Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics Introduction Microelectronics Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology Silicon Chip Microcomputer / Microprocessor Discrete.

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Introduction

Microelectronics

Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology

Silicon Chip

Microcomputer / Microprocessor

Discrete Circuits

Signals

Signal ProcessingTransducers

http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html

Signals

Voltage Sources

Current Sources

Thevenin & Norton

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/ClickDevice/refdir.htmlhttp://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.htmlhttp://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html

Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thévenin form, and (b) the Norton form.

Figure 1.2 An arbitrary voltage signal vs(t).

Figure 1.3 Sine-wave voltage signal of amplitude Va and frequency f = 1/T Hz. The angular frequency v = 2pf rad/s.

Signals

Voltage Sources

Current Sources

http://www.clarkson.edu/~svoboda/eta/ClickDevice/super.htmlhttp://javalab.uoregon.edu/dcaley/circuit/Circuit_plugin.html

Signals

Voltage Sources

Current Sources

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

Fourier Transform

Fundamental and Harmonics

http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml

x

frequency

time

Figure 1.4 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.

Figure 1.5 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as that in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.7 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a) results in the discrete-time signal in (b).

Defining the Signal or Function to be Analyzed:

f t( ) sin 0 t t( ) .2 cos 7 0 t

0 1 2 3 4 5 62

0

2

f t( )

t

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

Fourier Series (Trigonometric form) of f(t):

a01

T 0

T

tf t( )

d a0 0 average value

an

2

T0

T

tf t( ) cos n 0 t

d cosine coefficients

n varying from 1 to N

10 20 30 40 50 600

0.1

an

0

n

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

bn

2

T0

T

tf t( ) sin n 0 t

d sine coefficients

10 20 30 40 50 600

0.5

1

bn

0

n

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

Rearranging total expression to include a0 in the complete spectrum

a1n

an

b1n

bn

c1n

1

2a1

n 2 b1n 2 c

0a0

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

0.2

0.4

c1n

0

n

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier Series

Reconstruction of time-domain function from trig. Fourier series:

f2 t( )

n1

an1

cos n1 0 t bn1

sin n1 0 t a0

0 1 2 3 4 5 62

0

2

f2 t( )

f t( )

t

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

Fourier SeriesFourier Series (Complex Form) of f(t):

wn

1

2N

n

Cn

1

T 0

tf t( ) ei wn 0 t

d

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

0.02

0.04

Cn

0

n

Fourier Transform of f(t) gives:

1

2N

12

N .25

1

2N

F 0

tf t( ) ei t

d

30 20 10 0 10 20 300

0.1

0.2

0.3

F ( )

0

The magnitude of F( ) yields the continuous frequency spectrum, and it is obviously of the form of the sampling function. The value of F(0) is A . A plot of |F( )| as a function of does not indicate the magnitude of the voltage present at any given frequency. What is it, then? Examination of F shows that, if f(t) is a voltage waveform, then F is dimensionally "volts per unit frequency," a concept that may be strange to most of us.

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm

Figure 1.8 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.

Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

Analog and Digital Signals

Sampling Rate http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html

Binary number systemhttp://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp

Analog-to-Digital Converterhttp://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.htmlhttp://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf

Digital-to-Analog Converter

http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm

Figure 1.10 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.

Figure 1.11 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI(t) and connected to a load resistance RL. (b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier with voltage gain Av.

Figure 1.12 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as batteries) for operation.

Figure 1.13 An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.

Figure 1.14 (a) An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small. Observe that this amplifier is operated from a single power supply, VDD.

Figure 1.15 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier of Example 1.2. Note that this amplifier is inverting (i.e., with a gain that is negative).

Figure 1.16 Symbol convention employed throughout the book.

Figure 1.17 (a) Circuit model for the voltage amplifier. (b) The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load.

Figure 1.18 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.

Figure 1.19 (a) Small-signal circuit model for a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier). (c) An alternative small-signal circuit model for the BJT.

Figure E1.20

Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier. At the test frequency v, the amplifier gain is characterized by its magnitude (Vo/Vi) and phase f.

Figure 1.21 Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. |T(v)| is the magnitude of the amplifier transfer function—that is, the ratio of the output Vo(v) to the input Vi(v).

Figure 1.22 Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and (b) a high-pass network.

Figure 1.23 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.

Figure 1.24 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.

Figure 1.25 Circuit for Example 1.5.

Figure 1.26 Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier.

Figure 1.27 Use of a capacitor to couple amplifier stages.

Figure E1.23

Figure 1.28 A logic inverter operating from a dc supply VDD.

Figure 1.29 Voltage transfer characteristic of an inverter. The VTC is approximated by three straightline segments. Note the four parameters of the VTC (VOH, VOL, VIL, and VIH) and their use in determining the noise margins (NMH and NML).

Figure 1.30 The VTC of an ideal inverter.

Figure 1.31 (a) The simplest implementation of a logic inverter using a voltage-controlled switch; (b) equivalent circuit when vI is low; and (c) equivalent circuit when vI is high. Note that the switch is assumed to close when vI is high.

