Transcript
Indirect (dynamic) Networks
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Indirect (dynamic) Networks
• Communication between any two nodes has to be carried through some switches.• Classified into:• Crossbar network•Multistage interconnection networks (MIN)• Nonblocking networks• Rearrangeable nonblocking networks• Blocking networks
• Single-stage interconnection networks
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Crossbar (nonblocking, 1-hop)
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An N x M crossbarThe cost increases as N x M.
Switch point(crosspoint)
M outputs
N inputs
N:1 multiplexer
A large crossbar
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MINs
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Three-stage MIN
first stage
second stage
third stage
N inputs
M outputs
Nonblocking MIN• Any input port can be connected to any free output port without
affecting the existing connections.• Same functionality as a crossbar.• The Clos network is proposed to reduce the cost of crossbar by
decreasing the number of switches (1953).
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History (telephone net.)• Early telephone networks were built from elector-mechanical
crossbars.• Key developments in telephone switching include the Clos network
in 1953 and the Benes network in 1962.• Many large telephone switches today are still built from Clos or
Clos-like networks.
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3-stage Clos network (m,n,r)
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Nonblocking: m >= 2n-1
Rearrangeable: 2n-1 > m >= n
N inputs
N outputs
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n×m r×r m×n
Rearrangeable nonblocking MIN
• Any input port can be connected to any free output port with rearrangement of paths for the existing connections.• Less stages or smaller switches than a nonblocking networks. • The best known example is the Benes network.
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Benes network
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An 8x8 Benes network (Eσ ３－１ E σ ２
－ 1 Eσ ２ Eσ ３ E)
N(2log2N - 1) / 2 switches, 2log2N - 1 hops, E: stage
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σ ３－１ σ ２
－１ σ ２ σ ３
010
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(2,2,2) clos
(2,2,2) clos
(2,4,2) Clos
2x2 switch (radix: 2)
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straight exchange lowerbroadcast
upperbroadcast
Permutation
•Permutations are traffic patterns in which all traffic from each source is directed to one destination.• It can be compactly represented by a permutation
function that maps source to destination.•Bit (digit) permutation are those in which each bit
(digit) of the destination address is a function of one bit (digit) of the source address.• di = sj or dx = f(sx)
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Permutation functions (1/2)
Communication from node address x(an,an-1,an-2,…, a1) to• Perfect shuffle: σ(x)=(an-1,an-2,…, a1,an)• k sub-shuffule: σk(x)=(an,an-1,…, ak+1,ak-1, … , a1,ak)• k supershuffule: σk(x)=(an-1,an-2,…, an-k+1, an, an-k, … , a1)• Inverse perfect shuffle: σ-1(x)=(a1 , an , an-1,an-2,…, a2)• k sub-inverse shuffule: σk
-1 (x)=(an , …, ak+1 , a1,ak,…, a2)
• Butterfly: β(x)=(a1 , an-1,an-2,…, a2 , an)• k sub-butterfly: βk (x)=(an,…, ak+1 , a1,ak-1, … , a2,ak)• k superbutterfly: βk (x)=(an-k+1, an-1,…, an-k+2 , an,an-k, … , a1)
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Permutation functions (2/2)
Communication from node address x(an,an-1,an-2,…, a1) to• Bit reversal: ρ(x)=(a1,a2,…, an-1, an)• k sub-bit reversal : ρk(x)=(an,an-1,…, ak+1,a1, a2,… , ak-1,ak)• k super-bit reversal: ρk(x)=(an-k+1,an-k+2,…, an-1, an, an-k, … , a1)• shift: α(x)= | x+1| (2n), where modulo by 2n
• k sub-shift: αk(x)= | x+1| (2n) +floor(x/2k)2k
• k super-shift: αk (x)= | x+ 2n-k | (2n) • Exchange: Ei(x)=(an,an-1, …, ~ai,…, a1)
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Perfect shuffle (1/2)
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Perfect shuffle
σ(x)=(an-1,an-2,…, a1,an)Inverse perfect shuffle
σ-1(x)=(a1,an an-1,an-2,…, a2)
Perfect shuffle (2/2)
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3 sub-inverse shuffule
σ3-1
(x)=(a1 , a3 , a2)2 sub-inverse shuffle
σ2-1
(x)=(a3, a1, a2)
Butterfly
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butterfly (bit reversal)
β3(x)=(a1 , a2 , a3)
＝ ρ ３ (x)
2 sub-butterfly
β2(x)=(a3, a1, a2)
shift
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shiftα(x)= | x+1 | (23)
2 sub-shift
α 2(x)=| x+1 | (22)+floor(x/ 22) 22
exchange
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E3(x) = (~a3, a2, a1) E2(x) = (a3, ~a2, a1)
Blocking MIN
• A free input/output pair is not always possible because of conflicts with the existing connections.• Minimizing the number of switches and stages.• Unidirectional MIN (Cenju-3, IBM PR3)• Bidirectional MIN (IBM SP, TMC CM5)
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Unidirectional MINs•Channels and switches are unidirectional.•At least ceiling(logkN) stages are required for a MIN
of N input and output ports with k×k switches.•Every path through the MIN crosses all the stages
(same length).•Examples: baseline, butterfly, indirect cube
logN stages for N inputs/outputs with 2x2 switches( binary logN-fly in the form of k-ary n-fly)the number of communication patterns are (√N)N
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Baseline networks (1/2)(B = Eσn
－１ Eσn-1－１ E ・・・ Eσ ２
－ 1 E)
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abc cab cbaσ ２
－ 1σ ３－ 1
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Baseline networks (2/2)
• To route (an,an-1,an-2,…, a1) to (bn,bn-1,bn-2,…, b1),select upper link when bi=0, otherwise select lower link on (n-i+1) stage (MSB
to LSB).(path is determined only by the destination address)
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switch
upper linklower link
inputs
Omega networks (1/2) Ω= (σE)n
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σσσabc bca abccab
Omega networks (2/2)
• To route (an,an-1,an-2,…, a1) to (bn,bn-1,bn-2,…, b1),set the switch as straight when ai^bi=0, otherwise set it as exchange on (n-i+1)
stage (MSB to LSB).
