Fluorescent Dyes for Visualizing Microplastic Particles ......68 different types of plastics, it is necessary to incorporate dyes that yield non-overlapping colors. 69 The textile
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Fluorescent Dyes for Visualizing Microplastic
Particles and Fibers in Laboratory-based Studies
Evan G. Karakolis, Brian Nguyen, Jae Bem You, Chelsea M. Rochman,
and David Sinton
Version Post-print/Accepted Manuscript
Citation (published version)
Karakolis EG, Nguyen B, You JB, Rochman CM, Sinton D. Fluorescent Dyes for Visualizing Microplastic Particles and Fibers in Laboratory-Based Studies. Environmental Science & Technology Letters. 2019 May 22.
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This document is the Accepted Manuscript version of a Published Work that appeared in final form in Environmental Science & Technology Letters, copyright © American Chemical Society after peer review and technical editing by the publisher. To access the final edited and published work see https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/
10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00241.
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Fluorescent Dyes for Visualizing Microplastic Particles and 1
Fibers in Laboratory-based Studies 2
Evan G. Karakolisa#, Brian Nguyena#, Jae Bem You a, Chelsea M Rochmanb* and David Sintona* 3
aDepartment of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering and Institute for Sustainable Energy, University of Toronto, 4
5 King’s College Road, Toronto, ON, Canada, M5S 3G8. 5
bDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks St, Toronto, ON, Canada, 6
M5S 3B2 7
#Equally contributing author 8
*Co-corresponding author 9
*E-mail: sinton@mie.utoronto.ca; chelsea.rochman@utoronto.ca 10
Abstract 11
Observing microplastics in manipulative experiments is of paramount importance for 12
understanding the fate of microplastics in the environment, organisms and food webs. Labeling 13
microplastics with fluorescent dyes is a useful tool in laboratory experiments for tracking 14
microplastics. However, literature using fluorescence-based detection is heavily biased toward the 15
use of polystyrene and polyethylene microspheres, potentially due to their commercial availability. 16
Consequently, much less is understood about the fate of non-spherical morphologies and other 17
types of plastics common in the environment. Presented here is a heat-mediated microplastic 18
dyeing protocol that facilitates the stable incorporation of inexpensive commercially available 19
fluorescent disperse dyes directly into the polymer structure for use in laboratory-based studies. 20
We demonstrate this microplastic labelling approach is compatible with a wide variety of plastic 21
types (Polystyrene (PS), Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), 22
Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), 23
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)), and is customizable with different colors and fluorescent spectra. The 24
stability of the fluorescence intensity of the labelled plastics was measured over 72h and compared 25
to an existing microplastic dying approach using Nile Red. We found the dyeing approach was 26
more fluorescently stable for PS, HDPE, PET, PVC, and PAN than for LDPE and PP. The dyes 27
are also more robust to 4M KOH digestion and exposure to mineral oil than Nile Red. Finally, the 28
cost of preparing microplastics with the technique shown here is half of the cost of Nile Red. This 29
new plastic dyeing method represents a low-cost, versatile approach enabling laboratory-based 30
experiments with different polymer types and shapes using existing fluorescent microscopy 31
tracking techniques. This will help provide a more representative knowledge of the interactions of 32
microplastics with organisms. 33
Introduction 34
Observing microplastics in experiments, particularly when assessing their fate, is of paramount 35
importance. Existing studies that observe microplastics using fluorescence microscopy are heavily 36
biased by the use of two polymer types and a single particle shape (Fig. 1). The commercial 37
availability of fluorescently-labeled polystyrene and polyethylene microspheres and the ease of 38
synthesizing spherical particles of controlled size, make these plastics easily accessible to 39
researchers which could contribute to their disproportionate use. However, fibers and fragments 40
are significantly more abundant than microspheres – making microspheres an ill-fitting 41
representation of environmental exposure scenarios1. Furthermore, evidence shows that plastic 42
Figure 1. Summary of plastic type and shape used in microplastic exposure studies from two
literature reviews of papers published in all years through November 26th, 2017. The first search
using Web of Science with keywords: plastic debris and microplastic. The second search using
Scopus with keywords: microplastic* OR marine debris AND ingest* OR consum* OR eat*. (A)
Particles smaller than 300 µm (B) Particles larger than 300 µm. See Supporting Information for
more details.
