Transcript
The Construction, Building and Real Estate Research Conference of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors
Held at Dauphine Université, Paris, 2-3 September 2010 ISBN 978-1-84219-619-9 © RICS 12 Great George Street London SW1P 3AD United Kingdom www.rics.org/cobra September 2010 The RICS COBRA Conference is held annually. The aim of COBRA is to provide a platform for the dissemination of original research and new developments within the specific disciplines, sub-disciplines or field of study of:
Management of the construction process
• Cost and value management • Building technology • Legal aspects of construction and procurement • Public private partnerships • Health and safety • Procurement • Risk management • Project management
The built asset
• Property investment theory and practice • Indirect property investment • Property market forecasting • Property pricing and appraisal • Law of property, housing and land use planning • Urban development • Planning and property markets • Financial analysis of the property market and property assets • The dynamics of residential property markets • Global comparative analysis of property markets • Building occupation • Sustainability and real estate • Sustainability and environmental law • Building performance
The property industry
• Information technology • Innovation in education and training • Human and organisational aspects of the industry • Alternative dispute resolution and conflict management • Professional education and training
Peer review process All papers submitted to COBRA were subjected to a double-blind (peer review) refereeing process. Referees were drawn from an expert panel, representing respected academics from the construction and building research community. The conference organisers wish to extend their appreciation to the following members of the panel for their work, which is invaluable to the success of COBRA. Rifat Akbiyikli Sakarya University, Turkey Rafid Al Khaddar Liverpool John Moores University, UK Ahmed Al Shamma’a Liverpool John Moores University, UK Tony Auchterlounie University of Bolton, UK Kwasi Gyau Baffour Awuah University of Wolverhampton, UK Kabir Bala Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria Juerg Bernet Danube University Krems, Austria John Boon UNITEC, New Zealand Douw Boshoff University of Pretoria, South Africa Richard Burt Auburn University, USA Judith Callanan RMIT University, Australia Kate Carter Heriot-Watt University, UK Keith Cattell University of Cape Town, South Africa Antoinette Charles Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Fiona Cheung Queensland University of Technology, Australia Sai On Cheung City University of Hong Kong Samuel Chikafalimani University of Pretoria, South Africa Ifte Choudhury Texas A and M University, USA Chris Cloete University of Pretoria, South Africa Alan Coday Anglia Ruskin University, UK Michael Coffey Anglia Ruskin University, UK Nigel Craig Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Ayirebi Dansoh KNUST, Ghana Peter Davis Curtin University, Australia Peter Defoe Calford Seaden, UK Grace Ding University of Technology Sydney, Australia Hemanta Doloi University of Melbourne, Australia John Dye TPS Consult, UK Peter Edwards RMIT, Australia Charles Egbu University of Salford, UK Ola Fagbenle Covenant University, Nigeria Ben Farrow Auburn University, USA Peter Fenn University of Manchester, UK Peter Fewings University of the West of England, UK
Peter Fisher University of Northumbria, UK Chris Fortune University of Salford, UK Valerie Francis University of Melbourne, Australia Rod Gameson University of Wolverhampton, UK Abdulkadir Ganah University of Central Lancashire, UK Seung Hon Han Yonsei University, South Korea Anthony Hatfield University of Wolverhampton, UK Theo Haupt Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Dries Hauptfleisch University of the Free State, South Africa Paul Holley Auburn University, USA Danie Hoffman University of Pretoria, South Africa Keith Hogg University of Northumbria, UK Alan Hore Construction IT Alliance, Ireland Bon-Gang Hwang National University of Singapore Joseph Igwe University of Lagos, Nigeria Adi Irfan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Javier Irizarry Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Usman Isah University of Manchester, UK David Jenkins University of Glamorgan, UK Godfaurd John University of Central Lancashire, UK Keith Jones University of Greenwich, UK Dean Kashiwagi Arizona State University, USA Nthatisi Khatleli University of Cape Town, South Africa Mohammed Kishk Robert Gordon’s University, UK Andrew Knight Nottingham Trent University, UK Scott Kramer Auburn University, USA Esra Kurul Oxford Brookes University, UK Richard Laing Robert Gordon’s University, UK Terence Lam Anglia Ruskin University, UK Veerasak Likhitruangsilp Chulalongkorn University, Thailand John Littlewood University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, UK Junshan Liu Auburn University, USA Champika Liyanage University of Central Lancashire, UK Greg Lloyd University of Ulster, UK S M Lo City University of Hong Kong Mok Ken Loong Yonsei University, South Korea Martin Loosemore University of New South Wales, Australia David Manase Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Donny Mangitung Universitas Tadulako, Malaysia Patrick Manu University of Wolverhampton, UK Tinus Maritz University of Pretoria, South Africa Hendrik Marx University of the Free State. South Africa Ludwig Martin Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa Wilfred Matipa Liverpool John Moores University, UK Steven McCabe Birmingham City University, UK Annie McCartney University of Glamorgan, UK Andrew McCoy Virginia Tech, USA Enda McKenna Queen’s University Belfast, UK Kathy Michell University of Cape Town, South Africa Roy Morledge Nottingham Trent University, UK
