromsomeofthemoreflagrantabusespracticed.Ibelievedthewordwaspassedaroundthatcertainthingshadbetterslackoffabitandtheydid.ThecoloredgentlemenwhometMr.PostweregreatlyencouragedbythebroadmindedwayMr.Posttreatedthem.Theyhadneverbeforemetawhitemanwhowouldtreatthemastheywererealmen.38
Despitehissuccesses,Chisumgrewdisillusionedabouthisworkasan
efficiencyagent.DidChisumrememberthehelplessnessofthe1870swhenthe
whitemanDixieplunderedandkilledblacks?TheblackheroMerrittTerrillcould
notfightwithoutthewhiteCavalry.Hehadtofindaneffectivewaytodealwith
38MelvinChisumtoGeorgeHaynes,5October1918,file27G-C,MotonPapers.
249
laborleadersandhewasdevelopingrelationshipstousethepowerofsympathetic
whites.HewrotetoRobertRussaMoton,apersonalconfidanteandpresidentof
Tuskegee;thathewas“thinkingofwithdrawingfromthelaborbusiness
permanentlyandstartingahograisingbusinessonmyEasternShorefarm.Ihave
nofurtherpersonalinterestsinthebusinessotherthantheraceinterestwhichwill
causemetokeepaneyeuponthislaborsituationforthegoodImaybeabletodo.”
Therewaslittlehecoulddotostoptheexploitationofblackworkers.InMossPoint,
Mississippi,Chisumwrotethathe“sawatleastonehundredwhitemenloafing
aboutthestreetsandsittingupongoodsboxeswhittlingsticks,whilethepolice
wereherdingcoloredmentothejusticeofthepeace’sofficeasloiterers.”39
BrianKellyarguedinBeyondtheTalentedTenth:BlackElites,BlackWorkers
andtheLimitsofAccommodation(2002)thatthefundamentaldivisionwithinthe
AfricanAmericancommunitywasnotbetweeneliteadvocatesofprotestand
accommodation,butbetweenblackworkersandmiddle-classraceleaders.He
lashedoutatChisuminhisbook.KellywrotethatafterhisworkinBirmingham,
Chisumwentontoaratherdubiouscareersecuringblackstrikebreakersfor
northernindustrialemployersduringWorldWarI.40WhileKellylookedatChisum
throughthemoralityofthepost-CivilRightsmovementexpert,JohnRoberts,ablack
historian,wrotethat“Deviationfromcertainnormsmayoccurnotbecausetheyare
rejectedbutbecauseagivensituationmayaccordprecedencetoothernorms.39MelvinChisumtoR.R.Moton,12July1918,file191CA-C1,MotonPapers.40BrianKelly,BeyondtheTalentedTenth:BlackElites,BlackWorkersandtheLimitsofAccommodationinIndustrialBirmingham,1900-1921(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,2002)onlineSchoolofModernHistory,Queen’sUniversityofBelfast,1-14.
250
Normsespeciallylegalnorms,maybeneutralized....Mostifnotallnormsinsociety
areconditional.Rarely,ifever,aretheycategoricallyimperative.”41Thus,itwas
possibleforslavestorationalizetheirneedtolie,cheatandsteal.Thesamecouldbe
saidforsouthernblackworkerstryingtosurviveundertheharshandonerous
conditionsoftheJimCroweraintheSouth.TofighttheCrow,Chisumhadtoshape
shiftintoaninvinciblesuperhero.
Certainly,Chisum’sworkethicsforTCIweresometimesambiguousand
questionable.Ontheonehand,ChisumworkedforTCIasanefficiencymanand
attemptedtohirenon-unionlaborforthecompany;hediscouragedworkersfrom
joiningunions,andinsteadencouragedthemtobecontentintheirworkforTCI.On
theotherhand,heacceptedpayforhisworkandthenfinancedblacksandpoor
whitepeople’spassagetotheNorthtoworkfornorthernindustrialistswhowere
willingtoofferthembetterwagesandabetterwayoflife.Chisumfilledtwovoids
withhisactions.HeassistedinkeepingseveralmajorAmericanindustriesrunning
duringthewarandaidedpeopleingettingpositionsoutsideoftheSouth.TheJim
Crowlawsweredesignedtolimitanddenyblacksbasiclegalrights.When
employersresortedtophysicalcoercionandviolencethatweretheequivalentof
slavery,thevehicleforsendingblacksandpoorerwhitesNorthforbetterworking
conditionshadbeenlaid.ChisumusedthesametracksthatgothimoutofMexia—
therailroad.InhisdisillusionmentChisumdevelopedanaggressiveplanthatwould
freesouthernblacksandpoorwhiteswhilemakingmoneytosurvive.
41JohnRoberts,FromTrickstertoBadMan:TheBlackFolkHeroinSlaveryandFreedom(Philadelphia:UniversityofPhiladelphiaPress,1989),182.
251
ThisisonlyaglimpseofChisum’santicspriortothe1920s.Fromhiswork
aroundthecountryChisumdiddevelopanationalfollowing,areadership,intothe
1920s;hebecamesomethingmorelikea“culthero”forpoorNorthernersthana
journalist:JamesAnderson,thefounderoftheNewYorkAmsterdamNews,reported
thatsavingpeoplefrominjusticewasChisum’sforte:“Service,Servicetotherace
seemedtobetheonlyacecardChisumheld,anditwasn’tuphissleevebyany
means.Theonlytimewesawhimfrownwaswhenaninjusticetohispeoplewas
mentioned.”42
AfterWorldWarI,duetohissupportofRepublicans,Chisummanagedto
becomeakindofwalkingdelegateinCongressduringtheWarrenG.Harding
administration.EvenwithoutapoliticalpositionsuchasRepublicanleadersLincoln
JohnsonandPerryHoward,blackpartyleadersfromMississippiandGeorgia,
Chisumgainedleveragetosellpatronagepositions,andsitinonpresidential
conferenceswithblackleadersintheHardingadministration.Whathisleverage
wastoacquiretheprestigetomoveintocongressionalhallsduringtheperiodisnot
clear.ItcouldbelinkedtohisworkasefficiencyengineerduringtheWorldWarI.
ThispartofChisum’slifeinvolvesthewaypoliticiansusedpatronagetorewardthe
faithful.Chisumwaskneedeepintheprocessuntiltheprocessbecame“lily-white”
whenJimCrowtookovertheRepublicanparty.ForChisumpersonally,thekeywas
helostasourceofincome.
42“MelvinJ.Chisum,Benefactor,”AmsterdamNews(NewYork),1July1925.
252
Thepatronagesystem,andpatronagebrokersoperatedthusly.Inorderto
acquireapositioninsegregatedsociety,anapplicantneededtogethisvitaebefore
therightcongressmanorpolitician.Asa“selfstyleddelegate,”Chisumwouldbring
suchinformationbeforetherightperson.Iftheapplicantobtainedthepositionit
camewithacostpaidtoChisum—thatis.Hewasapatronagebrokerhelpingjob-
seekersfindingaposition.Chisumstartedmakingcontactsearlyin1920.Aletter
fromChisumtoRoscoeDunjee,theblackRepublicanleaderinOklahoma,advised
theeditoroftheBlackDispatchNewspaper“Youarerunningapaper.Youarean
ablespeaker.Youhaveasplendidchanceforadvancementinthenextgovernment,
whichwillgointopoweratWashingtoninMarch1921.Beadvisedbyafrienduse
someofthespacewhichyougiveawaytowardbackingupDr.Moton.“43Chisum
attemptedtogainthepossibilityofmakingattheleast$500dollarsperpersonby
contactingpossiblequalifiedcandidatestogetinlineforpositionsmonthsin
advance.Chisumwasnotanelectedofficial.Hisactivitywasnotdiscoveredandhe
continuedsellingpatronagejobsaspartofhismissions.
Heobtainedpaidcommissionsbuttheywereirregular;withoutRepublican
spoilsandpatronagework,hisincomewasunsteady.Patronagewaspaidin
increments,andnotallatonce.Theymadeforsteadyincomeiftherewasa
percentageofitcomingineverymonth.Chisum’ssecondchild,Anne(Jr.,),wasborn
onAugust8,1923.Withagrowingfamilytosupport,heneededastableincome.His
anti-unionstancesometimescausedhimnottogetjobs.HisdaughterAnne
43MelvinChisumtoRoscoeDunjee,9September1920.MCJSR.MotonPapers.
253
rememberedhimsaying,“Nobody’sgoingtotellmewhattodowithmymoney,”
whenhiswifesuggestedapositionthathadtiestoaunion.
Dr.MelvinChisumJr.recountedwhatheknewofhisparent’smarriageand
theirearlydays.“TheymetinBaltimore,wheremymotherwasworkingasthe
officenurseofadentist.MotherwasagraduateoftheFrederickDouglassNurses
TrainingSchoolinPhiladelphia,classof1916.TheyweremarriedinBaltimorein
early1921,butIknownothingofthedetailsoftheircourtship.Theymovedto
Philadelphiashortlyaftertheirmarriageandlivedinrentedroomsonthethird
floorofaroominghouseinSouthPhiladelphia“whereIwasbornlaterthatyear,
andmysisterAnne20monthslater.WemovedtoWashingtoninlate1923or1924
andresidedat253NStreetN.W.Itwasmyunderstandingthehemovedto
WashingtontoworkasalobbyistforElbertGaryoftheU.S.SteelCorporation.Then
itwasprobablyin1925thatwemovedtoGlencoe,Illinois(about19milesnorthof
Chicago).”HemadethatmoveinordertoworkforSamuelInsull,thegreatutility
magnate.
MuchofthetimewelivedinGlencoe,Daddywasawayfromhome.Letterstohiswife,orsonordaughtercamefrequently—fromD.C.orfromTuskegee,orfromN.Y.C.orfromanynumberofcitiesintheSouth,whichseemedlikefascinatingplacestomysisterandmebecausewereceivedlettersfromhimfromthere.MysisterandIenjoyedourchildhood.Itdidnotbotherusthatourfatherwasawayfromhomemostofthetime.Weknewnootherway.Mymotherseemedtotolerateitsoitwasnoproblemwithus.Welovedourparentsdearlyandtheyobviouslylovedus,solifewasbeautifulinoureyes.AnneandIwereclosetoourmotherandifwehadsensedanydistressinher,Iamcertainwewouldhavesharedit.”44
44Dr.MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor30April2012,OKCU.
254
ToChicago:Chisum,OscarDePriestandSamuelInsull
Thus,Chisumfoundanincomethatmorethanmadeupforhislostincomeas
apatronagebroker.AsChisumJr.noted,in1925,thefamilymovedtoGlencoe,
IllinoissoChisumcouldworkforSamuelInsull.Inthe1920s,Insullwasoneofthe
mostpowerfulmeninChicagowithmorethantwotothreemilliondollarsinvested
inelectricandotherutilities,includingnaturalgas.Hisorganizationprovidedten
percentofthenation’selectricalpowerandservedfivethousandcommunitiesin
thirty-twostates.InsullwasoncesecretarytoThomasEdison.Insullwasespecially
hospitabletotheblacksinChicago.
OscarDePriest,ablacklocalpoliticianwhowasonceanAldermanin
Chicago’sWard3,continuedtoflounderasapoliticianashehadfromtheearly
teens.45However,in1923,DePriestlandedwhatseemedastablejobwithelectrical
magnateSamuelInsullinChicago.Duringthe1920s,Chicagopoliticiansrealized
thattheblackvotewasbecomingvaluable.InsullhiredOscarDePriesttobean
efficiencyman,akingmaker,tomaketiesbetweenblacksandcandidatesfavorable
totheutilitiesmagnate.PartofDePriest’sproblemsinpoliticsstemmedfromalack
ofpresentation;hewasdisheveledinappearanceandmuchlesssuavethanChisum
andotherpoliticiansofthetimeperiod.WendellPhillipsDabneytoldthestoryin
theUnionnewspaper.“When[DePriest]begantolookbeyondthecity,toconsider
45“FormerAldermanOscarDePriest;Chicago;AttorneyEdwardWilson;EdwardH.Morris,”TheAppeal,(Chicago),26May1917.ThecityofChicagocontainsfiftywardsorlegislativedistricts.EachwardelectsoneAlderman.AldermenmakeuptheChicagoCityCouncil.Theygovernthecitywiththemayor.Analderman'stermisfouryears.
255
largeraffairs,heinvitedMelvinChisum,whohaddoneheavyworkinpublic
relationsduringthewar,tocometothecitytobehisadvisor.”46Theirrelationship
intheearly1920slaidthefoundationforanongoingblackpowerstrugglethat
lastedintothe1930s.InsteadofcarryingouthismissionforDePriest,whohired
Chisumtogroomhimintoapresentableman-of-affairs,ChisumblatantlystoleDe
Priest’sjob.ChisumexposedDePriest’scrookedpasttoInsull’smillionairelawyer,
DanielSchyler.Intheearly1900s,DePriestworkedundercrimebossWilliam
TaylorinChicago.
UnderTaylor,DePriestbecameanAlderman,anelectedmemberacity
council.ChisumprovedthatDePriestembezzledmoneygiventosupporttheblack
community.InstarkcontrasttoDePriest,ChisumdisplayedtoInsullhisabilityto
workinChicagoandgetthingsdone.Healsoheldaresumeofworkwiththe
governmentandprivatesector.Asaresult,InsullfiredDePriestandretained
Chisumashisefficiencyengineer.WorkingforInsull,Chisumwastheonlyblack
manwithanofficeinoneofthelargestbanksinChicago,theContinentalIllinois
NationalBank.“Hewasgivenacountrycarandacountryhomeintheexclusive
suburbofGlencoe,andbankedathousanddollarsamonth.”47Chisummovedhis
familyfromPhiladelphiatoIllinois.
Otherthanbeingoneofthefirstblackfamiliesinourcommunitytohaveanautomobile,wehadnoneoftheaccoutermentsofwealth.ThiscarwasusuallynotinGlencoebecausemyfathertookitonhis“businesstrips.”Hiswifeneverhadawardrobeoffancyclothes,orexpensivejewelry.Wewerealwayswellhoused,wellfedandadequatelyclothed.Iwouldsaythatwewerecertainlynotwealthy,nor46“AFriendinNeed,”Union,(Cincinnati)26April1934.47Ibid.
256
wereweneedy.”Whatmyfather’sfriendsandassociatesknewabouthimandhisworkandthepeopleforwhomheworked,madethemthinkhemustbewealthy.Hismannerswerethoseofadistinguished,wealthygentleman.48
DabneywroteabouttheepisodeintheUnionNewspaper,“ChisumandDe
Priestalsobecamebitterpersonalandpublicenemies.”Perhapsinthemannerhe
madeRoscoeDunjeeakinginOklahoma,Chisumdid,inasecond-handway,forDe
Priest.DePriestmovedawayfromdevelopingsymbiotictieswithwhitepoliticians
tobuildhimselfapoliticalmachineoftwenty-fivethousandblacksthatwouldvote
himintobecomingthefirstblackintheHouseofRepresentativessince
Reconstructioninthe1928election.
ReviewingoneofChisum’sescapadeswhileworkingforInsull,Owenswrote
intheMessengerthatChisumplayedtheultimateUncleTomgameonhiswhite
colleagues.Owenscomparedhimto“LikeL’Ouverture,theHaitianslave,patriot,
andmartyrthatdefeatedNapoleonBonaparte;Chisumhadbecome“theonewho
findsanopening”forAfricanAmericansinatimeofheightenedracism,industrial
slavery,andeconomicturmoil.”InhiscapacityofefficiencyengineerforInsull,
ChisumhostedadinnerbetweenInsullandtheNationalNegroPressAssociation
(NNPA).TheNNPAgatheredatthefamousAppomattoxClubforanelaborate
banquetpaidforbyInsull.TheyweresupposedtoretiretotheUnityClubtomeet
Insullpersonally.However,onlysixNegroeditorscametotheafter-dinner
reception.Introuble,Chisumleftthegatheringhallandrandownthestairsto
48MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,30August2005.OKCU..
257
whereagroupofmenina“MoorishScienceCult”weremeeting.Chisumnegotiated
topaythemenfiftycentsapiecetoattendthemeetingwithInsull.“Uninformedand
turbanedMoors”filledthelargehall.Attheendofthesuccessfulgathering,Insull
scoldedthe“editors”fornotarrivingontime.Hesaid,notrealizingthathehadbeen
duped,“IfcoloredpeopleareaslategettingtoheavenmakingC.P.T.time[colored
peopletime]astheyfrequentlydoelsewhere,thewhitepeoplewillallbeinsideand
St.Peterwillhaveclosedthegateeretheyarrive.”49Theoutcomeofthemeeting
wasthatanewBoy’sClubwasestablishedforblackyoungmenwithabigpool.
Insullinsistedongivingallthemoneyfortheproject.
Chisumdelvedintoothercontroversiesthatincludedthefightagainstthe
unionizationofporters.ChisumfollowedBTW’sstanceonblacksandunions“the
futurebelongedtotheman,ortheclassofmen,whoseekshisownwelfare.”50His
intimaterelationshiptothePullmanfamilyprobablyplayedintohisstance.Melvin
ChisumJr.onhisfatherandunions:“Firstwasthepublicaspect.Hespentmanyof
hismiddleyearsdevelopingthephilanthropicproclivitiesofwealthyindustrialists
tothebenefitofTuskegeeInstitute.Thesewealthydevelopers,ownersand
managersofthecountry’sgreatcorporations,wouldhardlyrespondtothepleasfor
fundsforablackschooldownsouthfromsomeonewhomtheyidentifiedwiththe
unionswhichtheywerefightingcontinuously.”51
49Ibid.,Union,(Cincinnati)26April1934.50BookerT.Washington,“TheNegroandLaborUnionsTheAtlanticMonthly,”June1913.756-767.51MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,30August2005.OKCU.
258
Chisum’ssonalsoidentifiedasecondaspectofhisfather’santi-unionstance
thatwaspersonal.“Dad’scontinualhostilitytowardtheunionmovementwas(with
oneexception)towardthemanagementoftheunions.Hefeltthatunionofficials
werenotinterestedinthewelfareoftheirmembers,butinthemselves.Inaddition,
hedislikedtheirmanners,theirmeansofoperation,andeverythingaboutthem.He
wasthesmooth,persuasive,diplomatictype.Theywerehead-knockersandfighters.
Heconsideredthemtobelow-born,ill-bred,coarseandfoul-mouthed.He
dismissedthemas‘scoundrels.’Heidentifiedmuchmorewiththecapitaliststhan
withtheunionists.TheexceptionImentionedabove?APhilipRandolph,whommy
fatherdescribedtomemorethanonceas‘asmartyoungman.’”52
ChisumremainedloyaltotheBookeriteanti-unionphilosophy.Washington’s
paradigmhadopposedorganizedlabor.“TheTuskegeephilosophyhadnoplacein
itsteachingsfororganizedlaborandWashingtonandhisfollowersadvisedblacks
tolineupwiththegreatcaptainsofindustry.”53By1919,theNationalUrban
League,abranchofWashington’sBusinessLeague,pulledawayfromWashington’s
anti-unionstance.However,in1924,theNationalNegroPressAssociation
condemned“allformsofunionismandeconomicradicalism”andadvisedblacks“to
standsquarelybehindcapital.”54ChisumwasfieldsecretaryfortheNNPAgroup
52Ibid.,MelvinChisumJr.toAuthor,August30,2005.OKCU.53WilliamHarris,KeepingtheFaith:APhilipRandolph,MiltonP.WebsterandtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,1977).10.54Harvard,Sitkoff,ANewDealforBlacks:TheEmergenceofCivilRightsasaNationalIssue,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1978),170.
259
whovotedagainstunions.55AccordingtoRoiOttley,writingonRobertAbbott,
editoroftheChicagoDefender,andcontrarytotoday’spublicknowledge,theNegro
pressgenerallyattackedA.PhillipRandolphandunions.56ChisumlikeWashington
wasprejudicedagainstunions.InthemidstofhisinvestigationofTuskegee
VeteransHospital,(seenextchapter)andhisgrowingfamily,hefoundthetimeand
energytoswipe,condemnandsabotagefirstRobertL.Mays,thepresidentofthe
InternationalRailwayMen’sassociation,andlaterhewouldattackedAsaPhilip
RandolphandtheBrotherhoodofPullmanPorters.
In1924MaysattemptedtosueChisumfor$10,000allegingdefamationof
characterafterChisumpublishedascandalousarticleinthePittsburgCourier
newspapersuggestingthatMays-themanwhoorganizedPullmanPorter’s,
allegedlysquanderedmoneyonfastwomen-whilevisitinginChicago’sBuffetflats.
HeusedtacticshehadusedinOklahomatowinjusticefortheblackIndians;Chisum
senttotheanewstelegramtothepaperstating“MayswasarrestedFridaynightby
DetectiveSergeantJohnT.Scottinaboozeraid.”Chisum’stelegramread:
RobertL.MaysnabbedinRaid.RobertL.Mays,prominentcoloredlaboragitatorandorganizerofPullmancarporters,wasnabbedtonightbyDetectiveSergeantJohnT.Scott(coloreddetective)andhisboozesquadinaboozeraidonabootleggersjoint.Mayswasfoundinpossessionofthreequartsofbootlegliquorandputupstiffbattleinordertogetaway...Mays,itwillberemembered,55TowardtheendofhislifeWashingtoncametobelievethatunionsmightstopdiscriminationagainstblacksandplayamorepositiveroleintheeconomiclivesofblackworkers.RobertFactor,TheBlackResponsetoAmerica:Men,Ideals,andOrganizationfroFrederickDouglasstotheNAACP,(Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley,1970)348,pointedouthemayonlyhavebeenseekingnewsupportbecauseofthelossoffederalpatronagewiththeDemocratictakeoverin1913.56RoiOttley,TheLonelyWarrior:TheLifeandTimesofRobertS.Abbott,(Chicago:HenryRegneryCompany,1955),263.
260
squanderedmuchmoneyafewyearsagowhichresultedinthepropertywhichwaspurchasedinthecityforahomeforPullmanportersbeingsoldunderforeclosure.57
DeclaringhisenemiestoincludebothMelvinChisum(ofTennessee,
newspapermanandpolitician)andOscarDePriest,whowerebothantiunion,Mays
struckbackatChisumby“declaringChisum’sarticle[a]viciousandmaliciousframe
up.”HecounteredthatChisumwasanunscrupulousenemy.“Myenemiescannot
stoptheprogramofachievinganindependentlabororganizationforthepurposeof
securingreasonablewageandjustworkingconditionsfor25,000Pullmanporters.”
MayscriticizedChisum’scharactercallingChisuminthePittsburgCourier
newspaper“anallegedex-convictoftheStateofOklahoma.”58DePriestresponded
withanarticleinthePittsburgCourier,April19thavowingthatChisumwouldhave
toprovehisallegations.TheChisumandDePrieststoryranonSaturdayApril26,
1924andexplainedthatChisumknewnamesandcountednosesandcouldgivethe
streetnameofwhereMayshadbeenintheChicagoflats.
ThenChisumandDePriest,workingtogether,walkedthestreetsofChicago
andfoundtheofficerswhoarrestedMaysunderthenameof“JohnSmith.”Chisum
retortedinthePittsburgCourierthatMaysdidthreethingswrongtogetcaught.The
firstmistakewastogetarrestedanduseafakename.Thesecondwastoattemptto
frightenjournalistsfromwritingthestoryoncehewasoutofjail.Thethirdwasthat
May’sallegationthatChisumwasanex-convict.Chisumwrotethat“hisuseofthe
57PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),12April192458PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),12April1924.
261
word‘alleged’lethimout,butitwasahintjustthesamethatthiswriterhaddone
time.Thiswriterhasbeeninthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,
highbindersandmoralreprobatesformorethan20years.Thiswriterhasbeen
sued14timesforlibelbythissamelitterofratsandhehasneverdoneadayinany
penitentiaryforhisexposingofthevastcrowedoffakersineightdifferentstates.”
ChisumfinishedthearticlewiththeinformationthatwouldbringAsaPhilip
RandolphtotheforefrontastheleaderoftheBrotherhoodofsleepingcars.Through
hisinvestigationsChisumfoundthatMayslied.Heonlyhad9,968portersonhisroll
not25,000.Mayswas“moochingalivingoutofhardworkingPullmanporters”and
onlyafigureheadroster.59Chisumbyaccident,pullingdownMaysbecamea
kingmakerforA.PhillipRandolphwhotookupthereinsoftheunionafterMays.
Chisumwrotethefollowingarticleonunionsinanewspaper.Thearticlewas
passeddowntohisson.Itisnotcomplete,noristhenameofthenewspaperthat
publishedit,northedate.However,onecanfeeltheheart-wrenchingsympathyofa
manwho,asanefficiencyman,haswatchedtheviolenceandmutilationofmenfor
theirwork.Thetitleis“ReasonsWhythePullmanPortersshouldNotOrganize”...
ProbablythemostburningquestionbeforeblackAmericatodayis“shouldthePullmanPortersbeorganizedintoAmericanFederationofLabor?”Intheopinionofthiswriter,therearetwelvethousandgoodreasonswhytheyshouldnotdoso,andfollowingareafewofthetwelvethousand.
Thehistoryofthecoloredworkerinhiseffortstoaffiliatewiththeorganizedunionsinthiscountryisoneoftragedyofcrackedskulls,brokennecksandprisonstripes,resultingfromtheorganizedcoloredworkerhavebeenusedasacat’spawduringperiodsofstrikes,whicharealwayscalledassoonasthecoloredbrothergetsorganized.
59Ibid.
262
WhodoubtsmaygototheprisonminesinKentuckyandAlabama(wherethestatesellsprisonerstomineoperators),andacquaintshimselfwithhordesofcoloredmenincarceratedthereastheresultofstrikeswhichwerecalledten,twelveandfifteenyearsagoandthecoloredunionists(newlyinductedintotheUnion)wereheldresponsibleforthemineriots,sabotage,etcetera,onlytheblackmenwereprosecutedandonlyblackmenwereconvictedandkilled.
OtherSouthernAtrocities
Formanyyears,eversincerailroadswerebuiltintheSouth,coloredmenhaveworkedasflagmenandbrakemenonthefreighttrainsandonmanyroadstheyworkedasfiremen.TheseNegroworkerswereneverdisturbedintheSouthbyanyforcewhatsoeveruntil1920,wheneffortswereintroducedtoorganizethemintounions.
Earlyin1921,PrestonBanks,whohadfortenyearsworkedasafiremanontheM.&O.railroad,washandedaletterathishomeinWestPoint,MisspurportingtobesentbytheK.K.K.ThisletterthreatenedBankswithmurderifhedidnottoquithisjob.BankssenthislettertotheChicagoofficeandkeptonliving.Verysoonafterthis,DeeAllenandSilasPorter,firemenalsoofWestPoint,weresentthesamesortoflettersandthefollowedthesamecoursewhichBankstook.ThespiritofthemovementagainstcoloredmenorganizingsoonbegantomanifestitselfinClarksdaleandAberdeen.(Paragraphscutout)(Paragraphpickup)...FewnightsafterMitchellwasshot.Othersshotatthissamepointin1921,wereBusterClark,brakeman’BenTombolt,brakeman,GeneSmithfireman;EdgarStokes,abrakemanontheAtlanticcoastline,wasthelastmantopaythepenaltysofarasthiswriterisinformed,becausejustaboutthistimefullreportofspecialrailroadagentshadbeenplaceduponthedeskofthatdistinguishedsouthernaristocratthehonorableC.H.Markham,presidentoftheIllinoisCentralRailroadandwhenthisred-bloodedexecutivethrewhislotinwiththewrongedemployeesofhiscompany,thismurderbusinesswasbrokenup,butnotuntilMr.Markhamhadspentthousandsofdollarsinthedefenseandsupportofhiscoloredworkers.
HaditnotbeenfortheefficiencyandgenuinehumansympathyofMr.Markham,theLordonlyknows,whatfurthercarnagewouldhavebeenwreakeduponthesedefenselessmenwhoseonlyoffensewas,theywerebeingimportunedto“join”theunionandsomehadbeenfoolishenoughtodoso.
ChisumtookagrandstandagainstunionsinNovember1925.Heusedhis
operationsattheContinentalIllinoisNationalBanktomakecontactwithfiftyofthe
mostprominentblackmenandwomentoinvitethemtoaconferencein
Washington.Overtly,theconferencewasto“chartaprogramofpoliticalactionand
263
tobringtheattentionoftheadministrationtothediscontentbeingintheheartsof
Negroesalloverthecountrybecauseofthenegligiblerecognitiongivenandthelack
ofconcernshownbytheRepublicans.OnMarch4,itwasexpectedthatPresident
CalvinCoolidge,ascendingintothepresidencyinhisownright,wouldinaugurate
policieswhichwouldstopsegregationandopenthedoorofpoliticalrepresentation
andopportunity.”60
Covertly,theconferencewasachancetogetleadingblackstogetherwith
CoolidgeandPullman.Chisumclaimedtohavepaidtransportation,hotel,andfood
billsforallparticipantswhocametoWashington.Afterthemeeting,itwasobvious
thattheeventwasa“strawman”forameetingbyCoolidgeandthePullman
CompanytotalkabouttheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters(BSCP)strike.
RealizingChisum’scloseassociationtoPullmanandCoolidge,blacknewspapers
suchasthePittsburgCourieruncoveredtherealreasonforthemeetingandthat
Pullmanpaidforthewholeventure.
Thefactthattherewerenoinvitationsforblackswhoweremembersofthe
NAACPortheBSCPwasagive-awayofthemotivesoftheconference.61Several
newspaperswouldnotprinttheinformationharvestedfromthemeeting.They
knewtheagendahadbeenthePullmanstrikeandnotracialinclusiveness.62Some
60Harris.54-56,“LeaderstoGatherinCapital,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),31October1925.“FooledtoWashington,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),21November1925.61A.PhilipRandolph,“PresidentsAttentionCalled:PertinentCorrespondenceAddressedtotheWhiteHouseandProminentCitizensbyA.PhilipRandolph,”PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),21November1925.62Harris.KeepingtheFaith,54-56.
