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Authenticity: Evaluation of British Colonial
School Buildings in Famagusta Ejeng Ukabi
Eastern Mediterranean University,
North Cyprus via mersin 10 Turkey
Email-id:[email protected]
ABSTRACT
British colonization as a global Empire in history,
engraved colonies with heritage antecedents in the form of
urban infrastructure, amongst these is school buildings.
Presently in some territories these historic ensembles had
been ruined thereby altering the memories of the
inhabitants. These public buildings in questioned through
time intervals had been places for literacy, writing, moral
and numeracy training. Although British colonial school
buildings depict conservation values, the degree of care
given to these structures affects it authenticity in historic
settings. This paper is aimed to evaluate the authenticity
of British Colonial School buildings in Famagusta in
order to ascertain it physical consistency after
independence and identify those with Building
Approval/without. The methodology for this article is
based on literature framework and case study. By
implication, this study reveals that there is a degree of
inconsistency about the focus and opens up a premise for
further research on documentation.
Keywords- Authenticity, Heritage Conservation, Values,
Colonial Schools, Famagusta.
1. INTRODUCTION
During British colonial period which influence on
colonies was stronger around 1600-1900 centuries. The
exportation of the European styles of architecture was
transported to these new settlements [1], through lines of
negotiations with the region powers of control, created a
„Local-Western‟ crossbreed of architecture which was
latter overshadowed by British cultural tendencies in that
epoch [2]. Amongst the product of British colonial
mandates were school buildings which functioned as
structures of educational training, communal sociocultural
interactions and portrayed unique architectural styles in
that period.
The motivation for considering the heritage value of
British buildings in the present time becomes a proponent
to the future when measuring the authenticity of historic
quarters as written by [3]. Famagusta had been an historic
quarter with castles and antiquities of medieval visual
remains which attracts lot of tourists but the uncalculated
communal crisis of 1974 in Cyprus which caused the
departure of Greek Cypriots to Greek left some buildings
derelict which constitutes obsolescence in the area,
thereby creating a vacuum for discrepancies in some of
the cases covered in this paper. Conversely, considering
the heritage character of colonial school buildings, it
becomes imperative to ask: After British colonial control
from 1878- 1960 in Famagusta, what became of British
colonial school buildings?
1.1 Methodology
The research methods for this article are case study and
survey. A physical field study was implemented by the
author to locate and identify the schools which were
established during British colonial period in Famagusta
District before the 1960 independence in Cyprus with the
aid of a map obtained from the Education Office in
Gazimagusa which shows all schools in Famagusta but
without information about period of establishment and
historic details. Therefore the survey consisted of an
activity of findings through interview/Sketch, Writing Pad
complemented with measuring and taking of photos (250
photographs) and making observations. The data obtained
was evaluated through sorting with tables and figures
(Maps, Charts) to arrive at the expected results.
1.2 Authenticity
Three psychologists: Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre
and Martin Heidegger explained authenticity as the
manner in which a „person‟ reacts when subjected to
external pressures [4]. If we consider buildings as
organism in existential context, then the care given to
aged structures which comes in form of preservation and
restoration or even other kinds of conservation methods
signifies external pressures. The pressures exert meanings
which passively or actively create meanings and character
as the building responds in it environment [5]. In a similar
dimension, a video on conservation by Architects about
the 9/11 Memorial Museum liken authenticity to emotive
power which functions as „markers in our history‟ that
draw people to past happenings thus, enduring artefact
conserved serves as a monument [6].
While “Reference [7]” defines authenticity as originally
maintaining the character and appearance of a building to
the state earlier constructed. The 1964 Venice Charter on
conservation provided a background for respect to historic
monuments in historic areas giving essence to material
usage and providing evidence of documentation. Nara
Declaration 1994 which provided a modified framework
focuses on the total management of cultural artefact and
its setting. Taking into consideration the visible and
inviable significance; with the incorporation of change in
the historic environment with connections of the past,
present and the future in a comprehensive system that
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support compatibility and places value on users and the
overall composition of the surroundings. From the above
ordinances, we can make the following deductions about
the scope of authenticity in historic context. Namely:
Micro-scale and macro-scale.
1.2.1 Micro-Scale
Micro-scale is directed to the conservation of object
singularity, example is historic buildings. This implies
that the scope and methods employ to safeguard the
artefact at this level are not multitasking as individuals
can handle this if given the necessary guidance. This
technique had yielded historic results in most places in
Europe and Britain after World War I and II.