Michael Murray University of Strathclyde, UK Saka Najimu Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Stanley Njuangang University of Central Lancashire, UK Henry Odeyinka University of Ulster, UK Ayodejo Ojo Ministry of National Development, Seychelles Michael Oladokun University of Uyo, Nigeria Alfred Olatunji Newcastle University, Australia Austin Otegbulu Beliz Ozorhon Bogazici University, Turkey Obinna Ozumba University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Robert Pearl University of KwaZulu, Natal, South Africa Srinath Perera Northumbria University, UK Joanna Poon Nottingham Trent University, UK Keith Potts University of Wolverhampton, UK Elena de la Poza Plaza Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Matthijs Prins Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Hendrik Prinsloo University of Pretoria, South Africa Richard Reed Deakin University, Australia Zhaomin Ren University of Glamorgan, UK Herbert Robinson London South Bank University, UK Kathryn Robson RMIT, Australia Simon Robson University of Northumbria, UK David Root University of Cape Town, South Africa Kathy Roper Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Steve Rowlinson University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Paul Royston Nottingham Trent University, UK Paul Ryall University of Glamorgan, UK Amrit Sagoo Coventry University, UK Alfredo Serpell Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile Winston Shakantu Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa Yvonne Simpson University of Greenwich, UK John Smallwood Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa Heather Smeaton-Webb MUJV Ltd. UK Bruce Smith Auburn University, USA Melanie Smith Leeds Metropolitan University, UK Hedley Smyth University College London, UK John Spillane Queen’s University Belfast, UK Suresh Subashini University of Wolverhampton, UK Kenneth Sullivan Arizona State University, USA Joe Tah Oxford Brookes University, UK Derek Thomson Heriot-Watt University, UK Matthew Tucker Liverpool John Moores University, UK Chika Udeaja Northumbria University, UK Basie Verster University of the Free State, South Africa Francois Viruly University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa John Wall Waterford Institute of Technology, Ireland Sara Wilkinson Deakin University, Australia Trefor Williams University of Glamorgan, UK
Bimbo Windapo University of Cape Town, South Africa Francis Wong Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ing Liang Wong Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Andrew Wright De Montfort University, UK Peter Wyatt University of Reading, UK Junli Yang University of Westminster, UK Wan Zahari Wan Yusoff Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia George Zillante University of South Australia Benita Zulch University of the Free State, South Africa Sam Zulu Leeds Metropolitan University, UK
In addition to this, the following specialist panel of peer-review experts assessed papers for the COBRA session arranged by CIB W113 John Adriaanse London South Bank University, UK Julie Adshead University of Salford, UK Alison Ahearn Imperial College London, UK Rachelle Alterman Technion, Israel Deniz Artan Ilter Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Jane Ball University of Sheffield, UK Luke Bennett Sheffield Hallam University, UK Michael Brand University of New South Wales, Australia Penny Brooker University of Wolverhampton, UK Alice Christudason National University of Singapore Paul Chynoweth University of Salford, UK Sai On Cheung City University of Hong Kong Julie Cross University of Salford, UK Melissa Daigneault Texas A&M University, USA Steve Donohoe University of Plymouth, UK Ari Ekroos University of Helsinki, Finland Tilak Ginige Bournemouth University, UK Martin Green Leeds Metropolitan University, UK David Greenwood Northumbria University, UK Asanga Gunawansa National University of Singapore Jan-Bertram Hillig University of Reading, UK Rob Home Anglia Ruskin University, UK Peter Kennedy Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Anthony Lavers Keating Chambers, UK Wayne Lord Loughborough University, UK Sarah Lupton Cardiff University Tim McLernon University of Ulster, UK Frits Meijer TU Delft, The Netherlands Jim Mason University of the West of England, UK Brodie McAdam University of Salford, UK Tinus Maritz University of Pretoria, South Africa
Francis Moor University of Salford, UK Issaka Ndekugri University of Wolverhampton, UK John Pointing Kingston University, UK Razani Abdul Rahim Universiti Technologi, Malaysia Linda Thomas-Mobley Georgia Tech, USA Paul Tracey University of Salford, UK Yvonne Scannell Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Cathy Sherry University of New South Wales, Australia Julian Sidoli del Ceno Birmingham City University, UK Keren Tweeddale London South Bank University, UK Henk Visscher TU Delft, The Netherlands Peter Ward University of Newcastle, Australia
CUTTING EDGE TECHNOLOGY FOR CONSTRUCTION
ICT IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY
Ozumba AOU 1 School of Construction Economics and Management, EBE Faculty, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg. obinna.ozumba@wits.ac.za
Ata ON 2 Department of Electronic Engineering, Engineering Faculty, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria. onaedoata@gmail.com
Oburo NC 3 Department of Electronic Engineering, Engineering Faculty, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria. nellie4ril2000@yahoo.com
David N 4 Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria.