264
membersoftheblackpresscomplainedthatPullmanwasdirectlyinvolvedbecause
Chisumcouldnothaveaffordedtheexpensiveevent.ChisumtoldthePittsburg
Courierthathehadearnedthemoneytothrowthebashfromalargepaymentas
“efficiencyengineer”theprevioussummerandwantedtopaytributetohis
friends.63However,Chisum’sschemewasuncovered.
ThoughthepressdidnotaccepthisstoryaboutthemeetinginWashington,
neitherChisumnorhissupportersweredeterred.Theycontinuedtheirwork
againstthestrike.Schyler,oneoftheattorneysforthePullmanCompanyandfor
Insull,underwrotetheformationoftheNationalNegroAdvertisingAgency.Chisum
wastheadvisorfortheagency.Itsaimwastoplaceadvertisementsinblackpapers
“toinfluencetheirnewsandeditorialpoliciestowardscorporationsrepresentedby
theagency.”64Chisumhadidealcredentialsforthepositionasfieldsecretaryofthe
NationalNegroPressAssociation(NNPA).
Aftersettlinghimselfinastablepositionasafamilyman,Chisumcontinued
withonemoremission,toinvestigatefortheVeteransAdministrationonthe
TuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thegovernmentpaidforthismission.In1924,the
workersattheinstitutionwereallblack.ThehospitalwasturnedovertoDr.Joseph
H.Wardasmedicaldoctorincharge.ThechiefengineeroftheVeteransHospital,
WilliamJones,ablackmanfromOklahoma,filedseveralchargesagainstDr.Ward’s
administrationwiththelocalandnationalVeteran’sBureau.TheVeteransBureau
andPresidentCoolidge’sadministrationcalledMelvinChisumtodealwiththein-63PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),9January1926.64Ottley.TheLonelyWarrior,263-264.
265
houseproblems.BecauseofhisworkinOklahomaearlierinthefirstquarterofthe
twentiethcenturyitprovedeasytodealwiththemission.
266
CHAPTERVII
YOUMAYCOMETHISFARBUTCOMENOFURTHER,(JOB38:11)
THETUSKEGEEVETERANSHOSPITALCRISIS
“TheSouthernerwhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro,isonewhoorders,dictatesandbrowbeats theNegro,andneverallowstheNegrotoexpressawishastowhathehimself feels isbest forhimself. IfyouaskaSouthernerfor his definition, he will swallow, and then get off some lore about hisfondness foracertainBlackMammyetc.,andrunawayfromthe fact;but IaffirmMr.Christian,thattheyknow,andthoseofuswhohavelivedamongstthesesouthernwhitegentlemenknowwhattheymean.Whentheyspeakof“onewhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro.…”MayInotbepardonedforreminding you, that if your wishes and the President’s wishes are to becarriedout,itisnecessarythatyougetthiswordtoGen.Hinessothathemaynotbefooledintosomethingentirelycontrarytowhatyouwishdoneinthissituation.Iamsir,Yourobedienthumbleservant.”1
---MelvinChisumtoHon.GeorgeB.Christian,THEWHITEHOUSE
Inthe1920sTuskegeeAgricultureandMechanicalInstituteinTuskegee,
Alabama,(TuskegeeUniversity)facedoneofitsgreatestpoliticaltrialssince1MelvinChisumtoGeorgeChristianJr,28February1923,BoxC410,NAACPPapers,ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress.HereaftercitedNAACP.
267
inceptiononJuly4,1881.Theassaultcameintheformofathree-prongedattack.As
wouldbeexpected–oneroundcamefromwhitesupremists–includingthosewho
shouldhavebeennaturalracialandpoliticalallies.Theriseof“lily-white”factionin
theRepublicanPartyattheendoftheProgressiveEracreatedanintra-black
politicalpowerstrugglethatspilledoverfromWashingtonD.C.intoAlabama.1Black
politiciansstrippedofnationalpoliticalpowerendeavoredtomaneuvertheirway
tosellpoliticalpatronagepositionstodoctorsandnursesatthenewTuskegee
VeteransHospital.ThefinalassaultcamefromblackcriminalswholefttheWild
WestinOklahoma,planningtoinfiltrate,embezzlemoney,andcreatehavocunder
blackleadership.PresidentWarrenHarding’sadministrationcontactedMelvin
ChisumtoworkwithTuskegeeUniversityandtheNationalAssociationforthe
AdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)asaninvestigator.Thischapterdoesnot
concentrateontheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalordealperse.PeteDaniel’sarticle
“BlackPowerinthe1920’s:theCaseoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”(1970),
VanessaGamble’sbook,MakingaPlaceForOurselves,(1995)andMaryKaplan’s
workTheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalanditsBlackPhysicians(2016)describeand
flushoutaccuratepresentationsoftheepisode.2
1NorrisWrightCuneyoriginatedtheterm“lilywhite”atthe1888RepublicanStateConventioninFortWorth,Texas.CuneywasRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896.Hecalledthewhitesthattriedtoremoveblacksfromtheirseatstoattainanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites.”www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/arti-cles.org.2VanessaNorthingtonGamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920-1945(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).PeteDaniel,"BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"TheJournalofSouthernHistory36,no.3(1970);MaryKaplan,TheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalandItsBlackPhysicians:TheEarlyYears(NorthCarolina:McFarlandandCompany,2016).
268
Daniels,Gamble,andKaplan,pointtothecentralityofChisum’sinvestigative
skillsandhisintuitioninsolvingtheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalcrisis.Using
Harlan’snotes,familyinformationandwritteninformationofChisum’s
contemporaries,thischapterdevelopsthestoryofChisumwithintheworldofthe
hospitalfiasco.Theresearchcorrectshislegacybyrestoringpartsofhisstoryline
anddelineateshislifeandworkinthe1920s.3
Chisum’sabilitytouncoverevidencethateventuallysolvedmysteries
seemeduncommonandmysticaltohistorians.Evenhisjournalisticcontemporaries
foundhimremarkable.Inhisarticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s,”Danielswrotethat
Chisumwas“propheticinsensingtrouble”ashemovedsteptostepinaidingthe
government,theNAACP,andTuskegeeUniversityinsolvingthehospitalcrisis.4A
formerstudentofLouisHarlan,Daniel’sopinionofChisumwasbasedonmaterials
fromLouisHarlan’smanuscriptsthatlaterbecametheseriestheBookerT.
WashingtonPapers(1972).5Thehistorianwasnottheonlyonetopickupthesense
ofChisum’sotherworldlinessincrimesolving.Chisum’sownnewspaperfraternity
understoodhimas“irrepressible,omnipresent,[and]omnipotent,”wordsthat
3DuringWWIChisumworkedasanefficiencyagentundertheFederalDivisionofNegroEconomics.SeeGudza;Brooks,"DrivingBlackAmerica:MelvinJacksonChisumKingmaker."Master’sThesis,41.SeeJudsonMacLaury,“TheFederalGovernmentandNegroWorkersUnderPresidentWoodrowWilson,”PaperdeliveredatannualmeetingofSocietyforHistoryontheFederalGovernmentWashingtonD.C.March16,2000.(www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/shfgpro00.htm.)4Daniel.372.LouisHarlan,ed.,TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,(Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1970).219.Hewrote,“From1903to1906ChisumwasWashington’spaidspy–andperhapssometimesprovocateur–intheranksofBTW’scritics.”LouisHarlan,BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915,(NewYork:Oxford,1983).473.5Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7.
269
linkedhimtosorcery,beingasuperhero,oragod.6However,Chisum’sexpertise
developednotonlyfromamagicalpropheticvoicefromwithin,butfrom
understandinghowtousetheinformationamassed,fromlessonslearnedinthe
schoolofhardknocks,andcombinationsofmissions,lobbying,andcommissions.7
ResearchingdeeplyintheLouisHarlanpapersandothersourcesprovidesawider
contextofhowhelived,hisunderstandingofhimselfandthementhatpaidhimto
getworkdonebehindthescenes.Theresultrevealsamastermanipulator,a
MachiavellioraSvengaliwithouttheevilintent.8
In1922,theNationalNegroPressAssociation(NNPA)extendedhis
otherworldlyethostobeallseeing,allpresent,omnipotentinhiscovertactivities.
NewspapersoftheNNPAwhohadnotdiedoutmetwithindependent
newspapermentoforman“enlargedorganizationtoformaclosercooperation
amongtherace.”9Duringthemeetingblacknewspapermenandmembersinthe
printingtradecreatedanewpositionforMelvinChisum.Hebecamea“special
representativeofthePressAssociationtotourtheUnitedStatesintheinterestof
theorganization.”10NotethatoneyearlaterfounderoftheAssociatedNegroPress
(ANP,1919-1967),ClaudeBarnett(1889-1967),copiedtheposition.Barnetthired
6“NashvilleWelcomesPressAssociation,”TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1924.7Chisumlabeled“commission”toworkhedidforapercentageofthetake.8GeorgeMaurier,Trilby(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1894).Svengalibecameatermafterthecharacterinthebookseducedandhypnotizedagirlintobecomingasinger.Nowitsdefinitionisonewhocoachesorinfluencesanotherbysinisterinfluence.9“NashvilleWelcomesPressAssociation,”TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1924.10TheBroadAx(Chicago),18November1922.
270
PercivalL.Prattis(1895-1980)in1923asafeature/cityeditoroftheANP.11Prattis
assumedthetitleofANPfieldagentandcompetedagainstChisumasanNNPAfield
agentforstorylines.PrattisneverachievedthestatusasaWarwick.Therewasa
darksidetomenwhowereforhirebythosewhohadthecashtomanipulateothers.
Prattis“describedChisumasthesmoothestofalargegroupofunderhanded
operatorsinChicagoduringthe1920s.”Prattiscontinuedhisdescription,“he
[Chisum]hadalonghistoryofsecretiveandunprincipledmissionsforpay.”12No
informationexiststospecificallysupporthisclaim.However,ChandlerOwen,editor
oftheMessengersawthroughChisum’sone-sidedfaçadeofthehero.Inhisarticle
TheNeglectedTruthOwensdescribedChisumas,“M.F.C.(MasterofFooling
Crackers).”Chandler,ablacksocialisttaggedChisumandthenewspapermenaspart
of“aswarmofstool-pigeons,UncleTom’sandSambos...”13Chisum’stwo-pronged
nature,attheleast,wasnosecret.
Chisum’searlyadventuresinlife,alittleblackboyonhisownina
ReconstructionworldofTexas,developedwithinhimstreaksofmeanness,courage,
anddeterminationthataidedhimifandwhenhewentintotheunderworldof
placeslikeChicago,NewYorkandWashingtonD.C.Meannessstigmatizedor
brandedhisgeneration.Othermenfrominhiserapossessedsuchcharacteristics.
11PrattiswasfamousthefirstAfricanAmericannewscorrespondentadmittedtothepressgalleriesoftheSenateandHouseofRepresentatives.However,howwasChisummovedoutundertheHooveradministrationiftheywerenottheretobemovedin1928andyearsbeforeHoover’selection?12WilliamH.Harris,KeepingtheFaith:APhilipRandolph,MiltonP.Webster,andtheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,1925-37,(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,1977)53.13ChandlerOwens,“TheNeglectedTruth:TheNegroPressintheHandsofWhiteFolksNiggers,”TheMessenger8(1925),80.80.
271
AccordingtoaformerlawmanintheTexasarea,DanielDeeHarkey(1866-1958),in
hisbook,MeanasHell(1948),menhadtobe“mean”inordertosurvive.During
Chisum’sgenerationmen“changedsociety’sorderandmadelawsstickwithguns,
knivesandaxes.Evenpeaceofficerstrailedthievesandmurderers,broughtin
rustlersandkillers,cleanedupviceringsandevenburnedballotboxes.”14Likethe
roamingyouthhehadbeen,inhislatefortiesandearlyfifties,Chisumat“fivefeet
sixinchesinheight,[mediumheight]withsuperabundanttissueuncorsetted,
[growingrotundinthemiddle]complexiondecidedlybrunette,[darkskinned]and
hairtruetonature[hairsnappedbacktonappyoratightcurlpatternaftercombing
it]”movedaroundthecountrygenerallyonhisown.15Chisumaddedoccupationof
fieldsecretaryoftheNegroPressAssociationtohisotherentrepreneurialworks.
Whilemissionsforthenewspaperassociationwerebasicallyfree,headdedtohis
potentialincomebyusingthespecialstatustoopendoorstomorevenues,usingit
forlocationsonceclosedtohimandopeningengagementsforspeaking.Heutilized
thepresspasswhileworkingonotherpersonaldetectivework.Chisumwasan
independentworker.Hecreatedhisownrules,usedhisownethicsorprinciples,
hadnosingleboss,noranyonetoreporttootherthanthepersonhecollectedhis
moneyafterajob.
Sometimesrelationshipsdevelopedincongressionalhallsthattookhimto
placesthatonlypoliticiansortheiraidswouldendeavortofrequent.Underthose
14DeeHarkey,MeanasHell(NewMexico:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1948).1.JamesSmallwood,MurderandMayhem:TheWarofReconstructioninTexas(Texas:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2003);ibid.15WendellPhillipsDabney,“AVisittoDunbar’sTomb,”inNegroCaravan,ed.SterlingAllenBrownandArthurDavis(NewYork:DrydenPress,1941),1001.
272
circumstancesChisumfoundcluesnewspapermenofothernationalitiescouldnot
access.Insiderrelationshipswithcongressmen,PresidentWarrenG.Harding,and
thePresident’ssecretary,GeorgeB.Christian,aidedhiscraft.Heknewthemby
name.Theyknewhimbynameandfame;frombeinganefficiencyagentduring
WorldWarIwithintheNegroEconomicsDepartment,tomissionsheaccomplished
forphilanthropists,andasacorrespondentwhowalkedcongressionalhalls.
Keepingfinanciallystable,Chisumalwayslookedforpersonal“commissions”from
thegovernmentofficialsasanefficiencyagent,manofbusiness,investigator,orfor
workasageneral“fixer.”
Forblacks,hewasa“walkingdelegate”inCongressionalhallsbutitis
possiblethatwhitepoliticianssawhimjustashewas-ageneralfixerforblack
situations-asotherblacksaroundthemwereadministrativeassistants.Hiswork
whilebeneficialtoallofferednoconflictingproblemtowhites,sincehewasnotan
electedofficialandheldnoseatofpower.HisRepublicanquasi-politicalposition-as
awalkingdelegatesortoflobbyist-remainedunaltered,when“lily-white”politics
affectedelectedblackRepublicanofficials.Chisum’scovertlobbyingwasprobably
doneinanUncleTom-cum-manofaffairsattendingtohigherupswithanattitude
thatkepthimin“hisplace”wheninthecongressionalpresence.Hewroteon
letterheadfromseveralcongressmenasifhemeanderedinandoutoftheiroffices.16
16TheauthortookmonthstofindoutwhoMelvinChisumwasaftersearchingincongressionalbooks.HisfirstletterstoI.W.YoungwerewrittenoncongressionalstationarymimeographedatthetopwithUnitedStatesSenateJuly____,WashingtonD.C.MEMORANDUM.SomeletterheadcamefromdifferentcommitteesincludingtheCOMMITTEEONEXPENDITURESINTHEEXECUTIVEDEPARTMENTS.August19,1033[1933].HewrotetohischildrenonUnitedStatesSenateletterheadandmemo
273
Histechniquewastounearththecongressionalbillsthatneededsupport,then,find
peoplewhowereinterestedinwhatheknew,thenusebothtohisadvantage.A
lettertoDr.Hinesshowedhisapproach,“ItismypleasuretotellyouthatIhave
takenthematterofyourBill[sic]upwiththenationalcommitteememberfrom
MarylandwhoisaclosepersonalfriendandoneofGod’sbestproductions.”17By
suchpursuits,ormissions-movingaroundthecountryvisitingveteransand
veteranhospitals-ChisumdiscoveredthehypocrisyoftheVeteransAssociation
againstRobertRussaMotonandtheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.Thediscoverywas
criticalintheeventsthatfollowed.Itwouldtakeallhiswizardryofinformation,the
useofpoliticalandfraternalconnections,hisabilitytojugglemissions,andprior
covertantics-allofhisexpertise-todiscovercomplications,exposevillains,and
solvethecrisisattheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.
Astensionsintensifiedoverwhetherblacksorwhiteswouldcontrolstaffing
andmanagementofthefirstandtheonlysegregatedblackVeteransHospitalever
built,someblacks,liketheirwhitecounterparts,schemedtofindwaystomake
moneyofftheproject.TwoofthehighestseatedbutlaterexiledblackRepublicans
duringtheProgressiveEra--bothWashingtonD.C.,attorneys--wereHoward
LincolnJohnson,Georgia(1870-1925)andPerryHoward(1877-1961),Mississippi.
Theyplacedthemselvesinpositionstogainmoney,prestige,andracialpoweratthe
TuskegeeVeteransHospital.Inthemeantime,twoblackOklahomansDr.J.D.Nelson
paper.ToMyverypreciousDaughterfromDaddy,18July1933.AnneJohnsonChisumPapers,LosAngelesCalifornia.17MelvinChisumtoDr.Hines,27November1920.RobertRussaMortonPapers,TuskegeeUniversityArchives,Tuskegee,Alabama,folderMJCSR1924.HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.
274
andWilliam“Bill”Jones,whofollowedColonelT.HughScott,aconsultantofthe
VeteransBureau,fromOklahomatoTuskegee,Alabama,clandestinelyjockeyedfor
powerandpersonalfinancialgain.TheVeteransBureau,undertheadministration
ofColonelCharlesForbes,became“anopportunisticpatchworkofindividual
briberyandgreed.”18Forbesparticipatedincorruptactivitieswithseveral
contractorsinvolvedinoperationofhospitalsthateventuallyledhimtobe
imprisonedinLeavenworth.ForbesthroughtheVeteransBureausoldgovernment
propertybelowcosttohiscolleagues.Johnson,Howard,NelsonandJones,allblack
men,plannedtomimicwhatwasgoingoninthenationalofficesoftheVeterans
BureauatTuskegee.TheywereattractedtoTuskegeeinordertousemoney
fraudulentlyfromthenewhospitalfortheirpersonalgain.Thesemenplannedto
bringdownblackleadersofTuskegeetoaccomplishtheirgoals.
InthesamewaythatOklahomansattackedandattachedthemselvestoBlack
FreemanIndianswhowerewealthy,Alabamawhiteswantedasortofguardianship
overthe$2.5milliondollarsforthehospitalforblackAmericansoldiers.Theattacks
forcontroloftheVeteransHospitalatTuskegeewereattacksonNorthAmerica’s
bastionofblackpride-TuskegeeInstitute,Dr.RobertRussaMoton,thecountry’s
mostpowerfulblackleader,andonblackAmericanrights.TheNationalVeterans
Bureau,underthedirectionofCharlesForbes,hadcontinuousscandalsand
Tuskegeewasnodifferent.Atitsinceptionin1920,VeteransHospitalNo.91in
Tuskegeewasinthemiddleofabattleforcontrolovermoneyandstaffing.Andrew
Mellon,whowasthenSecretaryoftheUnitedStatesTreasury,approved$2.5
18PhillipPayne,DeadLast(Athens:OhioUniversityPress,2009).59.
275
milliondollarsfortheconstructionoftheVeteransHospitalinTuskegee,Alabama.
Suchmoneyinthehandsofblacksdrewwolves.Gamblereferredtolettersfrom
whiteTuskegeeanswhobelievedthatthefightoverthehospitalwasforatestofthe
“supremacyofthewhiterace”becausewhitecontrolwasessentialsoasnotto
disturbracerelationsinthearea.AlabamaGovernorWilliamBrandon,SenatorJ.
Heflin,andtwostaterepresentativesW.BowlingandR.H.Powellsupportedthe
supremacyideal.19
WhiteConflictattheVeteransHospital
AsBlackWallStreetinTulsaservedasanationaliconforblackeconomic
success,sodidTuskegeeInstituteserveasthemostpowerfulblackcollegeinthe
nation.Itwaspowerfulbecauseofitssupportbywhitephilanthropists,andwhite
leaderssawitasaplaceofaccommodation.Forblacksandwhitesinanearlier
periodTuskegeeInstitutewasmorethanjustauniversity.BookerT.Washington
(BTW)establishedbothentitiesascentersforblackreform.BlackWallStreetin
TulsalayinruinsduetowhitemobviolenceinJune1921.Tuskegeeremainedthe
proudestbastionofblackeducation.TobetheTuskegeeinstitute’spresidentor
“principal”remainedasapositionofhighesthonoramongblackcollegepresidents.
Inthe1920s,manyblackcolleges,suchasHowardUniversityinWashingtonD.C.,
stillhadwhitepresidents.PresidentTheodoreRoosevelthadbelieved“thatthe
selectionofaprincipalforTuskegeeInstitutewasasimportantamatterasthe
19Gamble,MakingAPlaceforOurselves,90.
276
electionofthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.”20Whentheopportunitytoestablish
theblackVeteranshospitalonitscampus,TuskegeeInstituteneededprotection.
BTWcovereduphiscovertsupportforlegaldisputesduringhispresidency.When
LouisHarlanlookedforaSirGalahadintheBookerT.Washingtonpapers,hefound
ablackMachiavelli.MotonwouldsoonlearntoplaythesametunesasBTW,hehad
toorchestratetheleadershipthatwasneededduringthecrisis.
WhileRobertRussaMotonpossessedanexclusivepoliticalpowerasthe
PresidentofTuskegee,in1920,themostpowerfulelectedRepublicanblack
politiciansinthecountry,HowardLincolnJohnson(1870-1925)andPerryHoward
(1877-1961),losttheirpositionsasdecisionmakersandtheirabilitytohold
nationalofficeswhen“lilywhite”–acallfor“whitesuperiority”–emergedinthe
RepublicanPartyNationalConvention.21UnderPresidentsWarrenHarding,Calvin
CoolidgeandHerbertHooverlily-whitesreigned.22Thelily-whiteideological
strategyforcedblackpoliticianstodiscoverdifferentvenuesfortheacquisitionof
moneyfrompoliticalpatronage.TheyreachedwithinblacksocietytoTuskegee
lookingforpatronagedealsbutnotbeforewhiteAlabamansmadetheirstand.
20FrederickPattersonWilliamHughes,RobertRussaMotonofHamptonandTuskegee,(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1956),79.Untilhisdeathin1919,PresidentTheodoreRooseveltsatonBoardofTrusteesforTuskegee.Duringhispresidency,helinkedTuskegeetotheofficeofthePresident.21Theterm“lilywhite”originatedatthe1888RepublicanstateconventioninFortWorth,Texas.NorrisWrightCuney,blackRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896,calledthewhitesthatdroveblacksfromtheirseatstoachieveanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites,”(chapter4).22AlwynBarr,ReconstructiontoReform:TexasPolitics,1876-1906(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1971);DonaldLisio,Hoover,BlacksandLilyWhites(NorthCarolina:UniversityofNorthCarolina,1985);PaulCasdorph,Republicans,Negroes,andProgressivesintheSouth,1912-1916(Alabama:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1981).
277
WhitesinAlabama,supportedbyothersinthenation,cravedcontrolover
thehospitalsomuchthattheKluKluxKlanstagedamarchneartheTuskegee
campuswiththatpurposeinmind.Moneyallocatedforthehospitalenticedwhites
tofindawaytobenefitfromthehospitalthathadbeenbuiltonahistoricallyblack
collegecampus.Motonwasconsideredas“agood,noble,strongman...hardened
toabuseandmisunderstanding.”23AlbonHolsey,Moton’ssecretaryexplainedina
lettertotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementColoredPeople(NAACP)
that,“Thesoleinterestofthewhitepeopleinthehospitaliseconomic.Asidefrom
this;[sic]theydonotwishtohaveagovernmentinstitutioninthestateofficeredby
Negroesbecausetheyrealizethatthecoloredpeople’sresponsibilitywouldbe
solelytothegovernment,andtheycouldnotconsistentlycontrolthesituationin
anyrespect.InotherwordsandputtingitbluntlyasoneSouthernwhitemansaid,
‘Ifniggersareputattheheadofthishospital,they’llberesponsibleonlytothe
UnitedStatesgovernmentandwedonotwantanyniggersinthestatewhomwe
cannotcontrol.’”24NotallwhitesinthenationfeltthesamewayasAlabamans.
Gambleexaminedandchronicledthatwhitenewspapersandotherwhite
23FromMelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton“TheWorkGoesOn,”BaltimoreAmericanNewspaper(Maryland)2October1920fromGC604226422aTuskegeefileLibraryofCongress.24AlbonHolseytoB.J.Davis,30May1923,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleInManuscriptDivision,LibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,ManuscriptDivision,C419,LibraryofCongress,WashingtonD.C.,(hereaftercitedasNAACP.)
278
communitiesarguedthatwhiteAlabamansdidnotfitthecriteriaofforVeterans
affairsinthisinstance.25
TheVeteransAdministration’sdubiousmethodsoffunctioningweretypified
intheproblematiclaunchofthehospitalinTuskegee.Inordertogetpermissionto
placethehospitalforblackveteransinTuskegee,onAugust18,1921,MajorW.N.
Kenzie,liaisonforPublicHealthService,guaranteedalocalcommitteeofwhitesthat
thehospitalwouldbe“controlledandoperatedbywhiteSouthernerswhowerein
touchwithlocalconditions.”26However,lessthanthirtydayslater,knowingofthe
promiseKenziereportedtothecommittee;thegovernment’sConsultantson
HospitalizationalsoacceptedthreehundredacresforthehospitalfromDr.Motonat
TuskegeeInstitute,withtheunderstandingthatblackphysicianswouldhavesome
controlandoperationofthefacility.
Callingthesaga,TheBattlefortheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,inherground
breakingbook,VanessaGambleallegedthatWilliamWhite,thechairmanofthe
ConsultantsonHospitalization,afterreceivingnoticefromKenzie,deliberately
misledDr.Moton,“toguaranteehiscooperationandnotjeopardizetheTuskegee
Institutegift”ofthreehundredacres.27Thetwomisdeedsonthepartofthe
governmentcreatedabattlefieldinAlabama,andeventuallyabattlearoundthe
country,overcontrolofthehospital.Whohadtherighttostaffthehospitaland
controlthe$6500forsalarieseachmonth?Bungledplanslaidthefoundationforthe
25Gamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves,78.26Ibid.,76.27Ibid.,94-95.RichardPowell,“HowU.S.GovernmentBrokeFaithwithWhitesandBlacksofTuskegee,”BirminghamDailyNews,”1July1923.
279
hospital.Indeed,Chisumuncoveredandexploitedtheinformationinnewspapers
thatitwasillegalatthattimeinAlabamaforwhitewomentonurseblacks.The
VeteransBureauhadalreadyplannedtohavewhitenurses,andsotheywouldhave
tohireblackmaidstoattendthesoldiers.Whenthehospitalopenedtoadmitblack
soldiers,whitenursesmadeapproximately$1600amonthandthemaidsdoingthe
actualworkmade$50amonth.
By1923,rumorscirculatedamongblacksthatwhiteAlabamanshadbeen
promisedthatthehospitalwouldbestaffedbywhites.Tokeepthetruthfrom
comingoutDirectorCharlesB.Forbes,craftilyappointedColonelT.HughScottof
Oklahoma,awhiteman,toworkwithMotonandChisum,“buildingpersonnelof
coloredprofessionalstomantheinstitutionwhenreadyforopening.”28Becauseof
thecommitmentofForbes,andintroductiontoColonelHughScott,Chisumand
Motonbelievedthatblackswouldindeedhavemost,ifnottotal,controlofthe
VeteransHospital.Unfortunately,Scottcontinuallymadeexcusesfornotmeeting
withthem.
DivorcedandremarriedandanewfatherofMelvinJuniorelevenmonths
later,Chisummovedaroundthecountryfrequently,accomplishingasmanyjobsor
“missions”tokeephisfamilyfinanciallystable.HiswifeAnnewithatoddlerand
expectingtheirsecondchild,retiredasanursetotakecareofherfamily.Annehad
attendedFredrickDouglassNursingSchoolinBaltimore.AswithhisfirstwifeMae,
Chisumdidnotbelieveinhiswifeworkingoncetheymarried.Thus,thefiftyyear
oldneededsteadyincometotakecareofhisfamily.Heownednobusiness,hadno
28PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),30June1923.
280
richrelatives,noeducationalbackgroundtoperformasteacherorprofessor.
Chisumhadtobealwaysdevelopingworkforhire.
Thelossoftheabilitytosellpatronagesaffectedhisincomeafterthe
RepublicanPartydevelopeda“lilywhite”agenda.Patronagecameinmanyforms
includingspecialdispensationforofficeholding,favorsaswellasmoneyand
politicaldeals.ForChisumpatronagewasawaytokeepsteadyincomecominginto
hiscoffers.Patronageswereincomethatapoliticianreceivedfromacquiring
positionsforaqualifiedcandidatewithinreigningadministration,whetheritbethe
DemocraticortheRepublicanParty.Untilthe1920sblackshadfoundpositionsfor
otherblacksintheRepublicanPartyatacost.Withfewblackshiredduringthe
termsofHarding,Coolidge,andHooverthis“graft”incomestoppedforChisumand
otherblackRepublicans.Chisumcontinuedtodoinvestigativeworkor“missions”
andalsoworkedforbigbusinessesasaprivateinvestigatororfixer.
OnJanuary24,1923,whileonamissionasfieldsecretaryfortheNational
NegroPressAssociation,Chisumexplainedthatfoundanoticeonthebulletinboard
inVeteran’sHospitalNo.65,(allwhite)inSaintPaul,Minnesota.Theinformationin
thefieldlettershowedduplicityinthemessagesthatForbes,theVeteransBureau,
Scott,PresidentHardingandHarding’sadministratorshadpassedtohimandMoton
duringspecialmeetings.ReadingtheletterrevealedtoChisumthatblacksinthe
countryhadmisinformationpassedtothemthroughChisumandMotonregarding
theplacementofblacksinthenewVeteransHospital.Thefieldletterfromthe
UnitedStatesVeteransBureauread:
281
U.S.VETERANSBUREAU
FIELDLETTER
NewHospitalatTuskegeeInstitute
ThenewU.S.Veterans’HospitalforcoloredveteransatTuskegee,Alabama,thefinestofitskindintheworld,isbeingconstructedbytheU.S.Treasurydepartment,andwillprobablybecompletedbetweenFebruary10and25.ThesumallottedfortheconstructionofthishospitalbytheTreasuryDepartmentwas$2,250,000.
