Authenticity: Evaluation of British Colonial School Buildings in Famagusta

International Journal of Architecture and Design, ISSN: 2051-5820, Vol.26, Issue.1 1157

*This article is authorized for use only by Recent Science Journal Authors, Subscribers and Partnering Institutions*

Authenticity: Evaluation of British Colonial

School Buildings in Famagusta Ejeng Ukabi

Eastern Mediterranean University,

North Cyprus via mersin 10 Turkey

Email-id:ejeng30@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

British colonization as a global Empire in history,

engraved colonies with heritage antecedents in the form of

urban infrastructure, amongst these is school buildings.

Presently in some territories these historic ensembles had

been ruined thereby altering the memories of the

inhabitants. These public buildings in questioned through

time intervals had been places for literacy, writing, moral

and numeracy training. Although British colonial school

buildings depict conservation values, the degree of care

given to these structures affects it authenticity in historic

settings. This paper is aimed to evaluate the authenticity

of British Colonial School buildings in Famagusta in

order to ascertain it physical consistency after

independence and identify those with Building

Approval/without. The methodology for this article is

based on literature framework and case study. By

implication, this study reveals that there is a degree of

inconsistency about the focus and opens up a premise for

further research on documentation.

Keywords- Authenticity, Heritage Conservation, Values,

Colonial Schools, Famagusta.

1. INTRODUCTION

During British colonial period which influence on

colonies was stronger around 1600-1900 centuries. The

exportation of the European styles of architecture was

transported to these new settlements [1], through lines of

negotiations with the region powers of control, created a

„Local-Western‟ crossbreed of architecture which was

latter overshadowed by British cultural tendencies in that

epoch [2]. Amongst the product of British colonial

mandates were school buildings which functioned as

structures of educational training, communal sociocultural

interactions and portrayed unique architectural styles in

that period.

The motivation for considering the heritage value of

British buildings in the present time becomes a proponent

to the future when measuring the authenticity of historic

quarters as written by [3]. Famagusta had been an historic

quarter with castles and antiquities of medieval visual

remains which attracts lot of tourists but the uncalculated

communal crisis of 1974 in Cyprus which caused the

departure of Greek Cypriots to Greek left some buildings

derelict which constitutes obsolescence in the area,

thereby creating a vacuum for discrepancies in some of

the cases covered in this paper. Conversely, considering

the heritage character of colonial school buildings, it

becomes imperative to ask: After British colonial control

from 1878- 1960 in Famagusta, what became of British

colonial school buildings?

1.1 Methodology

The research methods for this article are case study and

survey. A physical field study was implemented by the

author to locate and identify the schools which were

established during British colonial period in Famagusta

District before the 1960 independence in Cyprus with the

aid of a map obtained from the Education Office in

Gazimagusa which shows all schools in Famagusta but

without information about period of establishment and

historic details. Therefore the survey consisted of an

activity of findings through interview/Sketch, Writing Pad

complemented with measuring and taking of photos (250

photographs) and making observations. The data obtained

was evaluated through sorting with tables and figures

(Maps, Charts) to arrive at the expected results.

1.2 Authenticity

Three psychologists: Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre

and Martin Heidegger explained authenticity as the

manner in which a „person‟ reacts when subjected to

external pressures [4]. If we consider buildings as

organism in existential context, then the care given to

aged structures which comes in form of preservation and

restoration or even other kinds of conservation methods

signifies external pressures. The pressures exert meanings

which passively or actively create meanings and character

as the building responds in it environment [5]. In a similar

dimension, a video on conservation by Architects about

the 9/11 Memorial Museum liken authenticity to emotive

power which functions as „markers in our history‟ that

draw people to past happenings thus, enduring artefact

conserved serves as a monument [6].

While “Reference [7]” defines authenticity as originally

maintaining the character and appearance of a building to

the state earlier constructed. The 1964 Venice Charter on

conservation provided a background for respect to historic

monuments in historic areas giving essence to material

usage and providing evidence of documentation. Nara

Declaration 1994 which provided a modified framework

focuses on the total management of cultural artefact and

its setting. Taking into consideration the visible and

inviable significance; with the incorporation of change in

the historic environment with connections of the past,

present and the future in a comprehensive system that

support compatibility and places value on users and the

overall composition of the surroundings. From the above

ordinances, we can make the following deductions about

the scope of authenticity in historic context. Namely:

Micro-scale and macro-scale.