morphology likely has an effect on impact2,3. For example, microplastic morphology was shown 43
to affect ingestion and mortality in daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio)2, and egestion 44
time in Hyalella azteca3. Morphology may also affect the transport and fate of microplastics in the 45
environment. 46
A review of the microplastic exposure literature suggests that environmental relevance in terms of 47
plastic types and shapes may have been compromised due to the convenience of commercially 48
fabricated particles and utility of fluorescent visualization in laboratory experiments (See Figure 1 49
and Supporting Information). Figure 1 illustrates the number of laboratory exposure studies which 50
have considered the effects of ingestion of microplastics on marine organisms, sorted by size and 51
shape. Studies using polystyrene and polyethylene microspheres dominate other abundant polymer 52
types and shapes, particularly in the smaller size range (< 300µm). One factor contributing to this 53
may be the need for fluorescently labeled particles and the commercial availability of labelled 54
polystyrene or polyethylene spheres. The possible link between polystyrene/polyethylene spheres 55
and fluorescent labeling is demonstrated by the fact that 62% (29 out of 47) of the studies which 56
used polystyrene and polyethylene spheres smaller than 300 µm (Figure 1) also used fluorescently 57
labeled particles, suggesting that a need for fluorescence-based detection may have contributed to 58
their choice of microplastic. 59
What is needed is an approach to fluorescently label any plastic type or shape, enabling the study 60
of various plastic morphologies and polymer types while still using the fluorescence imaging 61
identification techniques preferred in current scientific work. Recently, studies have shown that 62
Nile Red dye is a promising approach for tagging plastics via hydrophobic interaction in exposure 63
experiments4 as well as in environmental samples.5–7 Nile Red can bind to plastic and fluoresces 64
in a range of colors from yellow to deep red depending on the surface hydrophobicity of the plastic. 65
However, the emitted color of Nile Red can be affected by the change in hydrophobicity of plastics 66
due to the surface contamination from the environment. Therefore, to clearly distinguish the 67
different types of plastics, it is necessary to incorporate dyes that yield non-overlapping colors. 68
The textile industry has motivated the development of many dyes for fabrics. Azo dyes render 69
colors on both natural and synthetic textile products8–10. These dyes contain aromatic amines11,12 70
in their structure, so they are regarded as attractive fluorescent compounds. Therefore, the 71
commercial textile dyes hold the potential to be applied as fluorescent labels for microplastics due 72
to their simple staining procedure as well as possible fluorescence emission. 73
Introduced here is an alternative approach to purchasing fluorescently labeled spheres or 74
fluorescently labeling plastics with Nile Red for microplastic research. Commercially available 75
disperse dyes (iDye) marketed as textile dyes were identified as candidates compatible with a 76
variety of plastics and acting as fluorophores with spectral characteristics compatible with 77
common fluorescent filter sets. Furthermore, this technique allows spectral customization of the 78
fluorescent characteristics of the dyed plastics. The approach is simple, versatile and customizable 79
to users’ needs and enables the study of more environmentally relevant range of microplastic 80
shapes and types. 81
Materials and Methods 82
Plastic Particles 83
The plastics used in this study are summarized in Table 1 below. The source and method by which 84
they were fragmented/prepared is summarized in Table S3. In this study a fragment is considered 85
to be a non-spherical, non-fibrous particle of irregular shape (See figure 2C). 86