nathan.david@unn.edu.ng
Abstract: The construction industry in developing countries struggles with the diffusion of Information
and Communication Technology. Among many hindering factors are Negative notions on the
part of the local industry and society at large. These perceptions concern the availability of
relevant latest technologies, necessary skills and capacity of the local technology to support
advancement in Construction ICT in various areas of need. The growing need for improved site
security presents a good opportunity for greater integration of ICT in the local industry; despite
attendant constraints and negative perceptions. The paper presents an attempt to address some of
these notions by demonstrating the existence of cutting edge technology that is relevant to a
need area in construction. The findings add value to the local body of knowledge on
technology (ICT) generally, and Construction ICT (CICT) in particular with regards to
possibilities and advantages.
Keywords: Construction ICT, Technology Transfer, Site Security Management,
Biometrics, Iris Recognition.
Definition of terms:
Hamming Distance :To calculate the similarity of two iris codes, Hamming distance is used. A
lower Hamming distance indicates higher similarity. The Hamming distance operator performs
this function.
Circular Hough Transform: A feature extracting technique used in detecting the pupil of the eye.
The basic idea of this technique is to find curves that can be parameterized like straight lines,
polynomials, circles, etc., in a suitable parameter space.
Biometrics: Automatic recognition of individuals based on their physiological and/or behavioral
characteristics.
Matlab (MATrix LABoratory): A programming language for technical computing from The
MathWorks, (www.mathworks.com). Used for a wide variety of scientific and engineering
calculations, especially for automatic control and signal processing.
Canny edge operator: An edge detection operator used as a multiple stage algorithm to detect a
wide range of edges.
CASIA Iris database: Chinese Academy of Sciences Iris database of iris images released for
research and educational purposes.
Haar wavelet: The haar wavelet allows information to be encoded according to levels of detail.
Pentium M processor: A family of CPUs from Intel that are part of its Centrino brand for mobile
computing; successor of Pentium III M and Pentium 4 M.
Bilinear transformation: This is a useful approximation for converting continuous time filters
(represented in Laplace space) into discrete time filters (represented in z space).
Downsampling (an image): Creating an access image that is a miniaturized duplicate of your
optical resolution master scan. That is, compressing the image so it does not take as much hard
memmory space.
1 Introduction
Construction Information and Communication Technology (CICT) makes reference to ICT
development for construction; the integration of ICT in construction. This could mean from first
principles / ideas, components or from existing finished products (Ozumba & Shakantu, 2008a;
2008b). Though a trend which started after the Second World War with the advent of
computers, it is still a growing field today (Howard, 1998). Construction is said to be lagging
behind in the uptake of ICT, compared to other industrial sectors (Koskela, 1992). Nevertheless
major advancements have been made in this field especially in highly industrialised nations of
the world (FIATECH, 2009; Ozumba & Shakantu, 2008b; Howard, 1998).
However, the so called „developing countries‟ do not seem to be faring well in this regard.
Developing countries generally struggle with the pressures of globalisation, culture and the dire
need for physical development (Ofori, 2000). This puts an even greater pressure on these
countries to incorporate global industry trends, in the presence of obvious limitations. Thus the
so called „developing countries‟ seem to struggle with advancing beyond basic usage of
computers with regards to CICT. A case in point is Nigeria in Western Africa. Though the local
Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector has experienced a lot of activity in
recent times, the CICT is still basic (Oladapo, 2005). Beyond design, estimation and basic
programming of projects there does not seem to be any more / serious integration of ICT in
construction as it is occurring in the wider world today. Apart from obvious factors and most
advanced reasons, other barriers to CICT growth seem to exist within the industry community
and society at large. Such barriers would include perceptions and notions about their capacity to
sustain such technological growth. More grave is the perceptible general negative notions about
availability of ICT and ICT skills locally to power advancement in CICT. In light of inadequate
infrastructure, power supply, and other essential public services, socio-economic and political
upheavals, it seems that negative perceptions are justified. Negative notions or perceptions of
stakeholders in this aspect of construction, especially in developing areas; influence their
willingness to invest in CICT. As such attainable benefits are not realised.
However with the fast paced development of the ICT sector, more opportunities exist for the
built environment. Consequently there are benefits that could accrue even to the local industry
from investment in ICT. This could come about from adapting existing / latest ICT to use in
construction, within the constraints already discussed (Ozumba and Shakantu, 2008a; 2008b;
2009a). The capacity to adapt technology to local use and support that usage efficiently within
the local environment would be of prime importance in this regard. To achieve the above, the
technology and adequate level of requisite skills base ought to be locally available. Therefore
the existence of these two would also partly serve as indicators of a locally sustainable CICT.