1.2.1 Micro-Scale

Micro-scale is directed to the conservation of object

singularity, example is historic buildings. This implies

that the scope and methods employ to safeguard the

artefact at this level are not multitasking as individuals

can handle this if given the necessary guidance. This

technique had yielded historic results in most places in

Europe and Britain after World War I and II.

1.2.2 Macro-Scale

Macro-scale type of authenticity involves a whole

complex engagement because it deals with the entire

urban form that surrounds the historic ensembles. The

process is capital intensive, time consuming and require

lot of consultations and management to achieve success. It

ends in revitalization. The practical challenge in this form

is how to handle cultural and environmental affinities of

the territories.

One scholar argues that a building changes anytime

interventions are made. He went further to propose that:

Considering the value of a cultural artefact together with it

area seems unrealistic and there should be no subtraction

from the value but addition to it is sensible [8]. The

situation on ground indicates that the both scales

discussed above are important as the fabric of historic

areas keeps deteriorating as season‟s changes with usage.

A walk through any historic city will instil this perception

and so the level of obsolescence of the artefact and the

quarters will always determine the scale approach.

1.3 Heritage Conservation

When we correlate the meaning of heritage as given by

UNESCO (2000) and the definition of conservation stated

by ICCOM (1993), it is possible to deduce that heritage

conservation refers to the framework of care rendered to

the surviving „artefacts‟ in an area of human existence for

the purpose of sustaining it „value‟. Artefacts are products

of man endeavour which is either tangible or intangible

but worthy of cultural significance [9]. The value can be

cultural, social, aesthetic and economic depending on the

The parameter of scale has a role to play in conservation

even as it had been mention in authenticity. The concept

of conservation is what gave birth to the discourse on

integrity and authenticity as heritage products does not

only become the property of the present owners but that of

also the future generations of the place and the global

entity because cultures are shifting with time. Exposition

on this section, emphasis heritage conservation rather than

the larger scale called urban conservation. The idea of

documentation of historic buildings becomes a primary

necessity as environmental reactions and other forms of

decay can cause the disappearance of these urban fabric.

Presently, conservation of historic buildings had become a

proponent in built environment subjects on the challenges

of net energy consumption in buildings all over the world

with supports to sustainable development. Researchers

argues that conserving an historic building is energy

efficient than the process of reconstitution. The process of

conservation from 1980 encloses three concepts:

Preservation, restoration and reconstruction. Burra Charter

1999 declaration shows that:

Preservation is the maintenance of the fabric of

the state of a „place‟ so that dilapidation is

averted.

Restoration is aimed at exact representation of

the existing fabric to an earlier state without any

alterations.

Reconstruction follows the returning process of

the fabric but allows the incorporation of new

materials.

The comparison of the key charters from World Heritage

Cities Programme 1968- 2005: has „salvage for

monuments‟ in common. Monuments are in two folds.

That is; immovable and movable monuments. The

definition of immovable monuments comprising:

Archaeological remains, historic and scientific sites

(historic structures, quarters, rural areas). In this category,

historic buildings play an important cultural significance.

At the moment, there is conflicting attitudes in the status

of the decisions of the Charters, which has actively

contributed in the absence of concordance between the

schools of thought in theory and practice. And so, a vivid

consideration of heritage conservation as a holistic entity

which encompasses past, present and future values of

human existence becomes an integral part of social

identity, not just a science.

This hypothesis challenges the state of affairs of urban

artefact that are given attention as listed/conservation

designated areas according to the charters. This as a

relationship is opening up an argument towards other

buildings in a similar context whose societal interest is

underrated.

Interest and intentions for the conservation of heritage

assets as mentioned by International Charters on the

guiding principles is bracket on the following reasons:

It provides the platform for sustaining the life circle

of artefact and „places‟

Create memories of culture, religion,

archaeological composition and political trajectory

of a particular settlement

To safeguard objects relevant for

analytical/empirical research in various educational

fields of study

Proper management of historic artefact/areas

improves the standard of living of the locals and

generates economic gains for investors as

explained in integrated conservation.

Despite efforts from research and practice to conserve

cultural monuments from ruined, decay possesses threat to

it and can cause damage and disappearance. This is why it

is vital that all manner of interventions to heritage

structures should be documented for efficient

conservation management approaches. Decay refers to all

the „agents‟ that reacts with cultural properties/historic

quarters and renders the susceptible parts inactive which

in the process decreases the value and can ruined the

structure [12]. The agents can be grouped into: External

and internal agents. The external agents includes: climatic

forces, natural disasters, fire, human factors, fauna,

infrastructural developments and exponential urbanization.

