Gregg Reference Manual

r Marks

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CONTENTS PART 1. Grammar, Usage, and StyleSECTION 1. Punctuation: Major MarksSECTION 2. Punctuation: Other MarksSECTION 3. CapitalizationSECTION 4. NumbersSECTION 5. AbbreviationsSECTION 6. Plurals and PossessivesSECTION 7. SpellingSECTION 8. Compound WordsSECTION 9. Word DivisionSECTION 10. GrammarSECTION 11. Usage

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¶101a. Use a period to mark the end of a sentence that makes a statement or

expresses a command.

THE PERIOD THE PERIOD

Statement: I question the need to merge the two companies.

Command: Make sure that the doors open at 10 a.m.

¶110a. Use a question mark at the end of a direct question.

¶104. Use a period at the end of an indirect question.

THE QUESTION MARK THE QUESTION MARK

Direct question: Why is the policy being changed?

Indirect question: I would like to know why the policy is being changed.

¶119a. Use an exclamation point at the end of a sentence to express enthusiasm

or some other strong feeling.

THE EXCLAMATION POINT THE EXCLAMATION POINT

Exclamation: Your article about the Internet was the best I’ve ever read!

¶103. Use a question mark at the end of a sentence that asks a favor. Use

a period at the end of a sentence that expresses a polite command.

THE PERIOD AND THE QUESTION MARK

Favor: Will you please let me borrow your Corvette?

Polite command: Will you please let me know whether you plan to stay overnight.

¶¶101b, 111, 119a. Use a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point

(as appropriate) at the end of an elliptical expression—a word or phrase that

represents a complete sentence.

THE PERIOD, THE QUESTION MARK, AND THE EXCLAMATION POINT

When am I leaving? In a week or so.

I heard that you’re resigning. Why?

What a great job! Congratulations!

¶107a. Use periods after elements displayed on separate lines in a list when

they are long or are essential to the grammatical completeness of the statement that introduces the list.

THE PERIODTHE PERIOD

This software will help you to:

1. Maintain your checkbook.2. Prepare a realistic monthly budget.3. Monitor your monthly expenses.

¶107b. No periods are needed after elements in a list if the introductory

statement is grammatically complete.

We can provide the following kinds of software:

• Customer information systems• Product information systems• Decision support systems

¶102a. As a general rule, use one space after the period or any other mark at

the end of a sentence, but switch to two spaces whenever a stronger visual

break between sentences is needed.

One space after the period: Let’s meet on Friday. How does 10 a.m. sound?

Two spaces after the period: Let’s meet on Friday. How does 10 a.m. sound?

¶102e. When an abbreviation ends one sentence and begins the next, the use of one space after the period that ends the sentence may be inadequate. Use two spaces for a stronger visual break.

One space after the period: Lunch begins at 1 p.m. F. J. Rae will be the speaker.

Two spaces after the period: Lunch begins at 1 p.m. F. J. Rae will be the speaker.

¶122. Use commas to set off nonessential expressions—words, phrases, and clauses

that are not needed to complete the meaning or the structure of a sentence.

COMMAS THAT SET OFF COMMAS THAT SET OFF

Nonessential: Let’s ask Muriel Spock, who is familiar with this type of transaction.

Essential: Let’s ask someone who is familiar with this type of transaction.

643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346

Nonessential: I have decided, therefore, to withdraw my bid.

Essential: I have therefore decided to withdraw my bid.

643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346643,346,Slide 346

¶122. Use commas to set off nonessential expressions—words, phrases, and clauses

that are not needed to complete the meaning or the structure of a sentence.

¶122a. Use commas to set off interrupting elements—words, phrases, and clauses that break the flow of a sentence from subject

to verb to object or complement.

Interrupting: We could meet this Thursday or, if you prefer, next Tuesday.

Interrupting: We can wait for a week, can’t we, to see what happens?

¶122b. Use commas to set off afterthoughts—words, phrases, and clauses loosely

added onto the end of a sentence.

Afterthought: The merger took place last July, if I remember correctly.

Afterthought: It’s not too late to enroll, is it?

¶122c. Use commas to set off transitional expressions and similar elements that are not essential to the meaning

or the structure of a sentence.

Nonessential: It is true, nevertheless, that Carl supplied us with useful information.

Essential: It is nevertheless true that Carl supplied us with useful information.

¶122c. Use commas to set off independent comments and similar elements that are

not essential to the meaning or the structure of a sentence.

Nonessential: It is our plan, of course, to get a second opinion.

Essential: It is of course our plan to get a second opinion.

¶122d. Use commas to set off descriptive expressions and similar elements that are

Nonessential: Many thanks for your letter of May 1, in which you reviewed my manuscript.

Essential: Many thanks for the letter in which you reviewed my manuscript.

¶122e-f. Use commas to set off descriptive expressions and similar elements that are

Dates: The meeting planned for November 5, 2003, will have to be rescheduled for February 2004.

Names: Ann Garcia, M.D., is moving to Logan, Utah.

Names: Paul Poe Jr. is leaving Green Inc. next week.

¶123b. Use a comma to separate three or more items in a series.

COMMAS THAT SEPARATE COMMAS THAT SEPARATE

The Foxes, the Perrys, and the Joneses have said yes.

I’m still waiting to hear from the Sheas and the Poes.

¶123c. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that modify

the same noun.

Gillian is a thoughtful, considerate person.

But: I would like to thank you for your thoughtful editorial comments.

¶123d. Use a comma to separate the digits of large numbers into

groups of thousands.

10,575 200,000 3,500,000

But: 3000 3.14159265

¶123e. Use a comma to indicate the omission of key words.

Employees with at least one year of service are entitled to two weeks of vacation; those with at least three years of service, three weeks.

¶123e. Use a comma to indicate unusual word order.

How that happened, we’ll never know.

¶123e. Use a comma to preserve clarity.

All an insurance policy is, is a contract for services.

¶124. Use a comma after most introductory elements that begin a sentence and precede

the subject and verb of the main clause.

Introductory word: Well, what can we do?

Introductory phrase: To start a successful business, you need to do a lot of planning.

But: To start a successful business requires a lot of planning.

Introductory clause: Before we invest more money in the company, we need to see an updated financial analysis.

Introductory verbal phrase: In reviewing the sketches, I noticed several problems.

Introductory adverb: Tomorrow I’ll give you our decision.

Introductory phrase: In 2003 I may retire.

Introductory phrase: In the morning I’ll have more time.

¶124b. Use a comma after a transitional expression or an independent comment

that begins a sentence.

Transitional expression: In any case, we don’t have to decide right away.

Independent comment: In my opinion, she needs help.

¶¶126-128. Use a comma to separate two main clauses when they are joined by

and, but, or, or nor.

COMMAS IN COMPOUND SENTENCES

Compound sentence: I finished the report last week, and I will now write a one-page executive summary.

Compound predicate: I finished the report last week and will now write a one-page executive summary.

¶¶126-128. Do not use a comma to separate two main clauses when they are not joined

by and, but, or, or nor.

COMMAS IN COMPOUND SENTENCES

Run-on sentence: I finished the report last week, I will now write a one-page executive summary. (A comma is incorrect.)

Correct alternatives: . . . last week. I will . . .. . . last week; I will . . .. . . last week, and I will . . .

¶130. Use a comma to separate a dependent clause that precedes

the main clause.

COMMAS IN COMPLEX SENTENCES

Before we meet with the sales staff, we need to complete this study.

¶¶131, 132. Use a comma to separate a nonessential dependent clause that

follows the main clause.

COMMAS IN COMPLEX SENTENCES

Nonessential: We need to complete this study by Friday, before we meet with the CEO.

Essential: We need to complete this study before we meet with the CEO.

¶176. Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses when the

clauses are not linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, or nor).

THE SEMICOLON THE SEMICOLON

Sheila wants to buy an SUV; Paul would rather get a convertible.

Also correct: Sheila wants to buy an SUV. Paul would rather get a convertible.

