Learning Design Birgit Mayer 17th May. Introduction How can we help people to learn? What support do people need in order to learn? How can we assess.
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Learning Design
Birgit Mayer17th May
Introduction
How can we help people to learn? What support do people need in order to learn? How can we assess and communicate the results
of a learning process? How can we make learning and support as
effective, efficient, attractive, and accessible as possible for everyone involved in the process?
Introduction
No straigthforward answer Depending on specific situation, solution X will
work best for person Y Learning can be improved by making conditions
explicit and by using this knowledge to design new learning events
Learning design: Conceptual model for the description of teaching and learning processes
Learning design
Related to the nature of knowledge, learning, motivation, social exchange
Learning design knowledge: captured by Instructional design approaches: theories (set of design principles) Identifying best practice in teaching and learning Pedagogical design patterns (between theory and best practice)
Teachers are influenced by these aspects w.r.t. their
believes about good teaching and learning
Learning Design – Definitions (Koper, 2005)
Learning design Application of learning design knowledge when developing a Unit of
Learning
Unit of Learning (UoL) Lesson, course, curriculum, learning event, etc. Quality of UoL depends on quality of learning design Every UoL has an underlying learning design that is more generic
than the UoL itself
Learning Design - Definitions
Learning designer Teacher, coach, mentor, curriculum developers etc. Task is to design a UoL that meets a set of learning objectives
How does the designer proceed? What steps must be taken to develop e.g. an effective a course?
Best solution depends on the context of the e.g. course Requires to make use of design knowledge, i.e. set of rules that
can be applied to the design problem
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
Koper (2005) Based on Reigeluth (1999)
Learning design knowledge = Instructional Design Theory Guidance on how to help people to learn and develop, including
cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual aspects
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
Characteristics of Instructional Design Theory (Reigeluth, 1999) Orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for
learning and development (rather pre-scriptive than descriptive, but there is a bridge to the descriptive science of Learning Theory)
Identification of methods of instruction, which are ways to support and facilitate instruction, and the situations in which those methods should and should not be used (situational, not universal, one method works best for situation X, another for situation Y)
The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic (increasing the chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment of the goals)
Methods, learning outcome etc. have underlying values (e.g. people prefer certain methods above others)
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
Prescriptive, probabilistic, not value-free rules
If learning situation S (and value V)then use learning design method M (with probability P)
Learning Design Rules: Learning Situation
Contains factors that are of importance when selecting adequate learning design methods Requirements to meet Descriptors of situation in which a new learning design method is
applied
Situational factors Learning outcomes
Level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility of learning design method
Learning conditions Characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media
Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Outcomes
Effectiveness How well learning objectives are met by learnig design method (e.g.
number of students who passes a test) Efficiency
Labour intensity and cost of method (for learners to attain objective, for teachers to support learners)
Attractiveness How much activities appeal to learners and teachers
Accessibility How easily learners and teachers can access learning facilities
(location dependent?, time constraints?, adaptation?)
Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Conditions
Learning objectives Knowledge, skills, attitudes, competences
Learners Pre-knowledge, motivation, situational circumstances
Setting Individual and/or group work, at school and/or home
Media (A)synchronous, linear/interactive, media types
Learning Design Rules:Learning Design Methods
Describes teaching/learning process Process undertaken by persons interacting within a learning
environment
Definition of roles, activities, activity structures, interaction, learning resources etc.
Derivation of Learning Design Rules
From instructional design theory (prescriptions) From best practice (examples) From patterns in best practice (patterns)
Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Instructional Design Theories
E.g. based on the knowledgebase of learning research/theory
3 Main directions Behaviourism Cognitivsm Constructivism
Behaviourism
Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models
Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors
Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus
“Black box" metaphor
Emphasis is on relationships between environmental variables and behavior
Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors
Embedded theories:e.g.
