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According to most scholars the history of modern Egypt spans since the emergence
of Muhammad Ali's rule in early 19th century and his launching of Egypt's modernization project
that involved building a new army and suggesting a new map for Egypt.1!
"he definition of Egypt's modern history has varied in accordance to different definitions ofModernity. #ome scholars date it as far bac$ as 1%1& with the ttomans( defeat of the Maml)$s
in 1%1&*1+.,!
Muhammad Ali's dynasty became practically independent from the ttoman rule- following his
warfare campaigns against the Empire and his ability to enlist large scale armies- allowing to
control Egypt as well as parts of orth Africa and Middle East. /n 100,- thehedivate of
Egypt becomes part of the 2ritish sphere of influence in the region- a situation that conflicted with
its position as an autonomous vassal state of the ttoman Empire. "he country became a
2ritish protectorate in 191% and achieved full independence in 19,,- becoming a $ingdom under
the rule of Muhammad Ali's dynasty- lasting until 19%,.
3amal Abdel asser established the republic in Egypt and end the monarchy rule in Egypt-
$nown as the 4epublic of Egypt- following the 19%, Egyptian revolution. Egypt was ruled
autocratically by three presidents over the following si5 decades- by asser from 19%6 until his
death in 19+7- by Anwar #adat from 19+1 until his assassination 1901- and by 8osni
Mubara$ from 1901 until his resignation in the face of the ,711 Egyptian revolution.
/n ,71,- after more than one year under interim government of #upreme ouncil of the Armed
:orces- with :ield Marshal "antawias its chairman; elections were held and the
/slamist Mohamed Morsi became the first democratically elected head of state in the entire
history of Egypt. in ,71<- millions of Egyptians in huge rallies and demonstrations were
demanding Morsi's resignation- the army announced the ousted of Morsi and preparing for a new
elections.
Contents
hide!
• 1 hedivate of Egypt
•
, 2ritish administration
• < #ultanate of Egypt
• 6 ingdom of Egypt
• % 4epublic of Egypt
o %.1 oup of 19%,
o %., asser's rule
%.,.1 Emergence of Arab socialism
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%.,., =nited Arab 4epublic
%.,.< 4egional intervention
o %.< #adat era
%.<.1 =nder #oviet influence
%.<., =nder >estern influence
%.<.< onflict with the Muslim 2rotherhood
o %.6 Mubara$ era
%.6.1 ?residential inauguration
%.6., 1997s @ economic reforms and struggle with radical /slamists
%.6.< ecrease of influence
o %.% ivil unrest since ,711
%.%.1 ,711 revolution and aftermath
%.%., Morsi's presidency
%.%.< ,71,@,71< Egyptian protests
%.%.6 After Morsi
• & #ee also
• + 4eferences
Khedivate of Egyptedit!Main articles: Khedivate of Egypt and History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty
This section is empty. Bou can
help by adding to it. (March 2014
British administrationedit!!urther information: History of Egypt under the "ritish and #ra$i %evolt
/n 100, opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst notable natives- the most
dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in #eptember 1001
forced the hedive "ewfiC to dismiss his ?rime Minister. /n April 100,- :rance and the =nited
ingdom sent warships to Ale5andria to bolster the hedive amidst a turbulent climate-
spreading fear of invasion throughout the country.
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"awfiC moved to Ale5andria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by Ahmed =rabi began
to ta$e control of the government. 2y Dune Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to
European domination of the country. "he naval bombardment of Ale5andria by the 4oyal
avy had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a 2ritish e5peditionary force at
both ends of the #uez anal in August 100,.
"he 2ritish succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at "el El ebir in #eptember and too$
control of the country putting "awfiC bac$ in control. "he purpose of the invasion had been to
restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the hedive and international controls
which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 10+&. /t is unli$ely that the 2ritish
e5pected a long@term occupation from the outset- however ord romer - 2ritain's hief
4epresentative in Egypt at the time- viewed Egypt's financial reforms as part of a long@term
objective. romer too$ the view that political stability needed financial stability- and embar$ed on
a programme of long term investment in Egypt's productive resources- above all in the cotton
economy- the mainstay of the country's e5port earnings.
/n 197& the enshawai incident provo$ed a Cuestioning of 2ritish rule in Egypt. 2ritish
administration ended nominally with the establishment of a protectorate and the installation
of sultan 8ussein amel in 1916- but a 2ritish military presence in Egypt lasted until Dune 19%&.