¶178. Use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses when the clauses are linked by a transitional expression (such

as however, moreover, or therefore).

THE SEMICOLON THE SEMICOLON

My partners want to sign the contract; however, I have some misgivings.

Also correct: My partners want to sign the contract. However, I have some misgivings.

¶187a. Use a colon to separate two independent clauses (1) when the second

clause explains the first clause and (2) the clauses are not linked by a coordinating conjunction or a transitional expression.

THE COLON THE COLON

It has been said that a successful project goes through three stages: it won’t work, it costs too much, and I always knew it was a good idea.

¶187b. Compare the use of the colon and the semicolon in these examples:

THE COLON THE COLON

Colon: This job sounds very attractive: the salary, the benefits, and the opportunities for advance-ment seem excellent. (The second clause explains the first clause.)

Semicolon: This job sounds very attractive; it is the kind of job I have been looking for. (Also correct: This job sounds very attractive. It is the . . . . )

¶181a. Ordinarily, use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses

when they are linked by for example, namely, or that is.

FOR EXAMPLE, NAMELY, AND THAT IS

Semicolon: Pamela Hearst is well qualified for this sales job; for example, she spent three years working as a sales representative for one of our major competitors.

¶181b. Use a colon before for example, namely, or that is if (1) the first inde-

pendent clause directs attention to the second independent clause and (2) the second clause carries the

real emphasis in the sentence.

Colon: Your proposal covers all but one point: namely, who is going to foot the bill?Slide 1-37

¶182a. Use a semicolon before for example, namely, or that is if (1) the

preceding part of the sentence expresses a complete thought and (2) what

follows is an afterthought, providing additional information that is nice

to know but nonessential.

Semicolon: Always use figures with abbre-viations; for example, 6 ft, 8 lb, 11 a.m.

¶182b. Use a colon before for example, namely, or that is if (1) the preceding part of the sentence leads up to what

follows and (2) the real emphasis of the sentence is to fall on what follows.

Colon: There are two things I’d like you to do while I’m away: namely, answer all my phone calls and don’t let anyone know that I’m away.

¶182c. Use a comma before for example, namely, or that is if it introduces a word

or phrase that explains an expression immediately preceding.

This batch of mail will be processed by an OCR, that is, an optical character reader.

¶¶183, 201. When for example, namely, or that is introduces an expression

within a sentence, use dashes to set off the complete expression if you want to

give it special emphasis.

DASHESDASHES

Three of our customers—namely, Foley, Florio, and Gabor—have not reordered.

¶¶183, 219. When for example, namely, or that is introduces an expression

within a sentence, use parentheses to set off the complete expression if you want

to de-emphasize it.

PARENTHESESPARENTHESES

Three of our customers (namely, Foley, Florio, and Gabor) have not reordered.

¶183. When for example, namely, or that is introduces an expression within a sentence,

use commas to set off the complete expression if (1) no special treatment is required and (2) the expression does not contain a series

of items separated by commas.

COMMASCOMMAS

A few of our customers, for example, Foley and Florio, have called to complain.

¶227. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation, that is, the exact

words of a speaker or writer.

QUOTATION MARKSQUOTATION MARKS

Jack simply said, “I have decided to resign.”

¶228. Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation, that is, a restatement

of a person’s exact words.

Jack simply said that he had decided to resign.

¶253a. When a quoted statement falls at the beginning of a sentence, insert a

comma (not a period) before the closing quotation mark.

“Let’s try to meet next Thursday,” Jean suggested.

¶254. When a quoted question falls at the beginning of a sentence, insert a

question mark (not a comma) before the closing quotation mark.

“Why do we need to meet?” Steve asked.

¶254. When a quoted exclamation falls at the beginning of a sentence, insert an

exclamation point (not a comma) before the closing quotation mark.

“I don’t believe it!” Burt shouted.

¶256a. When a quoted sentence falls at the end of a larger sentence, insert a comma before the opening quotation mark if the quotation is introduced

by a simple phrase like She said.

Marsha said, “We need to make a decision today.”

¶256b. When a quoted sentence falls at the end of a larger sentence, insert a colon before the opening quotation

mark if the quotation is introduced by a complete sentence like She said this.

Marsha’s reaction was fierce: “We need to make a decision today.”

¶¶247a, 257. When a quoted statement falls at the end of a statement, insert

a period before the closing quotation mark.

Marsha said, “We need to make a decision today.”

¶¶249a, 257. When a quoted question falls at the end of a statement, insert

a question mark before the closing quotation mark.

Ralph replied, “Why do we have to decide today?”

¶¶249b, 257. When a quoted statement falls at the end of a question, insert a question mark after the closing

quotation mark.

Did Marsha really say, “We need to make a decision today”?

¶257. When a quoted question falls at the end of a question, insert a question mark

before the closing quotation mark.

Did Marsha really say, “Why do we need to make a decision today?”

¶242. Use quotation marks to enclose titles that represent only part of a complete

work (such as an article in a magazine or a chapter in a book).

I’m enclosing a copy of an article entitled “Reinventing Retailing to Compete With E-Tailing.”

¶289a. Use italics or underlining to set off titles that represent complete works (such

as a magazine or a book).

ITALICS AND UNDERLININGITALICS AND UNDERLINING

For an excellent book on conflict resolution, read Getting to Yes. (Or: Getting to Yes.)

¶285a. Use italics or underlining to set off words used as words.

What does the term mouse potato mean?

¶287. Use italics or underlining to set off foreign expressions

unless they are considered part of the English language.

What they said is true, n’est-ce pas? (Or: n’est-ce pas?)

But: I’m all for preserving the status quo.

¶301a. Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

CAPITALIZATION—FIRST WORDSCAPITALIZATION—FIRST WORDS

We didn’t know that.

How did you find out?

¶301b. Capitalize the first word of an expression used as a sentence.

Really? Unbelievable!

Indeed. So much for that.

¶301c. Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence.

Mr. Potter asked, “When can we expect a decision?”

¶301d. Capitalize the first word of an independent question

within a sentence.

The question is, What should we do now?

¶301e. Capitalize the first word of each item displayed

in a list or an outline.

This problem-solving tool will help you:

• Become an effective leader.

• Improve your relations with colleagues.

• Cope with stressful situations on the job.

¶301g. Capitalize the first word of the salutation and the

complimentary closing of a letter.

Dear Ms. Porcini: Sincerely,

¶¶303, 311, 320. Capitalize every proper noun, that is, the official name of a particular person, place, or thing.

CAPITALIZATION—PROPER NOUNSCAPITALIZATION—PROPER NOUNS

Persons:Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.Eleanor Roosevelt

Organizations:Cisco Systems the Red Cross

¶¶303, 325, 335. Capitalize every proper noun, that is, the official name of a particular person, place, or thing.

Governmental units:the House of RepresentativesBut: the federal government

the Vermont State Board of Education

But: the state of Vermont

¶¶303, 331. Capitalize every proper noun, that is, the official name of a particular person, place, or thing.

Places:

the Holiday Inn Bath, Maine

Lake Champlain O’Hare Airport

¶¶303, 331, 356, 360, 364. Capitalize every proper noun, that is,

the official name of a particular person, place, or thing.

Things:

the Statue of Liberty Kleenex

Gone With the Wind an Oscar

Days:Wednesday Saturday

Months:February 14 October 31

Holidays:the Fourth of July Mother’s Day

¶¶303, 344a-b. Capitalize every proper noun, that is, the official name of a particular person, place, or thing.

Events:

World War II the Middle Ages

the Holocaust the Renaissance

Races:Caucasians Native Americans

Peoples:the Koreans African Americans

Languages:speak Swedish read Japanese

¶307. Do not capitalize common nouns, that is, nouns that refer

to a class of things.