Thus it is possible to address some of the suggested negative notions, by demonstrating
indicators of available adequate local ICT and the essential skills. Moreover if local availability
of adequate technologies could be established, it will encourage more interest in ICT investment
within the local industry. Presently it is not possible to employ all current / latest ICT in the
local construction environment. Nevertheless it is possible to integrate some of the high level
technologies through adaptations that make them operable; bearing in mind the constraints
within the local environment. Achieving that within reasonable cost will still depend on local
availability of human and material resources. Thus the general line of enquiry would seek to
determine what relevant latest information and communication technologies, and ICT skills,
exist within the local context.
Obvious constraints within the local environment suggest a negative response to the above
general line of questioning. However within specific need areas in construction such as site
security; there are indicators of locally available ICT and required skills, which are relevant and
accessible to the industry. As stated in the abstract, site security has become quite important
among growing need areas in the construction process. Site security management falls within
the site management process (SMP). In the „new construction site environment‟ the stretching of
site management capacity results in lapses occasioned by „site management blind spots‟
(Ozumba and Shakantu, 2008a). The rising cases of theft and massive financial losses due to
extra costs incurred as a result of site theft all point to the current critical status of site security.
As businesses incur heavy losses, issues such as monitoring movement and access into and
within specific areas on site have become critical to the success of the SMP. Project and site
level management personnel are under pressure to deliver in this area (The Chartered Institute of
Building (CIOB), 2009). However on the general local industry landscape, there is not much
investment in ICT for site security beyond two-way radios and manual communication systems.
Inefficiencies, increase in expense and communication bottlenecks, make dependence on
manual monitoring a poor solution (Sacks & Novon & Goldscmidt, 2002). This is especially
with regards to remote areas with minimal infrastructural development; due to obvious
constraints and notions, which are supported by less impressive facts about skills, infrastructure
and sustainability of available technologies.
The questions arising from the above deliberation are:
(a) What latest ICT and requisite ICT skills, which are sustainable and relevant to site security
management, exist locally?
Thus the aim of the paper is to present a report on identification and implementation of research
in cutting edge technology, for adaptation to construction within the context of a developing
country; the paper showcases an example of „local independent technology‟ (Ozumba, 93),
focusing on the Nigeria context. Findings suggest that there is growing room for the
development and adaptation of cutting edge technology to construction within the context of
developing countries that are underprovided for in infrastructure and power. It is also suggested
here that technology transferred, could over time, become truly independent and local through
adaptation. Thus the technology becomes sustainable locally (Ozumba, 1993). Hence it is
possible to partly address underlying technology and capacity factors which act as barriers to
ICT investment.
2 Barriers to CICT
Barriers to the uptake of ICT in construction are many and they vary depending on the project,
the area and the people involved, among other factors. The field-oriented nature of construction
is a major factor. This brings into view the fragmentation of the industry; complex production /
procurement system; ad hoc / project method used, and geographical distribution of participants.
Also there is the high rate of development and obsolescence of ICT; poor implementation
processes adopted; introduction of varying ICT standards and the requirements for installation
and setting up ICT on site (Arayici et. al., 2005; Oladapo, 2005; Cabarello, 2002; Begh and
Kagioglou, 2004; Svidt and Christiansson, 2006).
Generally, the cost of implementation is one major barrier to increase in CICT. Also the
complexity in assessing real cost savings, encourages unwillingness on the part of industry
practitioners (Svidt and Christiansson, 2006; Ozumba and Shakantu, 2008b). Moreover, apart
from natural resistance to change, there is fear of redundancy; which stems from poor and
negative information (Svidt and Christiansson, 2006; Oladapo, 2005). Besides the above
mentioned there are also human resource factors such as competence of the staff, usability
factors and perceptions of the technologies (Ugwu and Kumaraswamy, 2007).
Many of the factors discussed above impact CICT progress more in developing countries. There
are other equally serious issues such as Competence of the CICT development team,
standardization of products and processes, local availability of appropriate software and
appropriate hardware technology. Moreover within the context of a developing country, external
influences from the immediate geo-political and socio-economic environment would constitute
barriers or enablers. Such factors would include governmental control through regulations and
guidelines (Ugwu and Kumaraswamy, 2007).
Within countries struggling with development, the factors discussed above are combined with
the daily realities of life. In such instances, much more negative perceptions of CICT would be
most likely generated. Nigeria from experience struggles with provision of basic services, power
supply, general infrastructure and ICT enabling infrastructure. These necessities are still at
developmental stages. The situation is exacerbated by the lasting effects of a high degree of
economic stress.
Technology diffusion in construction continues to face many of the above mentioned barriers in
places such as Nigeria. CICT in essence is the movement of technology from ICT sector,
directly or indirectly, to construction. That in essence is Technology Transfer (TT). Issues
concerning CICT in developing countries such as Nigeria are therefore not divorced from
known challenges of TT. These issues could be addressed from the sub concepts within
Technology Transfer.