Table 1. Summary of polymer types, shapes, and size ranges of microplastics. Fragment sizes are longest dimension 87 of fragment. Sphere size are diameter. Fiber sizes are diameter / length of fiber. Glass transition and melting point 88 temperatures were obtained from PerkinElmer13 and Sigma-Aldrich14. 89
90
Dye Fluorescence Testing 91
The fluorescence of a wide range of dyes was tested (see Supplemental Information for list of dyes 92
tested) to select the three chosen dyes: iDye pink (pink dye), iDye blue (blue dye), and Rit 93
DyeMore Kentucky Sky (kentucky dye). Various iDye Poly (Jacquard) and Rit DyeMore synthetic 94
fiber dyes were tested to determine if they fluoresced in common microscopy fluorescence filter 95
ranges. We considered 3 fluorescence ranges: green (Ex: 470/22 Em: 525/50), red (Ex: 531/40 96
Em: 593/40), and far-red (Ex: 628/40 Em: 685/40). We determined that pink dye fluoresced in the 97
red range, blue dye in the far-red range, and kentucky dye in the green and red ranges. These three 98
fluorescent spectra can be used simultaneously to label three different polymer types within a 99
sample (Figure S3). See the supplemental information for visual depictions of unique fluorescent 100
signatures (Figure S3). 101
Plastic Dyeing 102
Polymer Type Shape Size Range Glass
Transition Melting Point
Polystyrene Fragment 100-300 µm 90 to 100 °C 240 °C
Polystyrene Sphere 13.5-16.5 µm 90 to 100 °C 240 °C
Low-Density
Polyethylene
Fragment 100-200 µm -130 °C 85 to 125 °C
High-Density
Polyethylene
Sphere 10-90 µm -125 °C 130 to140 °C
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Fragment 50-500 µm 70 to 80 °C 245 to 265 °C
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
Fiber 30-60 µm /
150-5000 µm
70 to 80 °C 245 to 265 °C
Polyvinylchloride Fragment 50-300 µm 81 °C 227 °C
Polypropylene Fragment 500-4000 µm -20 to -5 °C 165 to 176 °C
Polyacrylonitrile Fiber 20-50 µm /
300-3000 µm
125 °C 319 °C
Dry plastic particles were added to a 100 mg/mL iDye Poly (Jacquard) powder in DI water solution 103
(or 50% v/v with DI water for Rit DyeMore liquid dye) at a concentration of 50 mg plastic particles 104
and 25 mg plastic fibers per 10 mL dye solution. Plastics were then heated at 70°C in vials for 2h 105
in darkness, then removed from the vial by pouring through a filter and rinsed three times, each 106
time resuspending them in fresh DI water then pouring through a filter. After 3 rinses they were 107
stored in DI water. The dyeing temperature of 70°C was chosen to stay conservatively below the 108
melting point of LDPE, the plastic with the lowest melting point (85°C, see Table S3), and was 109
kept the same for all plastics. The heating step facilitates the diffusion of dye molecules into the 110
polymer matrix, which remain in place after cooling.15 The cost of iDye Poly, at the time of this 111
study, was ~$0.20 USD/g and the cost of Rit DyeMore, at the time of this study, was ~$0.09 112
USD/mL equating to ~$4.03 USD/g and ~$1.79 USD/g plastic coated respectively (at 2018 113
December USD to CAD conversion rates, 1 USD =1.34 CAD). Particles were also labelled with 114
Nile Red for comparison. For Nile Red dyeing, dry plastic particles were added to a 100 µg/mL 115
Nile Red in DI water solution at a concentration of 50 mg plastic particles and 25 mg plastic fibers 116
per 10 mL solution. To prepare this solution, 1 mg of Nile Red was first dissolved in 1 mL of 117
acetone, then the solution was added to 10 mL of DI water. The protocol for dyeing Nile Red, 118
including the concentration of Nile Red in solution, was selected based on existing microplastic 119
dyeing protocols5. Vials were left for 2h in darkness, then rinsed three times as described above, 120
then stored in DI water. The cost of Nile Red, at the time of this study, was $417.91 USD/g (Sigma 121
- 72485) equating to $8.36 USD/g plastic coated. 122
Fluorescence Stability Testing 123
Labelled particles were placed in one of eight conditions of varying water chemistry, light 124
conditions, temperature, organism presence and solution polarity (See table S4 for summary of 125
conditions). The baseline treatment, which other treatments were compared to, was: 35 ppt salinity, 126