CAPITALIZATION—COMMON NOUNSCAPITALIZATION—COMMON NOUNS

books all books every book

¶308. Do not capitalize common nouns, that is, nouns that refer to a particular

person, place, or thing without using the full official name.

my book this book these books

¶309. Capitalize a common noun when it is part of a proper noun but not when it

is used as a short form in place of the complete official name.

Proper nouns: Common nouns:Dr. Milano my doctorProfessor Piasecki the professorthe Poe Company the company

¶309. Capitalize a common noun when it is part of a proper noun but not when it

is used as a short form in place of the complete official name.

Proper nouns: Common nouns:Boston University the universityHotel Pierre the hotelLogan Airport the airport

¶¶309, 331, 346a. Capitalize a common noun when it is part of a proper noun but not when it is used as a short form in place

of the complete official name.

Proper nouns: Common nouns:the Hudson River the riverFifth Avenue the avenuethe Civil Rights Act the act

¶312a. Capitalize a title when it precedes a person’s name.

CAPITALIZATION—TITLESCAPITALIZATION—TITLES

Personal titles:Mr. Arnst Ms. La Voix

Executive titles:President Roy Fox

¶312a. Capitalize a title when it precedes a person’s name.

Professional titles:Dr. Cheng Professor Romero

Governmental titles:Governor Foy Senator Cohen

¶313a. In most cases, do not capitalize these titles when they follow a person’s name or are used in

place of a person’s name.

Roy Fox, president of the Century Club, asked . . .

The president of the Century Club asked . . .

¶313b. Always capitalize the titles of high-ranking officials and dignitaries,

even when they follow a person’s name or are used in place of a person’s name.

National officials: the President the Vice President

State officials: the Governor the Lieutenant Governor

¶313b. Always capitalize the titles of high-ranking officials and dignitaries,

even when they follow a person’s name or are used in place of a person’s name.

Foreign dignitaries: the Queen the Prime Minister

International figures: the Pope the Secretary General

¶313c-d. Ordinarily, do not capitalize the titles of local officials or company

officials when they follow or are used in place of a person’s name.

The mayor announced . . .

The treasurer of the club . . .

¶401a. Spell out numbers from 1 through 10. Use figures for

numbers over 10.

NUMBERS—FIGURE STYLENUMBERS—FIGURE STYLE

Please make ten copies of this article.

Please make 11 copies of this article.

¶402. Express related numbers the same way. If some are

above 10 and some below 10, put them all in figures.

Please send 10 copies of this article to our Boise office and 11 copies to our Topeka office.

¶401d. Always spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence.

Forty men showed up.

¶401c. Always spell out indefinite numbers and amounts.

a few thousand brochures

hundreds of acres

¶401d. Always spell out nontechnical or nonemphatic references to age, periods

of time, and measurements.

when I turn forty

sixty years ago

lose fifty pounds

¶401d. Some numbers are usually spelled out.

Ordinal numbers: my twenty-fifth birthday

Fractions:over one-third of the callers

¶¶401b, 410. In expressions of dates, where numbers have technical signifi-cance or need to stand out for quick

comprehension, use all figures—even for the numbers 1 through 10.

On April 8, 2003, we will . . . (Not: April 8th)

In April 2003 we will . . .

the May 2003 issue But: the May 2, 2003, issue

¶¶401b, 403a, 413a, 418a. In expressions of money, where numbers have technical

significance or need to stand out for quick comprehension, use all figures—even

for the numbers 1 through 10.

from $4.95 to $9

$5,000,000 Or: $5 million

10 cents But: not worth two cents

¶¶401b, 453. When numbers precede abbreviations and

symbols, use all figures—even for the numbers 1 through 10.

8 a.m. 7.5 lb 250 MB 9°F

¶401b. With technical or emphatic references to age, use all figures— even for the numbers 1 through 10.

Technical: a study of 2-year-olds

Nontechnical: my two-year-old son

¶¶401b, 436. With technical or emphatic references to periods

of time, use all figures—even for the numbers 1 through 10.

Technical: a 20-year mortgage

Nontechnical: over twenty years ago

¶¶401b, 429. With technical or emphatic references to measure-ments, use all figures—even for

the numbers 1 through 10.

Technical: packages over 5 pounds

Nontechnical: need to lose five pounds

¶404. Spell out numbers from 1 through 100. Also spell out numbers above 100

that require only one or two words.

NUMBERS—WORD STYLENUMBERS—WORD STYLE

sixty-five (one word) three hundred (two words) But: 350 (would require three words)

ninety-five million But: 125 million

¶405. Express related numbers the same way. If some numbers require one or two words and others require more than two

words, put them all in figures.

NUMBERS—WORD STYLENUMBERS—WORD STYLE

We sent out 350 invitations and have already received over 300 acceptances.

Our corporation projected revenues of $125 million last year but earned only $95 million.

¶502a. Avoid using abbreviations except on business forms, in catalogs, in tables, and in informal documents

shared with your colleagues.

When in doubt, spell it out.

ABBREVIATIONSABBREVIATIONS

¶502b. Some abbreviations are always acceptable, such as those that accompany a person’s name.

Mr. Ms. Jr. M.D.

Esq. Mrs. Sr. Ph.D.

¶502b. Some abbreviations are always acceptable, such as those that

are part of an organization’s name.

Co. Corp. Inc. Ltd.

¶502c. Some abbreviations are always acceptable, such as those used in place

of a long organizational name.

NAACP SEC IRS NBC

¶502b. Some abbreviations are always acceptable, such as those

used in expressions of time.

a.m. p.m. PST EDT

¶503. When alternative forms are available, use the form that is the shortest

without any sacrifice of clarity.

cont. (rather than contd.)

2 lb (rather than 2 lbs)

Enc. 2 (rather than Encs. 2 OR Encl. 2)

2d (rather than 2nd)

¶506a. Use a period after the abbreviation of a single word.

ABBREVIATIONS—PUNCTUATIONABBREVIATIONS—PUNCTUATION

Mrs. Corp. pp. Wed.

Jr. Inc. Nos. Dec.

¶507. When a small-letter abbreviation consists of single initials representing

two or more words, insert a period after each initial but insert no

space after each internal period.

ABBREVIATIONS—PUNCTUATION AND SPACING

a.m. i.e. BUT: rpm

p.m. e.g. mph

¶508. As a general rule, do not use periods in all-capital abbreviations

consisting of single initials representing two or more words.

CBS CEO ASAP

MIT FYI CD-ROM

¶508. As an exception to the general rule, insert periods in all-capital

abbreviations when they consist of single initials and they represent:

• Geographic names: U.S. N.J. D.C.

• Academic degrees: B.A. M.S. M.D.

• Miscellaneous expressions: A.D. B.C. P.O.

¶509. When an abbreviation consists of more than single initials, insert a period and a space

after each element in the abbreviation.

N. Mex. Lt. Col. Rt. Rev. loc. cit.

Exceptions:

• Academic abbreviations: Ph.D. LL.B.

• Units of measurement: sq ft cu cm

¶510. Do not use a period after shortened forms of words.

deli temp hype

demo typo condo

fax info co-op

¶516a. Insert a period and a space after each initial in a person’s name.

M. A. Devine F. E. Hollings

W. E. B. Du Bois B. J. Malone

¶516b. As a rule, omit periods when a person’s name is expressed

entirely in initials.

JFK FDR

¶522a. Do not use periods in acronyms (all-cap initials that are

pronounced like a word).

PIN BOGSAT NIMBY

MEGO WOMBAT PEBCAK

¶601. To form the plural of most words, simply add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

ideas committees taxis menus

combs rhythms depths rights

¶602. To form the plural of words that end in s, x, ch, sh, and z, add es.

PLURALSPLURALS

businesses boxes crashes

summonses matches brushes

faxes sketches buzzes

¶605. To form the plural of words that end in a vowel plus y, add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

holidays attorneys joys guys

¶604. To form the plural of words that end in a consonant plus y,

change the y to i and add es.