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straight exchange
Indirect binary n-cube (1/2)(C = Eβ ２ Eβ ３ ・・・ E β ｎ Eσ － 1)
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σ-1β ３β ２
000001
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abc acb abcbca
Indirect binary n-cube (2/2)
• To route (an,an-1,an-2,…, a1) to (bn,bn-1,bn-2,…, b1),set the switch as straight when ai^bi=0, otherwise set it as exchange on i-th
stage (LSB to MSB).
• A k-ary n-fly network consists of kn source/destination terminals, n stages of kn-1 k×k crossbar switches.• Degree of the switches: 2k• Diameter: n+1 or logkN +1 where N = kn
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Relation among blocking networks • For omega, indirect n-cube and Banyan(Y):
Ω-1=C=Yσ So they are almost functionally equal (isomorphic).• The communication patterns are different, but same number of
combinations ((√N)N).• Smaller number of communication patterns than nonblocking
networks (N!).
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Bitonic sort
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8 inputs sorter4 inputs sorter2 inputs sorter
A LB H
Batcher-banyan network
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BitonicSorter
(Batcher stage)
Ω
(banyan
stage)
Non-blocking
5∞31∞･･∞
135∞∞･･∞
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receiver Ordered addresses
Tree saturation (e.g. on Omega)
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Combining: combine two messages
hotspot
Fault-tolerant MINs
• Blocking MINs provide a single path between any input/output pair.• If a link becomes congested or fails, the unique path property can
easily disrupt the communication (no path diversity).• A solution is to provide multiple routing paths by adding extra
stages or channels.
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Fault-tolerant MINs (Omega’s case)
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σσσAdditionalstage
Fault-tolerant MINs (Baseline’s case)
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σ ２－ 1σ ３
－ 1
Bidirectional MINs (BMINs)
•Channels and switches are bidirectional.• Information can be transmitted simultaneously in
opposite directions between neighboring switches.•Paths are established in BMINs by crossing stages in
forward, then turnaround, and finally backward.•Several paths are possible in forward direction, but
a single path is available in backward direction.
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Bidirectional Banyan networks
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β ３β ２
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000001
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forward
backward
turnaround
A fat tree BMIN
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forward backward
Hybrid networks
• Combine mechanisms from shared-medium networks and direct or indirect networks.• Increase bandwidth and reduce the distance between nodes.• Examples:
• Multiple backplane buses• Hierarchical buses• Cluster-based networks
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Multiple backplane buses
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device device device
bus
bus
bus
Hierarchical buses
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Global bus
Cluster busbridge
Cluster-based networks
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Cluster bus
ClusterCluster Cluster
ClusterCluster Cluster
router
History (Clos networks, etc.)•Clos introduced non-blocking networks in1953.•Benes discovered rearrangeable non-blocking
networks in 1965.•Bachter introduced the bitonic sort and the
Batcher sorting network in 1968.•Knuth’s book in 1998 treats sorting networks in
detail.•Multicast in Clos networks was first considered by
Masson and Jordan(1972), and has since been studied by many researchers.
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History (indirect networks)• Processor-memory networks emerged in the late 1960s
in the form of indirect netwoks.• The smallest machine employed crossbar, whereas
larger sytems used butterfly, etc..• Since the early 1990s, a variant of the Clos and Benes
networks of telephony has emerged in SMP (MPP) networks in the form of the fat tree.• Today, the high pin bandwidth of router chips relative
to message length motivates the use of networks of higher node degree, such as Clos and fat free.
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