While the internal agents are: moisture, building

orientation, bad-craftsmanship, wrong structural system,

humidity and wrong material selection. In practical terms,

the best way to conserve a ruin is to place the property to

use and each case requires specific specifications and

methodology [13].

1.4 Values

Values are the worth of a heritage asset. Sometimes value

is synonymous with significance in conservation

discourse, which is the incorporation of intentions and

character to develop integrated approaches and outcomes.

The quest to safeguard an artefact from obsolescence is

pertinent when there is an understanding on the potentials

it commands in the context of both natural and man-made

landscape. In Venice Charter (1964) and Athens Charter

(1931), value was recognized as the fact behind heritage

conservation. The place dynamics can empirically bear

unlimited values like: historical, scientific, aesthetic,

cultural, and others. These values had been categorized

into: sociocultural and economic values by Charters and

some scholars [14].

1.5 Colonial Schools

The education delivered to pupils in colonies during

colonial era is known as colonial education [15]. The

educational philosophy of this period is alive today in

some schools established during that time. Colonial

schools are amongst the products that were exported to

the colonies by British Settlers. The system was full of

regimentation as reflected in the layout of colonial school

buildings. Other factors that influenced the school

buildings were the type of governance in a particular

community, age/sex of pupils, the location and ethnicity

of the territory.

More primary schools were built than secondary since

training was basically reading, writing and arithmetic. The

educational attention accorded to colonies that were

Dominions (USA, Canada, and Australia) was more

standardized in terms of man-power and infrastructure

than other territories: Protectorates, Crown Colonies and

Mandated Territories (Asia, Africa). Another type of

education system that was instituted in weaker colonies is

community based educational system which is still

prevalent in poor villages in developing countries today;

teaching classes holding in village Town Halls, family

verandas and under tree shades during summer.

The contributions made in “Facts on Colonial Schools”

shows that pupil‟s lifestyles were directed to training that

enables them to take over their parents predominant

occupations of plantation farming and petty trading with

domestic keeping for the females. Vocational training in

advanced subjects was for males while females

concentrate on household training subjects ([16], [17]).

The training also implies gender discrimination. Some

mission schools today still adheres to this patterned of

colonial philosophy: Females pupils were often separated

from their males counterparts and certain courses were

basically meant for males. Male children of the wealthy

parents/chiefs were often taken abroad for higher

educational training with the absence of tertiary

institutions in colonies.

The late approach differs because this segregation

supported the marginalization of the girl child which is

still happening in some developing countries despite the

educational reforms. The further demarcation provided the

children of Latin/Greek descent with advanced education

while the children of the blacks/vulnerable populations

(sometimes called poor ethnic groups) were taught only

the rudiments in English schools.

The result was the formation of schools with

nomenclatures like: Latin schools and Greek schools, the

schools were ethnic biased which encouraged social

separation and crisis when the benefits of the education

started yielding socioeconomic outcome on the

benefactors. Classroom arrangements and sizes were

influenced by settlement sizes, school type and existing

ethnic structure. Generally, early colonial classrooms

were small in size as seen in Elementary schools. The

schools range from Elementary schools (one or two

classrooms) to Primary schools to Secondary schools and

lately vocational schools or Technical schools.

British colonial schools are viewed as European ideology

in public education, which are defined by three parameters

of colonial school architecture: Administrative control,

architect‟s projection of style and British concept of

chapel-like with England social class classification into:

Upper class and middle class [18]. Eventually, public

schools were given maximum attention with larger spaces;

board schools were remote and had selective

accommodation of pupils and parish schools (mission

schools) having small structures and mostly village

oriented. With this backdrop, colonial school buildings

are likening to the functional diagram shown in Figure1.

Figure 1 Functional diagram of Colonial schools layout developed from “Reference [18]” site layouts.