dark, 24 °C, no organisms, and no KOH or Mineral Oil. In all other treatments, one parameter was 127
changed. For example, the effect of salinity was tested by reducing the salinity to freshwater levels 128
of 0.6 ppt, but leaving other parameters constant (dark, 24 °C, no organisms, and no KOH or 129
Mineral Oil). The potential for photobleaching was tested with a 12h:12h light:dark treatment with 130
light intensity of 5 μmol photons m−2 s−1. The effect of low temperatures was tested by exposing 131
plastics to 8 °C saltwater. The effect of non-ingestion organism exposure was tested by exposing 132
each plastic to 24h post-hatching juvenile Artemia salina. We note that the size of the plastic 133
particles tested relative to A. salina precluded ingestion and digestion, however the presence of 134
organisms and defecated gut enzymes in feces was tested. The effect of potassium hydroxide 135
digestion was tested by exposing the plastics to 4M KOH (Potassium Hydroxide pellets purchased 136
from BioShop, reagent grade) for 72 h. The temperature of the solution was not measured in the 137
KOH treatment, but there was no biogenic matter in the solution to react, and the wellplates that 138
housed each treatment were kept in 24 °C ambient conditions. The effect of polar liquids such as 139
fats and oils were tested by exposing plastics to mineral oil (Light - Bioshop). 140
The particles were tested over 72h to determine their relative fluorescence stability over time. Tests 141
were completed in 48-well plates filled with 300 µL of a given treatment fluid. Cold treatments 142
were left in a refrigerator at 8 °C. See supplemental methods section for details on A. salina 143
culturing. Nile Red and pink dye were tested for all plastic types and for all conditions. Blue dye 144
and kentucky dye were not tested since they appeared toxic (see results section). 145
For each treatment there were three replicates (i.e. three wells) each with one or more pieces of 146
plastics per replicate well. Fluorescence microscopy images (16-bit) were taken initially, then 147
every 24h up to a final image 72h after initial exposure. For each plastic type the same imaging 148
settings (light intensity and exposure time) were used for all dyes, but different imaging settings 149
were used for different plastic types. Images were analyzed using ImageJ image analysis software. 150
The fluorescence intensity for a plastic was determined by measuring the average intensity over 151
the area of that plastic, then subtracting the mean intensity of the background area (area with no 152
plastic). The intensity for a given well was the average intensity of the plastics within that well, 153
and the intensity for a given treatment and a given timepoint was determined by averaging the 154
intensities of the replicate wells. 155
Ingestion Stability Testing 156
The robustness of the microplastic dyes to organism ingestion and digestion was tested by 157
exposing 24h post-hatching A. salina to small microplastic particles (PS spheres 13.5 - 16.5 µm) 158
dyed by each of the three dyes (pink dye, blue dye, and kentucky dye). This ingestion stability 159
experiment was different than the organism exposure treatments described in the stability 160
experiments above. In this experiment, plastics were small enough to be easily ingested. Ingestion 161
experiments took place in the wells of a 24 well plate with 2 mL of saltwater, 500 plastics, and 162
three A. salina per well. For each dye there were 12 replicates (i.e. 12 wells). Fluorescence 163
microscopy images (16-bit) of plastics were taken in-situ within each well using an EVOS FL 164
Auto Imaging System with wellplate insert. Images were taken initially, then every 24h up to a 165
final image 72h after initial exposure. Images were taken at a random location in each well with 3 166
or more plastics per image. We assumed all plastics were ingested for two reasons. First, the 167
filtration rate of a single A. salina of the size and age used in this experiment (size: 600-1,000µm, 168