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
Stimulus-Response Theory
Thorndike's Laws and Connectionism
Information Processing
Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing)
Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus
Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made
Learner acquires skills of discrimination (recalling facts), generalization (defining and illustrating concepts), association (applying explanations), and chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)
Computer-Based Instruction
Contract Learning
Individualized Instruction
Programmed Instruction
Information Processing Model
Implication for instruction
Behavioral objectives
Dick & Carey instructional design model
Performance-based assessment
Systems models
Dick&Carey Instructional Design Model
Predictable link between a stimulus and the response it produces in a learner It is the designer's responsibility
to determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be learned and
to choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills The basic steps
Determine instructional goal Analyse the instructional goal Analyse learners and contexts Write performance objectives Develop assessment instruments Develop instructional strategy Develop and select instructional materials Design and conduct formative evaluation Revise instruction Summative evaluation
Programmed Instruction
Based on Skinner's "operant conditioning“ (behavior can be conditionned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns)
Method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps
Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram
They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information
Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be
reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements will generalise across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalisation")
producing secondary conditioning
Cognitivism
Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models
Learning is a change of knowledge state
Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner
Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process
Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge
Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing
Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve, and store information in memory
Examines the mental structure and processes related to learning
Learning is viewed as an active process that occurs within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner
Embedded theories: e.g.Component Display Theory (Merril)
Dual Coding Theory (Paivio)
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
Mental Models (Norman)
Subsumption Theory (Ausubel)
Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner
Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies
Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way
Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated
Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
Merrill’s Component Display Model
Implication for instruction
Cognitive objectives
Learning strategies
Learning taxonomies
Prerequisite skills
Task analysis
Merrill's Component Display Model
Classifies learning along two dimensions Content (facts, concepts, procedures, principles) Performance (remembering, using, generalities)
Primary presentation forms (expository/inquisitory x generality/instance learning strategies) Rules (expository presentation of a generality) Examples (expository presentation of instances) Recall (inquisitory generality) Practice (inquisitory instance)
Secondary presentation forms: Prerequisites Objectives Helps Mnemonics Feedback
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
Instruction should be organised in increasing order of complexity
Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated
7 Major strategy components: Elaborative sequence (simple – complex) Learning prerequisite sequences Summary (e.g. at lesson, unit level) Synthesis (integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and
assimilate them into prior knowledge) Analogies (relate the content to learners' prior knowledge) Cognitive strategy activators (e.g. pictures, diagrams, mnemonics) Learner control
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Classifying learning objectives: Verb + Noun Two-dimensional
Verb: Cognitive process dimension (underlying continuum is complexity) Remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create
Noun: Knowledge dimension (continuum: concrete – abstract) Factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Knowledge
Dimension
Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
Discovery Learning
Inquiry-based learning method Problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own
experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be learned
It is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment "Rich" environments: (Perkins) Combination of five basic resources:
Information banks - allow access to required information (e.g., books, encyclopedias, videos)
Symbols pads - supports learners' short-term memory (e.g., notebooks, laptops)
Construction kits - facilitates manipulation and building (e.g., Lego) Phenomenaria - allows exploration (e.g., terrarium, computer simulation) Task managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed (e.g.,
teachers, electronic tutors)
Constructivism
Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models
Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions
Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings)
There are many ways (multiple perspectives) of structuring the world and its entities
Meaning is imposed by the individual rather than existing in the world
Embedded theories:e.g.Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro et al.)
Generative Learning Theory (Wittrock)
Situated Cognition (Clancey, Lave)
Social-Cultural Learning (Vygotsky)
Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions
Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge
Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge
Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations
Learning activities should be authentic and should center around the “problematic” or “puzzlement” as perceived by the learner
The focus is on the process not the product
Role of teacher is a mentor not a “teller”
Encourage reflective thinking, higher order learning skills
Action Learning
Authentic Learning
Case-Based Learning
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
Collaborative Learning
Communities of Practice
Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILEs)
Discovery Learning
Distributed Learning
Inquiry-Based Learning
Microworlds/Simulations
Implication for Instruction
Authentic assessment methods
Learning through exploration
Problem-oriented activities
"Rich" environments
Visual formats and mental models
Learning Theories:General Practice of Instructional Design
Designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach Designer analyses the learning situation and sets a goal, objective,
decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner
Individual tasks are broken down, learning objectives are developed
Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives have been met (e.g. perfomance tests)
Learning Theories:General Practice of Instructional Design
Designing from a constructivist approach: Designer produces a product that is much more facilitative than
prescriptive The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the
learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner
The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals
First Principles of Instruction Merril (2002)
Identified 5 principles (basic methods) that can be found in a variety of design/instructional theories and models Apply regardless of instructional program or practice described by a
given theory or model
Learning is promoted when Learners are engaged in solving real-world problems Existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge New knowledge is demonstrated to the learner New knowledge is applied by the learner New knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world
Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Best Practice
Using learning design method of specific example courses Set up database of accessible and usable courses or course components
(e.g. Merlot 2004) Set up database of learning design methods (e.g. frameworks, lesson plans
as guidelines for designing new courses) Awareness of
Situational characteristics Indication of quality (e.g. probability of success, peer review, expert review,
quality ratings of users) Chance of finding a successful example that matches with own needs
is not very high due to conditions Internet offers option to share examples, lesson plans with others (e.g.