PLURALSPLURALS

policy policies liability liabilities copy copies rally rallies

¶606. To form the plural of words that end in a vowel plus o, add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

stereos ratios shampoos duos

¶607. To form the plural of words that end in a consonant plus o, add s to some

words and es to others. (Check your manual or a dictionary to be sure.)

PLURALSPLURALS

photos memos potatoes echoes

macros twos heroes fiascoes

¶608a. To form the plural of most words ending in f, fe, or ff, add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

beliefs proofs safes sheriffs

chiefs reefs cafés tariffs

¶608b. To form the plural of some words ending in f, fe, or ff, change

the ending to ve and add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

wife wives self selves

life lives shelf shelves

¶¶609-610. Some words have an irregular plural. Check your

manual or a dictionary if you are not sure of the correct form.

PLURALSPLURALS

man men foot feet

woman women goose geese

child children mouse mice

¶611. Solid Compound Nouns. Pluralize the final element in the compound

as if it stood alone.

PLURALSPLURALS

crossroads hatboxes handkerchiefs

birthdays eyewitnesses hairbrushes

bookshelves blueberries photocopies

¶612a. Spaced or Hyphenated Compound Nouns. To form the plural, add s or es to

the chief element of the compound.

PLURALSPLURALS

mothers-in-law editors in chief

runners-up accounts payable

¶612b. Spaced or Hyphenated Compound Nouns. When this type of compound does not contain a noun as one of its elements, simply add s or es to the final element to form the plural.

PLURALSPLURALS

hang-ups get-togethers

go-betweens run-throughs

¶614. When words of foreign origin have acceptable English plurals,

add s or es as appropriate.

PLURALSPLURALS

agenda agendas stadium stadiums

census censuses appendix appendixes

¶614. Some words of foreign origin require foreign plurals. Check your manual or a

dictionary for the correct forms.

PLURALSPLURALS

alumnus (m.) alumni criterion criteria

alumna (f.) alumnae analysis analyses

¶619. To form the plural of most abbreviations, add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

Vol. Vols. No. Nos. Dr. Drs.

¶620. Abbreviations of measurements use the same form in the singular and the plural.

PLURALSPLURALS

oz ft in lb km mL

¶621. To form the plural of a few abbreviations, double

the singular form.

PLURALSPLURALS

p. pp. l. ll. ¶ ¶¶

¶622. To form the plural of abbreviations that end in a

capital letter, add s.

PLURALSPLURALS

VIPs CEOs M.D.s Ph.D.s

¶623. To form the plural of abbreviations that end in a small letter, add an apostrophe plus s.

PLURALSPLURALS

received four c.o.d.’s

minding one’s p’s and q’s

¶630. To form the possessive of singular nouns that do not end with an s sound,

add an apostrophe plus s.

SINGULAR POSSESSIVESSINGULAR POSSESSIVES

my attorney’s advice Illinois’s highways

the committee’s vote Arkansas’s lakes

¶631a. To form the possessive of singular nouns that do end with an s sound, be guided by your pronunciation. If you create a new syllable when you pronounce the possessive,

your boss’s approval Dallas’s parks

our coach’s strategy Phoenix’s suburbs

¶631b. To form the possessive of singular nouns that do end with an s sound, be guided

by your pronunciation. If adding an extra syllable makes the word hard to pronounce,

add only an apostrophe.

for goodness’ sake New Orleans’ chefs

Massachusetts’ roads Los Angeles’ freeways

¶634. To form the possessive of singular compound nouns, add an apostrophe plus s

to the last element of the compound.

an eyewitness’s story my stockbroker’s advice

my son-in-law’s job the attorney general’s plan

¶632. To form the possessive of regular plural nouns (those that end in s or es),

PLURAL POSSESSIVESPLURAL POSSESSIVES

attorneys’ fees the witnesses’ testimony

ten dollars’ worth our bosses’ decisions

¶633. To form the possessive of irregular plural nouns (those that do not end in s or

es), add an apostrophe plus s.

men’s ties children’s toys

women’s skirts the alumni’s contributions

¶635a. To form the possessive of plural compound nouns that end in s,

the stockholders’ votes

the vice presidents’ jobs

¶635b. To form the possessive of plural compound nouns that do not end in s,

the editors in chief’s judgments

my sons-in-law’s Internet start-up

¶636. To form the possessive of personal pronouns, never use an apostrophe.

Use the special possessive forms.

POSSESSIVES—PRONOUNSPOSSESSIVES—PRONOUNS

my idea your bills

the idea was mine these bills are yours

his palmtop our CD collection

that palmtop is his those CDs are ours

her e-mail their summer cottage

this e-mail is hers that cottage is theirs

Each group uses its own forms. (NOT: it’s)

The decision has to be yours. (NOT: your’s)

The responsibility is theirs. (NOT: their’s)

¶637. To form the possessive of singular indefinite pronouns,

anybody’s guess someone else’s problem

no one’s fault one another’s children

¶637. To form the possessive of singular indefinite pronouns, add

an apostrophe plus s.

someone’s chance each other’s rights

BUT: the needs of each (NOT: each’s needs)

¶615a. To form the plural of most surnames, just add s.

SURNAMES—PLURAL FORMSSURNAMES—PLURAL FORMS

Mr. and Mrs. Carter the Carters

Mr. and Mrs. Shea the Sheas

¶615b. To form the plural of surnames ending in s or x, add es.

SURNAMES—PLURAL FORMSSURNAMES—PLURAL FORMS

Mr. and Mrs. Bass the Basses

Mr. and Mrs. Fox the Foxes

¶615b. To form the plural of surnames ending in ch, sh, or z, add es.

SURNAMES—PLURAL FORMS SURNAMES—PLURAL FORMS

Mr. and Mrs. French the Frenches

Mr. and Mrs. Marsh the Marshes

Mr. and Mrs. Perez the Perezes

¶615b. If adding es makes the plural surname hard to pronounce, use the

singular form for the plural.

Mr. and Mrs. Hastings the Hastings(NOT: the Hastingses)

¶615c. When forming the plural of a surname, do not change the spelling.

Simply add s or es.

the Kennedys (NOT: the Kennedies)

the Wolfs (NOT: the Wolves)

the Fairchilds (NOT: the Fairchildren)

¶631a. To form the singular possessive of a surname, add an apostrophe plus s.

SURNAMES—POSSESSIVE FORMS SURNAMES—POSSESSIVE FORMS

Mrs. Jones’s article Mr. and Mrs. Marx’s houseMr. Harris’s report Mr. and Mrs. Hertz’s car

Note that Mr. and Mrs. is followed by the singular form of the possessive.

¶631b. To form the singular possessive of a surname, add only an apostrophe if the addition of an apostrophe plus s makes

the name hard to pronounce.

Mrs. Hodges’ fax (NOT: Mrs. Hodges’s fax)

Mr. and Mrs. Hastings’ party(NOT: Mr. and Mrs. Hastings’s party)

¶632a. To form the plural possessive of a surname, add only an apostrophe.

the Joneses’ farm the Marxes’ housethe Harrises’ son the Hertzes’ carthe Hodges’ condo the Hastings’ party

¶701. When a word of one syllable ends with a single consonant (bag) preceded by

a single vowel (bag), double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with

a vowel or before the suffix y.

SPELLING SPELLING

baggage bagged bagging baggy

¶702. When a word of two or more syllables ends in a single consonant (refer) preceded by a single vowel (refer), double

the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel (referred) if the

accent falls on the last syllable of the root word (reFERred or reFERring).

SPELLING SPELLING

forBIDden beGINning

ocCURred reGRETtable

¶703. When a word of one syllable ends with a single consonant (bad) preceded by

a single vowel (bad), do not double the final consonant before a suffix beginning

with a consonant (badly).

SPELLING SPELLING

joyful joyless gladly gladness

¶704. When a word of two or more syllables ends in a single consonant (total) preceded by a single vowel (total), do not double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel (totaled) if the accent does not fall on

the last syllable of the root word.