Sultanate of Egyptedit!Main article: &ultanate of Egypt
!urther information: Egyptian E'peditionary !orce and &inai and alestine )ampaign
/n 1916 as a result of the declaration of war with the ttoman Empire- of which Egypt was
nominally a part- 2ritain declared a ?rotectorate over Egypt and deposed the anti@2ritish
hedive- Abbas //- replacing him with his uncle 8usayn amel- who was made #ultan of Egypt by
the 2ritish. A group $nown as the >afd elegation attended the ?aris ?eace onference of
1919 to demand Egypt's independence. /ncluded in the group was political leader- #aad Faghlul-
who would later become ?rime Minister. >hen the group was arrested and deported to the island
of Malta- a huge uprising occurred in Egypt.
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:emale nationalists demonstrating in airo- 1919.
:rom March to April 1919- there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. "his is $nown
in Egypt as the 1919 4evolution. Almost daily demonstrations and unrest continued throughout
Egypt for the remainder of the #pring. "o the surprise of the 2ritish authorities- Egyptian women
also demonstrated- led by 8uda #haGrawi H10+9*196+I- who would become the leading feminist
voice in Egypt in the first half of the twentieth century. "he first women(s demonstration was held
on #unday- 1& March 1919- and was followed by yet another one on "hursday- ,7 March 1919.
Egyptian women would continue to play an important and increasingly public nationalist role
throughout the spring and summer of 1919 and beyond.<!
2ritish suppression of the anticolonial riots led to the death of some 077 people. /n ovember
1919- the Milner ommission was sent to Egypt by the 2ritish to attempt to resolve the situation.
/n 19,7- ord Milner submitted his report to ord urzon- the 2ritish :oreign #ecretary-
recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result-
urzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Faghlul and Adli ?asha to discuss the
proposals. "he mission arrived in ondon in Dune 19,7 and the agreement was concluded in
August 19,7.
/n :ebruary 19,1- the 2ritish ?arliament approved the agreement and Egypt was as$ed to send
another mission to ondon with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli ?asha led this
mission- which arrived in Dune 19,1. 8owever- the ominion delegates at the 19,1 /mperial
onference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the #uez anal Fone and
urzon could not persuade his abinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli ?asha was
prepared to accept. "he mission returned to Egypt in disgust.
Kingdom of Egyptedit!
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Main article: Kingdom of Egypt
/n ecember 19,1- the 2ritish authorities in airo imposed martial law and once again deported
Faghlul. emonstrations again led to violence. /n deference to the growing nationalism and at
the suggestion of the 8igh ommissioner - ord Allenby- the = unilaterally declared Egyptian
independence on ,0 :ebruary 19,,- abolishing the protectorate and establishing an
independent ingdom of Egypt.
#arwat ?asha became prime minister . 2ritish influence- however- continued to dominate Egypt's
political life and fostered fiscal- administrative- and governmental reforms. 2ritain retained control
of the anal Fone- #udan and Egypt's e5ternal protection.
ing :uad died in 19<& and :arou$ inherited the throne at the age of si5teen. Alarmed by
/taly's recent invasion of Ethiopia- he signed the Anglo@Egyptian "reaty- reCuiring 2ritain to
withdraw all troops from Egypt- e5cept at the #uez anal Hagreed to be evacuated by 1969I.
uring >orld >ar //- 2ritish troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the
region. 2ritish troops were withdrawn to the #uez anal area in 196+- but nationalist- anti@2ritish
feelings continued to grow after the war.
Republic of Egyptedit!Main article: History of the %epu$lic of Egypt
Coup of 1952edit!
Main article: 1*+2 Egyptian revolution
n ,,*,& Duly 19%,- a group of disaffected army officers Hthe Jfree officersJI led by Muhammad
aguib and 3amal Abdel asser overthrew ing :arou$- whom the military blamed for Egypt's
poor performance in the 1960 war with /srael. ?opular e5pectations for immediate reforms led to
the wor$ers' riots in afr awar on 1, August 19%,- which resulted in two death sentences.
:ollowing a brief e5periment with civilian rule- the :ree fficers abrogated the 19%< constitution
and declared Egypt a republic on 10 Dune 19%<.
Nasser's ruleedit!
Emergence of Arab socialismedit!