age: 24h post-hatching, approximate filtration rate: 0.2 mL/h16), is such that entire volume of the 169
well will have been filtered more than 14-times per day by the three A. salina in each well. Second, 170
the polystyrene plastics used in this exposure are not buoyant, so they settled on the bottom of the 171
well where the A. salina feed. For these two reasons it is likely most or all of the plastics were 172
ingested during the 96h exposure. 173
Images were analyzed using ImageJ image analysis software. The fluorescence intensity for a 174
given replicate well was the average intensity of the plastics in the image taken for that well, and 175
the intensity for a given treatment and timepoint was determined by averaging the intensities of 176
each of the 12 replicate wells per dye. Fluorescence intensity was determined as described in the 177
Fluorescence Stability Testing section above. 178
Dye Toxicity Testing 179
The toxicity of each dye was tested on 24h post-hatching A. salina over 96h. A. salina was selected 180
as a model organism due to ease of cultivation and the past use of Artemia sp. as biological 181
organisms in toxicity testing17–20. Furthermore, a recent study showed that acute toxicity test 182
results using the second and third instar A. salina nauplii (24h after hatching) had significant 183
interspecies correlations with results of other common biological model organisms used in toxicity 184
testing including fish (Danio rerio) and zooplankton (Daphnia magna)18, meaning toxicity tests 185
on A. salina may be indicative of toxicity to other zooplankton and potentially fish. This being 186
said, we strongly suggest that for each new organism used with these dyes, a new toxicity test 187
should be conducted to determine species specific toxicity. 188
Tests were completed in 6-well plates with each well containing 10 mL of saltwater, one A. salina, 189
500 plastic particles, and 10,000 Thallasoira weissfloggii brown algae cells. After 48h an 190
additional 10,000 T. weissfloggii cells were added to replenish the food supply. The plastics used 191
here were 13.5-16.5µm PS spheres (Polybead #18328-5). There were three treatments and two 192
controls: One treatment for each dye (pink dye, blue dye, and kentucky dye), a control with 193
uncoated polystyrene spheres, and a control with no plastics (algae only). There were 6 organisms 194
per replicate (one per well in a six well plate) and 4 replicate plates per treatment. The number of 195
living organisms on each replicate plate was determined after 24h, 48h, 72h, and 96h. Then, the 196
survival ratio on each replicate plate, defined as number of living organisms per plate divided by 197
six, was calculated. The average survival fraction between the 4 replicate plates was also 198
determined for each treatment and control. 199
Results and Discussion 200
Presented here is a novel method of fluorescently tagging microplastics in laboratory experiments 201
through relatively inexpensive commercially available fabric dyes (available at ~$1.79-4.03 202
USD/g plastic coated compared to ~ $8.36 USD/g plastic coated for Nile Red). The pink dye’s 203
Figure 2. Examples of plastic types and morphologies dyed with different dyes (A) Different morphologies: Spheres
(15-150 µm), Fragments (50-300 µm) and Fibers (30-60 µm / 150-5000 µm) dyed with pink dye (B) Different
Fluorophores: Green (kentucky dye), Red (pink dye), Far-red (blue dye). Pseudo colors are applied to different
fluorescent channels for differentiation purposes. (C) Different Polymer Types dyed with pink dye: Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) fragments (50-500 µm), High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) spheres (15-150 µm),
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) fragments (50-300 µm), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) fragments (100-200 µm),
Polypropylene (PP) fragments (500-4000 µm), Polystyrene (PS) fragments (100-300 µm), Polyester (PET) fiber (30-
60 µm / 150-5000 µm), Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fiber (20-50 µm / 300-3000 µm). Scale bars are 550 µm.