Figure 1.32 A more elaborate implementation of the logic inverter utilizing two complementary switches. This is the basis of the CMOS inverter studied in Section 4.10.

Figure 1.33 Another inverter implementation utilizing a double-throw switch to steer the constant current IEE to RC1 (when vI is high) or RC2 (when vI is low). This is the basis of the emitter-coupled logic (ECL) studied in Chapters 7 and 11.

Figure 1.34 Example 1.6: (a) The inverter circuit after the switch opens (i.e., for t 0). (b) Waveforms of vI and vO. Observe that the switch is assumed to operate instantaneously. vO rises exponentially, starting at VOL and heading toward VOH .

Figure 1.35 Definitions of propagation delays and transition times of the logic inverter.

Figure P1.6

Figure P1.10

Figure P1.14

Figure P1.15

Figure P1.16

Figure P1.17

Figure P1.18

Figure P1.37

Figure P1.58

Figure P1.63

Figure P1.65

Figure P1.67

Figure P1.68

Figure P1.72

Figure P1.77

Figure P1.79

Table 1.1 The Four Amplifier Types

Vin Vout

Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin

Linear - output is proportional to input

Amplifiers

Current amplifiers current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin

Power amplifiers power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin

Amplifiers

Signal Amplification

Distortion

Non-Linear Distortion

Symbols

Gains – Voltage, Power, Current

Decibels

Amplifier Power SuppliesEfficiency

Voltage_Gain Av vo

vi

Power_Gain Ap load_power PL input_power PI

vo io

vI iI

Current_Gain Ai io

iI

Ap Av Ai

Voltage_gain_in_decibels 20 log Av dB

Coltage_gain_in_decibels 20 log Ai dB

Power_gain_in_decibels 10 log Ap dB

Gain in terms of decibels

Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal

Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages

Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av|

Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai|

Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap|

Amplifiers

Av = 10 000 20log|10 000| = 80dBAv = 1000 20log|1000| = 60dBAv = 100 20log|100| = 40dBAv = 10 20log|10| = 20dBAv = -10 20log|-10| = 20dB

Av = 0.1 20log|0.1| = -20dB

Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB)dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated

Amplifiers

Example 1.1

PL 40.5 mW

PI Virms Iirms PI 0.05 mW

Ap

PL

PI Ap 810

W

W

Ap 10 log 810 Ap 29.085 dB

Pdc 10 9.5 10 9.5 Pdc 190 mW

Pdissipated Pdc PI PLPdissipated 149.55 mW

PL

Pdc100 21.316 %

Av9

1 Av 9 Ii 0.0001

Av 20 log 9 Av 19.085 dB

Io9

1000

Io 9 103 A Ai

Io

Ii Ai 90

A

A

Ai 20 log Ai Ai 39.085 dB Vorms9

2 Iorms

9

2

PL Vorms Iorms Virms1

2 Iirms

0.1

2

An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.

Amplifiers

Saturation

An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.

An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small.

Amplifiers

Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing

Circuit model of a voltage amplifier

•EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)

•EPOLY has a gain of Avo

•The input to EPOLY is the voltage across Ri

Vout = Avo Vin Ri = input resistanceRo = output resistance

+

Vout

-

+

Vin

-

I = 0

Amplifiers

Voltage amplifier with input source and load

What should we design Ro to be?

•Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro)

•Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum

•Ideally Ro = 0

+

Vout

-

+

Vin

-

•Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates output is open

•Av - gain of entire circuit

Av changes with circuit, Avo does not!

Amplifiers

Input resistance of amplifier circuit

+

Vout

-

+

Vin

-

What should we design Rin to be?

•Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs)

•Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs

•Ideally Rin = infinity

If Rin = infinity, then all of Vsmakes it to the the amplifier;otherwise part of the signal is lost

Amplifiers

Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier

For maximum voltage transfer

Rout = 0

Rin = infinity

Amplifiers

Amplifiers

Example 1.2

vI 0.6 0.61 0.69

vo vI 10 1011

e40 vI

0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70

5

10

vo vI

vI

vI 0.673vI Find vI

vo 10 1011

e40 vI

givenvo 5

vI 0

Lplus 10Lplus vo 0( )

vo vI 10 1011

e40 vI

vI 0

vI 0.69vI Find vI

vo 10 1011

e40 vI

given

inital valuevI 0vo 0.3

Lminus 0.3

Amplifiers

Example 1.2

Amplifiers

Example 1.2

highlight equation use symbolicsthen differentiate10 10

11e

40 vI

12500000000

exp 40 vI

12500000000

exp 40 0.673( ) 196.457

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Voltage Amplifiers

Common Models

Show example on board

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.3

Class assignment

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Other Amplifiers

Current

Transconductance

Transresistance

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.4

Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Single-Time Constant Networks

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/plots/FOC.html

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

RC Circuits – Class Exercise

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Example 1.5

Class assignment

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Exercise 1.6

Class assignment

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Inverter Implementation