Main article: ,asser era
asser evolved into a charismatic leader- not only of Egypt but of the Arab world- promoting and
implementing J Arab socialism.J
>hen the =nited #tates held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality regarding
the #oviet =nion- asser concluded an arms deal with zechoslova$ia in #eptember 19%%.
>hen the =# and the >orld 2an$ withdrew their offer to help finance the Aswan 8igh am in
mid@19%&- asser nationalized the privately owned #uez anal ompany. "he crisisthat
followed- e5acerbated by growing tensions with /srael over guerrilla attac$s from 3aza and /sraelireprisals- support for the :'s war of liberation against the :rench in Algeria and against
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2ritain's presence in the Arab world- resulted in the invasion of Egypt in ctober by :rance-
2ritain- and /srael. "his was also $nown as the #uez >ar . According to the historian Abd a/@Azim
4amadan- asser decision to nationalize the #uez anal was his alone- made without political or
military consultation. "he events leading up to the nationalization of the #uez anal ompany- as
other events during asser(s rule- showed asser(s inclination to solitary decision ma$ing. 8e
considers asser to be far from a rational- responsible leader. 6!
nited Arab !epublicedit!
Main article: #nited Ara$ %epu$lic
/n 19%0 Egypt joined with the 4epublic of #yria and anne5ed the 3aza #trip- ruled by the All@
?alestine 3overnment- to form a state called the =nited Arab 4epublic. /t e5isted until #yria's
secession in 19&1- although Egypt continued to be $nown as the =A4 until 19+1.
asser helped establish with /ndia and Bugoslavia the on@Aligned Movement of developing
countries in #eptember 19&1- and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his
death.
!egional inter"entionedit!
asser had loo$ed to a regime change in Bemen since 19%+ and finally put his desires into
practice in Danuary 19&, by giving the :ree Bemen Movement office space- financial support-
and radio air time. Anthony utting's biography of 3amal Abdel@asser identifies several factors
that led the Egyptian ?resident to send e5peditionary forces to Bemen. "hese included the
unraveling of the union with #yria in 19&1- which dissolved his =nited Arab 4epublic H=A4I-
damaging his prestige. A Cuic$ decisive victory in Bemen could help him recover leadership of
the Arab world. asser also had his reputation as an anti@colonial force- setting his sights on
ridding #outh Bemen- and its strategic port city of Aden- of 2ritish forces.
asser ruled as an autocrat but remained e5tremely popular within Egypt and throughout the
Arab world. 8is willingness to stand up to the >estern powers and to /srael won him support
throughout the region. 8owever- asser's foreign and military policies were central in provo$ing
the #i5 ay >ar in 19&+. "his conflict saw the Egyptian- #yrian and Dordanian armed forces
routed by the /sraelis.
/srael afterward occupied the #inai ?eninsula and the 3aza #trip from Egypt- 3olan 8eights from
#yria- and >est 2an$ from Dordan. "his defeat was a severe blow to asser's prestige both at
home and abroad. :ollowing the defeat- asser made a dramatic offer to resign- which was only
retracted in the face of mass demonstrations urging him to stay. "he last three years of his
control over Egypt were far more subdued.
#adat eraedit!
Main article: &adat era
#adat era refers to the presidency of Muhammad Anwar al@#adat- the eleven@year period of
Egyptian history spanning from the death of president 3amal Abdel asser in 19+7- through#adat's assassination by fundamentalist army officers on & ctober 1901. #adat's presidency
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saw many changes in Egypt's direction- reversing some of the economic and political principles
of asserism by brea$ing with #oviet =nion to ma$e Egypt an ally of the =nited #tates- initiated
the peace process with /srael- re@instituting the multi@party system and abandoning socialism by
launching the /nfitah economic policy.
nder #o"iet influenceedit!
After asser's death- another of the original revolutionary Jfree officers-J Kice ?resident Anwar el@
#adat- was elected ?resident of Egypt. asser's supporters in government settled on #adat as a
transitional figure that Hthey believedI could be manipulated easily. 8owever- #adat had a long
term in office and many changes in mind for Egypt and by some astute political moves was able
to institute a Jcorrective revolutionJ- Hannounced on n 1% May 19+1 %!I which purged the
government- political and security establishments of the most ardent asserists.&! #adat
encouraged the emergence of an /slamist movement which had been suppressed by asser.