2.1 Technology Transfer
Firstly the theory of innovation diffusion describes technology adaptation as a sequential
process (Wu and Ho, 2005). Secondly the implementation of new technology is viewed as
innovative and a two-way adaptation process between technology and the group or society it is
entering (Leonard-Barton 1988 in Wu and Ho, 2005). Wilson, (2004) in Turpin and Cooper,
(2005) argues that indigenous local cultures could be influenced to support innovation and
diffusion. This could happen over time. Technology transfer has a broad range of meanings. It
also involves transfer between groups and within groups. Eventually, over time enough local
technology is grown that becomes independent for the most part (Ozumba, 1993). Globalisation
and the current capacity of latest ICT itself have created enormous opportunities for the growth
of local technology.
Arguments advanced above are indicative of CICT possibilities worth exploring for the local
industry. It would therefore be erroneous to underestimate the degree of locally available ICT
and ICT skills in so called „developing countries‟.
By extrapolation from the above, there are possibilities of locally available high level
technologies; and the requisite skills to adapt such technologies into operable / usable artefacts;
that can function and improve site security management optimally within constraints of the local
environment. Thus it is possible to partly address the challenge of negative notions about local
CICT, in a specific aspect of construction; namely site security management. Establishment of
relevant technology and skills locally would indicate the existence of local technology with a
good measure of independence, specific to the area of study. The objectives so derived, are to
identify and implement locally, a research in cutting edge technology for site security
management; with the aid of locally available skills as described; and assess the adaptability of
such technology to construction within the local context.
3 Research Methodology
Following the objectives above the general research design was as follows:
(a) Identification of an area of research in cutting edge technology, relevant to site security
management. In this case Iris Recognition, under Biometrics technologies was identified based
on descriptions given earlier on the term „locally independent technology‟. The research had to
be carried out within the geographical scope of Nigeria, by people who are trained in, and are
still living in Nigeria. In addition, sourcing had to be from locally available materials and
technologies. The essence is to implement such an advanced research with a good measure of
success within the limitations imposed by the realities of infrastructure, power, funding and
spatial needs, among others. Moreover to assess the adaptability of the technology into a
functional entity that provides the desired services within already described constraints.
(b) Findings of the research are assessed for potential utility adaptable to construction, based on
previous and ongoing research work in Construction ICT. Inferences are then made on
possibilities for Construction ICT growth in the developing country and by extension, other
developing countries.
Besides being a high level technology, locally available and independent, and suitable to site
security management; biometric systems offer great benefits with respect to other authentication
techniques. In particular, they are often more user friendly and can guarantee the physical
presence of the user. Iris recognition ranks as one of the best in performance in terms of
identification and verification. Iris recognition has been practised since the eighteenth century,
in Paris prisons in where police discriminated criminals by inspecting colour variations of their
individual irises. The purpose of „Iris Recognition‟, a biometrics based technology for personal
identification and verification, is to recognize a person from his / her iris prints. Iris patterns are
characterized by high level stability and distinctiveness. The human iris has a very high level of
uniqueness, which could be noticed between both eyes of the same individuals and between
identical twins (Daugman, 1993; Daugman, ud; Wildes, 1997).
3.1 Design and Implementation of PC – Based Iris – Authentication System
Contemporary research in iris-based authentication can coarsely be divided into two categories.
The first is the „Iris Pattern Recognition’, which studies and implements algorithm and more
accurate extraction and matching of iris templates. The second type is „Iris Biometrics
Integration‟, which makes inquest into possible areas of iris biometric applications; focusing on
seamlessly integrating iris-based authentication into various usage environment. The research
work reported here comprises iris image acquisition, iris processing algorithms, database storage
and utility, authentication application development, and access control hardware actuation (the
modules, interfaces, and alternatives).
The project involved designing and carrying out a setup of the component parts of the system,
which was then implemented. The design included software for data collection, processing and
decision making and hardware design implementation for granting or denying access. The actual
implementation of „Iris Recognition‟ involved the following steps: image acquisition, image
manipulation, iris localisation, mapping of the iris and, feature extraction using wavelet
applications, decision making process through comparison of newly coded image with the already
coded iris of the user. The comparison determines a match or an impostor. Finally, the user is
either granted or denied ingress through a door by, activating the hardware phase.
