CHAPTER 5 : Learning Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing.
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CHAPTER 5:
Learning
Essentials of Psychology, by Saul Kassin
©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observational Learning
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Learning Learning EthologyEthology
– The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat.
• Fixed Action Pattern– A species-specific behavior that is built into
an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearningEthologyEthology
• An example of a fixed action pattern can be seen in the stickleback fish. This fish attacks all forms that have a red belly, even those that do not look like a fish. The red belly is the stimulus that triggers this fixed action pattern.
Stickleback ModelsStickleback Models
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearningDefining LearningDefining Learning
• A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience.– Adaptation by learning is flexible. – Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning
and not by instinct.– The key to learning is association.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearningHabituationHabituation
• The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure– It is the simplest form of
learning. – Note here that rats repeatedly
exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time.
Habituation of FearHabituation of Fear
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearningClassical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
– A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning).
• Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another.
• This type of learning involves• An unconditioned stimulus• An unconditioned response• A conditioned stimulus• A conditioned response
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
• An unconditioned stimulus (US)– A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned
(involuntary) response.• Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli
• In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food.
• An unconditioned response (UR)– An unlearned response to an unconditioned
stimulus. • Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud
noise, moving away from something painful
• In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
• A conditioned stimulus (CS)– A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a
classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US.
• In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell.
• A conditioned response (CR)– A learned response to a classically conditioned
stimulus. • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
• Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper.
Pavlov’s ApparatusPavlov’s Apparatus
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
• Before ConditioningBefore Conditioning– Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits
Unconditioned Response (UR)• Meat powder leads to salivation
– Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response• Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
• During and After ConditioningDuring and After Conditioning– Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the
Unconditioned Stimulus• Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered
• This procedure is repeated several times
– After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food• When Bell rings, dog salivates
• The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
• Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR)
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s DiscoveryPavlov’s Discovery
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles
• Acquisition– Formation of a learned response to a stimulus
through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
• Extinction– Elimination of a learned response by removal of the
unconditioned stimulus
• Spontaneous Recovery– Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned
response after a rest period
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic PrinciplesThe Rise and Fall of a Conditioned ResponseThe Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles
• In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US.– Easiest conditioning
• In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together.
• In backward pairing, the CS follows the US.– Most difficult Time
Temporal Relations in Classical ConditioningTemporal Relations in Classical Conditioning
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles
• Stimulus Generalization– The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is
similar to the conditioned stimulus
• Discrimination– In classical and operant conditioning, the
ability to distinguish between different stimuli
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Basic PrinciplesBasic Principles
• With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS.– The bell (CS) is paired
with a black square.
• This neutral stimulus becomes a CS.– In the example, the black
square elicits salivation.
• One CS was used to create another CS.
Higher-Order ConditioningHigher-Order Conditioning
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPavlov’s LegacyPavlov’s LegacyThe Conditioning of Little AlbertThe Conditioning of Little Albert
• An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat.– Each time he reached for the rat,
Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert.
• Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry.– Including rabbits and a Santa
Claus mask
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
LearningLearning Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
• Thorndike put cats into puzzle boxes and
the time it took for them to escape decreased over the number of attempts.
• Law of Effect– Responses followed by positive outcomes are
repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement
• Operant Conditioning
– The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement.
• Reinforcement
– Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningThe Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement
• Punishment
– Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response.
• Shaping
– Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
The Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement
Increases Behavior
Decreases Behavior
Present Stimulus
Positive Reinforcement(give money)
Positive Punishment(give chores)
Remove Stimulus
Negative Reinforcement(take away chores)
Negative Punishment(take away money)
Types of Reinforcement & PunishmentTypes of Reinforcement & Punishment
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning The Principles of ReinforcementThe Principles of Reinforcement
• Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns.
• Steeper lines mean higher response rates.
• Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules.
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Practical ApplicationsPractical Applications
• All salesclerks were observed for a 20-day baseline period.
• Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not.
• The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance.
Using Reinforcement to Boost Job PerformanceUsing Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Practical ApplicationsPractical Applications
• Condition Oneself to Break a Bad HabitCondition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit– Identify specific target behavior to change– Record baseline– Formulate a plan
• To increase a behavior, use reinforcement• To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it
occurs or remove reinforcements
– Implement the plan, revise as needed– Maintain the change
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew DevelopmentsRats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive MapRats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map• Tolman trained rats in this
maze, with all alleys open.
• If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path.
• If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path.
– Green path is also blocked.
• Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew Developments
Latent LearningLatent Learning• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so.
• Some rats found food every time (red line)
• Some rats never found food (blue line)
• Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line)
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning New DevelopmentsNew DevelopmentsHidden Cost of RewardsHidden Cost of Rewards• Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and
were observed.• Divided into 3 groups:
– Given markers again and asked to draw– Promised a reward for playing with markers– Played with markers, then rewarded
• Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Observational LearningObservational Learning
– Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others.
• Studies of Modeling– Children and others model both antisocial and
prosocial behavior.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
Observational LearningObservational LearningThe Process of Modeling Involves:The Process of Modeling Involves:
• Attention– One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences.
• Retention– One must recall what was observed.
• Reproduction– Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the
modeled behavior.
• Motivation– Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act.
Kassin, Essentials of Psychology - ©2004 Prentice Hall Publishing
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