1.2.2 Macro-Scale
Macro-scale type of authenticity involves a whole
complex engagement because it deals with the entire
urban form that surrounds the historic ensembles. The
process is capital intensive, time consuming and require
lot of consultations and management to achieve success. It
ends in revitalization. The practical challenge in this form
is how to handle cultural and environmental affinities of
the territories.
One scholar argues that a building changes anytime
interventions are made. He went further to propose that:
Considering the value of a cultural artefact together with it
area seems unrealistic and there should be no subtraction
from the value but addition to it is sensible [8]. The
situation on ground indicates that the both scales
discussed above are important as the fabric of historic
areas keeps deteriorating as season‟s changes with usage.
A walk through any historic city will instil this perception
and so the level of obsolescence of the artefact and the
quarters will always determine the scale approach.
1.3 Heritage Conservation
When we correlate the meaning of heritage as given by
UNESCO (2000) and the definition of conservation stated
by ICCOM (1993), it is possible to deduce that heritage
conservation refers to the framework of care rendered to
the surviving „artefacts‟ in an area of human existence for
the purpose of sustaining it „value‟. Artefacts are products
of man endeavour which is either tangible or intangible
but worthy of cultural significance [9]. The value can be
cultural, social, aesthetic and economic depending on the
case.
The parameter of scale has a role to play in conservation
even as it had been mention in authenticity. The concept
of conservation is what gave birth to the discourse on
integrity and authenticity as heritage products does not
only become the property of the present owners but that of
also the future generations of the place and the global
entity because cultures are shifting with time. Exposition
on this section, emphasis heritage conservation rather than
the larger scale called urban conservation. The idea of
documentation of historic buildings becomes a primary
necessity as environmental reactions and other forms of
decay can cause the disappearance of these urban fabric.
Presently, conservation of historic buildings had become a
proponent in built environment subjects on the challenges
of net energy consumption in buildings all over the world
with supports to sustainable development. Researchers
argues that conserving an historic building is energy
efficient than the process of reconstitution. The process of
conservation from 1980 encloses three concepts:
Preservation, restoration and reconstruction. Burra Charter
1999 declaration shows that:
Preservation is the maintenance of the fabric of
the state of a „place‟ so that dilapidation is
averted.
Restoration is aimed at exact representation of
the existing fabric to an earlier state without any
alterations.
Reconstruction follows the returning process of
the fabric but allows the incorporation of new
materials.
The comparison of the key charters from World Heritage
Cities Programme 1968- 2005: has „salvage for
monuments‟ in common. Monuments are in two folds.
That is; immovable and movable monuments. The
definition of immovable monuments comprising:
Archaeological remains, historic and scientific sites
(historic structures, quarters, rural areas). In this category,
historic buildings play an important cultural significance.
At the moment, there is conflicting attitudes in the status
of the decisions of the Charters, which has actively
contributed in the absence of concordance between the
schools of thought in theory and practice. And so, a vivid
consideration of heritage conservation as a holistic entity
which encompasses past, present and future values of
human existence becomes an integral part of social
identity, not just a science.
This hypothesis challenges the state of affairs of urban
artefact that are given attention as listed/conservation
designated areas according to the charters. This as a
relationship is opening up an argument towards other
buildings in a similar context whose societal interest is
underrated.
Interest and intentions for the conservation of heritage
assets as mentioned by International Charters on the
guiding principles is bracket on the following reasons:
It provides the platform for sustaining the life circle
of artefact and „places‟
Create memories of culture, religion,
archaeological composition and political trajectory
of a particular settlement
To safeguard objects relevant for
analytical/empirical research in various educational
fields of study
Proper management of historic artefact/areas
improves the standard of living of the locals and
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generates economic gains for investors as
explained in integrated conservation.
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Despite efforts from research and practice to conserve
cultural monuments from ruined, decay possesses threat to
it and can cause damage and disappearance. This is why it
is vital that all manner of interventions to heritage
structures should be documented for efficient
conservation management approaches. Decay refers to all
the „agents‟ that reacts with cultural properties/historic
quarters and renders the susceptible parts inactive which
in the process decreases the value and can ruined the
structure [12]. The agents can be grouped into: External
and internal agents. The external agents includes: climatic
forces, natural disasters, fire, human factors, fauna,
infrastructural developments and exponential urbanization.