Theplansallowforabout600beds,302tuberculosispatientsand294forneuropsychiatricpatients.Themedicalpersonnelwillbecomposedofwhitepersons.TheChiefnurse,chiefaids,chiefdietitiansandtheirassistantswillbewhite.Thestaffnurses,aidesanddietitianswillprobablybecolored.ThemedicalofficerselectedtotakechargeofhishospitalwillbefromtheReserveCorpsofthePublicHealthService,ofsouthernbirth,andonewhothoroughlyunderstandstheNegro.
ThecoloredpeopleofTuskegee,andthesuperintendentandstaffatTuskegeeInstitutearegivinggovernmentofficialstheirheartyconsideration.29
Whathappenedtoseparatebutequal?ChisumandMotonunderstoodand
spreadthewordalloverthecountrythat“allblackworkers”wouldbeappointed
andhired.KnowingthescandalsthatovershadowedtheVeteransBureau,andthat
PresidentHardingneededtobecontacted,ChisumchosetogodirectlytoMotonfor
assistanceratherthaninformForbesofthesituation.Chisumtraveledfrom
TuskegeetoWashingtonD.C.,stoppingattheofficeofGeorgeChristian,secretary
(positionnowcalledChiefofStaff)toHarding.30Christianclaimedthatneitherhe,
29Ibid.30Payne,DeadLast,59.ForbeshadallthemoneyfromtheVeteransBureauand
282
norPresidentHarding,knewoftheVeteransBureau’snoticetohavewhite
leadership.Inessence,Forbeshadliedtotheblacksaboutthesituation.
MotonandChisumvisitedtheVeteransBureauonFebruary3,1923.On
Valentine’sDayin1923,PresidentMotonsentalettertoPresidentHarding
explaininghisembarrassmentbeforeAmericanBlacks.MotonwrotePresident
Hardingthat“Mattersthereseemedsomewhatconfused”aboutwhetherthe
hospitalwouldbestaffedbywhitesorblackswhentheyventuredintothedirector’s
office.31Motondidnotagreewithallwhitestaffing,buthewouldaccommodateto
concedetowhiteleadership,withblacksbeingabletoeventuallyqualifyandtake
over.BlackscouldnottaketheCivilServiceexamstoapplyforpositionsatthe
VeteransHospital.GivingthemtheabilitydosowasmostimportanttoMoton.
Insteadofdemandingrightsforblacks;Motonaskedforthechanceforblack
physiciansandnursestoqualifywithoutattemptingtousethepoweroftheofficeof
thePresidentofTuskegee,whosesupportcamefromdonationsbyphilanthropists
andtheStateofAlabama.TheTulsariotsandthefiresandlynchingsinChicagohad
Motonquestioningthefeasibilityofanall-blackstaffattheopeningofthehospital.
HeendedtheletterwithachallengetoPresidentHardingthat,iftheycouldnot
cometoterms,“astormofprotestonthepartoftheNegropressandfromNegroes
NorthandSouth,[willarise]whichIthinkwouldbemostunfortunate.”32
useditforhisownsystemsofpatronageandfeloniousactivity.31RobertRussaMotontoPresidentWarrenG.Harding14February1923,NAACPfiles,ManuscriptDivisionLibraryofCongress.32MotontoPresidentWarrenG.Harding,14February1923,NAACP.
283
InthemeantimeMotonwrotetoJamesWeldonJohnsona“veryconfidential”
letter.HeneededthebackingoftheNAACP.MotonmentionedhislettertoHarding
writing,“Imeantoseethismatterthroughinawaythatwillbesatisfactorytous,or
elseIshallhavetogobeforethecountryandputtheblameupontheRepublican
PartyandtheHardingAdministration.”33Likehispredecessor,BookerT.
Washington,MotongrappledbetweenaccommodationtokeepTuskegeeandblacks
inAlabamasafeandorwhethertodemandimmediateactionfromthegovernment.
Hesettledonaccommodation.Blackleadersinthe1920s,includingChisum,didnot
agreewithMoton’schoice.ThemostpowerfulblackRepublicanpoliticianinthe
countryHenryLincolnJohnson,aRepublicanNationalCommitteemanforover
twelveyearsdidnotbackdownwhentheRepublicanPartygavehimanultimatum.
Evenhehadtobedraggedout.NowMorton,themostpowerfulblackintheposition
ofleadership,hadfallentoaccommodating?PossiblyMotonmusedthat“lily”
whitesstrippedJohnsonofallhispower.CouldithappenatTuskegee?Motonwas
notwillingtotakethechance.
BlackleadersinthecountrywentonarampageagainstMoton’sleadership
ofblacksintheUnitedStates.ChisumhonoredhisfriendshipwithMoton.Black
leadersstruggledintra-raciallytomaintainjusticeandreforminthe1920s.
AlthoughallblacksdidnotagreeontherightwaytostafftheVeteransHospital,
friendshipswereimportanttothem,astheywerethemenwhomadedecisionsfor
theirrace.Inthefashionofablackprogressive,ChisumdidnotagreewithMoton’s
approachtothesituationatTuskegeeVeteransHospital;andheurgedMotonto
33RobertRussaMotontoJamesWeldonJohnson,19February1923,NAACP.
284
pushrigidlyforanallblackstaffanddoctors.HewrotetoMoton,“comeonoveron
theNegroRace’s[sic]sidewhereyoubelong,”yet,Chisumremainedfaithfulto
MotonasafriendandleaderofblacksdespiteMotonhavingchosenanotherpath.
“YoumaybesurethatIloveyouasadearbrother–timeanddistancemakeno
differencebetweenyouandme–youareawarethatIloveyoufaithfullyandam
eternallyinterestedinallwhichconcernsyou.”34ThesewerethewordsChisum
wrotetoMotonwarninghimaboutapoliticalacquaintance.“Iamnotgoingtomake
anypleasforCongressmanMitchellbecauseyouhaveyourownideasasIknowbut
theydon’tinterferewithourfriendship,”Motonreturnedinhisletter.35Theirswas
afriendshipthatcouldstanddisagreement.Motonreturnedtothepracticesof
BookerT.Washington,heputthefocusonthegrassrootsblacksthatmightgethurt,
notonthetalentedtenthwhowantedimmediatejustice.Hedidnothavethe
TuskegeeMachinetobackhim(EmmettScottwasnothisloyalassistant)nordidhe
havetheNationalBusinessLeague.TheBusinessLeague,theblackpublic,NAACP,
andnewspaperscampaignedagainstMotonforhisstanceofaccommodation.
AttemptingtosaveMoton’sreputationandstandingamongblacks,onJune
30,1923,ChisumplacedallcorrespondenceintheMotonandNAACPfilesbetween
theHardingadministrationandtheVeteransBureau,includingpersonal
applicationsforpositionsintheVeteransHospital,inthePittsburgCourier
Newspaper.TheselettersdidnotexonerateMoton’sdecisionsabout
34MelvinChisumtoRobertMoton,20January1936,RobertRussaMortonPapers,TuskegeeUniversityArchives,Tuskegee,Alabama,folderMJCSR1924.HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.35RobertMotontoMelvinChisum,12May1936,MotonPapers.
285
accommodation,butdidgiveaclearerpictureofthesituation,includingthe
duplicityofgovernmentagenciestowardsblacks.Thetwo-page-spreaddelineated
thestepstakenbyChisumandMotontowardsgettinganallblackstaffforthe
hospital.
OnJuly1,MotonmadeanotherboldmoveinanefforttokeepTuskegeefrom
gettingattackedbyracists.InalettertothenewdirectorofVeteransBureau,
BrigadierGeneralFrankHines,Motonwrote,“ifNegroesareputinchargeofthe
hospital,thereisnodoubtinmyownmindthattherewillbeserioustrouble,which
maymeanthedestructionsoonerorlaterofmuchpropertyorseriousbloodshed,
and,thefar-reachingeffectontherelationsoftheracesintheSouth.”36TheNAACP
cutoffinvolvementwithTuskegeeInstituteandthehospitalaffairinprotestof
Moton’sstanceforaccommodation.Chisumstoodinthegap.
EvenMoton’ssecretaryletoutconfidentialinformationtothepress.In
betweenmissions,workingforothersbeyondthegovernmentandTuskegee,
ChisumhoundedHolsey-acrosscountryandback-untilhecouldget“threeheads
together,”he,HolseyandMoton.37CorneredbyChisum,AlbonHolsey,Moton’s
secretary,(muchunliketherelationshipofScotttoBookerT.Washington)
confessedtogivingoutnegativeinformationthatreachedtheWashingtonPost
Newspaper.InregardstoMoton,Holseyadmittedthathemadea“violationof
confidence.”38ThoughChisumdidnotagreewithMoton’sstanceofcompromise
withtheVeteransBureau;he“neverfailedafriend.”However,Chisumridiculed
36RobertRussaMotontoFrankT.Hines,1July1923,MotonPapers.37MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1September1923,MotonPapers.38AlbonHolseytoMelvinChisum,11August1923,MotonPapers.
286
Moton’spositionasfearful.AccordingtohistorianGamble,Chisumwroteto
BrigadierGeneralHines,thatMotonwas“intimidatedbytheAlabamaKluKlux
Klan.”39Whentheinformationintheletterwaspurposefullyleakedandcameback
toMoton,blacksintheNationalBusinessLeague,agroupsetupbyBookerT.
Washingtonthatfocusedonblackbusiness,attemptedtousethelettertoseparate
MotonandChisum.TheseparationcouldhavebeenthedownfallofMoton.Butthe
friendshipstoodwhenpoliticsseparatedthem.Chisumdidnotbackawayfrom
Motonbutstucktohisprinciples.WhenChisumbelievedinsomething,hewas
immovable;butitdidnotnegatehisloyaltytofriendswhodisagreed.40Oncehis
statementaboutMoton’sfearswentpublic,Chisumchosefriendshipoverpower.
HeleftaNationalBusinessLeaguemeetingwhenpeopleformedacommittee
toworkagainstMoton.Chisumwrote,“Iknowthatpeoplewhoprefertoseeyou
andmeapartasfriendswouldswearbyallthegodsthatit[themeeting]was
Chisum’swork,andImissedtheonesessionthatIwouldlikemosttohaveattended
toavoidbeingfurtherliedabouttoyou.”41Accordingtohisson,Dr.MelvinChisum,
Jr.,Chisum’sprinciplesseparatedhimfromothermen.“MyDadlivedanddiedby
hisprinciples.”Chisumchosetobeforthright.AsafriendtoMoton,heexplainedhis
understandingofthetruthinthewaytheDukeofWarwickwouldadviseaKing:
WhatyouneedDr.Motonisnotthefoolishflatteryofmenwhoareafraidtodisagreewithyou,youneedatthistimeaseverymanwhowieldspower
39Gamble,MakingAPlaceforOurselves,97.40AnneChisumJohnsontoAuthor,23November2007.ChisumPapers.Dulaney–BrowneLibrary,OklahomaCityUniversity,Oklahoma,(hereaftercitedasOKCU.)41MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,25August1924.MelvinChisumFiles,TuskegeeInstitute,Tuskegee,Alabama,GeneralCorrespondence(GC)191-CA-C1-MCJSR,MortonPapers.
287
needs,youneedcounselofmenwhohavetheirhandsonthepulseofthepeople,menwhoareboldandunafraid.IamsayingthisbecauseIknowagooddealmorethanyourealizethatIknow,andmuchofitwouldbeofserviceifthosewhoseethroughhorseblindswouldletyoualoneandquitfoolingyouastowhatthePeoplearethinkingandsayingaboutyou....Iappealtoyouasyourfriendtoholdabitandgetdownonthegroundandlistentothestormofbitterresentmentagainstyouinthishospitalsituationamongstourpeople,isathingtoodefiniteandtoosubstantialtobeignoredandIbegyoutoquitthecoursewhichyouhavebeenpursuingforthelastsixmonthsandcallaroundyouthosemenwholoveyou,wholovetheRace,whoaretruetoyouandnolesstruetotheRace.42
BecauseofMoton’slinkswiththeRepublicanPartyandhisneedforsupportfrom
whitephilanthropistsheultimatelyretreatedfromtheoutrightbattleforthe
staffingofthehospital.UnderattackMortonusedthetacticsofBookerT.
Washington,steeringthepolemicsofequalityandjusticeawayfromtheUniversity;
hetoldthepressthatthefightwasinthehandsofpeople.“Thefighthadtocome
throughthepress,”hissecretaryAlbonHolseywrotetoJamesWeldonJohnson.
InAlabama,thefightforblackstostaffthehospitalbecameatestofthe
supremacyAnglo-SaxonraceagainstAmericanBlacksatthebastionofblackpower.
AsinOklahomainfirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,theArmyofLionsroared
intoaction.WhileMotonbarricadedhishome,blacknewspapers,theNAACP,called
fornocompromiseinthesituationatTuskegee.Motonplayedtheroleof
compromiserwhilesupportingthefight.Slowlyovertheperiodofayearblack
doctors,nurses,staffandpatientsgraduallytookallthepositions.HistorianVanessa
GambleinMakingaPlaceforOurselves(1995),pointedtoseveralfactorsforthe
42MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1September1923.MotonPapers.
288
win;theunitedeffortsofamongblacks,theworkofGeneralHines,theappointment
ofDr.JosephWardaschiefsurgeonandthenationalblackcommunitylearningto
fighttogether.Perhaps,Gamble’sgreatestpointwasthatnationallywhitesdidnot
agreewiththesouthernmentalitytoattackablackenclave.Itwasnon–traditional
intheSouthforwhitestostepoutoftheirplaceintoablackenclave.
WhileChisumworkedwithMotondealingwithintrablackconflictshe
workedwithGeorgeChristianandanotherunknowninformanttosolvewhathad
becameagreatcircusoferrors.Theemergingrelationship,friendship,between
ChisumandGeorgeB.Christian,secretarytothePresidentHarding(bulwark
betweenpresidentandthepublic)andoneofthepoliticianswhoinstigated“lily
white,”revealsthateventhoughpoliticsofwhitesupremacykeptmenofdifferent
racesapartinpublic,inprivatesessions,issuesofjusticeboughtmenasdifferentas
ChisumandotherwhiteRepublicanstogether.PresidentHardingalsomet
personallywithblackgroups,despitethefactthatwhitepoliticiansriskedlosing
votesifthepublicknewtheycollaboratedwithblacks.BecauseChristianand
BascomSlempstartedthe“lilywhite”rhetoric,Hardingneededtoprecedewith
cautioninhisdevelopingrelationshipwithChisum,Hardingcouldnotaffordtolose
votesbecauseheaidedblacks.43CorrespondenceshowshowChisummoving
aroundthecapital,aghostlyfigureinofficesofsenatorsandinthepresidential
chamber,madeadifferenceinracematters.
ThefirstlettersdealingwithTuskegeewerestiltedcorrespondenceshowing
thatChisumwasMoton’s“man-of-affairs,”takingcareofcorrespondenceinMoton’s43MelvinChisumtoGeorgeChristian,28February1923.NAACP.
289
stead.Inresponsetothelinefoundinthefieldletterabout“asouthernwhiteman
whounderstandsNegroes,”ChisumandChristiancorrespondedfromJanuaryuntil
thedebaclebetweenwhitesandTuskegeewasoverinJuly.Thestatementinthe
fieldletterthatsaid“medicalofficerselectedtotakechargeofhishospitalwillbe
fromtheReserveCorpsofthePublicHealthService,ofsouthernbirth,andonewho
thoroughlyunderstandstheNegro,”unnervedtheblackpopulation,andprompted
Chisumtodiscussitwithwhites.
NodetailsremainofChisum’svisitstothewhitehouse--justaswithinthe
BookerT.Washingtonpapers--somelettersonlyreflectthemeetingsonbenches
andunknownplaces.OnFebruary28,1922ChisumwrotetoChristian“The
southernerwho“thoroughly”understandstheNegroisonewhoorders,dictates
andbrowbeatstheNegro,andneverallowstheNegrotoexpressawishastowhat
hehimselffeelsisbestforhimself.”HoweveronFebruary23,1923Chisumwrote
Christiana“sincerepersonal”letterinwordingChisumreservedforhisfriends.
Duringthecorrespondence,distrustturnedintorespectbetweenthetwomen.
OneofChisum’smostimportantinformersfromtheVeteransBureau,who
calledhimselfG.B.,tooktheideaastepfurtherandlookedathisownlife.G.B.’s
responsetellsaboutChisum’scharacter,howasablackmanChisumbrokedown
barriersandmadechangesintheheartsofmenwhentheyactuallygottobein
relationshipwitheachotherbeyondthecolorline.Infact,thiscorrespondencewith
ChisumchangedthestatusoftheentireTuskegeebattlebecauseG.B.gavepertinent
informationontheVeteransBureautoturnthecaseinTuskegee’sfavor.
290
Tho’IamasouthernerandhaveallthetraditionalprejudicesofdecentSoutherners,Ineverhavehatedcoloredpeople,norwillIeverbeapartytoanyschemesagainstthemsimplybecausetheyareofthecoloredrace.TheinformationwhichIamabouttogiveyouisofamostdelicatenatureandtherearenotmanymenofmyowncolorwithwhomIwouldtrustit,butyou,thoughacoloredman,areoneofthesquarestmenwhomIhaveknown,andsinceyousaidthattheanswerstoyourquestionswouldbeofgreatandvaluableservice,Iamhandingitouttoyouforthepurposeofhelpingyou.44
WhydidChisumstandoutamongotherblackmenfightingforjustice?Eventhough
hecouldbediabolical,itwashisintrinsiccharacter–internalintegrityofpurpose-
thateventuallyturnedmentowardhimandcausedthemtohelphiminhisgoals.
Hisgoalswereracegoals.
UncoveringBlackPoliticalEspionageatTuskegee
ThestoryofthewhitesagainstblacksatTuskegeeisbetterknownthanthe
issuesofintra-racialconflict.However,blackpoliticiansforcedoutoftheirpositions
intheRepublicanPartyduringtheadministrationofPresidentWarrenHarding
attemptedtoinjectthemselvesintheTuskegeeventuretoregainprestigeand
money.Theyusedchaosinthebackgroundandracismintheforefront,to
manipulatetheirwaytotheirenrichment.Racismwasatthecenterofthebattles
overthestaffingofTuskegeeVeteransHospitalNo.91,butitwasnotthecauseofall
theconflicts.Withintheblackworldsomemenwerespieswhileotherswere
crooks.44G.B.toMelvinChisum,30June1923.NAACP.
291
Astorywithinastory,Chisum’sworkuncoveringsabotageintheTuskegee
crisisdidnotgounnoticed.Inthearticle“BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof
TuskegeeVeteransHospital,”PeteDanielmentionedhowtwo“Negropoliticians...
attemptedtogaintheconfidenceofHardingandtheninstalltheirmenatTuskegee,
undoubtedlyexpectingtomakethemostofthepayrollandthesuppliesthatwentto
thehospital.”45ChisumuncoveredtheworkofhisfellowLincolnLeagueofAmerica
co-patriotsHenryLincolnJohnsonandPerryHoward.ContrastingChisumwith
politiciansJohnsonandHoward,showshowallthreeblackpoliticiansreactedto
racialoppressionwhenfacedwithlossofprivilegesandpatronage.
Theriseof“lilywhites”intheRepublicanPartyattheendoftheProgressive
EranotonlyforcedthefinalsegregationofblackRepublicanswhocontinuedtohold
positionsinlocal,state,andnationalcaucuses,italsoforcedblackpoliticianstofind
differentvenuesforpoliticalandsocialcontrolwithintheblackcommunity.46
StrippedofthesecurityofnationalandstateRepublicanchairmanships,atthe1920
RepublicanNationalConvention,twoofthemostpowerfulRepublicanNegro
politiciansHenryLincolnJohnson“Linc”(1870-1925)andPerryHoward(1877-
1961).
HenryLincolnJohnson,aRepublicancommitteemanfromGeorgia,
maintainedameasureofnationalpositionbycontrollingsixelectoralvotes.Perry45Daniel,BlackPowerinthe1920s,374.46Theterm“lilywhite”originatedatthe1888RepublicanstateconventioninFortWorth,Texas.NorrisWrightCuney,blackRepublicanchairfrom1883until1896,calledthemutineerswhotriedtodriveblacksfromtheirseatstoachieveanall-whiteconvention“lily-whites.”www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fcu20.
292
Howard,a“BlackandTan”RepublicancommitteemanfromMississippi,andonce
specialassistantattorneygeneral;Black-and-TansdescendedfromSouthernGrand
OldPartyoftheReconstructionerablacksandwhiteswhosupportedamore
inclusiveparty.NorrisCuney,EmmettScott’sformerbossbeforeBookerT.
Washington,waselectedthefirstpartychairmanin1886.Cuneyeventuallywas
strippedofnationalpowerthroughlily-whiteracialbigotry.HenryJohnsonand
PerryHowardattemptedtogaincontrolinthelaststrongholdofblackpower,
TuskegeeAlabama.47Followingtheconvention,bothmenlosttheirpositionsthat
allowedthemtheabilitytomakemoneythroughthepatronagesystem.Johnsonled
theBlackandTanFactionoftheRepublicanPartyinGeorgiaandwasappointedby
PresidentWilliamTaftasRecorderofDeedsinWashingtonD.C.1909-1913.Under
WoodrowWilson,forwhom“Linc”campaigned,“lillywhites”thenoustedblacks
frompartyleadership.PerryHowardledadistinguishedcareerasaBlackandTan
RepublicancommitteemanfromMississippi.Theybothusedtheragingcrisisofthe
TuskegeeVeteransHospitalinanattempttorebuildtheirowncredibility.Together
asRepublicanPartyrepresentativestheywenttoPresidentHardingtogetthe
powertohirefortheVeteransHospital.Theybothresumedtheirlivelihoodsas
lawyersinWashingtonD.C.
Initially,blackpoliticiansputtheirfaithinPresidentHardingbecauseonthe
campaigntrailin1920,whenhevisitedwithblackRepublicansinOklahoma,in
47See,JMorganKoussar,TheShapingofSouthernPolitics:SuffrageRestrictionandtheEstablishmentoftheOnePartySouth(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1974);MichaelPerman,StruggleforMastery:DisfranchisementintheSouth,1888-1908(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2001).
293
frontofacrowdoffifteenhundredpeople,Hardingstated,“Youcan’tgiveoneright
toawhitemananddenyittoablackman.Ibelieveintheenforcementofthe
constitution.Don’tyou?”Blacksbelievedtherhetoricof“lilywhite”wouldonlylast
duringthepresidentialelection.Amongthosewhogatheredintheofficeofthe
president,Chisum,Johnson,andHowardheardHarding’sannouncementbeforehe
passedittothepress.However,in1920,soonaftertheRepublicannational
primarychoseWarrenHardingastheircandidate,inapremeditatedbutsubtleact
ofbravadotobringmoreSouthernwhitestotheRepublicanParty,Republicans
BascomSlempandGeorgeChristianledarevoltofwhitepoliticiansagainst
southernblackpoliticalleaderswithintheRepublicanParty.
Whiteracismintheformof“lilywhite”forcedHarding’srhetorictochange
afterhisinaugurationin1921.Beforetellingthepress,inanapologeticmanner,
HardingexplainedinaclosedmeetingtoablackcaucusofRepublicansthatsat
beforehimthathisadministrationwouldfollowthewhitesupremacyagenda.48
Whentheblackcaucusleft,rumorsofhisdecisionleaked.Incompleteunbelief,local
WashingtonNAACPmenArchibaldGrimke,SheldonDavidson,CharlesCottrilland
JamesCobbcampedintheswelteringsummerheatinWashingtonwaitingfor
PresidentHardingtoreturnfromvacationandhearthedetailsforthemselves.49
UnderduressHardingdecided,“Iamverythoroughlyconvincedinmymindasto
thepolicythatIamgoingtoinauguratewithreferencetoappointments,andthatis,
48“ManyRumorsInWashington,FewAppointmentsDefinite,ExecutiveCommitteeFormedtoMaintainNationalHeadquartersAtWashington[sic],”SavannahTribune(Georgia),12March1921.49“DividedonPresident’sStatement,”NegroStar(Kansas),5August1921.
294
Iamnotgoingtoappointanycoloredmentopublicofficeinthesouthernstates.
Thisthingcalledraceprejudiceyoucannotdownbybattlingitandtheonlysolution
asIseeit,forthecoloredmenintheSouth,istofallintoranksbehindwhite
leadershipuntilhecan,actingthroughSouthernlegislatures,workouthis
destiny.”50HardingcontinuedthesamepolicyintheNorthwithveryminor
exceptions.AccordingtotheWashingtonBeenewspaper,tostopblackRepublicans’
outcryforsomeonetogetan“officeoffirstrank”oneblackman,CharlesAnderson,
aformerspyforBookerT.Washington,wasappointedtotheoldthirdDistrictin
NewYorkasinternalRevenueCollector.51
Inaworldofheightenedracialconsciousness,HenryJohnsonandPerry
Howard’spowerfulpositionsintheRepublicanPartyupto1920hadtheeffectofan
“eggsittingonawall”tosouthernwhitepoliticians.Theyhadtofall.Johnsonand
Howard’spositionsinthepre-1920s“GrandOldParty”madethemakintoblack
monarchsbecausewithintheirhomestatesofGeorgiaandMississippitheyhadas
muchpowerandauthorityovertheelectionofaparty’scandidatesasNorthern
whitemenandmorethanmanySouthernwhitepoliticians--thatisuntilthe1920
RepublicanNationalConvention.Whiletheyweldedthispower,theyalsomuddied
themselveswithmuchpoliticaldirtsincetheywereinthemidstofasmany
patronagescandals,fraudulentschemes,andmoneylaunderingastheirwhite
50Ibid.51“CharlesW.AndersontobeInternalRevenueCollector.”WashingtonBee,9July1921.Seealso“DispatchReceivedfromPoliticalCorrespondent,”SavannahTribune,(Savannah),23July1921.
295
contemporariesinthewhiteworld.52JohnsonandHowardforatimecoulddono
wrongandwhentheywerecaught,theydidnotgetpunished.Johnson“hada
reputationforsellingfederalappointmentsinhispositionasamemberofthe
RepublicanNationalCommitteeandasarecorderofdeeds.In1912–1913,hewas
chargedwithsolicitingpoliticalsubscriptionsandviolatingcivilservicelawwhen
hewasacollectorofinternalrevenueinAtlanta.”53Violatinglawsdidnotremove
politicianslikeJohnsonfromoffice.Ifanything,hethoughtitmadehimoneofthe
“goodoldboys.”54
NoonecouldobtainafederalappointmentinMississippi“withoutthe
supportofsaidPerryW.Howard.”55PerryHowardranapoliticalmachinein
Mississippifraughtwithpatronageabuse.Thefederalgovernmenttriedand
indictedHowardtwiceforsaleofpatronageinMississippi.MenpaidHowardupto52SeeNeilMcMillen,"PerryW.Howard,BossofBlack-and-TanRepublicanisminMississippi1924-1960,"TheJournalofSouthernHistoryXLVIII,no.2(1982).AndseeOliveShadgett.TheRepublicanPartyinGeorgiaFromReconstructionThrough1900(Atlanta:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,1964),132-133.53RobertHill,TheMarcusGarveandUniversalNegroImprovementPapersed.RobertHill,vol.IV(Berkley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985).54JohnsonandHoward’spoliticalprogramscontradictedtheaveragetwopartysystem’schainofpowerinthesegregatedSouth.AsfarbackastheCivilWarblacksalignedwiththepoliticsandgoalsoftheRepublicanParty.Bythefirsthalfofthetwentieth-century,thewhitetoblackpatronagecharacterizedthedominantmodeofupwardmobilityinblackpolitics.BlacksandwhitesofthePartycarriedonasymbioticrelationship.Bythefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturythewhitetoblackpatronagecharacterizedthedominantmodeofupwardmobilityinblackpolitics.Whitesneededtheblackvoteinordertowin.Blackswhocouldgatherthevotesfromtheirconstituencyweretheblacksthatobtainedofficesaspartofthespoilssystem.Thesemenpassedonpoliticalfavorstootherblackpoliticiansandbusinessmen.Thiseffortgaveblackstheideathattheballotservedasasafeguardfortheirliberties.Thisfalsesenseofprotectioneventuallycreatedafalsesenseofstablegroundinaracistworld.TheJohnsonandHowardpoliticalbaseswereallblackconstituencies.Theydidnotneedthewhitevotetohavetheirpositions.55McMillen.136.
296
$2,500forpoliticalpatronagepositions.56ItwasnotaproblemtoHoward,who
sometimespassedforwhite,thatMississippihadmoreblackpeoplethanwhitebut
lessthan1,700blackswereeligibletovote.Henotonlylookedwhitebutwhites
treatedhimlikeawhitepoliticianinMississippi.UnlikeChisumandJohnson,he
lobbiedagainstbasicblackjusticeissuessuchastheDyerAntiLynchingBill.Walter
White,secretaryoftheNAACPwrote,“ThereareNegroeslikePerryHowardwhofor
thesakeofpersonalgainwouldknifeeveryNegrointhecountry.”57Accordingto
BorisHeersinkandJefferyA.JenkinsprofessorsintheDepartmentofPoliticsatthe
UniversityofVirginia,unlikeothersouthernstates,thelily-whitesnevertookover
theBlack-and-TansinMississippiunderPerryHoward,“Infact,between1892and
1952Mississippi’sdelegationwasmajorityblackwithonlyonexception(1920,
when45.8%ofdelegateswereblack.)58
HowardandJohnson’spoliticalaspirationsdifferedlittlefromthoseof
MelvinChisum.WhileChisumclaimedhispowerandprestigebyhisdarkershadow
ghostingthroughthecongressionalhallsandpresidents’administrativeoffices,
JohnsonandHowarddisplayedtheirpowerthroughtakingpatronagemoneyfrom56Blackswerenottheonlypoliticianssellingpatronagepositions.JosephTolbertanAngloBlack-and-TanfromSouthCarolinaallegedlysoldofficesforasmuch$2000.See“TolbertDeniesSaleofOffices,”NewYorkTimes(NewYork),1August1922.“SaleofPatronageinSouthCarolinaChargedatHearing,”WashingtonPost(WashingtonD.C.,31October1924.“TolbertReappointmentSeenUnconstitutional,”WashingtonPost(WashingtonD.C.),10March1923.BorisHeersinkandJeffreyJenkins,“Black-and-Tansvs.Lily-Whites:RaceandRepublicanPartyOrganizationintheSouthAfterReconstruction,1868-1952,”in2016AnnualMeetingofthePoliticalScienceAssociation(Philadelphia,Pennsylvania,2016).57WalterWhitetoS.D.Redmond,8January1923.NAACP.58HeersinkandJenkins,“Black-and-TansVs.Lilly-Whites:RaceandRepublicanPartyOrganizationintheSouthAfterReconstruction,1868-1952,”172.