2elieving /slamists to be socially conservative he gave them Jconsiderable cultural andideological autonomyJ in e5change for political support. +!
:ollowing the disastrous #i5@ay >ar of 19&+- Egypt waged a >ar of Attrition in the #uez anal
zone. /n 19+1- three years into this war- #adat endorsed in a letter the peace proposals
of = negotiator 3unnar Darring- which seemed to lead to a full peace with /srael on the basis of
/srael's withdrawal to its pre@war borders. "his peace initiative failed as neither /srael nor the
=nited #tates of America accepted the terms as discussed then. "o provide /srael with more
incentive to negotiate with Egypt and return the #inai to it- and also because the #oviets had
refused #adat(s reCuests for more military support- #adat e5pelled the #oviet military advisers
from Egypt and proceeded to bolster his army for a renewed confrontation with /srael.0!
/n the months before the 19+< war #adat engaged in a diplomatic offensive and by the fall of
19+< had support for a war of more than a hundred states- including most of the countries of the
Arab eague- on@Aligned Movement- and rganization of African =nity. #yria agreed to join
Egypt in attac$ing /srael.
/n ctober 19+<- Egypt's armed forces achieved initial successes in the rossing and advanced
1% $m- reaching the depth of the range of safe coverage of its own air force. 8aving defeated the
/sraeli forces to this e5tent- Egyptian forces- rather than advancing under air cover- decided to
immediately penetrate further into the #inai desert. /n spite of huge losses they $ept advancing-
creating the chance to open a gap between army forces. "hat gap was e5ploited by a tan$
division led by Ariel #haron- and he and his tan$s managed to penetrate- reaching #uez ity. /n
the mean time- the =nited #tates initiated a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and
supplies to /srael and appropriate L,., billion in emergency aid. ?E oil ministers- led by #audi
Arabia retaliated with an oil embargo against the =#. A = resolution supported by the =nited
#tates and the #oviet =nion called for an end to hostilities and for peace tal$s to begin. n %
March 19+6 /srael withdrew the last of its troops from the west side of the #uez anal and 1,
days later Arab oil ministers announced the end of the embargo against the =nited #tates. :or
#adat and many Egyptians the war was much more a victory than a draw- as the initial Egyptian
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successes restored Egyptian national spirit and is considered among the factors- which
eventually led to peace tal$s with the /sraelis.
nder $estern influenceedit!
elebrating the signing of the amp avid Accords Menachem 2egin- Dimmy arter - Anwar Al #adat.
/n foreign relations #adat instigated momentous change. ?resident #adat shifted Egypt from a
policy of confrontation with /srael to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations.
:ollowing the #inai isengagement Agreements of 19+6 and 19+%- #adat created a fresh
opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Derusalem in ovember 19++. "his led to the
invitation from ?residentDimmy arter of the =nited #tates to ?resident #adat and /sraeli ?rime
Minister 2egin to enter trilateral negotiations at amp avid.
"he outcome was the historic amp avid accords- signed by Egypt and /srael and witnessed by
the =# on 1+ #eptember 19+0. "he accords led to ,& March 19+9- signing of the Egypt*/srael
?eace "reaty- by which Egypt regained control of the #inai in May 190,. "hroughout this
period- =#*Egyptian relations steadily improved- and Egypt became one of America's largestrecipients of foreign aid. #adat's willingness to brea$ ran$s by ma$ing peace with /srael earned
him the enmity of most other Arab states- however. /n 19++- Egypt fought a short border war with
ibya.
#adat used his immense popularity with the Egyptian people to try to push through vast
economic reforms that ended the socialistic controls of asserism. #adat introduced greater
political freedom and a new economic policy- the most important aspect of which was
the infitah or Jopen doorJ. "his rela5ed government controls over the economy and encouraged
private investment. >hile the reforms created a wealthy and successful upper class and a small
middle class- these reforms had little effect upon the average Egyptian who began to grow
dissatisfied with #adat's rule. /n 19++- /nfitah policies led to massivespontaneous riots H'2read
4iots'I involving hundreds of thousands of Egyptians when the state announced that it was
retiring subsidies on basic foodstuffs.
iberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture.
#adat dismantled much of the e5isting political machine and brought to trial a number of former
government officials accused of criminal e5cesses during the asser era. #adat tried to e5pand
participation in the political process in the mid@19+7s but later abandoned this effort. /n the last
years of his life- Egypt was wrac$ed by violence arising from discontent with #adat's rule and
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sectarian tensions- and it e5perienced a renewed measure of repression including e5tra judicial
arrests.