SPELLING SPELLING

CANceled DIFferent BENefiting

Exceptions: PROgrammed FORmatting

¶705. Do not double the final consonant of the root word before a suffix if the root word ends in a single consonant

preceded by two vowels.

SPELLING SPELLING

gainful chiefly dreaming riotous

¶706. Do not double the final consonant of the root word before a suffix if the root

word ends in two consonants.

SPELLING SPELLING

climbing selfish backward warmly

¶707. Words ending in a silent e usually drop the e before a suffix

beginning with a vowel.

SPELLING SPELLING

storage managing

BUT: mileage manageable

¶708. Words ending in a silent e usually retain the e before a suffix beginning with

a consonant.

SPELLING SPELLING

hopeful management

BUT: awful judgment

¶710. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to i before most

suffixes.

SPELLING SPELLING

happiness heavier

defiant fiftieth

BUT: countrywide shyly

¶710. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant retain the y before

a suffix beginning with i.

SPELLING SPELLING

trying thirtyish lobbyist

BUT: academy academiceconomy economic

¶712. The letter i usually comes before e.

SPELLING SPELLING

believe field friendrelief yield view

BUT: either foreign

¶712. The letter e usually comes before i when these letters follow c.

SPELLING SPELLING

receive perceive conceitdeceitful ceiling receipt

BUT: ancient science

¶712. The letter e comes before i when these two letters are pronounced like ay

(as in day).

SPELLING SPELLING

freight neighbor eight their

weight vein sleigh heir

¶715a. Most words that end with the sound of eyes are spelled

with the ending ize.

SPELLING SPELLING

authorize emphasize realize

specialize criticize organize

recognize visualize prize

¶715b. Some common words that end with the sound of eyes are

spelled with the ending ise.

SPELLING SPELLING

advertise compromise enterprise

supervise advise devise

exercise surprise televise

¶715c. A few words that end with the sound of eyes are spelled with the ending yze.

SPELLING SPELLING

analyze paralyze

¶716c. When words end with the sound of seed, they usually end with cede.

SPELLING SPELLING

accede intercede recede

concede precede secede

¶716b. Three words that end with the sound of seed are spelled with the ending ceed.

SPELLING SPELLING

exceed proceed succeed

¶716a. Only one word that ends with the sound of seed is spelled with

the ending sede.

SPELLING SPELLING

supersede

¶801a. Some compound nouns are written solid, some are spaced, and

some are hyphenated.

COMPOUND NOUNSCOMPOUND NOUNS

checklist check mark check-in

goodwill good sense good-bye

trademark trade name trade-in

¶802. Distinguish between compound nouns that are solid or hyphenated and verb

phrases (which are always spaced).

COMPOUND NOUNS AND VERBS COMPOUND NOUNS AND VERBS

COMPOUND NOUN VERB PHRASE

a follow-up on my memo follow up on my memo

a breakdown in the talks when talks break down

¶802. Distinguish between compound nouns that are solid or hyphenated and verb phrases (which are always spaced).

COMPOUND NOUNS AND VERBS COMPOUND NOUNS AND VERBS

COMPOUND NOUN VERB PHRASE

plan a get-together plan to get together

to reduce staff turnover to turn over the deed

¶811. Compound verbs are usually hyphenated or solid. To be sure of the

spelling of compound verbs, check your manual or a dictionary.

COMPOUND VERBSCOMPOUND VERBS

to air-condition to download

to double-click to highlight

to spot-check to proofread

¶809a. When referring generally to men and women, avoid compound nouns

ending in man or men.

GENDER-FREE NOUNSGENDER-FREE NOUNS

IN PLACE OF: USE:

laymen laypersons

businessmen business owners business executivesbusiness managersbusiness people

¶809a. When referring generally to men and women, avoid compound nouns

ending in man or men.

GENDER-FREE NOUNSGENDER-FREE NOUNS

IN PLACE OF: USE:

mankind people, humanity, human beings

salesman salespeople, salespersons, sales representatives

foremen supervisors

¶840. Avoid feminine suffixes like ess and ette.

GENDER-FREE NOUNS GENDER-FREE NOUNS

author (NOT: authoress)

flight attendant(NOT: stewardess)

¶840. A few terms ending with feminine suffixes like ess and ette

are still widely used.

GENDER-FREE NOUNS GENDER-FREE NOUNS

hostess heroine fiancée waitress

¶813. A compound adjective consists of twoor more words that function as a unit and express a single thought. They are derived

from adjective phrases or clauses.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVESCOMPOUND ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVE PHRASE COMPOUNDOR CLAUSE ADJECTIVE

loans made for a long term long-term loans

an actor who is well known a well-known actor

a sale exempt from taxes a tax-exempt sale

¶813. A compound adjective consists of two or more words that function as a unit and express a single thought. They are derived

from adjective phrases and clauses.

ADJECTIVE PHRASE COMPOUNDOR CLAUSE ADJECTIVE

a vacation for two weeks a two-week vacationa woman who speaks softly a soft-spoken woman

¶814. Hyphenate a compound adjective when it comes before a noun.

long-range plans an eye-catching display

a 40-hour week an old-fashioned gown

¶815a. When the elements that make up a compound adjective come elsewhere in a sentence, do not hyphenate them if they occur in a normal form and in

a normal word order.

an all-day seminar a seminar that lasts all day

a part-time job I work part of the time.BUT: I work part-time.

¶815b. When the elements that make up a compound adjective come elsewhere

in a sentence, retain the hyphen if these elements are in an inverted word order

or an altered form.

high-priced These items are high-priced.items BUT: They carry a high price.

state-owned These lands are state-owned.lands BUT: They are owned by the state.

¶816. Adjective + Noun. Hyphenate before but not after.

a high-speed printer It runs at high speed.

red-carpet treatment Roll out the red carpet.

¶817. Compound With Number or Letter. Hyphenate before but not after.

a three-hour job a job that took three hours

a 20-year mortgage a mortgage running for 20 years

¶818. Compound Nouns as Adjectives.

Do not hyphenate before or after.

a life insurance policy word processing software

a real estate agent income tax payments

¶819. Proper Names as Adjectives. Do not hyphenate before or after.

a Park Avenue address a Supreme Court decision

an L. L. Bean catalog Mickey Mouse procedures

¶820. Noun + Adjective. Hyphenate before and after. (Some words follow-

ing this pattern are written solid.)

a toll-free call You can call toll-free.

a cost-effective plan must be cost-effective

BUT: worldwide, storewidewaterproof, fireproof

¶821. Noun + Participle. Hyphenate before and after.

market-tested products This has been market-tested.

mind-boggling details The report was mind-boggling.

¶822. Adjective + Participle. Hyphenate before and after.

half-baked ideas All his ideas are half-baked.

a friendly-looking dog That dog is friendly-looking.

¶823. Adjective + Noun + ed. Hyphenate before and after.

a quick-witted driver She was quick-witted.

deep-seated problems These problems are deep-seated.

¶826. Participle + Adverb. Hyphenate before but not after.

filled-in forms forms to be filled in

a cooling-off period a time for cooling off

¶831. Phrasal Compounds. Hyphenate before but not after.

up-to-date figures figures that are up to date

down-to-earth ideas needs to come down to earth

on-the-job training was trained on the job

¶831. Phrasal Compounds. Hyphenate before but not after.

off-the-shelf software bought it off the shelf

before-tax earnings earnings before taxes

after-dinner speeches speeches after dinner

¶833. As a rule, do not use a hyphen to set off a prefix from the root word.

PREFIXESPREFIXES

aftereffects misspell prerequisite

antitrust multipurpose retroactive

hypersensitive nonessential semiannual

¶833. As a rule, do not use a hyphen to set off a suffix from the root word.

SUFFIXESSUFFIXES

freedom trustful happiness

fivefold likelihood hardship

¶835a. In most words beginning with re, pre, or de, the hyphen is omitted.