297
thehighestbidders.Johnsonwasaraceman.Howardclaimedwhateverwas
beneficialtohim.Chisumwasanindependentdoingwhatwasbestforhim.
Eventually,evenJohnsonfounditwashardtobeakinginakingdomcreated
byyouroppressors.TotoppleJohnsonandHoward,Republicanshadtoinstitute
whitesupremacy.JohnsoncontrolledsixelectoralvotesinGeorgia.Whenhegave
themforTaftforPresidentin1910,JohnsonwasgiventheappointmentofRecorder
ofDeedsforWashingtonD.C.Johnsondevelopedsuchpowerthatlikehiswhite
colleagues,hismisdeedsneverresultedinpunishment.RacismcausedJohnson’s
downfall.In1920lesssuccessfulwhitesfromGeorgia,thosewhomhehadleft
behindinthe1880s,covetedhisposition.Republican“lilywhite”wasthetoolthat
broughtdownsuchapowerfulman.
Unlikemanyblackrepublicans,physicallyejectedfromtheirseatsafterthe
acceptanceoflily-whitebytheparty,Johnsoncouldnotatfirstbeunseatedonthe
statelevelornationallevelbecausehiscontrolofelectoralvotesgavehimtoomuch
authority.TheNegroStarNewspaperreported,“Nomaninrecentyearsoutrank
[sic]himinpoliticalcunningandpower.”59Duetohishighrankinginthe
RepublicanPartyandaspartofadealforhimtoholdapatronageposition,
PresidentHardingnominatedJohnsonasRecorderofDeeds.TheNewYorkTimes
reportedthat“JohnsonhasbeenastormcenterinRepublicanpoliticsrecentlyand
thebeliefprevailsthathewasnominatedfortheRecorderofDeedsasapreliminary
59HenryJohnsondiesAfterAStroke:WasFormerRecorderofDeedsandG.O.P.Committeeman.”NegroStar,18August1925.
298
tosuggestingthatheresignasNationalCommitteemanfromGeorgia.”60The
charges(ofapoliticalnature)madeagainsthimarenotworthyofmuchattention,
asfarasweareabletosee.”61JohnsonrefusedtoresignfrombeingRepublican
NationalCommitteeman.HebecamethefirstAfricanAmericancalledbeforea
SenateCommitteeSubcommittee.
August1921wasayearofdisastersforblackRepublicans.OnAugust2,
PresidentWarrenHardingdied.ThatsamemonthJohnsonsufferedastroke“being
attackedsosuddenlyhewasbutabletocallforhelpoverthetelephone.”62
However,hestillwentbeforetheSenateandtestifiedbeforeaSenatecommittee.A
subcommitteeoftheSenateCommitteeonPrivilegesandElectionsinvestigatedhim
forfraudulentpresidentialcampaignspending.“Johnsonadmittedthatheaccepted
$9,000ofthe$20,000spentbytheLowdenforcesinGeorgiabutdeclaredthat
supportersofGeneralLeonardWoodforthenominationhadspentbetween
$60,000and$65,000inthatstate.”CongressrejectedtheJohnsonnomination.
Johnson’sclaimtothe“goodoldboy”privilegesnolongerexisted.
Seekingtokeepsomepower,JohnsonandHowardsetupanoperationin
WashingtonD.C.todeceiveblackleadersandmakemoneythroughpatronageby
usingtheVeteransHospital.WhenMotonfirstrequestedHardingtosupplythe60“HardingGivesPosttoLincolnJohnson:NominationofNegroforDistrictofColumbiaRecorderMayCauseRowinSenate,”NewYorkTimes(NewYork),29June1921.61ClevelandGazette(Cleveland),27August1921.“LilyWhiteism[sic]onRampageAppearstotheRepublicanProgramfortheSouth.”SavannahTribune(Georgia),4June1921.62“HarryLincolnJohnsonStrickenforParalysis[sic].ColoredRepublicanLeaderNominatedforRecorderofDeeds.”WashingtonBee,(Washington),3August1921.
299
VeteransHospitalwithallblackshemadeamovethatwouldlaterembarrasshim
andfrustrateblackleaders.AccordingtomemorandumfromMay1923meeting:
HardingsummonedHenryLincolnJohnsonandrequestedhimtogetintouchwithleadersofhisracetodetermineuponaslatewhichcouldbeimmediatelyputinchargeoftheTuskegeeHospital.InsteadofdoingasthepresidentrequestedaccordingtoMr.Holsey’sdirectstatement,Mr.JohnsonsawanopportunitytousetheTuskegeeHospitalmatterasameansofregainingconfidenceofthecoloredpeopleforhimself,PerryHowardandotherNegropoliticians.Theplanwastogetthehospitalintheircontrolasasortof“piecounter.”Throughthecontrolofappointmentstothehospital,Messrs.Johnson,HowardandRoscoeSimmons,etal,determinedtopurchasesupportofappointeeswhichwouldbevaluableinviewofthe1924Presidentialelection.63
ChisumaidedTuskegeeVeteransHospitalandthegovernmentasmuchasspying
helpedBookerT.Washington’sadministration.ChisumdiscoveredHowardand
Perry’splansandsetupHolseytogetthereinstatedintheeyesofMoton.Herbert
Seligman,secretaryoftheNAACP,knewthatChisumdiscoveredtheconspiracy.
However,hedidnotknowwhyHolseysolvedthesituationratherthanChisum.
MaybeforChisumitwaspartofthedealaftersavingMotonduringthehospital
crisis.OrwithChisumsomethingthatpaidactuallycameupintheinterim.
Whatever,Chisumwrote:“Ifoundacommissionawaitingmewhichtookmeaway
fromWashingtonimmediatelywiththeresult,Iwascompelledtosuspendmy
activitiesintheVeteransBureaubusinesstemporarilybutbeforegoingIdispatched
acalltoMr.Holsey,whichboughthimtoWashingtontotakemyplaceandhedida
63“MemorandumofConferenceBetweenJohnE.Nail,AlbonLHolseyandWalterF.White,”7May1923.NAACP.
300
bangupjob,betterthanIwouldhavedoneit.”64Asaprovocateursometimes
Chisumpurposelydisappeared,leavingcriminals,hewasofthesameilk,orin
difficultywiththelaw.Thistactichelpedhimtoretainhisanonymityandkeephis
cover.
HolseystoodoutsideandlistenedthenwalkedintoHoward’sofficeand
discoveredHenryJohnson,PerryHoward,andanotherrepublican,RoscoeSimmons,
makingplanstocontrolthehiringoftheVeteransHospital.Atthatpoint,thethree
refusedtostoptheirinterference,claimingPresidentHardinggavethemauthority.
HolseysentoutapressreleasedenyingthatJohnson,HowardandSimmonswere
handlingtheapplications.Finally,theonlywaytogetthegrouptostopwasgoingto
thedirectoroftheVeteransBureau.“GeneralHinessummonedJohnsonandread
himtheriotacttohimonhiscock-surenessoverthesuggestionmadetohimbythe
President.”65ItwasreportedthatJohnsonandHowarddidnothavePresident
Harding’sbacking.Theywereonlysupposedtogivelistsoftheirconstituentsfor
positionsinthehospitaltothecommitteeofHolsey,WhiteandChisum.
“Oklahoma,sitaloneandtalkandwatchahawkmakelazycirclesinthesky!”66
TheeliminationoftheinfluenceofJohnsonandHowardwouldnotbethe
finalprongofpowerfulblacksattemptingtoinfiltratetheTuskegeeVeterans64MelvinChisumtoHerbertSeligman,15May1923.NAACP.65AlbonHolseytoDr.GeorgeCannon,4May1923.NAACP.66DiannaEverett,"Oklahoma!"TheEncyclopediaofOklahomaHistoryandCulture,www.okhistory.org(accessedSeptember29,2018).
301
hospital.Thefinalattackcamefromwithintheenvironsofthenewlyhiredblack
community.Informationontheinvestigationcomesfromaconfidentialreport
ChisumsubmittedtotheVeteransBureauin1926.Insteadofgoingintothe
investigationasaMachiavellian;ChisumwentinasSvengaliwiththeevilintentto
hypnotizeandmanipulatethevillains.Nomagicorsorceryneeded;Chisum’sfirst
missionforBTWin1914aidedChisumasdetective.
Overtheyears,Chisum’sinvestigationsgarneredreputationsonboththe
goodsideofthelawandthewrongside.Sometimesheactedasafixer,kingmaker,
andrace-man;andontheotherside,hefittedPrattis’descriptionofhimas
“secretiveandunprincipled.”Hewasnotoneortheotherbutallofthemplusmore.
ShapeshiftingaseasilyasaCelticspirithecouldbeaChicagounderworldmobster
inonemomentin1915Oklahoma,anda“yessir”saying,UncleTom,thenext.His
lastmissionatTuskegeeVeteranshospitalshowsatechniquethatChisumcoulduse
--Svengali.Inthe1895novelbyGeorgeduMaurier,Trilby,theroleofSvengaliwas
ofamanwhothroughhypnosiscouldusehisvoicetosubjugateandtransform
anotherhuman,makingthemnomorethanpawnstohim.Morethantheroleof
provocateur,apersonwhoprovokestroubleorcausesagitation,Chisum’spastlife
showshowonebecameeffectiveindealingwithsituationsonlyanothercriminal
mindcoulddiscern.Intheeyesofscoundrels,inthefirstquarterofthetwentieth-
centurywhentheysawChisum,theysawakingoftheunderworld.Thisinformation
comesfromaConfidentialReporttotheVeteransAdministrationtotheVeterans
BureauwrittenbyChisumMarch10,1926.Thereportisunusual.Itisoneofthe
firstdelineatedreportswrittenbyChisumotherthanhisletterstoGeneralHines
302
duringWorldWarI.Itshowshisadherencetoworkingwithinandadheringtoan
organizedestablishment.
Aproblemwithdoinghistoriographyisthatintwentieth-centuryhistory,
Oklahoma’sstanding,asamajorblackenclaveinthenation,remainsunderscored.
ToomuchattentioniscasttotheEastwhilewhathappenedinOklahomais
neglected.InOklahoma,onefoundtheriseofallblacktowns,severalpersonalvisits
ofBTWfrom1905totheNationalNegroBusinessLeaguemeetingheldin1914;
Oklahomanswhohelpedestablishedthebusinessleague;therichestblacksinthe
worldwereOklahomansintheearlyteens;andoneofthreeblackcollege
presidents.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung’sheldthenation’sfirstblackassistant
governorship,andBTW’sestablishmentofbanksandBlackWallStreetcarriedvast
nationalimplicationsforblacknationalism.Aparadigmshiftinhistoricalnarrative
wouldshowhowOklahomaandblackOklahomansledthenationthroughoutthe
firstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Yettheinformationinsteadofbeingamajor
buildingblockinthenation’shistoryistreatedasmortarinsteadofamajorbuilding
block.Certainly,followingthelifeofChisumdemonstratesthatOklahomawas
centralinBlackNationalism,justasBlackWallStreetandtheTulsaRaceMassacre
wascentralinpoliticsinthefirstquarterofthetwentieth-century.
Duringtheperiod1914-1916,whenChisumwasrunoutofOklahomaona
chargeofcriminallibel,hemetWilliamJonesandDr.J.D.Nelson.Chisum’s
reputationfromtheInmanPageaffairattheColoredAgricultureandNormal
303
University(LangstonUniversity)drewattentionalloverthenation.67Chisum’s
infamousjumpfromatraininthestateofOklahomatogetawayfromlaw
enforcementthatputanetworkofpoliceandmarshalsouttocatchhimbecame
legendinthecountry.68ChisumcarriedouthislastmissionforBookerT.
WashingtoninOklahoma,anddidsomeofhisownpersonalinvestigationagainst
InmanPagewhileinOklahoma.Chisum’sreputationfromtheInmanPageaffairat
theColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity(LangstonUniversity)drewattention
alloverthenation.69HeeventuallygotawaybyridingatraintoMuskogeewherehis
friendshelpedhimcatchatrain.In1916alongwithothernewspapersaroundthe
country,theDenverStarcorrectedtheepisode.OnceknownforlibelChisumbecame
knownasahero.Theywrote,“MelvinJ.Chisumknownastheheroof“Langston
University,”inOklahomahasatlastwonhisgreatfightforbetterconditionsinthat
institution,andmanycivilandcriminalactionsinstitutedagainsthimhavecometo
naughtsincethegovernorhaspardonedChisumintheonlycasethathasbeenmade
tostick.Mr.Chisum’sfightwasformoralelevationinthemanagementofthe
school.”70Jonesknewoftheepisode.JonessawChisum’snewherostatusasthatofa
67OklahomaTribune,(Oklahoma),15August1915.OKCU.“EditorChisumPardonedandParoledByCourtAftertheJudgediscoveredtheChargesUponWhichHewasConvictedWereTrue,”PhiladelphiaTribune,(Philadelphia),13January1917.“NewsBureauPromotor,”DenverStar,(Denver),13January1917.NegroEditorisreleasedonBond,”FortGibsonGazette,(FortGibsonOklahoma)2march1916.“ChisumisVindicated,”DenverStar,(Denver,Colorado)28October1916.“ChisumAgainintheToils,”AfroAmerican,(BaltimoreMaryland),15September1916.68RobertRussaMoton,FindingaWayOut:AnAutobiography(London:AdelphiTerrace:T.FisherUnwinLTD.,1920).69OklahomaTribune(Oklahoma),15August1915.70“MelvinJ.ChisumtoEnterChisolm[sic]ServiceatDenison,Texas,”DenverStar,(Denver),21October1916.
304
greatconmanwhowonagainstinordinateodds.ChisumknewJonesasaslickcon
artist.ButlikePrattis,JonesbelievedChisumwastheslickestofhisgeneration.
In1926whenChisumattendedtheannualNationalNegroBusinessLeague
meetingheldinTulsa,Oklahoma,hegatheredinformationaboutaschisminthe
innerbowelsoftheTuskegeeVeteranshospital.Onlyamanwhotraveledas
extensivelyintheblackworldandbetweenallpoliticalworldsoftheUnitedStates,
suchasChisum,couldputtogetherinformationandknowhowtouseit.Helearned
thatmen,whohadembezzledfromblackOklahomacivicorganizations,shiftedtheir
workfromBoleyandTaft,Oklahoma,toTuskegee,Alabama.Themenheldpowerful
positionsatthenewveteranshospital.HedidnotsetoutforWashingtonor
Tuskegee.OnthewaytogetthecommissionforhandlingTuskegeehestoppedin
Richmond,VirginiaforanElksmeetingandwenthometohisfamily.
TheinvestigationintotheTuskegeeVeteransHospitalfortheVeteran’s
Bureauwasamission.Thereportwasdoneasanarrative.By1924,theworkersat
theinstitutionwereallblack.ThehospitalwasturnedovertoDr.JosephH.Wardas
medicaldoctorincharge.ThechiefengineeroftheVeteransHospital,WilliamJones,
ablackmanfromOklahoma,filedseveralchargesagainstDr.Ward’sadministration
withthelocalandnationalVeteran’sBureau.Thechargesincludedservinga
luncheonforblackphysiciansoutofVeteranfunds,buildinggaragesforstaff
physicians,Dr.Ward’suseofhospitalgasinhisprivatecarandtheuseofhospital
vehiclestohaulequipmentforentertainment,sharingthewatersupplywiththe
305
UniversityandallowingMotontodominatetheVeteranshospitalaffairs.71The
VeteransBureauandPresidentCoolidge’sadministrationcalledMelvinChisumto
dealwiththein-houseproblems.BecauseofhisworkintheOklahomaearlierinthe
firstquarterofthetwentiethcenturyitprovedeasytodealwiththemission.
Chisumonlyhadtocheckintothehotel,swaggeraroundthegrounds,talkaboutthe
hospitalwithpeopleofTuskegee,andwait.
JonesassumedChisumwaslookingforgraft.SoonJonescontactedChisum
throughayardmanwhoworkedfortheVeteransHospital.Jonesrequestedheand
theyard-manMr.YatesmeetwithChisumat10pminChisum’shotelroom.Chisum
wrote,“Ipromptlyadjustedmyattitudetomeethiswishesinorderthathewould
talkwithmorefreedom.”Jonesplannedonusingthenewspaperstoslowlydestroy
Dr.Ward’sreputation.OnlytenyearspriortothemonthMelvinChisumusedthe
OklahomaTribunenewspapertodestroythereputationofPresidentInmanPageof
OklahomaColoredAgriculturalandNormalUniversity.Inhispositionoffield
secretaryoftheNNPAChisumcouldaidJonesindoingthesameforDr.Ward.
However,Chisum,allknowing,said,“Bill,youarestalling.Youareplayingadeeper
gamethanyouhavetoldme.Now,ifyouwantmetohelpyouplayyourgame,you
mustletmeinalltheway.”AfteraskingChisumifhe“wantedtomakesomereal
money”andascertaininghis“yes”JonesgaveChisumtheinformationheneededto
solvetheproblemsattheVeteransHospital.Jones’schemewastoframeDr.Ward,
Mr.Roney,PropertyCustodian,andMr.Burke,BusinessExecutive.ThemoveinDr.71MelvinJ.Chisum,"(Confidential)theFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"inNationalNegroPressAssociation,ed.WashingtonD.C.(Chicago:NationalNegroPressAssociation,1926).2.NAACP.
306
J.D.Nelson,Jones’colleaguefromOklahoma,intothepost,Mr.YatesintoMr.
Roney’splaceandChisumcouldhaveMr.Burke’splace.Jonesbelieved“Hundredsof
thousandsofdollarsarespenthereeveryyearforsupplies,anwithourmenin
chargehere,wecancleanupandretireinfiveyears.”Chisumagreedtothescheme
anddelvedintofixingthematter.72Afterall,Chisumhadclaimedpatronagemoney
forgettingthepatronagepositionforDr.Ward.ActingasJones’allyChisumsubtly
turnedthingsaround.CarefullyoveraperiodofdaysChisumwentalongwithJones’
plansasonewhowouldbecomeinvolvedwithJones’espionage.
LeavingTuskegeeChisumwrotetoJonesthathewoulddoallthatwas
neededhowever.Hewouldseeasenatorrelatedtothematter.However,“Bythe
way,IseemtohavelosttheslipofpaperonwhichIwrotehisinitials,andIdonot
recallthem.Kindlyprovidethemimmediately,sothatImayincludehisfullname,
andwaitforthebelltoring.”Jonesansweredimmediately,“MydearMelvin...
ThoseinitialsareJ.D.Dr.J.D.Nelson,ofOklahoma.…”73Jonesownletterimplicated
him.
ChisumaccumulatedstatementsaboutJonesandNelsonfromtwojudgesin
Oklahoma.TheinformationwasthatwhileinBoley,Oklahoma,Jones“stole
everythinghecouldgethishandson...Hegotthecitytocontractwithhimtobuild
72Ibid.,3-5.NAACP.73Ibid.,10.NAACP.
307
aCityWaterWorksplant.Wespent$49,000ontheproject,butwehavenowater-
worksfromtheinvestment.”74
Likewise,Jones’partner,Dr.J.D.Nelson,wasacrookwhileinOklahoma.75
NelsonlivedinOklahomathreeyears.Hepersuadedeightmentoputupone
thousanddollarsapiecetopurchaseasiteforahospitalintheblacktownofBoley.
ThestateofOklahomaacceptedthegiftandsupportedthebuildingofthehospital.
“WeleftthedetailstobeworkedoutbyDr.Nelsonandthestatehealthofficials.
Whenweawoke,wehadanentirelydifferentpropositiontotheonewhichhadbeen
originallyplannedfor,(aT.B.Sanitarium)[sic]ofwhichDr.Nelsonwasthe
president.Whenithadbeenrunningabouttwoyearsandahalf,theauthoritiesput
Dr.J.D.Nelsoninjailformisapplyingstatefunds.”76Muchlikethesituationin
TuskegeewithJonesandDr.Ward,whenNelsongotoutofjailheandJones
schemedagainstthenewpresidentofthehospital“creatinganawfulmess.The
stateauthoritiesofOklahomaclosedtheSanitarium,wreckedandmovedthe
building,andjustaboutthistime,thesetwomountebankspulledoutofhereand
soonweheardofthematTuskegee.”77ThetrainridefromOklahomatoAlabama
wasnotexpensive.
74Ibid.,12.NAACP.75Ibid.,1-14.Seealso“JonesInterviewsGov.Robinson,”BlackDispatch,(Oklahoma)5January1922.“DedicatesTubercularHospital:RobinsonStrikesatLynchinginOklahomaCityandTulsa,SaysHeWillExhaustFundsofStateForConviction,”BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),10September1920.76Chisum,"(Confidential)theFaithfulNarrativeofanInvestigationoftheTuskegeeVeteransHospital,”12.77Ibid.
308
Chisumendedhisfourteen-pagereporttotheUnitedStatesVeteransBureau
inWashingtonD.C.withthementionthat--thelawofficesofPerryHowardwere
legaladvisorsandsponsors--forJones.Chisumalsoincludedthathe“hadthe
conviction”thatindividualswithintheVeteransBureauknewofJonesandNelson’s
worktodiscredittheTuskegeeVeteransHospital.
ChisumgavetheinformationhegatheredtoGeneralHines.Joneswas
suspendedonOctober12.Jonesstood“discredited,dishonest,disgruntledanda
disloyalagitator,whoseefforthasbeenandnowistodestroythegroupoffaithful
andhonestpeopleofourRacewhoaretryingtoreflectcreditupontheRaceby
administeringefficiency[sic]theaffairsofthethreemilliondollarhospital.”78
Chisum’sreputationflourished.Theyrememberedwhenhesavedpoorblacksin
Oklahoma:
[Weare]likethesegmentwhenleavingOklahomablackpapersapplaudedChisum.Weareforcedtosaythatthisfamousnewspapercorrespondentissomedetective.ItcannotpossiblyremainhealthyforcertainindividualsaboutthatinstitutionunderthegallingfirefromChisum’spen.Weareallwatchingthefurflyatlongrange.79
HolseycongratulatedChisumpersonallywiththewords“Ithasbeenagreat
victoryfortheraceandIcongratulateyouuponthesplendidpartthatyouplayedin
itssuccess.”80MelvinChisum’spositionwasmorethanspyandprovocateurinthe
78Chisum.,13-14.JonesWillNotQuitTuskegee,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),13March1926.AustinTexasMouthpiece,(Austin),27March1926.79AustinTexasStatesman,(Austin),27March1926.80AlbonHolseytoMelvinChisum14April1926,MortonPapers.
309
mid1920s.Becauseofhisindependence,hisbackgroundintheblackworldfromhis
youthtotheperiodofworkingforTuskegeeVeteransHospital,noonetitlecanbe
usedtodefinehim.Duringthisperiodthoughhemovedfromcovertworkto
allowinghiscloaktoberemoved.Wasitintentionalinordertogainaposition
withintheRepublicanParty?Didthekingmaker,orawalkingrepresentativeseeka
legitimatejob?Wasthatthereasonheallowedpreviouslycoveredupworktocome
totheforefront?Orwithhisraceworkinthe1920sdidothersuncoverhim?In
1926WilliamDabneypublishedthebookChisum’sPilgrimage,givingdetailsabout
Chisum’spriorlife.Cincinnati’sColoredCitizenstoldthestoryofChisumasalabor
agentinthelateteensandduringWorldWarI.Somethingchanged.Perhapsina
timewhenW.E.B.DuBoisandWalterWhitewere“voices”Gamblerecognizedin
herMakingaPlaceforOurselves,thecountrywasalsolookingforothervoicesto
leadblacksandChisumwasbeingliftedasone.81
Followinghispilgrimagetolookatbasicissuesthatblacksdealtwithfrom
1920sthatresultedfromwhitesupremacyintheRepublicanPartyhelpstobetter
illustratehow,duringwhathasbeencalledtheHarlemRenaissanceEra,blacks,
besetwithracistpolemics,pulledthemselvesup“bytheirbootstraps”using
whatevermeanstheycouldacquire.82Thischaptershowshowblackpoliticians
dealtwiththepainofRepublicanpoliticalbacklashbytryingtousetheTuskegee
VeteranshospitalandhowChisum’suncouthpositionasspyandprovocateur,
81Gamble,MakingaPlaceforOurselves:TheBlackHospitalMovement1920–1945),98.82TheBookerT.WashingtonPapers,Vol.3(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1974),583–587.CitedasBTWPapers.
310
efficiencyagent,andlobbyistintercededbyusinghisgovernmentcontacts.
IncludingChisum’sRacework,whichhedidforfreeforTuskegee,showshow
Chisum’sbackgroundasaspy,belovedjournalist,andhischarismaticpersonalityto
developfriendships;theystoppedinterloperswhowantedtobringdownTuskegee
Instituteinordertobuildthemselvesupcould“ComeNoFurther”withoutbeing
caughtinhiswebofespionage.
311
ChapterVIII
CROSSINGOVERANDTRIPPINGUP;THEENDOFACCOMODATION
“TheaverageNegroknowsthewhitemanbetterthanthewhitemanknowstheNegro.Under the exacting conditionswhich theNegrohad to liveherewiththewhitemanhasmadehimadiplomatofwhichanynationwouldbeproud.”1
---Dr.IsaacWilliam,Young’sWeeklyTalks
NewDealhistorianscontinuetomissone“veryopensecret”amidPresident
FranklinDelanoRoosevelt’sNewDealadministrationandtheblackDemocratswho
forgedtieswiththemin1932.Indeed,becauseoftheracismintrinsicinAmerica
andtheeconomiccrisis,theadministrationdidnotfollowthroughbygivingmany
appointmentstoblacks.Yet,hopeflickeredwhen,throughpatronage,JosephGuffey,
asenatorfromPennsylvania,gaveRobertVann,editorofthePittsburgCourier,one
1“Dr.Young’sWeeklyTalks.PublicQuestions:KnowledgeandPower,”BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),26November1920.
312
of“his”jobsastheassistantattorneygeneralforPennsylvania.2PresidentRoosevelt
thenappointedDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,aphysicianandeditoroftheKansasCity
American,astherecorderofdeedsforWashington,D.C.3However,accordingto
RobertVann,the1932electionclandestinelyinauguratedanotherblackpolitician’s
career,thatofMelvinJacksonChisum.In1933,SecretaryoftheInterior,Harold
IckesappointedChisumasthefirstandonlyblackPublicWorksAdministration
(PWA)Investigator.Vanntheorizedthatbecause“thepowerfulold-timeRepublican
whoturnedLincoln’spicturetothewall”4forDemocratRoosevelt’svictoryover
RepublicanHerbertHoover,Chisumbecame“themostpowerfulblackmanin
Americaforaperiod.”5TheopensecretincludedthatChisumachievedtheprivilege
ofhandlingpatronagefortheDemocraticParty.ThePWAofficiallyhiredMelvin
ChisuminFebruary1934asaspecialagentintheWashingtonD.C.area.Thisisthe
firstchapterwrittenintohistorythatcapturestheaccount.
ThedevelopmentofChisum’slifeexpandstheworkstartedbyNancyWeiss
inFarewelltoThePartyofLincoln(1983)onthepoliticalstrategyofthe“BigFour.”6
2JosephAlsopandRobertKintner,“TheGuffey:BiographyofaBossNewStyle,”SaturdayEveningPost,26March1938,6.AndrewBuni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1974).3GaryKremer,"WilliamJ.Thompkins:AfricanAmericanPhysician,Politician,andPublisher,"MissouriHistoricalReview101(2007).4LosAngelesEagle,(LosAngeles),10November1932.5NationalPersonnelRecordsCenter,NationalArchives,St.LouisMissouri;PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),28July1945;TheUnion,(Cincinnati),4March1934.InhistwentiesChisumbecameaspyandprovocateurforBookerT.WashingtonandtheTuskegeeMachine.Atsixtyyearsofage,Chisumconducted“missions”asanefficiencyagentandwasafieldagentfortheNationalNegroPressAssociation.6NancyWeiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFdr(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983).
313
RecentlydiscoveredpapersofChisum’scolleagueandboyhoodfriend,Dr.Isaac
WilliamYoung,specificallydelineatehowblacksaccomplishedthelocal,stateand
nationalnetworkofsupportfortheRoosevelt–Garnerticket.Whilehistoriansof
AfricanAmericanslikeWeissattemptedtoelaboratethestory,theylackedsources
tocompletestoryoftheBigFour’sworkfromlocal,state,andnationalgovernment
perspectives.Throughusingthesenewresources,thischapterbringsinformationto
thetablethatmeetsWeiss’scriteriapresentedinherbookandcanaddtoher
historicalnarrative.ThehistoryofChisum’scareeratthePWA,givesinsightinto
howtheRooseveltAdministrationusedaccommodation,todisruptthecallforcivil
rightsonthepartofBookerT.Washington’smostaggressivelieutenants.