Conflict %ith the &uslim rotherhoodedit!
Another change #adat made from the asser era was a bow towards the /slamic revival. #adatloosened restrictions on the Muslim 2rotherhood- allowing it to publish a monthly magazine- al@
awa- which appeared regularly until #eptember 1901 Halthough he did not allow the groups
reconstitution.I9!
/n the late 19+7s- he began calling himself N"he 2eliever ?residentN and signing his
name Mohammad Anwar #adat.N 8e ordered Egypt's state@run television to interrupt programs
with #alat Hcall to prayerI on the screen five times a day and to increase religious programming.
=nder his rule local officials banned the sale of alcohol e5cept at places catering to foreign
tourists in more than half of Egypt's ,& governorates. 17! ,
&ubara( eraedit!
Main article: Mu$ara- era
)residential inaugurationedit!
n & ctober 1901- ?resident #adat was assassinated by /slamic e5tremists. 8osni Mubara$-
Kice ?resident since 19+% and an air force commander during the ctober 19+< war- was
elected ?resident later that month. 8e was subseCuently confirmed by popular referendum for
three more &@year terms- most recently in #eptember ,77%. "he results of the referendums are
however of Cuestionable validity as they- with the e5ception of the one conducted in #eptember
,77%- listed only Mubara$ as the sole candidate.
Mubara$ maintained Egypt's commitment to the amp avid peace process- while at the same
time re@establishing Egypt's position as an Arab leader. Egypt was readmitted to the Arab
eague in 1909. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international forums as the =
and the onaligned Movement.
199*s + economic reforms and struggle %ith radical ,slamistsedit!
A section of present day airo- as seen from the airo "ower .
:rom 1991- Mubara$ undertoo$ an ambitious domestic economic reform program to reduce thesize of the public sector and e5pand the role of the private sector. uring the 1997s- a series of
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/nternational Monetary :und arrangements- coupled with massive e5ternal debt relief resulting
from Egypt's participation in the 3ulf >ar coalition- helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic
performance. "heeconomy of Egypt flourished during the 1997s and ,777s. "he 3overnment of
Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double@digit to a single digit. 3ross domestic product
H3?I per capita based on purchasing@power@parity H???I increased fourfold between 1901 and
,77&- from =#L1<%% in 1901- to =#L,%,% in 1991- to =#L<&0& in ,771 and to an estimated
=#L6%<% in ,77&.
"here was less progress in political reform. "he ovember ,777 ?eople's Assembly
elections saw <6 members of the opposition win seats in the 6%6@seat assembly- facing a clear
majority of <00 ultimately affiliated with the ruling ational emocratic ?arty H?I. A
constitutional amendment in May ,77% changed the presidential election to a multicandidate
popular vote rather than a popular validation of a candidate nominated by the ?eople(s Assembly
and on + #eptember Mubara$ was elected for another si5@year term with 0+ percent of the
popular vote- followed by a distant but strong showing by Ayman our - leader of the
opposition 3had ?arty and a well@$nown rights activist.
#hortly after mounting an unprecedented presidential campaign- our was jailed on forgery
charges critics called phony; he was released on 10 :ebruary ,779. 11! 2rotherhood members
were allowed to run for parliament in ,77% as independents- garnering 00 seats- or ,7 percent of
the ?eople(s Assembly.
"he opposition parties have been wea$ and divided and are not yet credible alternatives to the
?. "he Muslim 2rotherhood- founded in Egypt in 19,0- had remained an illegal organization
and may not be recognized as a political party Hcurrent Egyptian law prohibits the formation of
political parties based on religionI. Members are $nown publicly and openly spea$ their views.
Members of the 2rotherhood have been elected to the ?eople's Assembly and local councils as
independents. "he Egyptian political opposition also includes groups and popular movements
such as efaya and the & April Bouth Movement- although they are somewhat less organized
than officially registered political parties. 2loggers- or cyberactivists as ourtney . 4adsch
terms them- have also played an important political opposition role- writing- organizing- and
mobilizing public opposition.1,!
-ecrease of influenceedit!