applicability with different polymer types was tested along with compatibility with various 204
morphologies (Figure 2). The pink dye results in relatively strong fluorescent signal under these 205
conditions with most of the polymer types tested except for LDPE and PP. For LDPE, the 206
fluorescent signal was weak and much lower than for the Nile Red comparison case (Figure S2a-207
d), while the signal for PP was also weak but similar to that of Nile Red (Figure S2e-f). This poor 208
staining for LDPE and PP may be due to impurities or additives in the plastics which may affect 209
dye staining. That being said, staining could potentially be improved by increasing dye 210
concentration, staining temperature, and/or staining duration. Nevertheless, useable levels of 211
fluorescence were observed in all cases and optimization of labelling conditions for LDPE and PP 212
could potentially improve the weaker signals in those cases. The textile dyes performed extremely 213
well for PS, PET, and PVC fragments, HDPE microspheres, PET, and PAN fibers with several 214
times more signal compared to Nile red in most cases (Figure S1-S2). These results indicate the 215
new dyeing method is usable since its fluorescence intensity matches or is better than the 216
established ambient-temperature Nile Red approach. We note that the heat-mediated dyeing 217
procedure used for this new method could improve the dyeing of plastics with Nile Red, so the 218
fluorescence intensity comparison here indicates only that the new dyeing method presented here 219
has higher fluorescence (in most plastics tested), than the established method for ambient 220
temperature Nile Red dying5, but does not indicate the dyes presented here have better performance 221
than Nile red in general. 222
223
Importantly, the pink dye was stable in conditions relevant to exposure studies including different 224
environmental conditions, KOH digestion, and non-polar (mineral oil) environments for at least 225
72h. This stability is attributed to the absorption of dyes into the polymer matrix. It has been known 226
that small molecules such as dyes can be trapped in the polymer matrix when exposed to the glass 227
transition temperature (Tg) of the polymer21,22. Therefore, when the plastics are heated during the 228
staining process, the dyes can become trapped in the polymer matrix enhancing the stability against 229
strong solvents such as KOH and mineral oil. However, for some of the fibers it appears KOH and 230
non-polar solutions degraded the intensity over time (Figure S1k,l,o,p). Still, in most cases, the 231
labeled plastics can be fluorescently visualized throughout many steps of an experiment, for 232
example a plastic particle translocated into tissues with high lipid content or an experimental state 233
study in a wastewater treatment plant. 234
Moreover, the ability to use fluorescent dyes in different channels (Figure 2b) enables labeling 235
various polymers in multiple channels to distinguish them simultaneously in exposure studies. In 236
the environment, many types of plastics are present while in most experiments to date only a single 237
type of plastic is used. In addition, since the dye absorbs into the polymer matrix of the plastic, 238
this approach could be used in concert with techniques that rely on coating the plastics5,7,23, or in 239
studies where surface-adsorbed biofilms24–26 or chemical pollutants27–29 are of interest. 240
The compatibility of the dyes with organism ingestion was tested by exposing A. salina to 13.5-241
16.5 µm PS microbeads dyed with each of the three dyes. The pink dye, which fluoresced in the 242
red range (Ex: 531/40 Em: 593/40), appears to be non-toxic over 96h to one-day-old A. salina 243
when compared to the uncoated PS control and no-plastic control, all having greater than 79% 244
survival (Figure 3a). In contrast, kentucky dye and blue dye which fluoresce in the green (Ex: 245
470/22 Em: 525/50) and far-red (Ex: 628/40 Em: 685/40) respectively, both appear to be toxic to 246
the A. salina. The blue dye treatment had a survival of 58%, while the kentucky dye had a survival 247
of 33% (Figure 3a). All three dyes appear to be fluorescently stable after ingestion by A. salina. 248
This is confirmed by measuring the average fluorescence intensity of particles ingested by A. 249
salina (Figure 3b-d), and by visually observing the fluorescence of particles in the gut of A. salina 250
(Figure 3e-g). Overall it appears that although dyes are fluorescently stable even when being 251
ingested by A. salina, two out of the three dyes are likely toxic to this organism. This is consistent 252
Figure 3. Compatibility with organism exposure (A) Mean (±S.E.M.) survival fraction of 24h post-hatching Artemia
salina exposed to plastics with different coatings over 96h exposure period (n=4). (B-D) Mean (±S.D.) fluorescence
intensity of dyed polystyrene spheres (13.5-16.5 µm) after being exposed to 24h post-hatching Artemia salina over