Chisum,amostlyself-mademan,madechangesthroughouthislifetomeet
thechallengesofhistime.HisneededaKingmakerin1932.JamesFarley,oneof
Roosevelt’sownkingmakerakeypoliticaladvisortoRooseveltwhenhewas
governorofNewYorkbecameChisum’skingmaker.AsDemocraticNational
ChairmanofRoosevelt’spresidentialcampaignin1932,Farleyearnedtheprivilege
ofplacingtheDemocraticPartyspoils,orpatronagepositions,personallybefore
PresidentRooseveltforhisapproval.Hisfortewashisabilitytoconsultwith
Roosevelt;whenotherscouldnotgetintoseethepresident,Farleycould.Under
JamesFarley,theoldstructureofpatronagewouldcomebacktonationalpolitics
throughtheDemocraticParty.Farley“believedinthepatronagesystemand
314
intendedtofollowit,somethingtheGOPunderHooverneverdidforAmerican
blacks.”7
ChisumandFarleyhadknowneachotherintheteenswhenChisumwasan
efficiencyagentattheUnitedStatesGypsumCompany.Theyworkedforaperiod
togetherduringthe“AlSmithforPresident”campaignin1928.Farleyeventually
movedovertotheRooseveltforGovernorofNewYorkcampaign.Chisumrespected
Farley.Hehada“rigiduniversalsetofrulesgoverningproperconductandeveryone
understoodtheminthesameway.”8Farley“adheredtoanunwrittenbut
neverthelessrigid,codeofpoliticalconductconstructedaroundtheideaofparty
regularity,loyaltytoone’scolleagues,absolutehonestyandtheunderstandingthat
theparty[loyalty]wouldberewardedinduecourse,usuallyintheformof
patronage.”9Thetwomenhadotherattributesincommon.BothChisumandFarley
hadinsecuritycomplexesabouttheirlackofeducationanditsdrawbacksamong
politiciansandbusinessmenwhohadcollegedegrees.Bothwereprolificwriters.
Bothbelievedtheyhadcomethroughtheschoolofhardknocksbecausetheyhad
workedhardforalltheyachieved.Neitherwantedtobekings,butonlythemakers
ofkings.Dr.IsaacWilliamYoung,Chisum’schildhoodfriendinOklahoma,wantedto
beaking.
7JamesFarley,BehindtheBallots:ThePersonalHistoryofaPolitician(NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandCompany,1938),224.8DanielScroop,Mr.Democrat:JimFarley,theNewDealandtheMakingofModernAmericanPolitics(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,2006),23.9Ibid.,3.
315
ThroughpoliticalintrigueYoung’sandChisum’sstoryremainedintertwined
fromboyhoodtoYoung’sdeathin1937.Asketchoftheirboyhoodinchapterone
showedtheirearliestyears.AmissionforBookerT.Washingtoninchapterfour
showedtheirworktogetherinOklahoma.Thischaptersketchestheiradultyearsas
leadersinthenation.Young’sstepfather,JosephBrown,aDemocratwasappointed
tohisfirsttermasmagistrateoverthethirdwardofLouisianain1881.Locatedin
St.Mary’sParrish,theareaincludedtheFranklinandtheSaintJosephdistricts.
UndertheDemocraticParty’s“lilywhite”policy,blacksgraduallylostgroundand
weresubjectedtoincreasedsegregationandlossofpoliticalinfluence.10Even
thoughhisstepfatherlosthispositionbecauseoflily-whitepoliticsayearningfor
thepoliticallifeanditsnaturechurnedinYoung.In1908Youngfollowedother
BookeritestoOklahoma.HeleftLouisianaaDemocratbutchangedintoa
RepublicanashecrossedtheOklahomaborder.Youngachievedpolitical
aspirationsinthe“allblack”communityofBoley,Oklahoma.Hewasvotedmayor
from1912-1915.In1914,heintroducedChisumtotheareaasaboyhoodfriendand
journalist.In1915Washingtondied,ChisumwasrunoutofOklahomaandYoung
movedtoOklahomaCity.
In1915Chisum,aspresidentoftheNationalNegroPressAssociation
(NNPA),politicianandreformer,changedtheblackpowerstructureinOklahoma.
ThroughOklahomaCity’sblacknewspaper,theOklahomaTribune,Chisum
orchestratedthefiringofOklahomaColoredAgricultureandNormalUniversity
10MauriceThompson,TheStoryofLouisiana(Boston:DLithropCompany,1888),264.
316
(Langston)president,InmanPage.Intheaftermath,therewasnoblackstateleader.
RoscoeDunjeetookoverthenewspapernamingittheBlackDispatch.Dunjeeand
YoungopposedeachotherforblackleadershipinOklahomaCity.Youngpulledout
infrontofDunjeein1919whenunderthetable,hehelpedJohn“Jack”Walton,the
whitegrassrootsleader,gainelectionasmayor.Togetherthecandidateforthegrass
rootswhitesandYoung,representingthepoorerblacks,laidaplantoeconomically
stabilizebothgroups.Thewhitemayoralcandidateneededtheblackvotetowinthe
election.ThegamewasplayedagainsttheJimCrowmentalityofthepeople.Who
wouldbelieveKuKluxKlansmanJohn“Jack”Waltonwouldforgeapolitical
relationshipwithYoung?Itwasamythofdisharmonythatallowedthemtowork
together.Noway,itwasbelieved,couldwhitesandblacksworktogether.Young
operatedundertheconstraintsofhisday,yetforgedanalliancewithWalton,
knowingWaltonwasanovertracistandsegregationist.Waltonwantedtohelppoor
whitesandwantedthepoliticalpositionofmayor.Thisforgedrelationshipbetween
themmadeitpossibleforWaltontowintheelection.ThoughYoungwas“aleading
Republican”heregisteredpoorerblackvotersasDemocratswiththehelpofSammy
Simpson,anex-drugdealer,inOklahomaCity.Duringtheperiod,onehadtoregister
asaDemocratinordertovotetheDemocraticticket.11
Waltonwontheelection.YoungwasappointedchairmanoftheNegro
WelfareLeague.Aswithmostsegregatedventures,theleaguehadawhitechairand
blackchair.ThepositionmadeYoungseemthe“blackmayor”ofOklahomaCity.He
wasinchargeofporters,railroadworkers,andhotelbellhopsandincontactwith11Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”49.
317
unionworkersaswellasmanyofthedestituteblacksofthestreets.Youngcraved
morepoliticalpowerandeventuallygotit.WaltonranforGovernorin1921.In
1921YoungbecameaDemocratandsuccessfullyusedtheirplatformtodeliverthe
voteforWaltonasGovernorin1922.YoungmovedawayfromthepartyofLincoln.
Hewashailedastheleaderofthe“NegroDemocrats”andapioneerblackDemocrat
ofthenation.
Youngassumedtherole.HesaidtoagroupofblackDemocratsgatheredto
honorhim:“ItisgoingtobemyresponsibilitytoaskforthethingsthattheNegroin
OklahomaneedsduringthenextfouryearsandbytheeternalGodIamgoingtobe
foundaskingforthatwhichisnecessaryandthethingsthatweoughttohave.”12He
askedforthepatronagepositiontobepresidentofLangstonUniversity.Younggot
it.Waltonwasimpeachedsixmonthslater.In1928-1929DunjeeoverthrewYoung’s
reignasblackDemocraticleaderinOklahoma.Duringtheperiodbetween1928and
1931Youngcontinuedhisears,eyes,noseandthroatmedicalpractice,establisheda
drugstoreandacabservice.13Dunjee’spowerasapoliticiangrewbecauseofthe
poweroftheblackpress.
ThehistorywithintheblackpressremainscrucialtounderstandingUnited
Stateshistory.Thisdissertationdefinestheblackpressasnewspaperspublishedby
andforAmericanblacks.Sincetheinformationwithintheblackpressisusedmostly
asanalternativehistoryitsresourcesremainlessregardedinthelargernarrative.
FromGarlandPenn’sfirststudyoftheblackpress,TheAfroAmericanPressandIts12BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),16November1922.13Brooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor”,39.
318
Editors(1969)toPatrickWashburn’s,TheAfricanAmericanNewspaper(2006)
booksarguetheblackpresshousedthebasisofthestruggleforblackfreedomand
thepressassourceofblackpoliticalpower.Leaningheavilyondocumentationfrom
theblackpressandprimarysourcesthatreinforcethem,remainstheonlywayto
reinsertthecharactersthatremainofpartofthewhatseemsthebordernarrativein
Americanblackhistorynow-butwasthemasternarrativeintheirtimeperiod-
backintothenationalhistoryintorepresentthestoryofthecampaignsofAmerican
Blacksandtheirstrugglesinthe1920sand1930spoliticalspheres.
ChisumVersusPresidentHoover
WhenChisumattemptedtomimicYoung’spoliticalmaneuveronthenational
levelbysupportingaracisthisquestbackfired.In1929Chisumalsosuffereda
majorpoliticalsetbacklikeYounghadin1928-1929inOklahoma.Chisumbacked
GeorgePullman’sson-in-lawGovernorFrankLowden,intheRepublican
NominatingConventionforthepresidencyin1928.WhenHooverwonthe
nominationandtheelectionChisumcontinuedtosupporttheRepublicanParty.In
Hoover’sfirsttermasPresidentheremainedsilentonmattersoftheblack
patronageinthecountry.“Hisinauguraladdresscontainednospecificreferencesto
racialmattersandduringhisadministrationhemadefewerpublicstatementson
racialissuesthananyotherpresidentinthetwentiethcentury.”14Chisumspokeup
14RobertMason,TheRepublicanPartyandAmericanPoliticsfromHoovertoReagan(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),233.LaryGrothaus,"HarryHoover
319
forHooverinblacknewspapersandatmeetings.BlackpeoplewereChisum’s
constituency.ButChisumwhohadbeeninthebackgroundmuchofhislifeforgothis
fernseed,aShakespeareantalisman,forinvisibility.So,bytheendofMarchwhen
thePresidenthadmadenoreferencetohisplanforblacksChisumpublishedforthe
blackpublicanexposeinterviewinthePittsburgCourier.Vannrantheheadline
“MelvinChisumGivesLowDownonPoliticalFuture,”referencingHoover.Chisum
hadnotmetwithHooverbutattendedameetingwithRobertRussaMoton,
principalofTuskegee,whenhemetwiththePresident.InaninterviewChisumsaid
that“PresidentHooverunderstandsmoreaboutthecoloredpeoplethanthequasi
Washingtonleadersthinkshedoes...”15UnliketheprophesyintheTuskegee
HospitalscandalChisumwasoffthemarkandcouldnotfixtheerror.The
informationgotbacktoHoover.
VaryingdiscussionscontinueaboutHoover’sresponsetoblackconstituents.
InHooverBlacksandLillyWhites(1985)DonaldLisiodevelopedHoover’scharacter
aspaternal.ReadingLisio’scharacterdevelopmentofHoovermakesonebelieve
thathehadadeeplyfeltcompassionforblacks.However,LisiobelievesthatHoover
hadtoconcealthatdisposition.Otherauthors,particularlythoseofthetimeperiod,
includingGeorgePadmoreinTheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers(1931),Harold
Gosnell,NegroPoliticians(1935),EthanMichaili,*HoraceLiveright,TheWashington
Merry-Go-Round(1931)andthenewspapertheAfroAmerican,revealedthatHoover
andBlackAmericans,"inHerbertHooverandtheRepublicanEra:AReconsideration,ed.CarlKrog(NewYork:UniversityPressAmerica,1984),132.15MelvinChisum,MelvinChisumGives“LowDown”OnPoliticalFuture,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),30March1929.
320
wasablatantracist.HooverintentionallyenslavedpeopleofAfrican,Chinese,and
Italiandescentforeconomicgain.16InNegroPoliticiansGosnellnotedthatHoover
believedhedidnotneedtheblackvote.HebelievedthattheSouth“shouldbe
carriedbywhiteleadership.Hoover’sownbigotrytaintedthegreatvictoryandthe
fouryearsheremainedinoffice.”17Yet,accordingtoLisiothebigotrywasimbedded
inHoover’scampaign,nottheman.Lisiowrotethatblackpoliticiansbeganaccusing
him[Hoover]ofbeinganti-blackandpursuingalilywhitestrategy:evenbefore
HooverhadinfactdecideduponanypoliticalpresidentialpolicytowardtheSouth
orblacks.”18Theblackpeople,pressandpressassociationsstoodwaitingforsome
leadership.ChisumtooktheplungeasaleadingRepublicanwithsupposedaccessto
Hoover.
So,ChisumgaveanexplanationforHoover’slackofresponsetoblacksthat
raninpapersaroundthecountry.HeprophesizedthatinHoover’sfirsttermthat
“Mr.Hooverisgoingtorecognizetheserviceofthecoloredpeopleinafinewaybut
heisnotgoingtotolerateanorgyofunresponsible[sic]folksatthewhitehouse
everydaybeforebreakfast.”19BothpresidentsHardingandCoolidgeheldChisumin
highesteem.However,HooversawChisumajustanotherblackjournalistwho
16GeorgePadmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers(London:R.I.L.U.MagazineofInternationalTradeUnionCommitteeOfNegroUnions,1931).Entirebook.HaroldGosnell,NegroPoliticians(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1935).21-36;HoraceLiveright,WashingtonMerry-Go-Round,(NewYork:JoraceLiveright,Inc.,1931),31-34.AfroAmerican,(Washington),22October1932.Liverightisthepublisher.17Gosnell,NegroPoliticians,30.Grothaus,HarryHooverandBlackAmericans,132.18Lisio,Hoover,Blacks,andLilyWhites,93.19MelvinChisum,MelvinChisumGives“LowDown”OnPoliticalFuture,PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),30March1929.
321
neededtoknowhisplace.InAugustof1929,Chisumwasgrantedaninterviewwith
PresidentHoover.
WhenChisummetwiththepresident,insteadofpraisefromthe
administration,HooverrepudiatedhimandremindedhimofhisplaceasaNegro.
Theonlysourceofthisinformationisintheblackpress.Theoriginalinformation
stemsfromtheAugust10,1929article“WhiteHouseWillNoLongerbePublicity
Seekers”springboardtoHeadlines,Vanndeclaredoutrightinthecaptionthathe
“BELIEVEDCHISUM’SVISITPRECIPITATEDULTIMATUM.”Afterpersonally
presentingaletterfromaRobertRussaMotontoHoover,aconversationensued.
ChisumemergedfromtheOvalOffice,wasrejectedforpublishinghissentimentsas
aleadingblackRepublicanthatHooverfeltthathehadnorighttoexpress.
AccordingtothePittsburgCourieritwasbecauseofChisumthatthePresidentgave
theultimatumandclosedranksonallblackreporters.Hisofficewouldnotbea
“springboardtoheadlines.”20ItseemsChisumlostaccesstothepressbothblack
andwhiteafterAugust29,1930.Itseemsasifhewasblacklisted.Notevenpictures
ofhimappearintheblackpress.Therearenoarticleswithhisnameuntilhis
appearanceintheBaltimoreAfricanAmericaninNovember7thof1931.Hisname
seemedtobe“Negro,”asBookerT.Washingtononcelabeledhimintheearly1900s
whenhewasnothingtoBTWbutaspy(chapter4).
In1931MelvinChisumjournalistappearedoncemoreintheblackpress.In
Novemberof1931Chisumstartedanewspapercolumn“IvoryandGold”intheAfro
20PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),10August1929.
322
AmericanBaltimorenewspaper.Ivoryandgoldaretwoofthemostprecious
commoditiesfromAfrica.HisnextarticleappearedDecember19,1931,inaNew
YorkAgeeditorialresponsetoJ.R.Hawkins,ablackRepublicanleaderwho
supportedHoover.ChisumstartedbyridiculingHawkinsasablackleaderfor
defendingtheHooveradministration“whichhastreatedtheNegrowithcontempt.”
HawkinsreportedthattheRepublicanGovernmentemployed54,000soldiers,
charwomen,messengers,andunskilledlaborersmakingtheoutlayofthe
governmenttoblacksat$69,000,000ayear.
Chisum’sarticledevelopedintoascathingreportontheRepublicanParty
anditstreatmentofitsblackconstituency.Chisumrespondedthattheamountwas
paltryandinsignificantincomparisontowhatotherraceshadprocured.Thenhe
ridiculedblackswhowanted“recognitionintheserviceofthenationbutnotatthe
priceofliberty,whichpoliticianseasilybarteraway.”Blackswanted“recognitionof
theirrightsascitizensoftherepublic.”Chisumwrote,“Letusfollowasquaredeal
forallpeople...Wecanneverbecomeafactorinpoliticsaslongasourballotisa
playthingwhichmaybeparkedandfoundonalmostanyelectionday.”21Thisarticle
writteneloquentlyyetwithpowerfulinnuendoswouldmarkChisum’sfinal
separationfromtheRepublicanPartyinthecomingelection.Italsoreveals
Chisum’sownhypocrisy,becausehehadbeenamanwhosoldpatronagesand
soughtapositionwithinpoliticalbureaucracy.AsChisummovedintogaininga
politicalpositionhisprincipleschanged.Thereishereaquestionofintegrity.
21NewYorkAge(NewYork),19December1931.
323
Whiletheever-encroachingDepressionandthestockmarketcrashweighed
heavilyinhisdisfavor,historiansnotethatHoover’slackofapositiveimageto
blacksandhisbeliefhedidnotneedtheblackvotealsocontributedtohisdownfall.
BytheendofSeptember1932,Hoover’sreelectioncommitteecomprehendedthat
heneededablackfollowingifhewantedtowinthepresidencyasecondtime.When
RaymondBenjamin,headoftheRepublicanNominatingCommittee(RNCcolored)
queriedblackRepublicansthreemonthsbeforetheelection,withinthepartylines,
hefoundseveralpointsagainstHooverandhisadministrationoverandaboveblack
complaintsofeconomicinequality.First,Hooverhadnotmadeanyoutstanding
appointmentsamongblacks.Secondly,Hooverrefusedtohavehispicturetaken
withblacks.Finally,blacksfeltthatHooverwasagainstthem.Immediately,his
planningcommitteereadjustedtheirworktomeetthethreatsoftheelection.They
addedappointmentsofblackstotheRNCforcoloredvoters.Blackpoliticians,
RoscoeSimmons,JohnHawkins,L.K.William,C.R.Richardson,PerryHowardand
theonlyelectedblackcongressmanintheUnitedStates,OscarDePriest,weregiven
astipendof$350amonthnottoexceed$10adaytodelivertheblackvote.In
anothergestureofdespair,withinaweekapictureoftheRNCleaders(colored)
tookapicturewithHooveratanominatingcommitteemeeting.
CloselywatchingtheRepublicansshufflearoundWashingtonasattemptedto
gainblacksupportafterfouryearsofneglect,KellyMiller,professoratHoward
University,author,andreformerwroteintheAfroAmericannewspaperthat“You
cannotwipeoutfouryearsofcomplainingandcriticismforMr.Hooverandhislily-
324
whiteprogrambyaneleventhhourchangeofheart.”22Hisstatementwasprophetic.
InFarewelltothePartyofLincoln,WeissarguedthatblacksbecameDemocratsin
responsetoeconomicbenefits,whileSitkoffinANewDealForBlacksarguedthat
blacksjoinedtheDemocraticPartybecausetheNewDealmovedtoembracecivil
rights.23Inthesimplestterms,followingChisumandYoung’spoliticalworkblacks
movedtotheDemocraticPartybecauseblackleadershipattendedtotheirchurches,
fraternalorganizations,andcultivatedtheirgrassrootscommunities.Oncetherethe
leaderstoldthemwhen,where,whattoread,andhowtovote.24Whilewhitepapers
mostlyignoredblackpeopletheblackpressgavethemstoriesfromnewspapers
thatboughtfactshometheycouldgetnowhereelse.Addingtothisthrushis
professorofAfricanAmericanStudiesatUniversityofIllinoisatChicago,Jane
Rhodes,descriptionoftheblackpressintheUnitedStates.Shebelievesthatthe
blacknewspapersbecamethetangiblesymboloffreedom.25Thenewspaperwas
somethingblackscouldsee,feel,andholdtogether.Theyhangednewspapersonthe
wallslikepicturesofblackheroes.Hoovercratshadabattleagainsttheblackpress
andagainsttheblackmemory.
22AfroAmerican(Baltimore),22October1932.23Weiss;HarvardSitkoff,ANewDealforBlacks(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1978).24Eveninthe1960sand1970sinchurchesinVirginiablacksweresimplygivenavotingcardthatwasusedattheprecinct.Communitiestrustedthepreacher’schoices.25JaneRhodes,MaryAnnShadCary:TheBlackPressandProtestintheNineteenthCentury.(Bloomington:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1998),xvi,32,63,184.JaneRhodes,“BlackPressSoldiersWithoutSwords,”FilmbyStanleyNelson(CaliforniaNewsreel,1999).
325
Theblackpressplayedadualroleduringtheelection.Itservedasanoutlet
ofinformationandasvehicleofchange.InthecampaignagainstHooverthepress
wastheonlyvehicletorevealthebackgroundofthecandidatestoliterateblacks
whotookinformationtothemassestovote.Theseleadersweretiedtochurches,
fraternalorganizations;andtheyhandedoutvotercardsfortheirfollowerstotake
tothepolls.TheRNChadalottodotomakeupforHoover’slifetimeofavid
discriminationagainstminorities.Intheearly1930sasinthefightinOklahomain
theteens-inadditiontotheblackchurchorspeakersmovingaroundthetown-the
blackpresswasaneffectivemeansindevelopingpublicopinion.“Whenthepress
speaksthepeoplelisten,thewhitepoliticiansofbothpartiesiftheyarewisewill
takeheed,”KellyMillerwarned.26
AccordingtoKelly,byOctober1932mostblackNewspapersstopped
accepting“thepittance”fromtheRepublicanPartyandopenedthepapersupto
bothpartiesforpaidadvertisementsatfixedrates.Theblackpressbecamenon-
partisaninsellingadvertisinganddemocraticinsupportofthepresident.From
RoscoeDunjee’sBlackDispatchinOklahoma,totheblackpressesaroundthenation,
blacknewspapersturnedtheirinfluencetoRooseveltandawayfromHoover.Kelly’s
takewasthis.TheNorfolkJournalandGuide,theLouisvilleNews,theHouston
InformerandtheKansasCityCallwereantiHoover.IntheChicagoDefenderKelly
saidthatwashesitant“lingering,shiveringonthebrinkandfearstolaunchaway.”
WhiletheAfro-AmericanandPittsburgCourierwereproRoosevelt,NewYorkAge
refusedtosupportHoover.TheWashingtonTribune,theIndianapolisRecorder,the26AfroAmerican,(Baltimore),22October1932.
326
BostonChronicleandtheBostonGuardianweretheonlyblackpapersinNew
Englandcutthecord,theAmsterdamNewsandthePhiladelphiaTribunestandwith
Republicans“feeblyandapologetically”withRepublicans.Notonlyblack
newspapersbutalsoAdolphOchsNewYorkTimesandWilliamRandolphHearst’s
newsagencieslenteditorialoppositiontoanotherHooverpresidency.27
AccordingtoresearchbyJaneRhodes,theblackpressremaineddifferent
fromthemainstreampress.Itwasnotgovernedby“idealsofobjectivity.”The
RepublicanPartyandHoover’spersonaldisrespectanddisregardforblacks
resultedinabacklashfromthepressthatrivalsthemodernmedia’scoverageof
presidents.WeissexplainedthattheRepublicanParty’slackofsupportforblacks
openedthedoorforDemocratstocourttheblackvote.28
HoovercratsnotonlybattledDemocratsfortheblackvotebutfortheminds
ofvotingblacksbecauseofBlackCivilReligion.Newspaperspublishedvividstories
againsttheRepublicanleader.TheCrusaderNewsService(NewYork,1932-1940)
wasrunbyacadreofnamesShawnAlexandercalledthe“ArmyOfLions”(chapter
5.)29BenjaminDavis,LorenMiller,WilliamPatterson,CyrilBriggsallofwhom
workedinOklahomawithChisumintheteens,unearthedandreportedPan
Americaninformationthatwasofinteresttoblacks.Chisumappearedagainatthe27KellyMiller,Afro-American(Washington),22October1932.RichardSherman,TheRepublicanPartyandBlackAmerica:FromMckinleytoHoover1896to1933(Charlottesville:UniversityPressofVirginia,1973).232.Mason,TheRepublicanPartyandAmericanPoliticsfromHoovertoReagan,30.28Weiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln,6.JaneRhodes,“BlackPressSoldiersWithoutSwords,”FilmbyStanleyNelson(CaliforniaNewsreel,1999).29ShawnAlexander,AnArmyofLions:TheCivilRightsStrugglebeforetheNaacp(Pennsylvania:UniversityofPennsylvania,2012).
327
AfroAmericannewspapersduring1931.UsingthefrontpageoftheAfroAmerican
newspaperandinboldprint,thecoverageseemedanimportant“alert”toreaders
whosawit.Hoover’spastwasnotcoveredinthemainlinemediabutblackreporters
spilleditintotheblackcommunity.Theinformationwasnotsubjectivebutbasedon
facts;theWashingtonMerryGoRound(1931)suggestedtheevidencewasafternoon
teatalkamongthepoliticiansinWashingtonD.C.:
Today,thepresidentoftheUnitedStates...Betweenthetwoperiods,alongconsistentrecordofJim-Crow,anti-Negropolicies:ThatisthestoryofHerbertHoover,candidateoftheRepublicanPartyforre-electiontothepresidency...Hoover,theminemanager,“founditcheapertopay$15wheneverChineselaborerswerekilledthantoproperlytimberthemine,”saysWalterLiggettinhisbook,“TheRiseofHerbertHoover.”...NotonlydidHoover’sCompanyprofitthroughexploitingthelaborofcoolies,buthealsoinvestedintheshippingcompanywhichconductedslavetrafficbetweenChinaandSouthAfrica.30
Foragenerationwhosurvivedslavery,ReconstructionandJimCrowthestories
helpedtransformRepublicansintoDemocratsandnon-votersintovoters.
ThefollowingweekmorestoriesaboutHooverdevelopedenmitybetween
theRepublicanPartyanditsblackconstituency,peoplewhovotedRepublican
becauseofitslinkofthepartytoLincoln.BlacknewspaperscoveredPanAfrican
newsonaregularbasis.AccordingtotheAfroAmericannewspaperarticles,Hoover
forcedLiberiatoacceptaloanmadebyFirestone’sowncompany,theFinance
CorporationofAmerica,at7%interest.Theloan’sclauselimitedLiberia,asblacks
30Padmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers,93-105.HoraceLiveright,WashingtonMerry-Go-Round(NewYork:JoraceLiverightInc,1931).55.AfroAmerican(Baltimore),16October1932.Lewis,2.243.
328
inAmericawerelimited.ThecountryofLiberiacouldmakenoloanselsewherefor
20yearseventhoughtheycouldborrowatalesserinterest.“Liberia,originally
foundedasahavenforNegroesescapingfromslavery,wasonceagaintransformed
intoacountryofforcedlaborandslavery.”Thestatementwasatouchstoneforso
manyex-slavesstillaliveintheUnitedStates.“Moneywaspaidtothechiefsof
nativetribes,whointurnforcedworkerstoworkfortheFirestoneCompany.
Hooverwasrewardedin1928when,Firestonecontributed$25,000tothe
Republicancampaign.Subsequently,Firestonegotataxrefundof$3,000,000.”31
Accordingtogovernmentpapersunclassifiedin1991,FirestonemovedintoLiberia
in1926,andbyworkingwithwarlordsestablisheditsbusiness.Norebuttalcame
fromwithintheHooverorFirestonecamps.ExceptforPadmore’s,TheLifeand
StrugglesofNegroToilers(1931)andtheblackpressthefirstreportsontheordeal
areinthemid-teensofthetwenty-firstcentury.32Thereportshavebeenrecently
printedonlineandinblogs.TheblackpressattacksagainstHooverwere
contemporarytothetimeperiod.TheattacksonthepeopleinLiberiabyFirestone
warlordswereattacksonrelativesofAmericanBlackswhosefamilymembershad
gonetoLiberiaafterslaveryandotherswholeftforLiberiaintheearly1920s.
31Afro-American(Baltimore),16October1932.32JohnHarper,“Firestone’sandtheWarlord:WhatyouneedtoknowaboutFrontlinesdocumentaryonFirestoneintheLiberianCivilWar,”AkronCommunityblog,Cleveland.com,19November2014,www.cleveland.com/akron/indes.ssf/…/firestone_and_the_warlord_what.html.For“FirestoneandLiberia:ASecretHistoryUnearthed”isaPropublicareportthathascopiesoforiginaldocumentsthatwereunclassifiedin1991.SteveEngelberg,RobinFields,“FirestoneandLiberia:ASecretHistoryUnearthed,”ProPublica,inc,www.Propublica.org/article/firestone-and-the-war-Lords-editors-note.Padmore,TheLifeandStrugglesofNegroToilers,70.
329
Farley’sCheckMate:TheBigFour
Anelectionisthetimewhenkingsaremadeandkingmakerstested.Knowing
theexistenceofraceandclassprejudiceamongAmericans,FranklinRoosevelt’s
teamforaNewDealadministrationsoughttheblackvoteforthe1932election.
Gettingblacksupportfortheblatantlyracist,mostlySouthern,DemocraticParty
waschallenging.In1928thefirstblackandonlyblackcongressmanwaselectedto
Congressinthetwentiethcentury--Chisum’snemesis,theRepublicanOscar
StantonDePriestfromthestateofIllinois.DePriestwasformidableasthe
championofallblacksbecausehewastheonlyblackmanincongress.Republicans
ultimatelyusedDePriesttorecruitblackvotesinthefinalcountdowntothe1932
election.DemocratsneededAmericanblackchampionsandadvocatessuchasDe
Priestbuttheyhadnoelectedofficeholdersbecauseoftheirlongheldstanceoflily-
white.
Farley’sstrategynotonlyencouragedthedisgruntledblackleadersinthe
RepublicanPartytojointheDemocraticParty,healsoarrangedtoobtainblackmen
whocouldbringsomethingtothetable,menfromtheNationalNegroPress
Association(NNPA)andthosewhowereattachedtopoliticalmachines.Democrats
pursuedmensuchasRobertVann,ownerofthePittsburgCourier,andkeptin
contactwithDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,aDemocrataffiliatedwiththe“BossTom”
PendergastmachineinKansasCityandowner/editoroftheKansasCityAmerican.
FarleyalsosupportedDr.IsaacW.Young,the“FatherofBlackDemocracy”in
Oklahoma,whowasoustedfromhisleadershipoftheblackDemocratsinOklahoma.
330
WithonelettertotheblackleadersFarleyreinstatedYoung.AfterwatchingChisum
gobackandforth,unwillingtorepudiateRepublicanismbutfinallyrelinquishhis
tiestotheRepublicanPartyanddeclarehimselfanti-Hoover,Farleyrecruited
MelvinChisum,ashisspecialweaponorfixerinSeptemberof1932.