PREFIXESPREFIXES

reeducate preeminent defraud

reelect preempt deregulate

reemphasize preexisting BUT: de-emphasize

¶835b. In most words beginning with co, the hyphen is omitted.

PREFIXESPREFIXES

coauthor copartner BUT: co-op

cooperate cosigner co-opt

coordinate coworker co-owner

¶836. Use a hyphen when self is a prefix but not when self is the root word.

PREFIXES PREFIXES

self-addressed self-paced BUT: selfish

self-confident self-study selfless

self-evident self-supporting selfsame

¶¶901-902. Divide only between syllables. Do not divide a one-syllable word.

WORD DIVISIONWORD DIVISION

planned through straight rhythm

¶903a. Do not set off a one-letter syllable at the beginning or at the end of a word.

ideal (NOT: i- deal)

media (NOT: medi- a)

¶904. Do not divide a word unless you can leave at least two letters and a hyphen on the upper line.

re- new under ad- mit in- ert

¶904. Do not divide a word unless you can carry a syllable of at least three characters to the next line. (The last

may be a punctuation mark.)

de- ter ad- mit set- up, happily.

¶¶905-906. Do not divide an abbreviation or a contraction.

UNICEF approx. haven’t shouldn’t

¶¶907-908. Try to divide compound words between elements (not within).

eyewitness (NOT: eyewitness)

cross- reference (NOT: cross-reference)

¶913. Divide after a one-letter syllable within a word (not before it).

nega- tive (NOT: neg- ative)

congratu- late (NOT: congrat- ulate)

¶914. Divide between two vowels whenthey are pronounced separately (but not when they represent one sound).

patri- otic situ- ated

BUT: trea- sure neu- tral

¶916. Try not to end more than two consecutive lines with a hyphen.

¶917. Try not to divide at the end of the first line or at the end of the

last full line of a paragraph.

¶918. Do not divide the last word on a page.

¶919. Do not divide between certain types of word groups.

May 13 Ms. Raeburn

11:40 a.m. June 2003 250 miles

¶920g. In an enumerated list, divide before (not after) an

introductory number or letter.

. . . these points:(1) All cards should . . .

NOT: . . . these points: (1) All cards should . . .

¶920h. Divide after a dash (not before it).

. . . Early next year—say, in March—let’s . . .

NOT: . . . Early next year—say, in March—let’s . . .

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON REGULAR VERBS (¶1030a)

PAST PRESENT

PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE

ask asked asked askingconfirm confirmed confirmed confirmingneed needed needed needingreveal revealed revealed revealing

PAST PRESENTPRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE

maintain maintained maintained maintainingtaxi taxied taxied taxiingplan planned planned planningship shipped shipped shipping

occur occurred occurred occurringcompel compelled compelled compellingoffer offered offered offeringtravel traveled traveled traveling

receive received received receivingagree agreed agreed agreeingdie died died dyingtie tied tied tying

carry carried carried carryinghurry hurried hurried hurryingobey obeyed obeyed obeyingannoy annoyed annoyed annoying

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS (¶1030b)

am, is, are was, were been beingbecome became become becomingbegin began begun beginningbreak broke broken breaking

bring brought brought bringingbuy bought bought buyingcatch caught caught catchingchoose chose chosen choosing

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF COMMONIRREGULAR VERBS (¶1030b)

come came come comingdo drew drawn drawing draw did done doingdrink drank drunk drinking

drive drove driven drivingeat ate eaten eatingfall fell fallen fallingfeel felt felt feeling

find found found findingfly flew flown flyingforget forgot forgotten forgettingforgive forgave forgiven forgiving

get got got OR gotten gettinggive gave given givinggo went gone goinggrow grew grown growing

hear heard heard hearinghold held held holdingkeep kept kept keepingknow knew known knowing

lay (place) laid laid layinglie (recline) lay lain lyinglie (fib) lied lied lyinglead led led leading

lend lent lent lendinglose lost lost losingmake made made makingmean meant meant meaning

pay paid paid payingring rang rung ringingrise rose risen risingrun ran run running

say said said sayingsee saw seen seeingsell sold sold sellingsend sent sent sending

set set set settingshake shook shaken shakingshrink shrank shrunk shrinkingsing sang sung singing

sit sat sat sittingspeak spoke spoken speakingswim swam swum swimmingswing swung swung swinging

take took taken takingteach taught taught teachingtell told told tellingthink thought thought thinking

throw threw thrown throwingunderstand understood understood understandingwear wore worn wearingwrite wrote written writing

¶1001. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENTSUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

I am as pleased with the outcome as you are.

She is not as competent as she thinks.

We do a lot more work than he does.

He has more experience than they have.

¶1002a. If the subject consists of two or more words connected by and, the subject

requires a plural verb.

My brother and I are likely to get better test scores than my mother and father expect.

¶1002c. If the subject consists of two or more words connected by and, the subject requires a plural verb.

However, if the two subjects connected by and are preceded by each, every, or many a,

the subjects require a singular verb.

A copier and a fax machine are what I need.

Every copier and fax machine is on sale.

¶1003. If the subject consists of two or more words connected by or, either . . . or,

neither . . . nor, or not only . . . but also, use a singular verb if the two subjects

are each singular.

Either Fran or Bob has the Kellerman file.

¶1004. If the subject consists of two or more words connected by or, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, or not only . . . but also, use

a plural verb if the two subjects are each plural.

Neither the Kellys nor the Bonos want our tickets.

neither . . . nor, or not only . . . but also, make the verb agree with the nearer subject if one subject is singular and

the other is plural.

Neither the office manager nor the assistants like the new policy.

Neither the assistants nor the office manager likes the new policy.Slide 10-26

neither . . . nor, or not only . . . but also, make the verb agree with the nearer subject if one subject is singular and

the other is plural.

Neither the assistants nor I am happy about the new policy.

Neither I nor the assistants are happy about the new policy.Slide 10-27

¶1006. When establishing agreement between subject and verb, ignore intervening phrases and clauses.

The bill for these spreadsheet programs seems high.

The prices shown in our catalog do not include sales taxes.

¶¶1006-1007. When establishing agreement between subject and verb, ignore intervening phrases and clauses.

This study, along with earlier reports, proves that our high prices, rather than poor service, are responsible for our falling sales.

¶¶1006-1008. When establishing agreement between subject and verb, ignore intervening phrases and clauses.

Mrs. Swenson, together with her husband and her daughter, is going to Arizona.

One of the reasons for falling sales is our high prices.

¶1009a. Use a singular verb when the subject includes such words as

each, every, either, or neither.

Every employee has been informed of the new policy.

Each is now responsible for adhering to that policy.

¶1010. Use a singular verb when the subject consists of such words as anyone, everybody,

something, or no one.

Everyone is required to attend the seminar.

Nothing surprises me anymore.

¶1012. Use a plural verb when the subject includes such words as both,

few, many, others, or several.

Both books are out of print, but several other titles on the same subject are still available.

¶1013. Words like all, none, any, some, more, or most may be singular or plural as subjects, depending on what they refer to.

All of the work has been completed.

None of the cartons were damaged.

¶1018a. When the subject is a noun with a foreign plural ending,

be sure to use a plural verb.

The criteria that we use are out of date.

BUT: The criterion that we use is out of date.

¶1018a. When the subject is a noun with a foreign plural ending,

be sure to use a plural verb.

The analyses of the research data do not agree.

BUT: The analysis of the data is incomplete.

¶1019a. When the subject is a collective noun (like jury or committee), use a singular

verb if the group is acting as a unit.

The jury has agreed on a verdict.

¶1019b. When the subject is a collective noun (like jury or committee), use a plural verb if the members of the

group are acting separately.

The jury have not yet agreed on a verdict.

BETTER: The members of the jury have not yet agreed on a verdict.

¶1023. When the subject is the number, use a singular verb. When the subject

is a number, use a plural verb.

The number of accidents at the corner is alarming.

A large number of accidents have occurred there.