Generally, colonial school buildings echoes an array of

the architectural ideologies linked to classical styles which

are rooted in European architecture [19]. The concept of

porticos is outstanding identity of the epoch in monitoring

and in semi-public arrangements. The collation of the

study from “Reference [20], [21]” shows that colonial

school buildings express the following characteristics of

western architecture: The walls are naturally rendered

with different feel of sandstones and brick facings. The

columns represented in various orders provide cultural

symbolism and meanings. The use of prefabricated

elements (balustrades, stanchions, wood panels and iron

corrugated sheets). There are mouldings over windows,

doors openings and arch-ways. The attachment of

decorative accessories in gable ends, cornices and roof

tops as symbols of European ornamentation. Innovations

in new materials like concrete which has influenced the

character of late colonial school buildings. The roof

systems were basically simple gable, hip and flat roofs

with roof covers like: corrugated iron sheets and roofing

tiles.

1.6 Field Study: Famagusta

Famagusta (Gazimagusa) is an historic harbor settlement

in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) made up

of twelve Districts. Situated within Latitude 35° 7.5' N

and Longitude 33 °57' E [22]. In the north lies the ancient

city known as Salamis, south of it is Varosha (Maras)

which was occupied by Orthodox Cypriots during British

colonial period in Cyprus but now in a state of locational

obsolescence (desolate Town). While in the east is the

Mediterranean Sea and in the West is Nicosia (capital of

TRNC) see Figure 2. The socio-political crisis between

the Turks Cypriots and Orthodox Cypriots led to the 1974

division of the Island into Northern Cyprus (occupied by

Turkish Cypriots) and Southern Cyprus (occupied by

Greek Cypriots). Famagusta had been an ancient Town

under the colonization and invasions of different

civilizations. British period in Cyprus dates 1878-1960,

though at present under the governance of Turkey ([23],

[24]). The presence of this set of colonists (British)

impacted the Island in: settlement

enlargement/segregation, formation of constitution,

economic restructuring; religious dispute and urban

infrastructural development including the establishment of

English schools [25].

1.6.1 Determining the Cases/Results (British Colonial

School Buildings)

All the cases studied were physically accessed by the

author, conducted round each case by a staff in each

school and three staff in each case provided information in

regards to questions asked by the author as its relate to the

aims of this paper. Figure 3 shows Ten (10) Cases

indicating it location on the map while Table 1 gives a

brief of the Cases. In Table 5 and 6, letters A, B signifies

the major typologies (cases with similar style of

design/construction) employed in grouping all the Cases

studied in this paper as it is also identifiable with the

photos in Figure 4. Two cases are spotted with qualities of

Type A while eight cases fall in type B. However, B'

subset in grouping belonging to typology B but isolated in

Table 6 to show a total reuse of the school building.

Eventually, in Table 6, the degree of consistency is

quantified by four parameters: Spatial changes, Approval

status, craft skills changes and changes in materials. In

spatial changes: The variables assumed, indicates a degree

of change from: completely change (CH), medium change

(M), low change (L) and where no changes occurred is

denoted exact (E). While in craft skills and material

changes: variable M still denote where the change is

medium and L standing for where the change is low.

In Table 5, under the column for construction technique,

type A shows early British colonial style in school

buildings while type B represent the late influences of the

epoch. Before 1960 independence, their spatial whole is

shown with it exactness but in the column for late British/

after independence we notice some level of shift in the

spatial uses/ arrangement of the school buildings. The

changes were higher in typology B.

Figure 2 Map of Cyprus retrieved from Lonely Planet [26].

Figure 3 Map of Famagusta District showing the locations of Case Studies drawn by author on 16.12.1014

Table 1 Brief about the schools prepared by author

Name of School Year

established/change in

School Category Remarks drawn from Respondents

Answers PS SS VS

1 Gazi iIkokulu 1924 • Greek school was regarded as

English school but now primary

school.

2 Canbulat iIkokulu 1959 • Ditto No.1.

3 Pertev Pasa iIkokulu -/1999 - - - It was a Greek elementary school

before but now reuse for Club

meetings.

4 Endustri Meslek

Lisesi

1906/1978 • Technical school before nut now

Vocational school.

5 Polatpasa iIkokulu 1955/1974 • It was Greek school called St.

Catherina Elementary School but

now primary school.

6 Gazi Magusa Meslek

Lisesi

1959/1975 • It was a religious school for girls

with the name Liz Meslek Lisesi but

now mixed (boys+girls) secondary

school.

7 Alasya iIkokulu 1959/1974 • It was Greek elementary school but

now pre-primary/primary school.

8 Sehit Huseyin Akil

iIkokulu

1975 • Greek Elementary school before,

now primary school.