FarleydeterminedtotakeadvantageofRepublicanoversights.Hedeveloped
anetworkofactiveDemocraticworkersthroughoutthecountry.Untilthe1930
electionsDemocratshadparticipatedinaNegroBureauinordertogetvotesfrom
blacks.Farleychangedthesystembydividingthecountryintofourdistricts,ineach
ofwhichthestateblackcaucusescompetedtobethebestintheirregion.Itwas
calledthe“BigFour.”Fewdocumentsremainfromastateandlocalperspectiveof
theblackorganizationthatcompetedtobeinthebigfour.However,medicaldoctors
(1884-1944)ofKansasandI.W.YoungofOklahomaleftrecordsthatshowhow
theycampaignedtoreachtheirgoals.
Oklahomahadoneofthetwobest-organizedNegroDemocraticClubsinthe
UnitedStates.Intheearly1920sblacksinOklahomaandKansasfacedgreatrisk
whentheybothswitchedpoliticalparty’sloyalties.WiththeaidofthePendergast
MachineinKansasCity,Dr.WilliamThompkinswasfirsttoorganizeAmericanblack
Democratsonastatelevel.ThePendergastMachinedominatedpoliticsinKansas
from1900to1939.ThompkinsandYoungattendedear,eye,andthroatschool
together.Theybothmadetheirrisebybackingwhitepoliticians.However,because
theinfluenceofthePendergastMachineinKansas,thestatehadalmosta100%
331
turnoutinelectionsforwhomeverJamesPendergastchose.Manyelectionsthus
werefixedtokeepPendergast’sDemocraticconstituentsinoffice.
Young’scareerinpoliticswasmuchharderthanThompkins.Youngfought
hardforeverythinghegainedinOklahoma.Inthe1930sYoung’sgreatestvexation
wasthathehadnoDemocraticnewspapertobackhim.Inordertobecompetitive
withotherblackorganizationsintheregion,heneededtotransformhisstate
organizationintooneoftheBigFourintheNationalDemocraticConventionin
1932.RoscoeDunjeeusedtheBlackDispatchtoslayYoungateveryturnin
responsetoChisum’sTribunenewspaperagainstInmanPagein1915.33Thompkins
attemptedtousurpYoung’sauthorityandtemperdownYoung’sDemocratic
organization’spowerfulupsurgebyplacingBudBrown,connectedtotheTulsa
Eaglenewspaper,overOklahomaDemocrats.ThompkinsandBrowninsinuatedthat
theywereopeningnationalheadquartersinTulsatokeepYoungoutofthenational
limelight.34
However,knowingYoungcouldgarnertheblackvoteinOklahoma,Farley
withonlyonelettertoOklahomaDemocraticleadersin1931,putYoungbackinto
thepositionasleaderofOklahoma.Young’sfirstmovewastofindaneditorand
establishanewspaper.TheDemocraticClubthenattemptedtobuytheTulsaEagle.
Followingthe1921riots,Tulsawasstillalandmineforpolitics.Attackedduringthe
riotinTulsaandescapingthoughbadlybeaten,A.J.Smitherman,formereditorof
theTulsaStar,refusedtoreturntoOklahomafromBuffalo,NewYork,tohelp33SeeFranklin,MyLifeandEra:TheAutobiographyofBuckColbertFranklin,53.34BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),27September1928.
332
Young.35C.G.LoweoftheMuskogeeLanterncameintohelp“whiptheotherwould-
beDemocraticleadersfromotherstates.”36Thefightingfortheprivilegeofbeingin
theBigFourwasintense.LowewrotetoYoung:
YouwillrecallthedemocraticleaderofMo....[He]hadeverythinghiswayatthestatemeeting.HeisfromK.C.Wemustgetaheadofthatbunch.TheyusemuchspaceintheK.C.American,Thompkinspaper,tellingofthegreatworktheyaredoing.TheSt.Louisbunchisnotfollowing.Ifwegetinwiththeeasternbunch,whoarenotanxiousastowholeadsintheWestwecangetassistancefromthem....ThompkinswillhaveTheCall,TheArgus,andtheSt.LouisAmericanandanothersmallpaperfromHannibaltofight.37
TheDemocraticNationalConventionsentnomoneytoYoungforthe
campaign.HefinancedmostoftheblackOklahomaworkfromhisowncoffers.
Beforethenationalconventionin1932,Young’sgroupneededfivethousanddollars
tobuytheEagletocompetewithThompkinsasnumberoneblackDemocraticclub
inthesouthwest.Itwasahardsellinthedepressioneconomyandtheeffortfailed.
WiththePendergastMachinebehindhim,ThompkinspulledoutaheadofYoung.Dr.
F.O.Williston,JamesHoward,A.W.ScottandI.W.Young,Oklahoma,A.H.
Underdown,GeorgeTaylor,J.H.Canton,LearyPerry,SH.RoseDr.H.M.GrayandJ.
LewisTaylorformedtheNationalDemocraticNegroVoter’sLeaguein
headquarteredinWashingtonD.C.TheyinvitedChisumtojointheirranks.He
declinedandsuggestedtheyaddThomasSmithofBaltimoretotheirlist.Chisum
remainedanindependent–afixer.Thoughhisgroupwaspowerful,Youngwasno
35A.J.SmithermantoI.W.Young,29March1932,OKCU.36C.G.LowetoI.W.Young,11April1932,OKCU.37Ibid.
333
matchincaucuseswhoseleaderswerenewspapereditorsandhadthebackingof
powerfulmachinebosses.YoungcameinsecondtoThompkinsinhisregion.
Earlier,attheDemocraticNationalConventionFarleyannouncedthatthere
wouldbenonationalNegroBureauwithoneleader.Instead,hehadcreatedfour
regionalblackDemocraticcaucusesfromthemanywhocompeted—theBigFour:
theNationalColoredDemocraticAssociation,NationalDemocraticVotersLeague,
TammanyHallNegroes,andJulianRaineyofBoston,seeminglyaone-manshow.38
TheconventionappointedRobertVannofPittsburgtosupervisePennsylvaniaand
WestVirginia.ThompkinstookoverOklahoma,Missouri,Kansas,Iowa,and
Nebraska.BostonattorneyJulianRaineywouldoverseeNewEngland,andDr.
JosephJohnsonofColumbus,Ohio,wouldhavechargeofOhio,Michigan,Indiana,
andTammanyHallwouldruntheNewYorkarea.EndorsedbyTammanyHallleader
JohnCurry,LesterWaltonwasappointedpoliticalstrategist.
Theoriginaldesignwasthattheyallcompetedforrecognitionfromthe
DemocraticNationalConventionfortheirworkatthestatelevel.AttheDemocratic
NationalConvention,thebestfourgroupsofNegroesweredesignatedtohandlethe
NegrocampaignfortheNationalDemocraticCommittee.WhenDemocratswonthe
election,itwasuptotheBigFourleaderstorecommendpatronageappointmentsin
local,state,andnationalarenas.EachheadoftheBigFourwassupposedtoreceivea38BlackDispatch(OklahomaCity),29September1932;NancyJ.Weiss,FarewelltothePartyofLincoln:BlackPoliticsintheAgeofFDR(NewJersey:PrincetonUniversityPress,1983),44.WeissfounditimportanttostatethatThompkinswasoneoftheBigFourandtheonlyblacktoreceiveanappointment;shewasincorrect.N.Scott,Jr.,toI.W.Young,16September1933,OKCU.TheUnion,(Cincinnati),24November1932;AssociatedNegroPress,2February1932,OKCU.
334
patronagepositionfromthepresident.“Notonlyisitexpectedthatthefivewill
receiveoutstandingappointmentsandhavetheearoftheDemocraticPartyleaders,
butitisthoughttheywillhavemuchtodowithNegropolicy.”39AlthoughYoung’s
statewasoriginallyunderThompkinssomethingmusthavehappened(perhapsit
wastheirrivalryinTulsa)becausehedidnotserveunderThompkinsbutinstead
wentwithDr.JohnsonofOhio.40YoungservedaschairmanoftheCampaign
CommitteeoftheNationalDemocraticNegroVotersLeague,Inc.,insteadofunder
Thompkins.
AftertheNationalDemocraticConvention,politicalstrategistsmovedin
frenzy.MelvinChisumplayedbothsideshestartedmakingheadwaywithJames
Farley.WhileatthesametimeheattemptedtokeeptieswiththeRepublicans.
However,everymoveChisummadeseemedtobenewsworthy.WhenChisum
insinuatedadealwithDemocratsitwasfront-pagenews.Itwasa“signofthe
times,”theNorfolkJournalandGuidereported.“MelvinChisumtoldlastweekwhy
hewasgivinguphislife-longallegiancetotheRepublicanParty....Mr.Chisum
wieldsconsiderableinfluenceandhastheconfidenceofmanywhiteandcolored
citizens.Asapublicistandjournalist,hehasstandingandusefulcontactsand
outletsforhisopinions.”41WhentheJournalandGuidereportedthestory,Chisum
hadnotinformedtheRepublicansofhisconsideringachange.Actually,hewasstill
vyingforatopblackleadershippositionwithintheRepublicanParty.
39TheUnion(Cincinnati),24November1932.40TulsaEagle(Tulsa),12June1937.CampaignnotesandlettersareintheOKCU.41“TheIdesofNovember,”NorfolkJournalandGuide(Norfolk),16July1932.
335
TheRepublicanssabotagedhim.Whenhewenttoseeifhecouldgetabetter
dealorpositionwithinthenationalRepublicanPartythantheofferfromthe
Democratshewalkedintoatrap.TheblackpressfollowedChisumclosely.Perhaps
becauseofhisruninwithHooverearlier,theblackRepublicansfollowedhis
endeavorsevencloser.Editorshadatendencynottoforgetpastarticlesorlettersto
theeditor.Chisum’shypocrisyinpoliticalloyaltyslappedhiminhisface.Hisarticle
againstHoover,J.R.Hawkins,andtheRepublicanPartythathadbeenwritten
December1931intheNewYorkAge,afterhecameoutofhisyearlongsojournin
1929,wasasvividtoRepublicanblacksinAugustof1932asithadbeenin
Decemberof1931.AfterseveralscathingarticlesagainstRepublicansChisum’s
column“IvoryandGold”intheAfroAmericanblacknewspapersdescribedhis
transitionfromRepublicantoaltruisttoDemocrat.WhilecallingonPresident
HerbertHoover’sintimatefriendfromCaliforniaandinchargeoftheColoredVoters
Division(CVD),RaymondBenjamin,insteadofapersonalvisit,Chisumfound
RepublicanCongressmanOscarDePriestandColonelRoscoeSimmonswaitingin
Benjamin’soffice.ThinkinghewouldhaveaprivateconversationwithBenjaminhe
woundupbeinginterrogatedbyDePriestandBenjaminabouthispoliticalstatus.
WhenBenjaminaskedChisumifhewasaDemocratChisumreplied,“I’mnota
Democrat.I’manaltruistworkingforthegoodofmypeople.”42Republicanshadnot
wantedhishelpin1929whenHooverrepudiatedhim.Theystillostracizedhimin
42MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),6August1932.
336
1932.HestoodnochancewithBenjaminwhoReinziLeimuscalled“theWhite
HouseRingmasterforHoover’sNegroSideShow.”43
Chisumwasnotapoliticianbutawalkingdelegate.Duringthisperiodhe
wantedtomovefromhisinvisiblepositiontoapoliticalposition.However,he
continuedtogettrappedinthepoliticalespionagethathehadwitnessedfromthe
outside.PerhapsaftertheremovalofPerryHowardfromtheadministration,
Chisumthoughthewouldfitin.However,ifHooverremovedaprestigiousblack
fromofficetopleasehiswhitesouthernconstituency,Chisum’sremovalfromthe
pressandpossiblythehallsofCongressin1929wouldhavebeenthefirstdismissal.
Whateverthereason,ChisumcouldnotgetintothegoodgracesofRepublicans
undertheHooverAdministration.Muchoftheprobleminvolvedsituationshe
created.
Leimus,awriterfortheNewYorkAge,usedthesametacticsonChisumthat
BruceGritappliedthirty-threeyearspriorwhenBrucechargedthatChisumhad
falselymanagedanactor.Leimusprintedastingthatbeingan“altruist”inpoliticsof
thatperiodwasacopout.Theterm’smeaning-apersonunselfishlyconcernedor
devotedtothewelfareofothers-wasnotnecessarilycoinedbyChisumbutusedin
thecontexttoescapechoosingaparty.“Thetermwascoinedbytheveteran
raceologist,MelvinJ.Chisum...AfterOscarandRoscoehadthrowntheanti-Hoover
articlesfromtheChicagoDefenderandotherpapers,intoChisum’steethand
accusedhimofbeingaDemocrat.”LeimusreportedthatChisumannouncedinthe
43Lisio,Hoover,BlacksandLilyWhites,271.
337
NorfolkJournalandGuidethathehadquittheRepublicanPartyandrepudiated
PresidentHoover.44ThenephewofBookerT.Washington,JohnWashingtonandson
ofOscarDePriest,StantonDePriest,wereappointedtotheRepublicanNational
Committee.HisownarticlesplacedhimoutsideHooverforPresidentcampaign.
WhenassuredhecouldnotgainaplaceintheRepublicanCVD,Chisum
repliedtoquestionsofhispoliticalstanceonSeptember2,1932inhis“Ivoryand
Gold”column,“ANYROOSEVELTISBETTERFORPRESIDENTTHANAFAITHLESS
HOOVER.IamnotaDemocrat;IamadisgustedRepublican,butitisbasedon
principle.TheillustriousandcourageoushistoryoftheRepublicanparty[sic]-the
partyofLincoln,Grant,Garfield,McKinleyandTheodoreRoosevelt–isshamedby
thelilywhiteattitudeofHerbertHooverandhiscohorts.”ChisumcriticizedHoover
becausehehadnotattemptedtobepoliticallyfairwithblacksbut“humiliatedand
insultedallofus,innouncertaintermsHooverwantstheRepublicanPartytobea
whiteman’sparty.”ChisumwroteinhiscolumnthatPerryHowardDePriestand
RoscoeSimmonsandthe“sun-tanned”politiciansweredespicable,notconcerned
aboutthewelfareofthepeoplebutonlyconcernedabout“politicalpap(money)and
jobs–anykindofjobsfrommessengersondown,‘Yessir,Mr.Boss.’”45
WhileChisumfoughtforpoliticalpassageinthecomingelection,hisbrother
W.WoodruffChisum,whohadcontinuedthefamilyrealestatebusinessinLong
Island,NewYorkandhadbeenaveteran“Hellfighter”oftheNewYork15th44MelvinChisumandRev.Wm.ByrdSeekLeadershipofRepublicanCampaignforPresidentHoover,NewYorkAge(NewYork),20August1932.TheNegroStar(Wichita),7August1932.45MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),3September1932
338
RegimentinWorldWarI,landedafederalappointmentonEllisIslandasSecretary
oftheLaborDock.EmmettScott,thensecretarytothepresidentatHoward,
UniversitywasappointedasamembertoWashingtonD.C.’snewlyformedparole
board.StillverymuchcarryingtheethosoftheTuskegeeMachineinhimlikea
sword,ScottwarredwithW.E.B.DuBois.PerhapstheAmericanBlackCivilreligious
traditiondidnotlinkScotttoDuBoisbecauseDuBoisremainedanagnosticto
religiousdogmaandtheelection.DuBoisdidnothaveareligioustradition.He
stayedawayfromchurch“becauseministershadnothingtosay.”46Nordidhehave
anythingtosayaboutreligion.
SomewherebetweenSeptember3rd1932andSeptember16thChisum
transitionedfromRepublicanworktotheDemocraticParty.Eventhoughhe
campaignedintheNorth,Chisum’sfirstmajorrallywasinLosAngeles,California
backingvicepresidentialcandidateJohnGarner,“CactusJack,”fromChisum’shome
stateofTexas.“Mr.Chisumtoldthosepresentthatthiswasthefirsttimethathehas
everworkedintheinterestofDemocraticpartybutheisjustasearnestthistimeas
heeverwas.”47Hewaspaid$350totraveltoCalifornia.Headmittedthereasonfor
changewasthenegativetreatmentofHoovertowardshisrace.MelvinChisum
wrotethathewas“inthebusinessofexposingscheminggrafters,highbinders,and
moralreprobates.”48FromT.ThomasFortunein1899toA.PhilipRandolphinthe
late1920s-inhisboxing,journalism,andpoliticalcareers,MelvinChisumusually
wenttobattlewithprominentblackfoeshebelievedimmoralorhadpolitical46AfroAmerican(Washington),31December1932.47Argus(St.Louis),16September1932.48MelvinChisum,PittsburgCourier(Pittsburg),12April1924.
339
agendas.However,inhisgreatestbattlesagainstinjusticeintheblackworldhe
warrednotagainstablackfoebutagainstinjusticeintheUnitedStates,Liberia,and
Haiti--HerbertHoover.Chisummadeitclearhewas“notfightingtheRepublicans,
allhisworkisbeingdoneagainstthePresidentandhisgang.”49
Until1932ChisumhadbeenasstalwartaRepublicanasSaintPaulwasa
Benjamite.LikesomanyAmericanblacks,hewasvestedintheRepublicanPartyas
achildofafreedslave.AbrahamLincolnfreedblacks.TheRepublicanPartywasthe
partyofliberators.Ithadbeenthatsimple.BecauseofthebeliefthattheRepublican
PartywassomehowapartoftheblackAmericantraditioninthepastanditwas
supposedtobepartofthetraditionintothefuture,Chisumwasrelentlessinhis
“IvoryandGold”attackonrepublicansurgingthemtoreturntotheoriginalethicsof
the“PartyofLincoln.”OneofChisum’s“IvoryandGold”bannersread,“Hoover
TermedtheWorstEnemyWeHaveEverHadintheWhiteHouse.”Evenhehadto
recognizethattheRepublicans’engraftingofSouthernersintheirrankshad
changedtheparty.Hewroteinhiscolumn,“Hooverhasdemonstratedindeedsand
bywordofmouth,thatheisopposedtoNegroesexercisinganysortofauthority
andthathedoesnotintendtoallowthemtocontrolanypoliticalpowerwherehe
canpreventit.”50ThenextweekChisumwrote,“Finally,Mr.Hoover’spublicpolicies
haveworkedtothedoubleundoingoftheNegrocitizenryandweascitizensmust
riseupinNovembertohelpvoteMr.Hooveroutofoffice.”51Ashemovedawayfrom
theRepublicanParty,ChisumpromotedRoosevelt’srhetoric.Heonlywanteda49MelvinChisum,“IvoryandGold”AfroAmerican(Baltimore),15October1932.50“IdesofMarch,”Afro-American(Baltimore),undated,ChisumPapers,OKCU.51Ibid.
340
“newdeal”fromtheRepublicanParty.Heended,referringtoLincoln,“Thegreat
Emancipatorwouldnotknowhispartyifheweretoseetheleadersoftoday.
FrederickDouglasswouldbeunabletorecognizethispartyifheweretomeetitin
heaventoday.”52
InlateSeptemberof1932,DePriestheadedfortheMidwest.Histourwas
fromSanDiegoCaliforniatoSeattleWashingtonthentoMinneapolisMinnesota.He
wentonan“offensiveblock.”HisjobwastoblocktheDemocraticPartyfromtaking
thevotefromblackRepublicansnotonlyforthepartybuthefoughtforhisownseat
inChicagoasastaterepresentative.TheChicagoDefendernewspaperfollowedhis
tour.DePriestalwayscarriedanaceuphissleevebecauseheknewaboutGovernor
Roosevelt’sdisability.InMexiaTexas,Chisum’sbirthplace,DePriesttoldblack
audiencesthattheywereactuallyvotingforGarnerinsteadofFranklinRoosevelt.If
anythinghappenedtoRoosevelt“Garnerwouldbringtothepresidencytheattitude
oftheSouthtowardtheNegro.”Hedidnotwanttobe“handicappedinmyefforts
fortheAmericanpeople.”53Headlinesread“DePriestSaysSouthWantsGarnerin
PresidentChair,”“DePriestBeginsSpeakingTourtoAidHoover,”“Southern
DemocratsHatetoAdmitthatRaceVoteisWanted.”54ThePittsburgCourier
followedDePriestwithhonestreporting.VannwrotethatsincehiselectionDe
Priestrepresented“inawaythewholeNegrorace.”However,“afterMr.DePriest
gotoutbeforethewholecountry,naturallyheexpoundedadvicetothewhorace.”
52Ibid.53MexiaHerald,(Mexia),23September1932.54ChicagoDefender(Chicago),15September1932;ChicagoDefender(Chicago),24,September1932;ChicagoDefender(Chicago),1October1932.
341
TheproblemforthepaperrevolvedaroundDePriestrepresentingallblacksbut
espousingare-electionofHooverwhenhisstanceincongresswasasagreat“non-
partisanleader.”Vanngivesinsightofthemindsofblackswatchingthecampaign
unfold.“Now,however,Mr.DePriesthasdesertedhisownorganizationandgone
overtoMr.Hoover,lock,stock,andbarrel,...leavinghisNon-Partisanfollowershigh
anddry.”55LikeChisum,DePriestmadedecisionsbasedonpersonalgoals.Melvin
ChisumJr.wrote:
Dadusedtotellmethatheshouldhavelistenedtome,regardinghisrelationshipwithOscarDePriest.DePriestandhedevelopedintoantagonists,ifnotenemies.DadtoldmethatearlyinhisrelationshipwithDePriest,hebroughtMr.DePriesttoourhome.IwouldimaginethatthiswasduringtheshortperiodweresidedinD.C.–1924or1925.Iwouldhavebeentwoor2or3yearsoldandhadnotdevelopedanyoftheinhibitionsorguileofolderkids.DadsaidthathebroughtmeintotheroomwhereMr.DePriestwasand,andintroducedmeto“hisfriend,Mr.DePriest.”Iburstoutwiththeloud,wailingproclamation,“Don’tlikefriend.Don’tlikeFriend.”AllofDad’seffortstomollifymewereuseless.IwouldhavenothingtodowithDePriest,muchtoDad’sembarrassment.Hesaysthatifhehadfollowedmyleadinthatrelationship,itwouldhavesavedhimalotofgrief.IneverdidunderstandwhyDePriestandChisumfelloutwithoneanother,butpoliticsbeinglikeitis,suchdevelopmentsarenotsurprising.56
ChisumgaveonelastattemptinAugustof1932toworkwiththe
Republicans.The“Hoovermanagers,”knowingChisumhadtheabilitytobringinthe
blackvoteas“amanofmuchtravelandcontacts”deniedhimworkinthenational
party.57ItseemsChisumneverregainedtiestotheleadershipafterthe1929
55PittsburgCourier,(Pittsburg),8October1932.56Dr.MelvinChisumtoAuthor,4January2007.OKCU.57“TwoSeekLeadershipofNegroRepublicans,”NewYorkAge(NewYork),20
342
incident.Whatever,theDemocratsacquiredhistalenttoweanvotersawayfrom
DePriest,asinloveorwar,allwasfairinpolitics.Theyimmediatelyputhimonthe
roadknowingthatlessthanthirtydaysearlierhehadofferedhimselftothe
Republicans.
Chisumhandledtheelectionashehadhandledtheworkoffieldagentforthe
NNPA.Insteadofridingtrainshegotinhiscarandfollowedthetrailofhis
Republicannemesis,RepresentativeOscarDePriest.Ofcourse,ChisumandDe
Priesthadalonghistorytogether.Theonlyblackmaninthecountrywhocarriedas
muchinfluenceinsidecongresswasthewalkingdelegateforblackrace.Hisfamily
intow,ChisumsupportedtheDemocratsashetraveledaroundthecountry.In
Septemberof1932,ChisumostentatiouslyprovedhispointtobothRepublicansand
Democrats.HelefthispositionwithSamuelInsull,hishouseinthewhite
neighborhoodofGlencoeresidentialneighborhoodinChicago,placedthefamily
furnitureinstorage,andmovedhisfamilytoahotelinChicago.Fromthere,he
droveacrossthecountrywithhiswifeAnneandtwochildrentoCalifornia.
ThroughouthistriphestoppedincitiesacrossAmericaespousinga“newdeal”
agendaforblacksandtheblackfamily.
Chisumgavethe“lowdown”onhistraveltoCaliforniaaftertheelection.He
stoppedatthehomesofoncegreatblackRepublicanswhobecameDemocratsin
1932.58Theydrove2696mileswithoutaproblem.Oklahomawasofgreat
importanceinthe1932election.OntheWaytoCaliforniatheChisumfamilystayedAugust,1932.58AfroAmerican(WashingtonD.C.),3December1932.
343
inMuskogeewiththeT.J.Elliotson301N11thstreet.Itisnoquestionthatinthe
lateteensandearly1920sOklahomahadagrowingAmerican-Africanpower
structure.ItwasstillrecoveringfromtheriotandfiresofBlackWallStreetinthe
Tulsa.Numerousall-blacktowns,leadingblacknewspapers,growingblacklaw
firms,andseveralAmericanblackoildynasties,wereallestablishedintheearly
twentiethcenturyunderthewatchfuleyesofBookerT.Washington.Blackswere
tradingoilandcottonwithLiberiaandEuropeancountries.BeforetheTulsaRiots
andthebombingofGreenwoodin1921,OklahomawasbecominganAmerican
blackmecca.
FromMuskogeeOklahoma,heheadedtoFortWorthwheretheChisum’s
wereguestsofColonelWilliamM.McDonald“GooseneckBill”secretaryofthe
MasonsofTexas,andpresidentoftheFraternalBankandTrustCompany.Hisson
recalled:
WedrovefromChicagotoLosAngelesinaleisurelyfashion.Daddywoulddrivetotheblackpartsoftownwithdilapidatedbuildingsandnosidewalkstofindlodging.Daddywouldsay[“M]other[,]youandsisterstayherewhileIfindsomeoneIknow.[”]Weleftthecar.Iknowitwasnevermorethanfifteenfeetbeforesomeonehailed“MelvinChisum”whereverwewent.Thishappenedoverandoveragain.59
TheytraveledthroughBigSpringsTexas,toElPaso,NewMexico,Phoenix,
ArizonaintoLosAngeles.AccordingtohisdaughterAnne,Chisumworkedforthe
CaliforniaEaglewhentheylivedinCalifornia.ItwasablacknewspaperinLos
59Dr.MelvinChisum,Jr.,toAuthor,10June2007,OKCU.
344
Angeles.MyDadandthepublisherspentalotoftimetogether.Dadwrotevarious
articles,onekindafteranother,fortheEagle.Aftertheelection,wemovedbackto
Philadelphia.Hismainagenda,however,wastocovertheWestCoastforRoosevelt
andtorepelthemessageofCongressmanOscarDePriest,whomChisumdebated
beforealargecrowdofDemocratswhileinCalifornia.60Themanmodernhistorians
considernomorethana“spyandprovocateur”wasthemanFarleybelievedworthy
enoughtodebatetheRepublicanParty’smostreputableblackmantoobtainthe
blackvoteforFranklinD.Roosevelt.“MyfatherwasinvolvedinpoliticsandIrealize,
inretrospect,thathewenttoCaliforniatobeinvolvedintheelection.”61
BeforetwothousandDemocrats,hereSaturdayoflastweek,MelvinChisum,well-knownnewspaperman,gavethelietoCongressmanOscarDePriest,GOPcampaignorator,whohadprecededhimasGOPcampaigner.Mr.Chisumsaid,“DePriestfellshortofthetruth.HedidnottellallthetruthabouttheRepublicanParty.Andasfortheveterans,yes,heliedonthem.IwasinWashingtonatthetimeandtheboysdeportedthemselvescreditablyatalltimes.Theywerenotmolestinggovernmentpropertybuttherichmenofthecountryknewthatthosemenwerenotbeingtreatedfairlyandtheybecameuneasy.Mr.Hooverbecameafraidandorderedthemtobeevicted.DePriestliedtoyou.Amanwhowouldlietoyouaboutonethingwilllietoyouaboutallthings.”Mr.ChisummadeitclearthathewasnotfightingtheRepublicansbutallhisworkisbeingdoneagainstthepresidentandhisgang.62
60Ibid.61LindaTwine,Conversations(NewYork:SelfPublished,1991).OKCU.62“SpeechBefore2000Democrats,”SanFranciscoSpokesman,(SanFrancisco)20October1932.The“veterans”referenceistothe“BonusArmy”ofthousandsofWorldWarIveteransandtheirsupporterswhogatheredinWashingtonin1932todemandcashpaymentoftheirservicecertificates.
345
ChisumobtainedsupportfromwhiteDemocratsafterfacingthepolitical
rivalryinthepersonofOscarDePriest.Hispocketswere“linedwithmoneyforthe
cause”ashetraveledhome.However,someblackleaderssuchasRoscoeDunjeeof
OklahomaCity,whoslowlypulledawayfromtheRepublicanPartybutwasnot
reallycommittedtoeitherpartyorganization,condemnedChisumforhisharsh
wordsaboutthehighest-rankingblackintheUnitedStates.Dunjeedidnot
understandthepowerandswayChisumheldinnationalpolitics.HesaidtoChisum:
IfmenlikeyouaregoingtotravelalloverthisnationanddestroytheidealismthatNegroesaredevelopinginNegrocongressmenyouaregoingtoretardagenerationthelogicalreturntoNegroesfromsuchcongressionaldistricts.IfyoucanrememberthevirtuesinOscarDePriestandforgethisfaults,youwillaccelerateinalargemeasureand[the]momentumwhichisgathering....63
Chisum,whohadstoppedinOklahomaonthewaybacknorth,twinkledatDunjee
andcontinuedhispoliticalagenda,bothchastisedandinvigoratedthatDunjee
listened,evenifhedidnotunderstand.DunjeemayhavehadthenewspaperChisum
onceownedbutChisum’spocketswerefilledwithdonationstothecampaignandhe
didnotcare.
Chisum+Patronage+I.W.YoungandtheBigFour
Roosevelt’selectionaspresidentoftheUnitedStateswasbelievedtobea
victoryforAmericanblacks.However,formanypoliticianswhosufferedthrough
63BlackDispatch,(OklahomaCity),2March1932.
346
Reconstructionearlierintheirlives,theNewDealseemedtobethesameolddeal.