While the internal agents are: moisture, building
orientation, bad-craftsmanship, wrong structural system,
humidity and wrong material selection. In practical terms,
the best way to conserve a ruin is to place the property to
use and each case requires specific specifications and
methodology [13].
1.4 Values
Values are the worth of a heritage asset. Sometimes value
is synonymous with significance in conservation
discourse, which is the incorporation of intentions and
character to develop integrated approaches and outcomes.
The quest to safeguard an artefact from obsolescence is
pertinent when there is an understanding on the potentials
it commands in the context of both natural and man-made
landscape. In Venice Charter (1964) and Athens Charter
(1931), value was recognized as the fact behind heritage
conservation. The place dynamics can empirically bear
unlimited values like: historical, scientific, aesthetic,
cultural, and others. These values had been categorized
into: sociocultural and economic values by Charters and
some scholars [14].
1.5 Colonial Schools
The education delivered to pupils in colonies during
colonial era is known as colonial education [15]. The
educational philosophy of this period is alive today in
some schools established during that time. Colonial
schools are amongst the products that were exported to
the colonies by British Settlers. The system was full of
regimentation as reflected in the layout of colonial school
buildings. Other factors that influenced the school
buildings were the type of governance in a particular
community, age/sex of pupils, the location and ethnicity
of the territory.
More primary schools were built than secondary since
training was basically reading, writing and arithmetic. The
educational attention accorded to colonies that were
Dominions (USA, Canada, and Australia) was more
standardized in terms of man-power and infrastructure
than other territories: Protectorates, Crown Colonies and
Mandated Territories (Asia, Africa). Another type of
education system that was instituted in weaker colonies is
community based educational system which is still
prevalent in poor villages in developing countries today;
teaching classes holding in village Town Halls, family
verandas and under tree shades during summer.
The contributions made in “Facts on Colonial Schools”
shows that pupil‟s lifestyles were directed to training that
enables them to take over their parents predominant
occupations of plantation farming and petty trading with
domestic keeping for the females. Vocational training in
advanced subjects was for males while females
concentrate on household training subjects ([16], [17]).
The training also implies gender discrimination. Some
mission schools today still adheres to this patterned of
colonial philosophy: Females pupils were often separated
from their males counterparts and certain courses were
basically meant for males. Male children of the wealthy
parents/chiefs were often taken abroad for higher
educational training with the absence of tertiary
institutions in colonies.
The late approach differs because this segregation
supported the marginalization of the girl child which is
still happening in some developing countries despite the
educational reforms. The further demarcation provided the
children of Latin/Greek descent with advanced education
while the children of the blacks/vulnerable populations
(sometimes called poor ethnic groups) were taught only
the rudiments in English schools.
The result was the formation of schools with
nomenclatures like: Latin schools and Greek schools, the
schools were ethnic biased which encouraged social
separation and crisis when the benefits of the education
started yielding socioeconomic outcome on the
benefactors. Classroom arrangements and sizes were
influenced by settlement sizes, school type and existing
ethnic structure. Generally, early colonial classrooms
were small in size as seen in Elementary schools. The
schools range from Elementary schools (one or two
classrooms) to Primary schools to Secondary schools and
lately vocational schools or Technical schools.
British colonial schools are viewed as European ideology
in public education, which are defined by three parameters
of colonial school architecture: Administrative control,
architect‟s projection of style and British concept of
chapel-like with England social class classification into:
Upper class and middle class [18]. Eventually, public
schools were given maximum attention with larger spaces;
board schools were remote and had selective
accommodation of pupils and parish schools (mission
schools) having small structures and mostly village
oriented. With this backdrop, colonial school buildings
are likening to the functional diagram shown in Figure1.
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Figure 1 Functional diagram of Colonial schools layout developed from “Reference [18]” site layouts.