9 Namik kamal Lisesi 1944 • Secondary school

10 Canbulat Üzgurluk

Ortaokulu

1950 • Ditto No.9.

PS – Primary School; SS – Secondary School; VS – Vocational School

Figure 4 Photographs of Case Studies taken by author 2-19.12.2014

Table 5 Evaluation of Cases 1

Table 6 Evaluations of Cases 2

1.6.2 Summary of Result

Figure 5 Summary of Result

The results represented in Figure 5, shows that the bar

with a high value indicates the parameters with high

degree of changes (inconsistency) and the pie with a

highest percentage shows a complete change in function

of the school building that is B‟ (only one case) while the

overall changes in Type A (early British period) were low

and moderate in type B (late British period).

1.6.3 Conservation Value of the Cases Studied

The data presented in this article are codified to provide a

precise methodology of deducing the possible outcomes

for understanding of the heritage values of the school

buildings. That is:

The school buildings provides the ground for the

synthesis of two colonial influences (Ottoman

and British) which had been galvanized during

the British period as shown in the early/late

British periods schools typology.

The cases also give the feeling of both “inside

and outside” due to the colonial tendencies in

direct contrast with the modern architecture in

North Cyprus/ present schools.

Accommodate different teenagers and adult

population of both genders for a period of four

hours for the primary schools and six hours for

the secondary/vocational schools from Mondays

to Fridays. This deters the pupils from youth

restlessness and social vices, with the availability

of music studios and recreational facilities.

The cases as a whole or in part depict the

characteristics of colonial architecture of past

British epoch 1600 to early 19th century

(Palladianism and neoclassical styles).

The cases embody the vernacular ancient

wooden/metal doors and windows details,

massive masonry walls with sediment

blocks/bricks, wooden panels in ceiling and some

partitions, mouldings over openings and

balustrades, wooden/screeded architraves and

entablature above columns and gable ends with

attachments of British ornamentations in high

artistic furnishings.

The cases have the presence of traditional wells

and rainwater reservoirs as source of water which

is not in contemporary public buildings.

The religious symbols that reflects the origins of

the patrons of the schools stands as cultural

elements in some cases with meaning which

present new schools does not support such

affiliations.

The schools are situated in accessible areas of the

district not in isolated milieu. This property

makes it part of the urban identity in organic

gathering catering for the physical and

psychological needs of the people. In one of the

case, a space for pottery making is provided for

old women which sales improves their living

conditions and keep them away from boredom

syndrome.

The porticos design pattern is an architectural

character which provides the idea of

neighbourhood interaction outside the „classroom

box‟ which is fading in modern schools.

In each case, the immortalization of the founding

heroes of North Cyprus is sculptured as genius

loci where the general gathering is done as a way

of keeping alive the memory of the fight against

injustice/social marginalization. Concurrently,

archival historic records of past products of the

schools and events are custody in documents,

models and photographic frames.

Employment is provided in both skilled and

unskilled labour and stands as one sustainable

social infrastructure which plays a good role in

historic quarter‟s conservation approach.

Likewise, simultaneously equipping the pupil to

learn life outside their private homes in different

subjects and skills more diversified than colonial

education. This in the long run links the products

to further studies and positions in the labour

market than plantation/house-keep inheritors.

Apparently, the results evaluated above on British

colonial school buildings in Famagusta can be

summarized in the sequence:

More primary schools were established than

secondary/vocational schools.

Type A typology shows early British period

influence (neoclassical style), full of

regimentation. This conforms to the colonial

school layout shown in literature review.

Type B typology is late British period (Free

style), freedom shift which current buildings in

the cases evaluated copy.

Current state of schools indicates a removal of

gender segregation.

All cases assessed are without Building

Approval.

Only one case was reused for social club

meetings.

2. CONCLUSIONS

The results of this research show that British colonial

school buildings in Famagusta are inconsistent after

independence and their conservation value is currently

very useful to the inhabitants. It is logical to draw a

hypothesis that: As sociocultural, economic and

environmental conditions are shifting, the school

buildings consistency is threaten. I hereby recommend

that in regards to their values analysed above during

British colonial period (1878-1960), they are part of

heritage and have to be preserved and registered.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to thank Yonca Hürol, Nicholas

Wilkinson for their course ARCH/INAR 505 (Advanced

Research Methods) and my supervisor Beser Oktay at

Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean

University, Famagusta.

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Authenticity: Evaluation of British Colonial School Buildings in Famagusta

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