BlacksknewwithinweeksthatevenwiththeBigFourinplace,andoverwhelming
supportofblacksfortheDemocraticticketatthepolls,racismandtheeconomicsof
theGreatDepressionresultedinalackofpatronageforblacksatthebeginningof
Roosevelt’spresidency.NomatterhowliberaltheNewDealwantedtobe,the
placementofblacksintopoliticalpositionsintheDemocraticPartywasaparadigm
shiftthathadtobehandledwithcaution.64However,blacksstillbelieveda
symbioticpatronagesystemwasimplicitbetweenwhiteandblackpoliticianseven
duringtimesofovertracismanddepression.Therefore,blackDemocratic
politicianswhovotedforRooseveltexpectedtoreceivetheirrestrictedshareofthe
spoilstousewithintheirspecificcommunities.65Eventhosewhogainedpatronage
positionsormadethefinalcrossingfounditwasliketrippingupwitheverystep.In
1932,atbothstateandnationallevels,thepatronagesystemforblacksbrokedown.
RacismandtheeconomicsoftheGreatDepressionresultedinalackofpatronageat
toplevelsofgovernment.Blacksseekingpositionsinthefederalgovernment
64CharlesHurd,WhentheNewDealWasYoungandGay(NewYork:HawthorneBooksInc.,1965),225.BecauseoftheracialprejudiceofhisdayRooseveltcouldnotmoveinthedirectionofappointingNegroestohiscabinet.AlfredB.Rollins,Jr.,RooseveltandHowe(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,Inc.,1962),269.LouisHowe,areporterandadvisortoRoosevelt,wrotetothepresidentthathehadtocarefulinansweringletterstoblacks.Southernsupporterswouldbelostifthepresidentwastooaccommodating.65SeeBrooks,“Oklahoma’sFirstBlackGovernor,”forpatronagerelationshipbetweenI.W.YoungandJohnC.“Jack”Walton.SeeAdamCohenandElizabethTaylor,AmericanPharaoh,MayorRichardJ.Daley:HisBattleforChicagoandtheNation(Boston:LittleBrownandCompany,2000),fortherelationshipbetweenMayorDaleyofChicagoandTammanyHallNegroes.SeeDavidConrads,“BiographyofDr.WilliamJ.Thompkins,1884-1944,PhysicianandHospitalAdministrator,”forinformationonpatronagebetweenThompkinsandthePendergastMachine,onlineatKansasCityPublicLibrary:www.kclibrary.org.,1999.
347
respondedbyusingformaltiessuchaspoliticalrelationships,andinformaltiesto
Washington,D.C.,insiderssuchasMelvinJacksonChisumtodemandsuchspoils.
“Wehavethereceiptoffernsseed:wewalkinvisible...”66Inhelpingthe
DemocratswintheelectionChisumemptiedhispocketsoffernseed.Inorderto
fightagainsthisgreatestfoe,HooverasJimCrow,hebroughttolighthismasteryof
intrigue,hispresenceincongressionalhallswasnolongerghostly,hisdynamismas
ajournalistnolongerrestrictedtotheeyesofblacksandhisabilitytoleadmasses
ofblacksacrossthecountry.Thesesabilitiesbecameanalbatrossinsteadofa
benefit.Heshape-shiftedintothekindofblackmanthatintimidatedwhite
leadership--aMelvinChisumwiththepowerofaMartinLutherKing-butwhodid
notwanttobeaking.
Intheyear1933asVannpredictedChisumwasthepowerfulblackmanin
WashingtonD.C.LettersunearthedbetweenhimandI.W.Youngshowhiscapability
tomakeappointmentsthroughFarley’shenchmanship.Chisum’spositiondealing
patronageaidedtheBigFourinlandingpositionsingovernmentthattheDemocrats
didnothoardfortheirownwhiteconstituencies.ChisumworkedforIckesbefore
hisappointmentinthePWAin1934.Evenbeforehewasappointedasanagent
ChisumwasstartedworkforthegovernmentasadetectiveoragentofthePWA.He
wassenttoOklahomain1933todiscusstheirpotentialforgrants.Hisapplication
66WilliamShakespeare,HenryIV.SamuelHemingway,TheSecondPartofHenrytheFourth(NewHaven:OxfordUniversityPress,1921),96.
348
forthepositionreadthathedidsomesatisfactoryworkforthegovernmentbefore
hewashired.67
RobertVannenteredhisnewofficeinWashingtonwithenthusiasmandleft
withhisprideintactbutwithouttheearlieridealismthatthegovernmentwould
giveblacksanythingbutthesameolddeal.BuniwrotethatthedayVannarrivedin
WashingtonwasahotJulyafternoon.Hismindfilledwiththepersonalpromiseof
hisnewposition.68LikeI.W.Younghelongedfortheabilitytofinallytosupporthis
pledgesofpatronagetoothers.Facedwithsuchisolationanddisrespectinhis
position,itsoongothotinhisoffice.Patronagewasnotforthcoming.Weiss
describeditslimitsinFarewelltothePartyofLincoln“Vann’sownposition
impressiveasitmayhavebeenintitle,provedtobeadisappointment.Hisoffice
accommodationswerewoefullyinadequate;stenographersresistedtakinghis
dictationbecauseofhisrace,andhecouldnotevengetanappointmenttoseethe
attorneygeneral.”69VannlefthispositiontoreclaimfulleditorshipofthePittsburg
Courier.Theadministrationusedtheseblackjournalistsasawaytostifletheblack
agenda.Ifthenewspaperwasthemostpowerfulswordtheblackshadthenwho
controlledtheleadingnewspapermencontrolledblacksintheUnitedStates.Vann
finallycametotheconclusionthat“I’mnotdoinganythinghere.Itlookslikethey
67U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,February1934.UsedwithpermissionofAnneJohnsonChisumAngeles,California.68Buni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism,221.69Weiss,FarewellTothePartyofLincoln,44.
349
putmedownhereinWashingtontoshutmeup.”70HepackedandleftWashington.
Chisumwouldeventuallycometothesameconclusion.Thetrickwasonthemagain.
FarleycalledtheexecutivemembersoftheBigFourtoWashingtonin
Februaryof1933.Blackleadersunderstoodthatitwastheirjobtohelpgovernment
officials“see”Americanblacksandtheirneeds.Reasoningthatthecountrywas
actuallychangingundertheNewDeal,newspaperspublishedreportsofthegreat
meeting,themen’sagenda,andthefactthatthey(andChisum)hadactuallytalked
withPresidentRoosevelt.TheBigFourpresentedthesesuggestions:
1. ThedefiniteendofdiscriminationagainstNegroesintheCivilservice.2. ThedefiniteendofsegregationoftheNegroandwhiteworkersin
governmentaldepartments.3. Thedefiniteendoftheflagrantandlong-standingviolationsoftheJimCrow
lawsoftheSouthininter-statetravel.4. TheinsistencethatCongressenforcethe14thand15thAmendmentsand
thatthePresidenthimselfdosoinhiscapacityasChiefExecutive.5. ThedefiniterecognitionofthesupportgiventothePresidentbyNegro
votersandpartyworkersandincreaseofthenumberofappointmentsinthediplomaticserviceandallothergovernmentappointivejobs.
6. Theimmediateadoptionofahands-off,friendly-neighborpolicytowardHaitiandLiberia.
7. ThegeneraldispositiontorecognizeespeciallythefactthatNegroeshaveseriousproblemsduetocolorprejudiceandthatitisnecessaryanddesirablethathetakeimmediatestepstoimpressuponthenationthefactthatheisopposedtoitstreatmentoftheNegro,andwishestoimprovethestatusoftheNegropeople.
8. ThedefiniteendofthedecompositionofNegroregimentsandtheirexiletoGeorgiaandtheMexicanborders,theopeningupoftechnicalbranchesoftheArmyandNavytoNegroesandtheendofsegregationanddiscriminationpracticedintheCitizensTrainingCamps.
70Buni,RobertL.VannofthePittsburgCourierPoliticsandBlackJournalism,221.
350
NeitherRooseveltnortheNationalDemocraticPartypromisedtofollow
throughonanyoftheirpromises.Nordidtheyreadilypatronizetheleadershipof
theBigFour.AsofJuly1933,onlyoneoftheBigFourleaders,RobertL.Vann,
obtainedapatronageappointment.SenatorJosephGuffeypleadedwithPresident
RooseveltthatVannbeappointedasassistantattorneygeneralwithout
confirmationoftheSenate.Rooseveltdidnotinterfere;thepositionwasoneofthe
patronage“jobs”Guffeyhadasacongressmantogiveoutatwill.71WhileThompkins
askedforatraditionalpostforablack--ministertoHaiti--Rooseveltappointeda
whiteDemocrattothepost.Thompkinswasappointedrecorderofdeedsfor
WashingtonD.C.MonthsbeforehisappointmentChisumworkedwiththe
governmentdoingmissionsoncontractaroundthecountry.InFebruaryof1934
ChisumbecameaninvestigatorforthePublicWorksAuthority
OnthestatelevelinOklahomathepredicamentofblackleadersreceiving
anykindofpaymentorpatronagegrewdire.DuringtheDepressionblackleaders
suchasI.W.YoungofOklahomaandhisloyalDemocratsusedtheirownmoneyto
furtherthecause,believingtheywouldreceivepatronagepositionstobarter.72
YoungrepresentedtheBigFourinOklahoma.Withtheaidofblackvotes,WilliamH.
“AlfalfaBill”MurraywonthegubernatorialraceinOklahomain1930.Murray’s
administrationinOklahomaproceededmuchlikethenationaladministration.Black
DemocratssoonlearnedthatSouthernDemocrats—notNewDealmen—comprised
71JosephGuffey,SeventyYearsontheRed-FireWagon:FromTildentoTrumanThroughNewFreedomandtheNewDeal(MahomedanPress,2010),171.72AttorneyJ.J.EvanstoI.W.Young,1June1933;H.W.McNameetoI.W.Young,12November1932;W.C.OwentoI.W.Young,17November1932,OKCU.
351
Murray’sadministration.Young,themostsuccessfulblackDemocratinOklahoma,
wasostracizedandnotmadethe“blackgovernor”ashehadbeenunderJack
Walton.InalettertoR.M.McCool,theDemocraticchair,Youngwrote,
IfeelthattheselectionofNegroesforpurelyNegroplacesshouldbedoneupontheadviceandwiththesupportoftheNegroDemocratsofthestate.Amovementisunderfootinthiscountytodojusttheopposite....ThereareseveralNegroPostoffices,amongthemLangston,BoleyandClearview,whichmustbeconsidered.IbelievethatNegroDemocratshavesufferedlongandenoughtoenjoytheseplaces.Thentoo,youandIcanshowtheseloyalNegroesthatweappreciatetheirloyalty.73
MurrayandMcCoolallowedwhiteDemocratstogivepatronagetotheirown
chosenblackappointeesandfriends,notnecessarilythosewhoworkedinthe
campaign.Murrayallowedhisadministrationtoreplacesometraditionalblack
politicalpositionswithwhiteworkers.Youngwasputoffwhenheattemptedtosee
Murrayaboutappointments.Whenhegotnoassistancefromthestatecommitteeor
thegovernor’soffice,helplessnessovercameYoungashewrotetoR.M.McCool:
Ihavetakensomuchabuse,sufferedmanyinconveniences,spentsomuchtimeandmoneyandsupportedmypartypoliticssounreservedlythatIoughttohavesomesayastheheadofafineNegroorganizationofDemocrats,astowhoarethemenandwomenbestpreparedtoreceivethesehonorsandfillthesepositions.IsaywithoutanyegotismoranydesiretodictatethepoliciesoftheDemocraticParty.IamonlyaskingthatIbepermittedtoadvisewiththepowersthatbe;mayIrespectfullyaskthatyoudropmealine,givingmetheacceptedprocedurethatyouandtheorganizationproposetofollowinthesematters?Ourorganizationispreparingtoaskthatoneofourmen,viz.,O.B.Jeffersonbeindorsedforthe
73I.W.YoungtoR.M.McCool,20December1932,OKCU.
352
AssistantUnitedStatesAttorneyGeneralshipthatisnowbeingheldbyaNegrofromKansas.74
AstheNegroDemocraticleader,Youngbeggedforrespectwhenitcameto
patronagedisbursements.HewroteOklahomaCongressmanF.B.Swankaskingfor
thechancetoatleastgivehisopiniononwhowouldgetthepostalpositionin
Langston:“Notthatyouarenotcapable,notknowingthesituationbutIthinkyou
shouldhavesomehonest,intelligentadviceinthepremise.”75Youngsimplywasno
longertreatedliketheblackgovernor.EventhoughMurraypraisedYoungandgave
himgifts,Murrayallowedmoneyfrompatronagebrokeringtogotowhite
politicians.InresponseYoungformedcommitteestomeetwiththegovernor,tono
avail.76Younghadchallenges.Amonthaftertheelection,usingthesystem
establishedbytheBigFour,LewineWeaverwrotetoYoungexpectingassistancein
apatronageposition:
NowitismydesiretosecureapoliticaljobthrougharepresentativeorsenatorfromOklahoma.TodothisoneneedsthebackingofoneinpowerthereinthestateandIknowofnobettermantowhichImightappealthanyou.IknowDr.Young,thatyouunderstandjusthowtogoaboutitandIamaskingthatyoudothisformeandwhateverchargesareIwouldbegladtoremitshouldIgetin.77
Young’sreplyfollowed:
74I.W.YoungtoR.W.McCool,20December1932,OKCU.75I.W.YoungtoF.B.Swank,27December1932,OKCU.76I.W.YoungtoJ.C.Evans,11June1933;J.C.EvanstoI.W.Young,21May1933,OKCU.77LewineWeavertoI.W.Young,21November1932,OKCU.
353
IshallbepleasedtodowhateverIcantohelpyoutoobtainyourdesire.SeetheCongressmenandSenatorsthereandOklahoma,determinewhatyouwanttodo–whatyouwouldliketohave,andinformmeofthesame,togetherwiththeirattitude.Trytogivemetheattitudeofeachoneapproached.Iwillthenbesufficientlyinformedtorecommendyou.78
Overthenextseveralmonths,ambitiousDemocratsfloodedYoung’sdeskat
Langstonwithrequests.Young’splanofdoingallhecouldfortheNegroDemocrats
ofOklahomabecameagameofpatienceandembarrassment.79UnderGovernors
WaltonandMartinTrapp,Younghadasayinthehiringofleadersforallblack-run
institutions,whichgavehimoverwhelmingpoliticalpower.Henolongerhad
patronageovertherosterofthepostofficesintheblacktownshipsorasayinthe
positionsatLangston.HeappealedtoMcCoolforstatepositionsbutreceivedno
help.Whentraditionalblackappointmentscametothetable,GovernorMurray
favoredYoung,butYoung“didnotknowifitwasasafething”toapproachthe
governor.”80Whentraditionalavenueswereclosed,Young,likeotherblacks,
resortedtotheirownmanofaffairsinCongress--MelvinChisum.William
Thompkins,thechairpersonoftheBigFour,wasalsohavinga“greatstruggle”in
Kansas.HewrotetoYoungattemptingtosellarotogravuretotheuniversityand
finishedtheletteronapersonalnote:
You,likemyself,havehadagreatstruggle.Everythingthatwe’vegotwe’vehadtofightlikethedevilfor!Whateveryouhaveobtained,Godknowsthatyoudeservebecauseyou’veneverhadanythingcometoyoueasily.Writeto
78I.W.YoungtoLewineWeaver,8December1932,OKCU.79MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.80I.W.YoungtoAttorneyJ.C.Evans,1June1933,OKCU.
354
meandletmeknowhowyouaregettingalong.IfIcanhelpyouinanyway,letmeknow.81
Thompkinsshouldhavebeengivenpatronageleadershipforblacksaschairmanof
theBigFour.InsteadofThompkins,I.W.YoungcontactedMelvinChisumforhelp.
HeandotherOklahomansfromtheNegroDemocraticStateCentralCommittee
decidedtogetbehindamemberoftheexecutivecommitteeinordertogethima
nationalappointment,O.B.Jefferson.
ThenbackinWashington,D.C.,ChisumtoldYoungthathewas“sittingpretty
withtheAdministrationandstandtogetalotmoredonethanamanwhoisstriving
togethimselfajob.”82However,jobsintheNewDealadministrationwerenot
plentifulforblackDemocrats.Chisumseemedchallengedhimself.HesentYounga
listofvacanciesforblacks.Itwashisfirsttimetoworkintheworldofcongressional
patronagebrokeringandheperceivedsomethingdifferent:
Therearemanyapplicantsforplacesbothblackandwhite,manymorethancanpossiblybetakencareof.Iwouldsaytherearefiftyapplicantsforeveryplacewhichistobefilled,butonlythosewillgetjobswhosesponsorscangetuptodistributingthrough.FortunatelyforusIamontheinsideandamnotacandidateforaplace,notformyselfImean.83
AstandardprocedurehadbeensetuptogetjobsthroughChisumandtheBig
Four.Forsomereason,O.B.Jeffersondidnotunderstandtheoverallprocessofhow
81WilliamThompkinstoI.W.Young,3October1933,OKCU.82MelvinChisumtoO.B.Jefferson,29May1933,OKCU.83MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,29May1933,OKCU.
355
togetapatronagepositionforhimself,orhethoughthewasinBigFourstanding
withYoung.YoungoutrankedhimasstatechairmanoftheNegroDemocratsandas
amemberoftheBigFourteamoftheNationalDemocraticNegroVoter’sLeague.
JeffersoncovetedapositionintheJusticeDepartmentinWashington,D.C.Young
supportedhimfirstbysendingletterstothemembersofthestatecommittee,then
followedwithletterstoMcCool.However,Youngwasstrategic.Hemanipulatedthe
statesystemfirsttodevelopabackingforJefferson’snationalofficeopportunity.In
this,YounghadthebackingofChisum,whowrote,“YouarethefirstcoloredleaderI
haveevermetinpoliticswhoistryingtohelphissupportersinsteadoftryingtoget
ajobforhimself.Andbecauseofthisverylaudableattitudeonyourpartyoumay
restassuredofmymostloyalsupportofeverymanwhomyouselect.”84
InanobviousshowofdisrespecttoYoung,Jeffersonbreachedthesystemby
contactingChisumdirectlybyletter,andwithoutYoung’spermissionorknowledge,
askingforhelptogainanationalposition.FilesshowthatChisumredirectedallthe
informationhereceivedfromJeffersonbacktoYoung.TheBigFourhadagreed(and
atthispointtheassumptionmustbethatChisumalsoagreed)that“noneofuswill
movewithoutacommonconsentoftheothersandwemusttakeanybodywhotries
todosotothebutcher.”85
Blacksthemselvesmayhavelostmanypatronagepositionsifthe
correspondencebetweenJefferson,Chisum,andYoungisanexampleofhow
Negroesdealtwiththerealnationalpatronagesystemwhitesused.Jeffersonwas84MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933,OKCU.85TheUnion,(Cincinnati),2February1933.
356
notbutchered,buthewasputinhisplacefornotusingthenationalsystem.Chisum
reroutedJefferson’sletterbacktotheonlyOklahomarepresentativefortheBig
Four,I.W.Young.JeffersonhadwrittentoChisum:“Iamnotunmindfulofthefact
thatthetenderofyourgoodofficeswereperhapspersonaltoDr.Young;however,I
wouldappreciatesomeexpressionfromyouastoyourattitudetowardmy
aspirationsandifyoucouldlendyourinfluencetofurtherthem.”86InChisum’s
reply,hestipulatedacostoffivehundreddollarsfortheservicetoberendered—
onehundreddollarsupfrontandthenonehundreddollarsamonthwhenJefferson
receivedtheposition.Chisum’sreplyalsoincludedthefollowing:
AssumingthatyouwillgoalongthelinewhichIshalllaydown,IhavegoneaheadwiththeplanoftryingtoplaceyouinthepostformerlyheldbyJudgeHoustonofGary,Ind.,inthePostmasterGeneral’soffice.IhavemadethisselectionbecauseIknowyouwouldnothaveachancetogetthepostintheDepartmentofJustice.ThathasbeenpromisedbyMr.FarleytotheHonorableRobertL.VannofPittsburg.87
ChisumthenrespondedtoYoungaboutJefferson’ssituationandincludeda
listingofjobscalled“THEVIRGINISLANDSETUP.”Thedocumentwasincludedasa
partofSenateBill173.Chisummarkedthepositionsthatwouldbeconsideredfora
blackman,eachofwhichpaidapproximatelytwothousanddollarsayear.On
August19,1933,ChisumwrotetoYoung:
[Iam]conferringwithMr.FarleyaboutNegropositions.Ifoundhiminamosthappyframeofmind.Hesaidtomethatherealizedthatlittlehasbeendoneinsofarasthecoloredpeopleareconcerned,but,hesaid,“Chisum,you
86MelvinChisumtoO.B.Jefferson,29May1933,OKCU.87Ibid.
357
writethisdownandrememberthatImeanit,wearegoingtodealjustlywiththecoloredfriends,weknowwhattheyareupagainstandaregoingtotreatthemfarbetterthantheRepublicanshave.88
Jeffersonbalkedattheprospectofpayingforaposition,butnonetheless
sentthefirstinstallmentthroughI.W.Young.Chisumimmediatelygottowork
attemptingtogetJeffersonappointedtotherecorderofdeedsofficeinWashington,
D.C.However,JeffersondidnotrespondwhenChisumattemptedtwicetoget
informationfromhim.ThefrustratedChisumwrotetoYoung:
Whenwetalkedlast,IpromisedyouthatIwouldimmediatelygetbusyandgetthingssoshapedthatwecouldgetMr.JeffersonappointedtotheRecorderofDeedsofficeandIdidexactlyasIagreed.WhenthingswereinshapethatIwasreadytopresenthisnameIwrotethatthepetitionbesentforwardimmediately.TothisletterIhavehadnoreply.TwiceIpromisedtodeliverthisformaldocument;whenitwasnotinmyhandslastWednesdayAugust30andnowordfromyouIwas,asyouwillsee,plainlyintheair.Idonotallowanysituationtokeepmeintheairlong;soIaskedforthreedaysandIwenttoPoughkeepsieNewYorkandgotamanwhomIknowcanfillthebillineveryparticular.Theenclosuresaremerelysentyouthatyoumaypossessthenameandhaveahintoftherelationexistingbetweenthemanandme.WatchtheNegropapersandyouwillrealizethatIwastellingyouonlythetruthwhenIsaidIcouldandwoulddeliverthispostforyou.89
JeffersonfinallyrespondedonSeptember11,1933,thatheknewChisumwas
“thereontheground”;however,herefusedtosendoriginalendorsements.Jefferson
noted,“MyendorsementsareonfilewithbothoftheOklahomaSenators.Iam
88MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,19August1933,OKCU.89MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,6September1933,OKCU.
358
enclosingsomecopies,whichyoumayfinduseful,andyouwouldcertainlyhave
accesstotheoriginalsasmysenatorsmustbeinaccordwithourefforts.”Jefferson
didnot“desiretocometoWashingtontourgemycandidacy,andwillnotunlessand
untilIamassuredthatweareinstrikingdistance,orapersonalinterviewwiththe
appointingpowerisdesired.”AsforthepapersandotherendorsementsChisum
needed,JeffersonadmonishedChisum,“Ordinarilythecharacter,ratherthanthe
numberofendorsementsforapoliticalappointment,countsformost.”90Jefferson
didnotunderstandthepolicyofFarleyorthefraternalorderofpolitics.OnOctober
14,ChisumwrotetoYoung:
AsIhavealreadywrittenyou,IamfurtheringthecandidacyofanothermanfortheRecorderofDeedsplace,becauseIwasleftina“hole”couldnothearfromyouandhadtogetacandidateandgetonequick.IamoftheopinionthatthePresidentwillhavemadepublictheannouncementofmyman.Youareawarethattheproperpracticeis,tonotmentionthenamesinadvanceofthePresident’sannouncement.AlldetailswerefinishedanhouragoandIamreturningtomyhomeinPhiladelphia.NopracticalwordfromMr.JeffersonsuggeststomethatheeitherthinksIamobligatedtoworkforhimandpaythe“freight”myself,orhethinksIamafool.WhenIhadbutlittleexperienceandmyinfluencewasnegligible,Iwentaboutservinganyandallmenatmyownexpense;Idonothavetodothatnow.IhavenointentionofgoingforwardforanymaninOklahomabutyou,purelyonthebasisoffriendship.91
Didotherblacksinthecountrytrytooverridethesystemsetupfortheir
patronagepositionsonthenationallevel?DidtheyattempttogoaroundFarley’s
BigFourtopetitiontheirowncongressmen?Couldsuchbehavior,aswellasthe
90O.B.JeffersontoMelvinChisum,11September1933,OKCU.91MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,14October1933,OKCU.
359
racismintrinsicintheDemocraticsystem,beareasonforsomelackofblack
positions?JeffersondecidednottousetheBigFoursystem.Hewasoverlookedby
Oklahomacongressmen,blackballedbyblackleaders,despisedbyChisum,and
ostracizedbyYoung.HisDemocraticpoliticalcareerendedlocallyandhehadno
chancenationally,allbecausehebrushedasidetheparadigmusedbytheBigFour.
Perhapspartoftheproblemwasthat,likeO.B.Jefferson,manyNewDeal
blackleaderssabotagedthemselves.However,Chisum’slastrecordedletterto
YoungdescribedtheproblemsoftheNewDealandblackappointments:“Ofcourse
manyplaceshavebeenfilled,but98%oftheplacesfilledarekeyjobswhereitwas
essentialinordertointroducetheadministrationpower.Thus,wehavenoreason
tobediscouraged.”92HesentYounganotherofficiallistingofjobopeningsinthe
VirginIslandsmarkedwithpostsforAmericansblacks.93PresidentRooseveltand
Congresshadothermajorproblemswithwhichtodeal.AccordingtoChisum,
Americanblackworkwasintentionallypushedtothebottomoftheagenda.
Becauseboththestateandfederalgovernmentsrefusedtooverhaulcivil
rightslegislation,patronagewasoneofthefewformsofpoliticalacknowledgment
blacksexpected.Eveninmoderntimes,somepeopledonotknowthatpatronage
jobswerebrokered.Itwasameansofearningextraincomeforthosewhowere
expertsinprocuringtherightpersonforaposition.Thebrokersfunctionedlikea
nationalhumanresourcedepartment.Ittooktime,knowledgeoftheposition,and
knowledgeofpersonalitiestodeveloptheleadershipofanation.RobertVann92MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,31October1933,OKCU.93OriginallistincludedintheLeonelleYoungHargroveCollection,OKCU.
360
withstoodtherigorsoftheofficethatGuffeygavehimforashortperiod.However,
menlikeForresterWashingtonappointedasFERAraceadvisorbyWillAlexander
didnotlastayear.
CrossingOver,TrippingupandEndingAccommodation
ExceptintherecordsofthePWAandsomeblacknewspapers,fewpeople
knowthehistoryofthefirstblackagent,MelvinChisum,hiredbythePWA.The
FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorkshiredChisumasa“special
agent”intheDivisionofInvestigations,PublicWorksAdministrationattheageof
61years.Thejustificationwasnotthatitwasapatronagepositionbutsimplythat
theDivisionwasinneedofanadditionalSpecialAgentintheWashingtonoffice.
Chisum’sworkasa“publicityagent”forBookerT.WashingtonofTuskegee
InstitutefromOctober1899to1912servedashisreferencealongwiththesentence
“Mr.Chisumdidsomespecialworkforthisdivisionwhichwasentirely
satisfactory.”94Hisgovernmentgradewassetat11withasalaryof$3200.While
workingforthegovernmenthecontinuedtowritethepresidentandMrs.Roosevelt
askingforprivilegesforMaryMcLeodBethuneandAliceDunbarNelson.
Chisum’sletterstoEleanorRooseveltseemedtobewhatspurnedheronthe
pathtohelpingblackwomenandfindinghernicheasapresidentialwife.Blanche
94U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,February1934,AnneJohnsonChisumCollection,LosAngeles,California.
361
CookinEleanorRooseveltTheDefiningYearsandPaulBernstein,inLettersto
EleanorbothsuggestthatChisum’slettertoEleanoraschairoftheCommitteeof
MobilizationforHumanNeedsCampaigninJanuaryof1934suggestingthat“a
capableintelligentnegrowomanoffinetrainingshouldbechosen...”95whichledto
therelationshipbetweenEleanorandMaryMcLeodBethune.WhenEleanor
Roosevelt’ssecretarycontactedWalterWhite’sandIckes’officeforabackgroundon
Chisum,IckesresponsewastomoveChisumawayfromWashingtonanddeeper
intothefieldintheSouthoftheUnitedStates.HisresponseinalettertoEleanor’s
secretaryitshowsthatChisumwasonceagaininhisplaceasawalkingrace
delegateincongress.Therewerefearsastowhathecouldaccomplish.“Thisman
Chisumisagooddealofatroublemaker,asIknowfrompastexperience.Iamglad
thatyoucalledthismattertomyattentionthusgivesmeanopportunitytosupply
youwiththefacts.”96TheletterisfromIckesofficeyetincomparisontolater
writingsaboutChisuminIckes’diaryandconsideringIckesintenttokeepChisum
whenotherslikeHarryHopkinswhodidnotwantChisumintheDepartmentof
Interior,bringsupquestionsastotheauthorship.Addedshorthandandnoteson
theletteralsoposesquestionsastotheauthorshipofthemissive.ItseemsChisum’s
raceworkdidnotbodewellwithsomeoneintheofficeoftheInterior.Nonetheless,
95BlancheCook,EleanorRoosevelttheDefiningYears1933-1938(London:Penguin,1999).100.PaulBernstein,LetterstoEleanor:VoicesoftheGreatDepression(Indiana:Arthorhouse,2004),34.96HaroldIckestoEleanorRoosevelt,28November1934;FolderIckes,Harold,CorrespondencewithGovernmentDepartments1934,PapersofEleanorRoosevelt,FranklinD.RooseveltLibrary,HydePark,NewYork.
362
ChisumestablishedarelationshipforhimselfwithEleanorRooseveltconcerning
race.