Generally, colonial school buildings echoes an array of
the architectural ideologies linked to classical styles which
are rooted in European architecture [19]. The concept of
porticos is outstanding identity of the epoch in monitoring
and in semi-public arrangements. The collation of the
study from “Reference [20], [21]” shows that colonial
school buildings express the following characteristics of
western architecture: The walls are naturally rendered
with different feel of sandstones and brick facings. The
columns represented in various orders provide cultural
symbolism and meanings. The use of prefabricated
elements (balustrades, stanchions, wood panels and iron
corrugated sheets). There are mouldings over windows,
doors openings and arch-ways. The attachment of
decorative accessories in gable ends, cornices and roof
tops as symbols of European ornamentation. Innovations
in new materials like concrete which has influenced the
character of late colonial school buildings. The roof
systems were basically simple gable, hip and flat roofs
with roof covers like: corrugated iron sheets and roofing
tiles.
1.6 Field Study: Famagusta
Famagusta (Gazimagusa) is an historic harbor settlement
in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) made up
of twelve Districts. Situated within Latitude 35° 7.5' N
and Longitude 33 °57' E [22]. In the north lies the ancient
city known as Salamis, south of it is Varosha (Maras)
which was occupied by Orthodox Cypriots during British
colonial period in Cyprus but now in a state of locational
obsolescence (desolate Town). While in the east is the
Mediterranean Sea and in the West is Nicosia (capital of
TRNC) see Figure 2. The socio-political crisis between
the Turks Cypriots and Orthodox Cypriots led to the 1974
division of the Island into Northern Cyprus (occupied by
Turkish Cypriots) and Southern Cyprus (occupied by
Greek Cypriots). Famagusta had been an ancient Town
under the colonization and invasions of different
civilizations. British period in Cyprus dates 1878-1960,
though at present under the governance of Turkey ([23],
[24]). The presence of this set of colonists (British)
impacted the Island in: settlement
enlargement/segregation, formation of constitution,
economic restructuring; religious dispute and urban
infrastructural development including the establishment of
English schools [25].
1.6.1 Determining the Cases/Results (British Colonial
School Buildings)
All the cases studied were physically accessed by the
author, conducted round each case by a staff in each
school and three staff in each case provided information in
regards to questions asked by the author as its relate to the
aims of this paper. Figure 3 shows Ten (10) Cases
indicating it location on the map while Table 1 gives a
brief of the Cases. In Table 5 and 6, letters A, B signifies
the major typologies (cases with similar style of
design/construction) employed in grouping all the Cases
studied in this paper as it is also identifiable with the
photos in Figure 4. Two cases are spotted with qualities of
Type A while eight cases fall in type B. However, B'
is a
subset in grouping belonging to typology B but isolated in
Table 6 to show a total reuse of the school building.
Eventually, in Table 6, the degree of consistency is
quantified by four parameters: Spatial changes, Approval
status, craft skills changes and changes in materials. In
spatial changes: The variables assumed, indicates a degree
of change from: completely change (CH), medium change
(M), low change (L) and where no changes occurred is
denoted exact (E). While in craft skills and material
changes: variable M still denote where the change is
medium and L standing for where the change is low.
In Table 5, under the column for construction technique,
type A shows early British colonial style in school
buildings while type B represent the late influences of the
epoch. Before 1960 independence, their spatial whole is
shown with it exactness but in the column for late British/
after independence we notice some level of shift in the
spatial uses/ arrangement of the school buildings. The
changes were higher in typology B.
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Figure 2 Map of Cyprus retrieved from Lonely Planet [26].
Figure 3 Map of Famagusta District showing the locations of Case Studies drawn by author on 16.12.1014
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Table 1 Brief about the schools prepared by author
Name of School Year
established/change in
name
School Category Remarks drawn from Respondents
Answers PS SS VS
1 Gazi iIkokulu 1924 • Greek school was regarded as
English school but now primary
school.
2 Canbulat iIkokulu 1959 • Ditto No.1.
3 Pertev Pasa iIkokulu -/1999 - - - It was a Greek elementary school
before but now reuse for Club
meetings.
4 Endustri Meslek
Lisesi
1906/1978 • Technical school before nut now
Vocational school.
5 Polatpasa iIkokulu 1955/1974 • It was Greek school called St.
Catherina Elementary School but
now primary school.
6 Gazi Magusa Meslek
Lisesi
1959/1975 • It was a religious school for girls
with the name Liz Meslek Lisesi but
now mixed (boys+girls) secondary
school.
7 Alasya iIkokulu 1959/1974 • It was Greek elementary school but
now pre-primary/primary school.
8 Sehit Huseyin Akil
iIkokulu
1975 • Greek Elementary school before,
now primary school.