¶1025a. When the subject includes a phrase like one-half of, a percentage of, or the rest of, use a singular verb if a singular noun

follows of or is implied.

Two-thirds of the job has been completed; the remaining third is scheduled for completion by this Friday.

¶1025b. When the subject includes a phrase like one-half of, a percentage of, or the rest

of, use a plural verb if a plural noun follows of or is implied.

A large percentage of the voters support your plan.

¶1027. When the verb comes before the subject, make sure that they agree.

What procedures am I expected to follow?

Enclosed is a copy of the e-mail sent by Mr. Polk.

¶1028a. When a sentence begins with there is, here are, or a similar phrase, the real subject follows the verb. Use a singular

verb if the subject is singular.

There is a vast difference between the two plans.

Here is the first draft of my manuscript.

¶1028a. When a sentence begins with there is, here are, or a similar phrase,

the real subject follows the verb. Use a plural verb if the subject is plural.

There are over 50 applicants for this job.

Here are the budget analyses you asked for.

What are the criteria we should use?Slide 10-44

¶1029. When a sentence contains a linking verb (such as become or some form of to be), make sure that the verb agrees with

the subject.

Bicycles are the only product we make.The only product we make is bicycles.

The key issue is higher wages.Higher wages are the key issue.

¶1054a. Use one of the following forms when a personal pronoun

is the subject of a verb.

PERSONAL PRONOUNSPERSONAL PRONOUNS

FIRST SECOND THIRDPERSON PERSON PERSON

Singular: I you he, she, itPlural: we you they

Marcia and I can do it. (NOT: Marcia and me.)

Ted and she did a fine job. (NOT: Ted and her.)

The Levys and we met yesterday. (NOT: The Levys and us.)

¶1055a. Use one of the following forms when the personal pronoun

is the object of a verb.

Singular: me you him, her, itPlural: us you them

They invited my wife and me. (NOT: my wife and I.)

¶1055a. Use one of the following forms when the personal pronoun

is the indirect object.

They gave Jim and me free tickets. (NOT: Jim and I.)

¶1055b. Use one of the following forms when the personal pronoun

is the object of the preposition.

They gave free tickets to Jim and me. (NOT: Jim and I.)

¶1055c. Use one of the following forms when the personal pronoun

is the subject of an infinitive.

She asked Sue and me to help her. (NOT: Sue and I.)

¶1055c. Use one of the following forms when the personal pronoun

is the object of an infinitive.

Sam plans to invite the Kellys and me.(NOT: the Kellys and I.)

¶1056b. Use one of the following possessive forms when the pronoun immediately

precedes the noun it modifies.

Singular: my your his, her, itsPlural: our your their

my computer his daughter our children

¶1056b. Use one of the following possessive forms when the pronoun immediately

precedes the noun it modifies.

Singular: my your his, her, itsPlural: our your their

your report her son their parents

¶1056c. Use one of the following possessive forms when the pronoun stands apart from

the noun it refers to.

Singular: mine yours his, her, itsPlural: ours yours theirs

This computer is mine. Is this his or hers?

¶1056c. Use one of the following possessive forms when the pronoun stands apart from

the noun it refers to.

Singular: mine yours his, hers, itsPlural: ours yours theirs

That car is ours. Is this car yours or theirs?

¶1056e. Do not confuse certain posses-sive forms with certain contractions that sound like personal pronouns.

POSSESSIVES CONTRACTIONS

its it’s (it is OR it has)

The firm is wasting It’s (It is) time to come its time. to a decision.

your you’re (you are)

Your approach You’re (You are) makes sense. approaching the

problem wisely.

their they’re (they are)

OR: there’re (there are)

What do you think They’re (They are) of their plan? planning to close.

theirs there’s (there is OR there has)

Theirs is the car There’s (There has) been I like best. a change in Ben.

¶1049a. A pronoun must agreewith its antecedent (the word for

which the pronoun stands) in number, gender, and person.

PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

I have my reasons, just as you have yours.

The company needs to review its discount policy.

¶1049a. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent (the word for

which the pronoun stands) in number, gender, and person.

Amy says that she needs her own computer.

We must establish our position before they release their report.

¶1049b. Use a plural pronoun when the antecedent consists of two nouns joined by and.

Wendy and Sue say that they will make their presentations next Monday.

¶1049c. Use a singular pronoun when the antecedent consists of

two singular nouns joined by or or nor.

Neither Wendy nor Sue will be ready to make her presentation before next Monday.

¶1049c. Use a plural pronoun when the antecedent consists of two plural

nouns joined by or or nor.

Either the Foxes or the Ryans will bring their VCR.

¶¶1049a, 1051, 1052a, 1053. When the antecedent of a personal pronoun is a

singular noun or pronoun that could be either masculine or feminine, use one of the following forms as appropriate.

he or she his or her him or her

A manager needs to use much tact when dealing with his or her subordinates.

he or she his or her him or her

Everyone must submit his or her expense report by noon.

¶¶1049a, 1051, 1052a, 1053. When the antecedent of a personal pronoun is a

singular noun or pronoun that could be either masculine or feminine, use one of the following forms as appropriate.

¶1052. If the use of he or she (or a similar expression) produces an awk-ward sentence, reword the sentence.

Managers need to use much tact when dealing with their subordinates.

A manager needs to use much tact when dealing with subordinates.

¶1052. If the use of he or she (or a similar expression) produces an awk-ward sentence, reword the sentence.

All employees must submit their expense reports by noon.

Everyone must submit an expense report by noon.

¶1060a. Use one of the following forms to direct the action expressed

by the verb back to the subject.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNSCOMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Singular: myself yourself himself, herself, itself

Plural: ourselves yourselves themselves

She bought herself a new VCR.

¶1060a. Use one of the following forms to direct the action expressed by

the verb back to the subject.

They conducted themselves honorably.

¶1060b. Use one of the following forms to emphasize a noun or

pronoun already expressed.

I myself will deal with the problem.

¶1060b. Use one of the following forms to emphasize a noun or

pronoun already expressed.

We planned the party ourselves.

¶1060d. Do not use a compound personal pronoun unless the noun or pronoun to which it refers is in the same sentence.

These copies are for Hal and me. (NOT: myself)

¶1060d. Do not use a compound personal pronoun unless the noun or pronoun to which it refers is in the same sentence.

Kate and I (NOT: myself) can resolve our problem.

¶1061a. Who, whom, whoever, and whomever are:

• Interrogative pronouns, used in asking questions.

• Relative pronouns, used to introduce a clause referring to a noun in the main clause.

INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

¶1061c. Use who or whoever as the subject of a verb.

Who gave you that information?

Chris is the one who gave me that information.

¶1061d. Use whom or whomever as the object of a verb or a preposition.

To whom should I distribute these copies?

Send the copies to whomever you wish.

¶1063. Use whose as the possessive form of who.

Whose wallet is this?

Here’s the phone number of the person whose wallet you found.

¶1061c. To decide when to use who or whom and whoever or whomever, mentally rearrange the sentence (as shown in parentheses below).

Who/Whom shall I say is calling? (I shall say he is calling.)

Give this note to whoever/whomever asks for it.(She asks for it.)

¶1061c. To decide when to use who or whom and whoever or whomever, mentally rearrange the sentence (as shown in parentheses below).

Who/Whom are you going to vote for?(You are going to vote for him.)

Vote for whoever/whomever you wish.(You wish to vote for her.)

¶1063. Do not confuse whose (the possessive form of who) with who’s (a

contraction meaning who is or who has).

Whose/Who’s book is this?(This book is his.)

Whose/Who’s the author? (She’s the author.)

An adjective is an expression that answers questions like what kind,

how many, and which one.

ADJECTIVESADJECTIVES

What kind: excellent results

How many: four laptops

Which one: the latest data

An adjective may be a single word, phrase, clause, or compound modifier.

Single word: a powerful man

Phrase: a man of great power

Clause: a man who hungers for power

Compound modifier: a power-hungry man

An adjective can modify a noun or pronoun.