AfterayearconstantlyswitchingregionsbyorderofHaroldIckes’office,
Chisumbecamedisillusioned.Herealizedthathispositionwasbeingusedtostop
himfromworkingforcivilrightsforblacks.HewrotetoRobertRussaMoton:
Thedepartmenthassystematicallykeptmeoutofwhatishappeningtocoloredpeoplebykeepingmefromtheseatofgovernment.ThishasbeenengineeredbytheRosenwaldinfluencewithintheDepartment.Theyhavekeptmeverybusytoo,sothatIcouldnotfindtimeforwritingorworkingfortheinterestsoftheNegro.97
HecontactedhisformeremployerSamuelInsullwhosuggestedChisumtalktothe
FirestonefamilywhoneededsomeonewithChisum’scapabilitiesontheirpayrolls.
OverthenextfewyearsChisumworkedforthegovernmentbutgrewweary.He
facedracediscriminationastheonlyblackagentinofficesaroundthecountry.His
workasajournalist,raceleader,andhelpingTuskegeewaslimited.Eachtime
Chisumattemptedtodoworkfortherace,hisarticlesappearedinpapers,orhe
wroteletterstoDemocraticleaders,orvariousdistrictsrejectedhimforbeinga
black,Ickes’movedhim.OnOctober5thof1934Chisumwastransferredfrom
WashingtontoNewYork;December5th1934hewastransferredfromNewYorkto
Chicago;March25th1935wastransferredfromChicagotoSanFrancisco;July1935
fromSanFranciscotoAtlanta.Moton’sresignationfromTuskegeein1935because
97MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,1January1935.RobertRussaMotenPapersArchivesandSpecialCollections,TuskegeeUniversity,Tuskegee,AL.(HereaftercitedasMotonPapers.)
363
ofpoorhealthreasonsseemedtostemthetideofChisum’smourningovernotbeing
abletoaidTuskegee’sfinances.
Duringthisperiodofthe1930stheNAACPchangedleadershipand
developedgoalsattunedtothepoliticalandsocialclimate.In1931JamesWeldon
Johnsonresigned.WalterWhitesteppedintohisshoesandchangedthegoalsofthe
organizationbytakingonmoreracialissues.TheNAACPdefendedtheScottsboro
boysaccusedofrapingtwowhitewomen.NAACPworkbegantomirrortheworkof
theArmyofLionsearlierinthecentury.WhileBookeriteslaboredwithin
governmentchambersunderthefootofRooseveltadministrationtheNAACPwas
lefttodealwithissuesontheculturalfront.InW.E.B.DuBois:TheFightforEquality
andtheAmericanCentury,DavidLeveringLewisdescribesthetimeperiodasoneof
“thehealingofriftsbetweenBookeritesandDuBoisians,”andaparadigmshift.98
Certainly,EmmettScottputouthisrighthandtoDuBois.In1935DuBois
publishedBlackReconstructioninAmerica,1860-1880.Perhapsseeingtheirown
identityandfootstepsforthefirstEmmettScottitwastimetochange.Insteadof
theirbanteringtheyhaddoneovertheyears–andthelawsuitsbetweenthem–
ScottandDeBoismadeatruce.ScottrespondedtoDuBois’book,“thecolored
peopleoftheworldowedDuBoisadebtofgratitude.”Lewisdirectsthereader’s
attentionthatapatternshifttookplaceorneededtotakeplaceinDemocracyand
thewaysoffightingforjustice.Hewrotethatthebookrepresentedoneofthose
genuineparadigmshiftsperiodicallyexperiencedinafieldofknowledge,onethat98Lewis,W.E.BDuBois,TheFightforEqualityandtheAmericanCentury1919-1963,2,366.
364
forcesreinterpretationsofthepastbyitssuddenanddisorientingemergence.99A
paradigmshiftstruckthemlikeagaleofwind.Inthedecadeofthe1930sMelvin
ChisumlaiddownhiscloakofaheroforthemassesandhisOlivertypewriterforthe
securityofapaycheckforhisfamily.I.W.YounggaveuphispresidencyatLangston.
RacismasJimCrowgrewintosuchabitterrivalevenYoungcouldnotsellthe
bigotryoftheDemocraticPartytohisOklahomaconstituency.RoscoeDunjeetook
overasraceleaderintheDemocraticParty.
IckesintentionallykeptMelvinChisumsobusyputtingoutfiresaroundthe
countrythathecouldnotresumehisroleasaraceleader.Hewrote:
IamdeeplygrievedthattheassignmentstookmeentirelyoutofthefieldoftheEast.HavemadeoneblunderinthispositionIoccupy,Ididtheworkjam-upfromtheverybeginning,andwheneverthereareeggstobeunscrambled,middlewest,southorsouthwest,theyhaverushedmeofftodotheunscramblingandIhavemetwithconsiderablesuccess.100
Finally,ChisumbegantosabotagehisworkinordertobefiredbythePWA.
WhenChisumpleadedandwasnotgivenavacationhetookoffandwenttovisit
Moton.“Thedepartmentseemsboundtokeepmeengagedfarfromhomeandyou,”
hewrote.Thenheskippedwork.Multiplechargesagainsthistimemanagement,
andraceissueswerewritteninareportagainsthim.Chisumdidthings“hisway”
insteadofbygovernmentregulations.Finally,onSeptember24,1936Chisum
resigned“inordertopursuesomeprivateinterestsofmyown.”Hewrote,“Ihave
99Ibid.,367.100MelvinChisumtoRobertRussaMoton,20January1936.MotonPapers.
365
needtobeabsentfromdutyforalimitedperiodoftime.Iamthereforeresigningas
ofSeptember25,1936.”101
Itseemsfromcorrespondencethathewentonthecampaigntrail.However,
atthiselectiontherearefewrecordsofhisnewspaperarticles.Inthesamemonthof
hisresignation,hispublicationof“WhytheNegroIsForRoosevelt”waspublished.
InacongratulatoryletterofNovember6thMotonapplaudedChisumasthe“onewho
candeliverthegoods.”102IckesrehiredChisumasaspecialagentaftertheelection.
InJulyof1937headlinesread“TheFatherofBlackDemocracyisDead.”Chisumand
EmmettScottattendedDr.IsaacWilliamYoung’sfuneralinLangston,Oklahoma.
Theirpicturesshowatypeofmourningontheirfaces.Theirgenerationwas
changingoutfornewmovements.Young’sdeathendedofaneraofBookerite
politicsinOklahoma.Young’sbodywasburiedonthecampusofLangston
University.InmanPagewasburiedonthecampusin1935.MimickingAbraham
Lincoln’sresurrectioninAmericanCivilReligion,whosebodywasmovedfromits
originalrestingplace;in1977Young’sbodywasexhumedandmovedtoGuthrie,
Oklahomabyhisgranddaughterthelate,HonorableDr.JoyHargrove.
ChisumremainedwiththeDepartmentofInterioruntilJune1938.103Hewas
forcedtoresign.ItisnotclearwhetherhecreatedascandalwithanItalian
101U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,MelvinChisumtoHon.A.R.Class,24September1936,(HereaftercitedasJohnsonCollection.)102RobertRussaMotontoChisum,6November1936.MotonPapers.103U.S.DepartmentofInterior,FederalEmergencyAdministrationofPublicWorksPersonnelFileMelvinChisum,19November1936.AnneJohnsonChisumpersonalCollection,LosAngeles,California.(HereaftercitedasJohnsonpapers.)
366
contractorwhowaslinkedtooneofhisprojectsorhewassetup,bytheItalianand
Chisum’sPWAmanager.Chisumfeltsorryforthe“poorItalian.”Hewrotealerting
LouisLombardiofmeddlingandpesteringtacticsthatweretocomefromaresident
inspectorforthegeneralstateauthority.LombarditurnedinthelettertothePWA.
Overtheyears,complaintsabouthimasablack,hispersonalworkstyle,and
bookkeepingcouldnotgethimfired.Someofhischargesthatmountedoverthe
yearspointtoself–sabotage.Workingfromwithintheadministration,astheonly
blackmanwiththepowerofgovernmentandincontrolofmillionsofdollars,itwas
likehisworkinWorldWarI(seechapter4).Thistimehestoodforthegovernment
committingthemisdeedsandtherewasnoonetoabovehimstoptheactsofmisuse
ofpower.ashewatchedplainpeoplegetwaylaidingovernmentpractices.Tiredof
hisownproblemsofracism,secretarieswhodespisedhimforhisblackness,
stringentrulessetforinvestigators,andalackoffreetime,andmoreChisumlost
faithintheRooseveltAdministrationhimselfandinhisinvincibilityasaheroof
plainpeople.ordertogetbacktoracework.Finally,IckeswasforcedbyChisumand
themountingtensionwithinthePWAleadershiptoletChisum,theblackman,be
firedorresign.Chisumresigned.
TheworldhadchangedsinceChisumlefthisentrepreneurialbusiness
ventures.Anewgenerationofphilanthropists,sonsofhisprogressivefriendsran
enterprisesdifferentlyandwiththeironmenoncall.EmmettScottofferedChisuma
positionattheSunShippingCorporation.Thepositionwastiedtounionssoafter
onedayatworkChisumquit.Hecreatedhisownsmalljournalismagencyoutof
367
whichhedidmissions.Herevertedtopre-1914pugilismstyletoworkasabouncer
inrestaurantsandbacktomissions.Hedidnottellhiswifehisfamily.Hisson
Melvinexcelledincollege.Melvinplannedtobecomealawyer.Buthewentoffto
serveinWorldWarII.HisdaughterAnneattendednursingschool.Hiswifewent
backtonursing.Chisumwentbacktoaidingblacksinaworldthathadchanged
sincehehadbecomeagovernmentman.
EvenTuskegeehadchangedfrom1932to1940.ThecoveroftheAfro
AmericannewspaperonJune4th1940,featuredthearticle“Dr.R.R.MotonDead.”
Chisum’spowerful,lovingfriendRobertRussaMotonhadinhaledandexhaledhis
lastbreath.UnlikeLouisHarlan’sbeliefthatWashington’sinfluencediedin1915,
Moton’sdeathwasitsend.ThenewleaderatTuskegeewasnotaBookerite.Though
FrederickDouglassPattersonneededthesupportofChisumtoraisefunds;
Pattersonrepresentedtheintroductionofnewideasforblackreformandeducation.
AsChisumattemptedtofindworkduringthenextfewyearshewroteabout
thedeathofProgressivessuchashe.Thedatesofthelivesofmeninthesechapters
showthatduringthe1930smenwhowerephilanthropists,enemies,andleaders
workedwithoropposedChisum,andTuskegeeMachinehadslowlydiedleavinga
skeletalcrewtobringaboutchangeinacountrythatwasstillbigotedandaworld
blightedbytheracismthatledtotheUnitedStatesenteringWWII.Indeed,a
paradigmshifttookplacein1940withinblackAmerica.OnAugust3,1940,theAfro
AmericanNewspaperfeaturedtwofamiliesasthenewleadersofblacksinthe
368
UnitedStates.TheAfroAmericandisplayedthefirstpictureoftheW.E.B.DuBois
familyeverprintedinanewspaperandanotherofWalterWhiteandhisfamily.104
AfterhisstintwiththeDepartmentofInteriorChisum’sjournalismcareer
neverreachedtheheightsheattainedbeforehisgovernmentwork.Hecampaigned
asaDemocratforWendellWilkiebutagainsttheRooseveltAdministration.The
mantleoftheblacksocialgospelseemedtoleavehimuncovered.Theblack
newspapersdwindledtoapproximatelytwelvenationalleadingpapers.Chisum’s
workasaracemandwindledastheworkoftheNAACPtooktheformofthework
heoncedidasafieldagentwithintheArmyofLions.Chisumwenttoworkwith
EmmettScottattheSunShipyards.Whentheshipyardbecameunionizedbywayof
hislongtimenemesisAsaPhilipRandolph,heleft.TomakeendsmeetChisumsold
hisOlivertypewriter.Hiswifecontinuedtoworkasanurse.Physically,Melvin
ChisumdiedinatrolleyaccidentonJuly5,1945.Partsofhimdiedeveryyearuntil
thataccident.
BlacksfoundtheirkeyortrickinEuropeanliterature–likeShakespeare’s
HenryIV-carryingfernseedintheirpockets.Beinginvisible,mimickingUncleTom,
andstandingaskingmakersinthewhiteworldhelpedthembecomeleadersinthe
separatebutequalworldthisgroupofblacksattemptedtomakejust.Theproblem
wasseparatewasneverequalandtheirblacknesswasneverforgiven.The
Machiavellianstrickedthemoncemoreingivinggovernmentpositionstohush
themandslowtheirprogressinraceissues.DuringtheDepression,ablackman
104AfroAmerican(WashingtonD.C.),3August1940.
369
withasteadypositionwasararecommodity.InmanywaysChisumreachedthe
pinnacleofblacklifeasaninvestigatorhecouldnothavereacheddoingmissions
andbeingafree-freelancejournalist.Iotherwayshegaveintohisownworsefears
ofhavingtoworkforhisownbenefittothepointthathecouldnotworkforthe
race.105
ModernhistorianshavereliedontherecordsoftheNationalAssociationfor
theAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP)tounderstandhistoricaltiesofblacks
totheNewDealandtheendoftheProgressiveEra.NancyWeissinFarewelltothe
PartyofLincoln,andHarvardSitkoffinANewDealforBlackswriteofalackof
positionsforblacksintheNewDeal.CluestoBookerT.Washington’scontinued
reformmovementundermensuchasChisumeludedmanyofthem.Illuminatingthe
experienceofcharacterssuchasMelvinChisumandhisfriendI.W.Youngredirects
thehistoricalnarrative.Historicallenseshavebeenchangingoverthepasttenyears
bymovingawayfromDuBois’leadershipandacknowledgingthepowerofBookerT.
Washington’sreformwellintothe1930s.Thischapterhelpsthehistoriandiscover
whyineverynarrativeofthe1930sthenameMelvinChisumpopsupoutof
nowhere.Hewasnotamarginalcharacterintheworldofthe1930sbutamain
character.Hisworkwasburiedinthewakeofmenwhocameafterandaddedtohis
historyorinthoselikePurviswhodidnotlikehimwhenhewasliving.Whenhe
diedtheycasthimonlyintheroleofworkingasaspyorundergroundinChicago.
105NewYorkAge(NewYork),19Dec.1931.MelvinChisumtoI.W.Young,11August1933.OKCU.
370
Initsentirety,thechapterreviseswhattwentieth-centuryandtwenty-first
centuryhistorianssuchasthelateLouisHarlan,RaymondSmock,intheBookerT.
WashingtonPapers(1972)etal,RaymondSmock’s,BookerT.Washington(2009),
BrianKellyinhisbook,Race,ClassandPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921
(2001),PeteDanielinhis1970sarticle,"BlackPowerinthe1920s:TheCaseof
TuskegeeVeteransHospital,"StevenFoxinthebook,GuardianofBoston:William
MonroeTrotter(1970),Dr.QuintardTaylorprofessoremeritusofUniversityof
Washingtonclasslectures,andotherswhotheorizedthatChisumathiszenithwas
nomorethanavillainousspyandprovocateurforBookerT.Washington.106Asa
consciousdecisiontheychosetodescribeChisuminpejorativetermsinsteadof
followinghiscareertothe1930s.Evenin1918asanefficiencyagentwithinFederal
DivisionofNegroEconomics,Chisumroseabovetheroleofspyheplayedwithinthe
segregatedTuskegeeMachine.Hebecamethegreatestlivingheroofhisgeneration
afterHarriettTubmandiedin1914.AmericanBlacksofalleconomicsectorsknew
hewouldgivethemService,Service,Serviceintheirtimesofneedwhethertheyhad
moneytopayornot.Chisum’sgreatestfoeandhisgreatesttriumphwasagainst
HerbertHoover’spresidency.SupportingRooseveltmadehimthemostpowerful
blackmaninthecountry.Whilehedidnotlandapoliticalpositionbehindhis
106Harlan,BookerT.WashingtonPapers,7;BookerT.Washington:TheWizardofTuskegee1901-1915;RaymondSmock,BookerT.Washington:BlackLeadershipintheAgeofJimCrow,ed.JohnDavidSmith,TheLibraryofAfrican-AmericanBiography(Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2009);BrianKelly,RaceClassandPowerintheAlabamaCoalfields,1908-1921(Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2001);PeteDaniel,"TheCaseofTuskegeeVeteransHospital,"TheJournelofSouthernHistory36(1970);StephenFox,TheGuardianofBoston:WilliamMonroeTrotter,ed.AugustMeier,StudiesinAmericanNegroLife(NewYork:Atheneum,1970).
371
powerfuldisplayofleadingblackAmericaforDemocratshewasgivenan
appointmentthatmatchedhisprowess.HisappointmentinDepartmentofInterior
affirmedChisum’scareerasaninvestigatorandextendsthehonorofhisvocationas
agovernmentdetective.HaroldIckes,amanlikeChisumwhobuilthimselfupbyhis
ownbootstraps,againstabigotedsystem,keptChisuminthepositionwithequality
withtheotherPWAagents;Chisumhadthesamesalary,thesamerights,andthe
samekindofworkinanAmericathatwasnotreadyforablackmanwiththepower
ofthegovernmentanditsmoneybehindhim.MuchlesswereAmerican
businessmenandtheDepartmentoftheInteriorreadyforaselfmadeinterrogator,
detectivewiththecharacterofMelvinChisum!
Finally,inregardstoHarvardSitkoff’sbookANewDealForBlacks(1978),in
whichhestatedthatnoblacksvotedintheSouthestablishestheexceptionwith
datafromOklahomaandChicago.InOklahoma,theblackvoteuseditspotentialto
changeelectionsasearlyas1919.107AblackChicagodistrictvotedinthefirstblack
stateRepresentativesinceReconstruction,OscarDePriest,in1928.The
ramificationsofthevoteintheseareasdrovethepoliticalactivityofMelvinChisum
inthe1930s,andChisum’sactivitiesrevealedthefinalepisodeofthe
accommodationstrategyofBookerT.Washingtonandthedawnofthepost1940
CivilRightsmovement.
AMysteryRemains.WasChisumMurdered?
107Sitkoff.31.
372
MelvinChisumSr.diedatthenightofwhathadbeenabeautifulsunnydayin
July1945,helayunderatrolley,whilehisson’smilitarycareerhadhiminOkinawa,
hiswifeanddaughterathomeattheirleisure.Chisumtoldthemhewasheadedtoa
jobataclubwherehewasa“greeter,”onthenighthewasstruckandkilledbya
trolley.Anne,hiswife,neverfullybelievedthestoryoftheaccidentespeciallyby
anythingresemblingatrain.“Shekeptsaying‘Daddywassocareful.Hewasalways
tellingmetowait,’”accordingtohisdaughterAnne’sChisum–Johnson’smemory.
However,therewasnoinvestigationintoChisum’s“accidental”death.“Therewas
neveranyquestionintowhatreallyoccurred,”shesaidwithapassionatepause,
whensherealizedthatinthe1940sthenhisfamilydidnotknowhissubversivelife.
“Hewalkedinfrontofatrolley.Atleastthatwhatweweretoldwhathappened,”his
daughtersaid.Seventy-threeyearslatershenowhassomequestion.
WhatreallyhappenedtoMelvinJacksonChisum,Sr.?Hissonbelievedwhat
hewastoldin1946whenhereturnedhome,thathisfather,goingabouthisusual
routinegotoffatrolleyandwalkedinfrontofthemovingtrainbecausehewasnot
thinking.Researchinghislife,theauthorfindsMelvinChisumSr.’s,deathtooneat
forapriordetective,investigatorandamanonceagaindoingmissions.Dr.Melvin
Chisum,Jr.,evendrewamaptodemonstratethetrolleydeath.Hepennedthese
wordstotheauthorwith“allthepointsnecessarytoindicatewhatDadwastrying
todowhenhehadhisfatalaccident.”
DadmountedtheRoute10trolleybetween43rdand44thstreets,headedintown.HedescendedfromthetrolleyinthepassengersafetyislandonthesouthsideofMarketStreetwiththeintentionofcrossingMarketStreetto
373
theothersideofMarket70cartotakehimoutto49thor50thandWoodland.Whathappenedtohimorwhatwasonhismindthathewalkedinfrontofthetrolleycarwewillneverknow?Washetired?Washelate?Washeinahurry?Wastheresomethingonhismindthatmadehimunawareofthedangerousstepshewasabouttotake?Ofcourse,thenormalthingtodoistoletthetrolleycarproceedandcrossthestreetbehindit.Butthen,aproperlycarefulstreetcardriverwouldbecertainthatthetrackswereclearbeforeproceeding.Butthereyouhaveit.”108
However,hedidnotknowofhisfather’sworkasadetective.
ThisbiographyChisum’sPilgrimageIIbringstolightnewlydiscovered
informationaboutMelvinChisum,Sr.’s.lifefromchildhoodtodeathwhichallows
foratleastandinvestigationintothecircumstanceofhisdeath.Didsomeoneor
somepeopleattackhimorperhapsgivehimanudgeontothetracks?Therewasno
policeinvestigation.By1946whenhissoncamehome,thefactsweresoneathedid
notneedtoprovethem.Underduressandgriefhisdaughterdidnotquestionwhat
wassimpleandtothepoint.Yet,addinginrecenthistoriographyandresearchof
thisdissertationtheaccidentbecomessuspiciousashewifeAnneimplied.
MelvinChisumwasatrainedporterandamasteroftrainsandtraintracks.
Heknewthemlikeheknewthekeysofatypewriter.Hewasverycarefulaccording
tohiswifeanddaughter.Arethereextenuatingcircumstancesthatwouldreopen
thecaseofhisdeathasmurder?Morethantheenemieshemadeinthepastasa
politician,hisundergroundworkinChicago,andduringhisgovernmentwork
standsoutasreasonsforamurder.Therewereothercontemporarycircumstances
108Dr.MelvinChisumtoauthorDecember12,2007.Letterisinauthor’snotebook.
374
ofthetimeperiodthatcitedcouldreopentheideaofamurderversusanaccident.
AccordingtohisdaughterherfatherwasworkingfortheDemocraticPartyona
missionthatnoonequiteknewaboutexcepthimandhisinnercircle.Shebelieves
thathewasinvolvedinthelaborstrikeinPhiladelphia.Intheyear1944,heworked
withtheNAACPagainstoneofthemostpowerfulcorporationsinPhiladelphia,
Pennsylvaniaalaborunioninordertohaveblacksandwomenhiredtrolleydrivers
andintootherpositions.
Laborhistorian,JamesWolfinger,pennedthatthestrike“demonstratedthe
profoundracialcleavages,thatdividedtheworkingclass,notjustinthesouthbut
acrossthenation.”109FromthedissertationislearnedthatChisumhadawayof
playingbothsidesinissuesinhispast.Inthe1940spoliticsandtheleadershipthat
oncebackedhimhadchanged.ProgressiveEraphilanthropistsandRobberBarons
ofthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturydidnotrunthe
companies.Anewbreedofbusinessmenhadtakenoverwithlesspersonaltiestoits
“fixers.”CompanieslikethePhiladelphiaTransitAuthoritywassomuchgrander
thanthoseblackentitiesChisumattackedhadunderBTWorA.PhilipRandolphand
theBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,(BSCP)inthe1920sand1930s.Hadhe
beenfororagainstthestrikeorattemptedtoplaythemiddleashehadinsomany
missionsofthepast?
109JamesWolfinger,"WorldWarIiHateStrikes,"inTheEncyclopediaofStrikesinAmericanHistory,ed.BenjaminDayAaronBrennan,ImmanuelNess(NewYork:M.E.SharpeInc.,2009).126-137.
375
TheheadlineintheBaltimoreAfroAmerican,“MelvinJ.ChisumTrolleyCar
VictimFormerPublisherandVeteranPolitician,SupportedWillkie,PinnedUnder
TrolleyOperatedByWoman,”seemsasubtlehintthattheremayhavebeenmoreto
Chisum’sdeaththanamomentaryforgetfulnessonhispart.Thenewspaper
reportedthatChisumwasstruckonSaturdayJuly7byatrolleycarat32ndStreet
andLancasterAvenueThearticlegavethewomandriver’snameandaddress.It
continuedbystating,that“trafficattheintersectionwasstoppedforfifteenminutes
whileworkersjackedupthecartoremovethevictim.”110MelvinChisumwasnot
dead.Hewastakentoahospital.Whywasitnecessarytopublishthatitwasa
womandriver?Wastheresomebountyonhishead?WasittheAfroAmericaneditor
lettingsomeoneknowthatthemurderdidnotgounnoticed?
ThePhiladelphiatransitstrikeof1944wasasick-out,strikebywhitetransit
workersinPhiladelphiafromAugust1throughAugust61944.Whiteworkers
protestedtheopeningofjobsduringaperiodoflaborshortagetoblackconductors
andmotormen.Priortotheperiodblackscouldonlyholdmenialjobs.Onthefirstof
Augusteightblackswereabouttomaketheirtrialrunswhenwhiteshadasickout
strike.ThestrikewaseventuallybrokenthroughtheSmithConnallyAct–Warlabor
DisputesAct.TomConnally,aDemocratfromTexas,Chisum’shomestate,presented
theanti-unionact,onSeptember5,1942.Bythemid1940sChisumfoughtagainst
ThePhiladelphiaTransportationCompany(PTC)withtheNAACPandothers.PTC
wasoneofthelargesttransitcompaniesinthecountry.Theactpassedin1943
110AfroAmerican(Baltimore),14July1945.PhiladelphiaTribune(Philadelphia),14July1945.
376
overridingPresidentFranklinRoosevelt’svetobyboththeHouseandtheSenate
becauseworkerscrippledthewarindustrywhen300,000warworkersincluding
workersattheNavalYardcouldnotgettowork.
Asearlyas1943NAACP’sworkwasintricateinpublicizingPTC’sissuesof
racismwithintheTransitWorkersUnion.In1944theWarManpowerCommission
becameinvolvedinthePTCdiscriminatoryhiringpractices.Theypromotedeight
blackstoskilledpositions.Whenwhiteworkersfoundouttheycalledinsick,
blockedentrances,andeventuallyshutdownthetransitsystem.Themilitarytook
overthetransit.BySeptemberof1944thestrikewasoverandblacks,motormen
drovethetrolleys.BeforeayearwasupChisumwasmurdered.
Theheadlineswereexplicitthata“womantrolleydriver”struckandkilled
MelvinChisum.ReportsshowthatChisumwashitsosoundlythatheneverwokeup
inthehospitaltotellwhathappenedduringhisaccident/murder.Apushorashove
wouldhaveplacedtheseventy-two-yearold,spy,provocateur,raceman,and
governmentagentinfrontofatrain.Thebriefcasehecarrierwasneverrecovered.
Heneverwokeupfromhiscomatosestateanddiedtwodayslater.Avery,very,
quietserviceforhimwasheldwithonlyfamilyinattendance.Whilethefamilymay
becorrect,thathisdeathwasindeedanaccident;duringthattime,theydidnot
knowabouthisworkasaspyandhismissionshestillcarriedout.Theydonotknow
whatpapershehadinthebriefcase.EmmettScottdestroyedallpaperworkthat
includedChisum.Thequestionremainsforhistorianstoconfront.
377
MelvinChisum’slifewasatestamenttothegreatestAmericanBlackSpy
careerinAmericaorworldhistory.Forhistorianswhofollowsuchapowerful
dynamiccareerashisinpolitics,theunderworld,andespeciallyduringtheintense
racialclimateofhefacedinhislifetimetheideathathewasmurderedisplausible
becauseabiographyisnowwritten.Itisnotallencompassingbutenoughtoshowa
lifeofanamazing,courageous,comedic,actor,investigatorandlovingfatherwho
consideredhimselfanAmericanProgressive.HisnamegoesdownintheAmerican
CivilReligionasthebestAmericanBlackdetectiveofthetwentiethcentury.
Circumstancesintheworldhavechangedandnomancanevertakehisplace.
ThedissertationendswithwordsfromMelvinChisum’ssonwhosentthis
historianonamission.ThosethatknewMelvinChisumacceptedhisidiosyncrasies.
Thosewhohatedhim,hatedhim.Thosewholovedhim,lovedhim.
KnowingyouhasenabledmetounderstandmyfatherbetterthanIeverdid.HeandIboretheaffectionandrespecttowardeachotherthatallgoodfathersandsonsshould.IneverquestionedwhyhewasthewayhewaswhenIknewhim.Iwasquitepleasedwithhim,asIknewhim.Iwasjustpastmy22ndbirthdaywhenIsawhimlast,whileonfurloughbeforegoingtothePacific,inWorldWarII.Hemusthavewrittenmeatleasteverytwoweeksduringtheremainderofhislife.Maildeliverieswereirregularoverseas,andwhenmyoutfitreceiveditsmail,therewouldalwaysbeseverallettersfromDadandprobablyapacketofnewspapersaswell.Hadhebeenlivingandcontinuedtolivesomeyearsaftermyreturn,Imayhavelearnedsomeofthesethingsabouthimmyself.ButIdoubtthepicturewouldhavebeenasclearasyouhavepaintedit.111
---Dr.MelvinJacksonChisumJr.toAuthor.
111Dr.MelvinJacksonChisum,Jr.toAuthorSeptember18,2014inauthor’snotebook.Dr.ChisumdiedOctober22,2014.
378
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VITA
CECELIARENABROOKS
CandidatefortheDegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophyThesis:CHISUM’SPILGRIMAGEII:MELVINJACKSONCHISUM,SR.,LOUIS
HARLAN’S“SPY”UNRAVELLEDINBIOGRAPHY1873-1945MajorField:UNITEDSTATESHISTORYBiographical:
Education:CompletedtherequirementsfortheDoctorofPhilosophyHISTORYatOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,OklahomainDecember2018.
CompletedtherequirementsfortheMasterofArtsinHISTORYatOklahomaStateUniversity,Stillwater,OklahomainDecember2014.CompletedtherequirementsforMasterofDivinityTheDivinitySchoolatDukeUniversity,June1996.CompletedtherequirementsfortheBachelorofGeneralStudiesinJournalismandReligion,VirginiaCommonwealthUniversityRichmond,Virginia,1990.Experience:GraduateTeacherAssociateOklahomaStateUniversity2016-Present.
Lecturer,Humanities,LangstonUniversity2014-2015. AdjunctProfessor,VCUDepartmentofReligion1991-1993. PastorofTrinityandSpencerUnitedMethodistChurches,2016-Present
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