9 Namik kamal Lisesi 1944 • Secondary school
10 Canbulat Üzgurluk
Ortaokulu
1950 • Ditto No.9.
PS – Primary School; SS – Secondary School; VS – Vocational School
Figure 4 Photographs of Case Studies taken by author 2-19.12.2014
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Table 5 Evaluation of Cases 1
Table 6 Evaluations of Cases 2
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1.6.2 Summary of Result
Figure 5 Summary of Result
The results represented in Figure 5, shows that the bar
with a high value indicates the parameters with high
degree of changes (inconsistency) and the pie with a
highest percentage shows a complete change in function
of the school building that is B‟ (only one case) while the
overall changes in Type A (early British period) were low
and moderate in type B (late British period).
1.6.3 Conservation Value of the Cases Studied
The data presented in this article are codified to provide a
precise methodology of deducing the possible outcomes
for understanding of the heritage values of the school
buildings. That is:
The school buildings provides the ground for the
synthesis of two colonial influences (Ottoman
and British) which had been galvanized during
the British period as shown in the early/late
British periods schools typology.
The cases also give the feeling of both “inside
and outside” due to the colonial tendencies in
direct contrast with the modern architecture in
North Cyprus/ present schools.
Accommodate different teenagers and adult
population of both genders for a period of four
hours for the primary schools and six hours for
the secondary/vocational schools from Mondays
to Fridays. This deters the pupils from youth
restlessness and social vices, with the availability
of music studios and recreational facilities.
The cases as a whole or in part depict the
characteristics of colonial architecture of past
British epoch 1600 to early 19th century
(Palladianism and neoclassical styles).
The cases embody the vernacular ancient
wooden/metal doors and windows details,
massive masonry walls with sediment
blocks/bricks, wooden panels in ceiling and some
partitions, mouldings over openings and
balustrades, wooden/screeded architraves and
entablature above columns and gable ends with
attachments of British ornamentations in high
artistic furnishings.
The cases have the presence of traditional wells
and rainwater reservoirs as source of water which
is not in contemporary public buildings.
The religious symbols that reflects the origins of
the patrons of the schools stands as cultural
elements in some cases with meaning which
present new schools does not support such
affiliations.
The schools are situated in accessible areas of the
district not in isolated milieu. This property
makes it part of the urban identity in organic
gathering catering for the physical and
psychological needs of the people. In one of the
case, a space for pottery making is provided for
old women which sales improves their living
conditions and keep them away from boredom
syndrome.
The porticos design pattern is an architectural
character which provides the idea of
neighbourhood interaction outside the „classroom
box‟ which is fading in modern schools.
In each case, the immortalization of the founding
heroes of North Cyprus is sculptured as genius
loci where the general gathering is done as a way
of keeping alive the memory of the fight against
injustice/social marginalization. Concurrently,
archival historic records of past products of the
schools and events are custody in documents,
models and photographic frames.
Employment is provided in both skilled and
unskilled labour and stands as one sustainable
social infrastructure which plays a good role in
historic quarter‟s conservation approach.
Likewise, simultaneously equipping the pupil to
learn life outside their private homes in different
subjects and skills more diversified than colonial
education. This in the long run links the products
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to further studies and positions in the labour
market than plantation/house-keep inheritors.
Apparently, the results evaluated above on British
colonial school buildings in Famagusta can be
summarized in the sequence:
More primary schools were established than
secondary/vocational schools.
Type A typology shows early British period
influence (neoclassical style), full of
regimentation. This conforms to the colonial
school layout shown in literature review.
Type B typology is late British period (Free
style), freedom shift which current buildings in
the cases evaluated copy.
Current state of schools indicates a removal of
gender segregation.
All cases assessed are without Building
Approval.
Only one case was reused for social club
meetings.
2. CONCLUSIONS
The results of this research show that British colonial
school buildings in Famagusta are inconsistent after
independence and their conservation value is currently
very useful to the inhabitants. It is logical to draw a
hypothesis that: As sociocultural, economic and
environmental conditions are shifting, the school
buildings consistency is threaten. I hereby recommend
that in regards to their values analysed above during
British colonial period (1878-1960), they are part of
heritage and have to be preserved and registered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to thank Yonca Hürol, Nicholas
Wilkinson for their course ARCH/INAR 505 (Advanced
Research Methods) and my supervisor Beser Oktay at
Department of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean
University, Famagusta.
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