72h (n=12). (B) Rit DyeMore Kentucky Blue. (C) iDye Poly Pink. (D) iDye Poly Blue. (E-G) Images of Artemia
salina after 72h with fluorescent channels for respective dyes overlaid using pseudo-colors. (E) Rit DyeMore
Kentucky Blue. (F) iDye Poly Pink. (G) iDye Poly Blue. Scale bars are 200 µm. Images in (E-G) were brightness-
and contrast-adjusted for clarity
with previous literature that shows some azo dyes are toxic to Daphnia magna30. However, the 253
pink dye appears to be non-toxic and thus can be considered for broader use. 254
Finally, we found that the dyes did not fluoresce when dispersed in water. This means that these 255
dyes could be used to allow visualization of plastics in environmental samples treated with the 256
dye, similar to the way Nile Red is currently used5. This could be explored in future work. 257
Conclusion 258
In this study, commercially available dyes, which have the ability to absorb into the polymer matrix 259
of common plastic types were identified and tested for their applicability in microplastics exposure 260
and fate studies. Dyes were selected that exhibited fluorescence spectra compatible with filter sets 261
commonly used in fluorescence microscopy. The protocol for using these dyes is straightforward 262
and low in cost. The availability of multiple colors of dye enables experiments that simultaneously 263
assess different kinds or shapes of plastics, each labelled in a particular fluorescent channel. It is 264
expected that these dyes will provide an inexpensive complement to dyes which adsorb to plastic 265
surfaces – similar to Nile Red. Although two of the dyes proved toxic to A. salina (kentucky dye 266
– green, and blue dye – far-red), they may be applicable to experiments where organism survival 267
is secondary, such as short-term ingestion, trophic transfer, or translocation studies. The non-toxic 268
dye (pink dye – “red”) appears to be most compatible with typical organismal microplastic 269
exposure experiments where fate and toxicity are measured. In addition, all dyes may be very 270
applicable when measuring the fate of various types, shapes or sizes of microplastics in a treatment 271
plant or environmental matrix in a short-term study. For a longer study, further work is required 272
to measure the stability over longer time-scales. 273
ASSOCIATED CONTENT 274
Supporting Information 275
Summary table for ingestion literature from all years through Nov-26, 2017 (Table S1), 276
Summary table for microplastic exposure literature from all years through Nov-26, 2017 (Table 277
S2), Summary of polymer types, shapes, size ranges, source, and preparation technique of 278
microplastics used in experiments (Table S3), Summary of commercial dyes tested (Table S4), 279
Summary of treatments and levels for water quality stability testing (Table S5), iDye and Nile 280
Red fluorescence intensity for different plastics under different conditions over time (Figure S1 281
and S2), fluorescent microscope images for each dye in each fluorescent channel (Figure S3), 282
iDye and Nile Red fluorescence intensity for different plastics under different light and 283
temperature conditions over time (Figure S4), summary of data for fluorescence intensity 284
stability experiments with PS fragments (Table S6), summary of data for fluorescence intensity 285
stability experiments with LDPE fragments (Table S7), summary of data for fluorescence 286
intensity stability experiments with HDPE spheres (Table S8), summary of data for fluorescence 287
intensity stability experiments with PET fragments (Table S9), summary of data for fluorescence 288
intensity stability experiments with PVC fragments (Table S10), summary of data for 289
fluorescence intensity stability experiments with PP fragments (Table S11), summary of data for 290
fluorescence intensity stability experiments with PET fibers (Table S12), summary of data for 291
fluorescence intensity stability experiments with PAN fibers (Table S13). 292
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 293
This work was supported through a Strategic Grant from the Natural Science and Engineering 294
Research Council of Canada, the E.W.R. Steacie Memorial Fellowship (DS), and the Canada 295
Research Chairs Program. BN gratefully acknowledges funding from Ontario Graduate 296
Scholarships, the Queen Elizabeth II Graduate Scholarships in Science & Technology, NSERC 297
CGS Scholarships and the MEET, NSERC CREATE Program. EK thanks Sabrina T. Barsky for 298
editing the manuscript and acknowledges funding from Ontario Graduate Scholarships, and NSERC 299
CGS Scholarships. Ongoing infrastructure support from the Canadian Foundation for Innovation 300
and operational support through the NSERC Discovery and Discovery Accelerator Programs is also 301
gratefully acknowledged. J.B.Y would like to acknowledge the support by Basic Science Research 302
Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of 303
Education (2018R1A6A3A03012768). 304
305
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