3.1.1 Image acquisition; manipulation; and localisation
Firstly, the most critical step of image acquisition was performed; using a closed circuit digital
(CCD) with the resolution set to 640x480 pixels, the image set to „jpeg‟, and the „mode‟ set to
white and black for greater details. This step determines the image quality. Appropriate settings
for lighting and distance to camera where taken into consideration for the Eye images‟
acquisition. Secondly, for pre-processing manipulation, the images were transformed from RGB
to gray level and from eight-bit to double precision thus facilitating further manipulations in
subsequent steps. Thirdly, a necessary step required that boundaries of the iris be located by
performing full iris image detection (Wildes, 1997). This was performed by a series of steps
involving downsampling of the images using a Gaussian Pyramid; applying the Canny operator
with the default threshold value given by Matlab, in order to obtain the gradient image;
application of a Circular summation for the intensities over all circles; and rescaling of the results
obtained. The centre and radius of the iris in the original image are thus determined. Further
processing is used to address circumstances beyond the capacity of the Canny operator; such as
finding the inner edge, especially for dark and coloured irises (blue or green). Thus the
boundaries of the iris were determined, as shown in Figure 1.
3.1.2 Mapping; feature extraction using wavelet application; and binary coding
The possibility of the pupil dilating and appearing of different size in different images is also
addressed; by mapping of all the points within the boundary of the iris into their polar equivalent
(Figures 2 & 3). This done after unwrapping of the lower part of the iris (lower 180 degrees); with
the size of the mapped image fixed at 100x402 pixels; ensuring that equal amount of points were
taken at every angle. The process so designed addressed pupil dilation as well (Gonzalez, 2002).
The feature extraction step is responsible for obtaining the iris patterns taking into account the
correlation between adjacent pixels. Based on extensive research, wavelets transform was chosen
and more specifically the “Haar Transform” (Gonzalez, 2002). This approach was considered
more appropriate than Gabor wavelets, which has been used in most previous implementations.
Figure 1: Localized Iris
(Source: Ata, Oburo and David, 2010)
Figure 2: Original image
(Source: Ata, Oburo and David, 2010)
Figure 3: Iris isolated image
(Source: Ata, Oburo and David, 2010)
Further reasons were based on the overall research design for the paper; bearing in mind the
constraints in the local work environment of the implementation. Decisions were also based on
the need to keep total computation time as low as possible. Thus building a neural network for
this task was considered time consuming.
By using the Haar Transform, the mapped image is processed; coefficients that represent the core
of the iris pattern are selected; and redundant information revealed is eliminated. Through this
process each image applied to the Haar wavelet can be represented as the combination of six
matrices. A combination of all matrices results in the feature vector, which is a singular vector
that defines the iris patterns. The vector information is used in the binary coding (Lim, Lee,
Byeon and Kim, 2001). The vector generated in the research implementation has a size of 702
elements; due to the approach of mapping only the lower part of the iris. This is a success in
reducing the feature vector with regards to previous implementations. Daugman‟s implementation
uses a vector of 1024 elements (Daugman, 1993).
3.1.3 Binary Coding Scheme and test of statistical independence
The next important step was to perform binary coding on the results for the decision
making process. This required observation of some of the characteristics of the feature
vector; and utilisation of a quantization scheme to convert the feature vector to its
equivalent code-word:
· If Coef( i ) >= 0 then Coef( i ) = 1 · If Coef( i ) < 0 then Coef( i ) = 0
“Coef” is the feature vector of an image. The two code-words are then compared to determine if
they represent the same person or not, using a test of statistical independence. The test is based on
Daugman‟s matching scheme, which uses the binary Hamming distance (HD) and similarities
between two feature vectors. The test enables the comparison of two iris patterns. Any two
different irises are statistically “guaranteed” to pass this test as already proven. In reverse, similar
irises will fail this test since the distance between them will be small. A maximum HD of 0.32 for
the same person has been determined from John Daugman‟s extensive research on a large number
of iris patterns (up to 3 million iris images), (Daugman, 2004). Thus, for the test two iris images
are compared by applying a Hamming distance (HD) calculating function on their
corresponding binary feature vectors. The decision of whether these two images belong to
the same person depends upon the following result:
· If HD <= 0.32 decide that it is same person · If HD > 0.32 decide that it is different person
...................................equation 1
(or left and right eyes of the same person)
3.2 System hardware Implementation
The next step was the design and implementation of the hardware for the system. This
involved the development of a door access control circuitry, which receives and executes
the decisions of the iris recognition phase. The door access control circuitry refers to the
hardware components used for locking or unlocking of the door. The door access control
unit has two parts; namely the door lock circuit; and the parallel port interface circuit. The
interface circuit responds to the application software‟s request for lock or release. It
generates an actuating signal which drives a stepper motor lock setup.
3.2.1 Door Lock Unit
The Door Lock Unit was designed using basic standard logic and a stepper motor control
circuitry. The circuitry was designed to use the stepper motor to open a door in three
seconds, leave it open for three seconds, and close it in three seconds. Thus the sequence
lasts a total of nine seconds. Fig 5 shows the circuit diagram of the stepping motor
controller.