?resident Mubara$ had tight- autocratic control over Egypt. 8owever- a dramatic drop in support
for Mubara$ and his domestic economic reform program increased with surfacing news about his
son Alaa being e5tremely corrupt and favored in government tenders and privatization. As Alaa
started getting out of the picture by ,777- Mubara$(s second son 3amal started rising in the
ational emocratic ?arty and succeeded in getting a newer generation of neo@liberals into the
party and eventually the government. 3amal Mubara$ branched out with a few colleagues to set
up Medinvest Associates td.- which manages a private eCuity fund- and to do some corporate
finance consultancy wor$.1<!
Ci"il unrest since 2*11edit!
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Main article: Egyptian )risis (2011.present
2*11 re"olution and aftermathedit!
Main articles: 2011 Egyptian revolution and Aftermath of the 2011 Egyptian revolution
2eginning on ,% Danuary ,711- a series of street demonstrations- protests- and civildisobedience acts have ta$en place in Egypt- with organizers counting on the "unisian
uprising to inspire the crowds to mobilize. "he demonstrations and riots were reported to have
started over police brutality- state of emergency laws- unemployment- desire to raise
the minimum wage- lac$ of housing- food inflation- corruption- lac$ of freedom of speech- and
poor living conditions.16! "he protests' main goal was to oust ?resident 8osni Mubara$'s regime.
n 11 :ebruary ,711- Mubara$ resigned and fled airo. Kice ?resident mar
#uleiman announced that Mubara$ had stepped down and that the Egyptian military would
assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term. 1%!1&! H#ee also 2011 revolution.I Dubilant
celebrations bro$e out in "ahrir #Cuare at the news.1+! Mubara$ may have left airo for #harm el@
#hei$h the previous night- before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubara$
vowed he would not step down or leave. 10!
n 1< :ebruary ,711- the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the
constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. "he parliamentary election was to
be held in #eptember .19!
A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March ,711. n ,0 ovember ,711- Egypt held
its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. "urnout was high
and there were no reports of irregularities or violence- although members of some parties bro$e
the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners. ,7!
A constituent assembly- founded in ,& March ,71,- started to wor$ for implementing a new
constitution. ?residential elections- were held in March*Dune ,71,- with a final runoff between
former ?rime Minister Ahmed #hafi$ and Muslim 2rotherhood parliamentarian Mohamed Morsi.
n ,6 Dune ,71,- Egypt's election commission announced that Morsi had won the run@off.
&orsi's presidencyedit!
Main article: /imeline of the Egyptian )risis under Mohamed Morsi
n 0 Duly ,71,- Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi said that he's overriding a
military edict that dissolved the country's elected parliament and calling on lawma$ers bac$ into
session.
n 17 Duly ,71,- the #upreme onstitutional ourt of Egypt negated the decision by ?resident
Mohamed Morsi to call the nation's parliament bac$ into session. ,1! n , August ,71,- Egypt(s
?rime Minister 8isham Oandil announced his <% member cabinet comprising ,0 newcomers
including four from the influential Muslim 2rotherhood- si5 others and the former military ruler
"antawi as the efence Minister from the previous 3overnment. ,,!
2*12+2*1 Egyptian protestsedit!
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Main article: 2012 Egyptian protests
n ,, ovember ,71,- Egyptian Mohamed Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees
from challenge and see$ing to protect the wor$ of the onstituent Assemblydrafting the new
constitution.,<! "he declaration also reCuires a retrial of those accused in the Mubara$@era $illings
of protesters- who had been acCuitted- and e5tends the mandate of the constituent assembly by
two months. Additionally- the declaration authorizes Morsi to ta$e any measures necessary to
protect the revolution. iberal and secular groups previously wal$ed out of the constitutional
constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict /slamic practices- while
Muslim 2rotherhood bac$ers threw their support behind Morsi. ,6!
"he move has been criticized by Mohamed El2aradei who stated JMorsi today usurped all state
powers P appointed himself Egypt's new pharaohJ on his "witter feed. ,%!,&! "he move has led
to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.,+!
After &orsiedit!
Main article: ostcoup unrest in Egypt (201.14
"his section reCuires e5pansion.
(March 2014
uring the months after the coup d'Qtat- a new constitution was prepared- which too$ effect on 10
Danuary ,716. After that- presidential and parliamentary elections have to be held within &
months.
n ,6 March ,716- %,9 Morsi's supporters were sentenced to death- while the trial of
Morsi himself was still ongoing.,0!
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