overview of databases by Van Es, 2004)
Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Patterns in Best Practice
Analysis of patterns in collections of comparable best practices Reflect experience of experts Concise description Solve recurrent problems in a learning design Can be used as templates for designing UoL
Two ways of creating patterns: Analysing common structures in a set of learning design methods
(inductive way) Meetings with experienced learning designers to identify recurrent
problems and generic models for solutions (deductive way, more popular)
Summary
Learning designer uses learning design knowledge to create a learning design method for a course
Learning design knowledge consists of series of rules taking the “if situation, then method” format
Rules are derived from theory, best practices, patterns
Implication for eLearning Settings
To enable learning designers to search for, share and re-use learning design methods, there is the need of a standard notation
Requirements Comprehensive Support of blended learning, pure online learning Pedagogical flexible Personalisation/Adaptivity: Description of conditions Identification, isolation, de-contextualisation, exchange, re-use of parts of
the learning design (e.g. patterns) Standardised, in line with other existing standards Formal language in order to be processed automatically Enabling a learning design to be abstracted so that repeated execution in
different settings and with different persons becomes possible
IMS Learning Design Specification
IMS Learning Design Specification
Digital format for encoding, transporting, and playing learning designs
A model for describing the structure of tasks and activities, their assignment to roles, and the workflow of a Unit of Learning as a ‘Learning Design’ “Who does what, when, using which materials/services to attain
which learning objectives”
A platform-independent notational convention to allow sharing and re-using of these designs The structure of the learning scenario is separated from the learning
materials and services Materials can be reused within different scenarios Scenarios can be reused and new materials added
Core concepts Regardless of the pedagogical/instructional approach, a
Person gets a Role in the teaching-learning process (e.g. learner or teacher)
In this Role he or she works towards certain Outcomes by performing more or less structured Learning and/or Support Activities within an Environment
The overall scenario or design (e.g. which Role gets which Activities at what moment in the process) is described within the Method element
IMS Learning Design Specification
Formula of Learning Design Rules
If Learning Situation
required level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility AND
characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media AND
Values of learning designer
then Learning Design Methoda play of one or more sequential acts with
one or more parallel role-partstaking into account a set of conditions for
the play, act, or role-part
with A certain probability of success
Thank you for your attention!!!!
ISD phases
Analysis Instructional problem
Design Instructional scenario Learning flow Xml coding
Development resources
Implementation Publication and run of UoL
Evaluation
Bloom
three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.
General Concept of Learning Design
Sharing and Re-using The ‘design’ needs to be described
at a sufficient level of abstraction that it can be generalised beyond the single teaching and learning context for which it is created,
but not at such an abstract level that the pedagogical value and richness is lost
IMS-Learning Design intends to solve this
IMS LD Elements
Roles Represent the type of a participant in a UoL
Staff (e.g. teacher, tutor) Learner
Activities Link between Roles and Environment
An Activity references the Role by which it has to be executed as well as the Environment in which the activity has to be executed
Types Learning Activity: directed at attaining a learning objective Support Activity: meant to facilitate a Role performing one or more
learning activities Can be aggregated into an Activity-Structure
Provides the mechanisms to structure Activities and UoL (Sequence vs. Selection)
Can reference other Activities, Activity-Structures, external UoL
IMS LD Components
Environment Is the setting were Activities take place Consists of the appropriate Learning Objects and Services to be
used during the performance of the Activities Learning Objects
Digital or non-digital resources Web pages, text books, productivity tools (text processors, editors,
calculators, ...), instruments (microscope, etc.), test items,….
Services Facilities that are helpful in completing activities
Communication services (e.g. mail, discussion forums, chat) Monitoring services Search services …
Method (link between all components) Can be designed towards
Learning Objectives to be met by learners Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities
Prerequisites Overall entry requirements for learners for doing a UoL Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities
Contains a Play and Conditions Play specifies which Roles perform what Activities in what order
The Play consists of a sequence of Acts Each Act contains one or more Role-Parts Each Role-Part associates a Role with an Activity or Activity-Structure When an Act is completed, the next Act can start
Conditions are used in connection with Properties for further refinement and to add personalisation facilities to the LD
IMS LD Elements
Building a UoL
Narrative Title - a very short description Provided by - author, institution, etc. Pedagogy/Type of learning - case-based, problem-based, etc. Description/Context - idem Learning objectives - idem Roles: - the various participants, such as student, tutor, etc. Different types of learning content used - texts, internet pages Different types of learning services/facilities/tools used Different types of collaborative activities Learning activity workflow - how Actors / Content / Services interact Scenarios - e.g., same content may be used for face-to-face and
distance learning Other needs / Specific requirements - e.g. accessibility, specific
target groups, etc.
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