Noun: Wonderful news!

The news is wonderful!

Pronoun: Unlucky me.

I seem to be unlucky.

An adverb is an expression that answers questions like when, where, why, in

what manner, and to what extent.

ADVERBSADVERBS

When: I’ll call you tomorrow.

Where: Let’s meet here or in your office.

Why: I can’t attend because of illness.

In what manner: Don’t speak so fast.

To what extent: He talked much too long.

An adverb may be a single word, phrase, or clause.

ADVERBSADVERBS

Single word: Speak clearly.

Phrase: Speak in a clear voice.

Clause: Speak as clearly as you can.

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

ADVERBSADVERBS

A verb: We closed the deal quickly.

An adjective: Carole seemed genuinely pleased.

Another adverb: The meeting went surprisingly well.

¶1065. Use an adverb (not an adjective) to modify an adjective.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBSADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

a really nice time

(NOT: a real nice time)

¶1066. Use an adverb (not an adjective) to modify a verb that expresses action.

I was hurt badly in the collision.

(NOT: hurt bad)

¶1067. Use an adjective (not an adverb) to modify the subject of a sentence when the modifier follows a verb of the senses

(feel look, sound, taste, smell).

I feel bad. (NOT: badly)

She looked happy. (NOT: happily)

¶1067. Use an adjective (not an adverb) to modify the subject of a sentence when the modifier follows a linking verb (some

form of be, seem, appear, and become).

Joe seemed friendly.

We became suspicious.

¶1071. Adjectives and adverbs have three forms: positive, com-

parative, and superlative.

ADJECTIVE

Positive: thin

Comparative: thinner

Superlative: thinnest

¶1071a, e. Adjectives and adverbs of one syllable (like soon below) form the com-

parative by adding er and the superlative by adding est. A few form the comparative and the superlative irregularly (like good below).

ADVERB ADJECTIVEPositive: soon goodComparative: sooner betterSuperlative: soonest best

¶1071b. Adjectives and adverbs of two syllables usually form the comparative and

the superlative in one of two ways.

ADJECTIVES ADVERBS

happy famous early oftenhappier more famous earlier less oftenhappiest most famous earliest least often

¶1071c. Adjectives and adverbs of three syllables form the comparative and the

superlative as follows.

ADJECTIVES ADVERBS

competent carefully

less competent more carefully

least competent most carefully

¶1071g. When referring to two persons, places, or things, use the comparative form. When referring to more than

two, use the superlative form.

Kate is the taller of my two daughters.

Jim is the tallest of my three sons.

Jim is taller than John or Chris.

Trudy is the most helpful person on the staff.

Trudy is more helpful than anyone else on the staff.

(NOT: . . . more helpful than anyone on the staff.)

Chicago is the largest city in Illinois.

Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois.

(NOT: . . . larger than any city in Illinois.)

¶1071i. When making comparisons, be sure to compare like things.

This year’s sales are better than last year’s.

(NOT: This year’s sales are better than last year.)

A preposition is a word that takes an ob-ject (a noun or pronoun) and connects it

to some other word in the sentence. Here are some common prepositions, followed in each case by an appropriate object.

PREPOSITIONSPREPOSITIONS

above the clouds before noon up the river

below the surface after the party down the drain

A preposition is a word that takes an ob-ject (a noun or pronoun) and connects it to some other word in the sentence. Here are some common prepositions, followed in each case by an appropriate object.

from all of us for the last time

to the airport against my wishes

between you and me among the three of us

A preposition is a word that takes an ob-ject (a noun or pronoun) and connects it to some other word in the sentence. Here are some common prepositions, followed

in each case by an appropriate object.

under the circumstances with every order

over the hill without a doubt

through the years during the nineties

A preposition is a word that takes an ob-ject (a noun or pronoun) and connects it

to some other word in the sentence. Here are some common prepositions, followed

across the room in the meantime

by all means out the door

behind the door at your convenience

A preposition is a word that takes an ob-ject (a noun or pronoun) and connects it to some other word in the sentence. Here are some common prepositions, followed

on one hand until next year of every kind

off the wall about 6 p.m. since last week

¶1078. Omit unnecessary prepositions.

Where is she [at]?

The carton fell off [of] the truck.

Let’s focus [in] on the real problem.

I couldn’t help [from] laughing.

The strike is now over [with].

¶1079. Do not omit necessary prepositions.

I just bought a couple of CDs.(NOT: a couple CDs.)

We don’t stock that type of filter. (NOT: that type filter.)

¶1079. Do not omit necessary prepositions.

She appears in movies, in plays, and on TV.

(NOT: She appears in movies, plays, and on TV.)

¶1081a. Express parallel ideas in parallel form.

SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONSENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

Wrong: The program was stimulating and a challenge.

Right: The program was stimulating and challenging.

Wrong: This scanner is easy to operate, efficient, and it is relatively inexpensive.

Right: This scanner is easy to operate, efficient, and relatively inexpensive.

Poor: This article will discuss:

1. How to deal with corporate politics.

2. Coping with stress.

3. What the manager’s role should be.

Better: This article will discuss:

1. Ways to deal with corporate politics.

2. Techniques of coping with stress.

3. The role of the manager.

¶1082a. When a sentence begins with a participial phrase that expresses an action,

make sure that the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action that is expressed in the opening phrase. Otherwise, the

opening phrase will “dangle.”

DANGLING CONSTRUCTIONSDANGLING CONSTRUCTIONS

Wrong: Having studied your cost estimates, a few questions have occurred to me.

Right: Having studied your cost estimates, I would like to ask you a few questions.

¶1082b. When a sentence begins with an infinitive phrase that expresses an action,

make sure that the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action that is expressed in the opening phrase. Otherwise, the

opening phrase will “dangle.”

Wrong: To obtain this free booklet, the enclosed coupon should be mailed in.

Right: To obtain this free booklet, you should mail in the enclosed coupon.

¶1082c. When a sentence begins with a prepositional-gerund phrase that expresses an action, make sure that the subject of the

sentence is the doer of the action that is expressed in the opening phrase. Other-wise, the opening phrase will “dangle.”

Wrong: In analyzing the data, a few errors were found.Right: In analyzing the data, I found a few errors.

¶1101. a lot–alot

USAGEUSAGE

Thanks a lot.

(NOT: Thanks alot.)

¶1101. a–of

USAGEUSAGE

It’s been kind of cold.(NOT: It’s been kinda cold.)

What sort of car did you buy?(NOT: What sort a car. . . )

¶1101. affect–effect

USAGEUSAGE

His memo will not affect (change) my decision.

His memo will have no effect (impact) on my decision.

How can we effect (bring about) a change in his decision?

¶1101. amount–number

USAGEUSAGE

a large amount of sugar (wood, steel, etc.; things referred to in bulk)

a large number of people (orders, etc.; things referred to as separate items)

¶1101. awhile–a while

USAGEUSAGE

wait awhile wait for a while a while back

¶1101. between–among

USAGEUSAGE

divided between the two of us

divided among the three of us

¶1101. farther–further

USAGEUSAGE

We drove farther (in actual distance) than we planned.

Let’s discuss your idea further (to a greater extent).

¶1101. fewer–less

USAGEUSAGE

fewer accidents (or any other plural noun)

less energy (or any other singular noun)

¶1101. of—have

USAGEUSAGE

I could have helped you.(NOT: I could of helped you.)

You should have let me.(NOT: You should of let me.)

¶1101. sometime–sometimes–some time

USAGEUSAGE

Let’s get together sometime (at an unspecified time) soon.

Sometimes (now and then) we go to Hawaii for a month.

It will take some time (a period of time) to finish the job.

¶1101. supposed to

USAGEUSAGE

What was I supposed to think?

(NOT: What was I suppose to think?)

¶1101. used to

USAGEUSAGE

We used to go to Nova Scotia every summer.

(NOT: We use to go to Nova Scotia every summer.)

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