Fig 5: Circuit Diagram of Stepping Motor Controller
(Source: Ata, Oburo and David, 2010)
3.2.2 Results and Performance
The next step was performance testing, which required an evaluation of the accuracy of the hybrid
system (hardware and software). After design and setup, the project was tested on CASIA Iris
Image Database, using a Pentium M processor. Failures encountered in the running of the system
were due to a number of limiting factors which occurred at those instances. The factors were
instances of poor lighting, occlusion by eyelids, noises or inappropriate eye positioning due to
human error.
Table 1: Efficiencies of the different parts
(Source: Ata, Oburo and David, 2010)
Edge Detection Mapping Feature
Extraction
Binary Code
Generation
Efficiency % 73 70 73 75
A 93% correct recognition average was obtained. Table 1 gives the efficiency of each part of the system. Moreover an overall 73% average of efficiency was demonstrated by the system.
4 Findings and Discussion
Based on previous research work in (Ozumba and Shakantu, 2008b; Ozumba and Shakantu,
2009a; 2009b; 2009c) and current efforts, inferences are drawn. These deductions are made with
regards to the adaptability of technologies discussed above, to construction. The research design
and implementation is for a physical access control system, incorporating iris-based
authentication. The hardware, software and process have direct potential for use in construction as
one system or component technologies. Access control is a major aspect of security management
in construction. Security management is essential both on and off the site. The present use of
smart cards can be fooled even with the presence of surveillance cameras. However the use of a
biometric technologies system will increase the security rating of any access control system
appreciably. Moreover, secure iris recognition could be advanced to assist on site with health and
safety management. Dilation states of the pupil could help determine alertness, with regards to
concussion, fatigue or use of alcohol and narcotics. Furthermore, there are possibilities generally,
for the area of intelligent construction site environments. While some of the inferences might
sound somewhat advanced for developing countries as described in the paper, the improvements
on previous research, performance testing results and findings cannot be ignored.
5 Conclusion and Further Research
From indications, the future of authentication lies with biometrics. Though a cutting edge
technology, it is available in the context of a developing nation such as Nigeria; with all the
limitations that should hinder the existence of such technologies, in sustainable form. Thus in
response to the questions raised earlier the paper states the following:
Generally speaking, implementation of research on cutting edge technology within the Nigerian
local context; with complete local sourcing of both human and material resources, shows local
availability of latest ICT and ICT skills. Specifically, the results demonstrate the local existence
of appreciable potential, for the enhancement of site security management through ICT.
Furthermore, the implementation of such research locally that has potential for construction
indicates that possibilities exist currently, even for advanced CICT within the local context.
However there are other areas of further research emerging from the project. Firstly the research
should be taken to the next stage which is the actual design and execution of a site deployable
prototype, which should be self-sustaining to a high degree. This would test the robustness of
the system with regards to the limitations highlighted in the paper. Secondly further
investigations should be conducted with a view to identifying and implementing latest
technologies within the local context. It is also necessary to investigate the local ICT sector in
order to ascertain the nature, quality and sophistication of knowledge and skills available. Very
important also is the need to investigate the possibility of developing local construction ICT
body of knowledge from locally available technologies in developing countries of Africa.
Increase in research output along these paths would increase local awareness of the availability
of enough ICT locally, to sustain initial growth in Construction ICT. Thus impetus could be
increased within the local industry to engage in more adoption of ICT, in line with international
trends. In concluding the research constitutes valuable contribution to the local body of
knowledge on technology (ICT) generally, and Construction ICT (CICT) in particular. It
highlights the overlooked possibilities and advantages that are coming into existence locally for
CICT in Africa as a whole.
6 Acknowledgement
This paper is a part of a larger research collaboration effort by researchers based in South Africa
and Nigeria. The research implementation for a PC Based Iris Recognition System research
project was completed and submitted as unpublished works at the Department of Electronic
Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, in February of 2010. The implementation project
was supervised by Nathan David, co-author of the paper.
7 References
Arayici, Y., Aouad, G. and Ahmed, V. (2005) „Requirements engineering for innovative
integrated ICT systems for the construction industry‟, Construction Innovation, Volume 5, (3),
pp. 179-200, Emerald Publishing Limited, viewed: 20/4/2008.
Begh, S. and Kagioglou, M. (2004) „Construction Sites Communication, Towards the
Integration of IP Telephony‟, Itcon,Volume 9, August, pp. 325-344,
http://www.itcon.org/2004/23 viewed:18/12/ 2007.
Caballero, A. A. (2002) „Applications and Effects of Emerging Automated and Information
Technology in Construction‟, Conference Proceedings, 1st International Conference on
Construction in the 21st Century, Miami, Florida International University, USA.
The Chartered Institute of Building, (2009) „Industry Loses Millions Every Year Due to Theft,
Vandalism and Health and Safety Neglect‟, Contact. Issue 76, September / October. U.K., CIOB,
pp. 1, 3.
Daugman, J. (1993) „High Confidence Visual Recognition of persons by a Test of Statistical
Independence‟, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Volume15,
(11), pp.1148-1160.
Daugman, J. (n.d.) „How Iris Recognition Works‟, available at
http://www.ncits.org/tc_home/m1htm/docs/m1020044.pdf, viewed: 21/2/2010.
Daugman, J. (1993) „High Confidence Visual Recognition of Persons by a Test of Statistical
Independence‟, IEEE transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence, Volume 15,
(11), November, pp. 1148-1161.
FIATECH (2009) „Capital Projects Technology Roadmap Overview‟,
http://fiatech.org/tech-roadmap/roadmap-overview.html viewed: 2/1/2009.
Gonzalez, R. C., and Woods, R. E. (2002) Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall.
Daugman, J. (2004) „How iris recognition works‟, IEEE transactions on circuits and systems for
Video Technology, Volume 14, (1), pp.21-30.
Howard, R. (1998) Computing in Construction, Pioneers and the future, Butterworth –
Heinmann. Cornwall, Great Britain.
Koskela, L. (1992), „"Application of the new production philosophy to construction" Technical
Report 72‟, Centre for Integrated Facility Engineering (CIFE), Stanford University, Stanford,
CA, http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~tommelein/Koskela-TR72.pdf viewed: 18/6/2009.
Lim, S., Lee, K., Byeon, O., and Kim, T. (2001) „Efficient Iris Recognition through Improvement
of Feature Vector and Classifier‟, ETRI Journal, Volume 23, (2), June, pp. 61-70.
Ofori, G. (2000) „Challenges of Construction Industries in Developing Countries: Lessons From
Various Countries‟, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of the CIB TASK GROUP
29 [TG29] 15-17 November, Botswana, Printing and Publishing Company (Pty) Ltd.
Oladapo, A. A. (2005) „An Investigation into the use of ICT in The Nigerian Construction
Industry‟, In: Serpell, A and Barai, S, V, eds. Itcon, Volume 12, pp. 261-277, March,
http://www.itcon.org/2007/18/ viewed: 18/12/2007.
Ozumba, A. O. U., and Shakantu, W. M. W. (2008a) „Improving The Site Management Process
through ICT‟, CIDB 2008 Post Graduate Research Conference, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 7 - 8
March 2008. Available at:
http://196.34.135.244/papers/Proceedings%205th%20POST%20GRADUATE%20CONFERENC
E.pdf viewed: 24/07/2010.
Ozumba, A. O. U., and Shakantu, W. M. W. (2008b) „Achieving Ubiquity in the Site
Management Process through ICT‟, Conference proceedings, RICS COBRA 2008 Conference,
Ireland, 4 – 5 September 2008 [online] Available at:
http://www.rics.org/NR/rdonlyres/98B9FD65-3A92-4EA0-894A-6F913D8BF98E/0/Ozumba.pdf
viewed: 10/3/2009.
Ozumba, A. O. U., and Shakantu, W. M. W. (2009a) „Improving People-Centeredness in H&S
Risk Management through ICT‟, Conference proceedings, TG59 ‘People in Construction’
Conference, Port Elizabeth South Africa 12-14 July.
Ozumba, A. O. U., and Shakantu, W. M. W. (2009b) „Balancing Information and Communication
Technology Site support Systems with Available ICT Skills‟, Conference proceedings, RICS
COBRA 2009 Conference, Cape Town South Africa, 10 – 11 September 2009.
Ozumba, A. O. U., and Shakantu, W. M. W. (2009c) „Information and Communication
Technology – Based Application of Just-In-Time (JIT) to Internal Logistics on Site‟, Conference
proceedings, RICS COBRA 2009 Conference, Cape Town South Africa, 10 – 11 September 2009.
Ugwu, O. O., and Kumaraswamy, M. M. (2007) „Critical Success Factors for Construction ICT
Projects – Some Empirical Evidence And Lessons For Emerging Economies‟, In: Serpell, A.,
and Barai, S. V. eds. Itcon [online] Vol. 12 (2007), pp.231-241, March. Available from:
http://www.itcon.org/2007/16/ viewed: 18/12/2007.
Svidt, K., and Christiansson, P. (2006) „Experiences from implementation of ICT for resource
management in small construction companies‟, Conference proceeding, World Conference on
IT in Design and Construction, INCITE/ITCSED, 15 - 17 November, New Delhi, Volume 1, pp.
285-295 http://www.it.civil.aau.dk/it/publications/index.htm viewed: 8/8/2009.
Sacks, R., Novon, R., and Goldschmidt, E. (2002) „Project Modelling of Labour inputs
for Automated Control in Building Construciton‟, Conference proceedings; 1st
International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century, Miami. In: Ahmad, I.,
Ahmed, S. M. and Azhar, S. eds. pp.575-582. USA, Florida International University.
Wildes, R. P. (1997) „Iris Recogntion: „An Emerging Biometric Technology‟‟, Proceedings of the
IEEE, Volume 85, (9), September, pp.1348-1363.
top related