According to Most Scholars The

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 According to most scholars the history of modern Egypt spans since the emergence

of Muhammad Ali's rule in early 19th century and his launching of Egypt's modernization project

that involved building a new army and suggesting a new map for Egypt.1!

"he definition of Egypt's modern history has varied in accordance to different definitions ofModernity. #ome scholars date it as far bac$ as 1%1& with the ttomans( defeat of the Maml)$s

in 1%1&*1+.,!

Muhammad Ali's dynasty became practically independent from the ttoman rule- following his

warfare campaigns against the Empire and his ability to enlist large scale armies- allowing to

control Egypt as well as parts of orth Africa and Middle East. /n 100,- thehedivate of

Egypt becomes part of the 2ritish sphere of influence in the region- a situation that conflicted with

its position as an autonomous vassal state of the ttoman Empire. "he country became a

2ritish protectorate in 191% and achieved full independence in 19,,- becoming a $ingdom under

the rule of Muhammad Ali's dynasty- lasting until 19%,.

3amal Abdel asser  established the republic in Egypt and end the monarchy rule in Egypt-

$nown as the 4epublic of Egypt- following the 19%, Egyptian revolution. Egypt was ruled

autocratically by three presidents over the following si5 decades- by asser from 19%6 until his

death in 19+7- by  Anwar #adat from 19+1 until his assassination 1901- and by 8osni

Mubara$ from 1901 until his resignation in the face of the ,711 Egyptian revolution.

/n ,71,- after more than one year under interim government of #upreme ouncil of the Armed

:orces- with :ield Marshal "antawias its chairman; elections were held and the

/slamist Mohamed Morsi became the first democratically elected head of state in the entire

history of Egypt. in ,71<- millions of Egyptians in huge rallies and demonstrations were

demanding Morsi's resignation- the army announced the ousted of Morsi and preparing for a new

elections.

Contents

  hide!

• 1 hedivate of Egypt

•

, 2ritish administration

• < #ultanate of Egypt

• 6 ingdom of Egypt

• % 4epublic of Egypt

o %.1 oup of 19%,

o %., asser's rule

%.,.1 Emergence of Arab socialism

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%.,., =nited Arab 4epublic

%.,.< 4egional intervention

o %.< #adat era

%.<.1 =nder #oviet influence

%.<., =nder >estern influence

%.<.< onflict with the Muslim 2rotherhood

o %.6 Mubara$ era

%.6.1 ?residential inauguration

%.6., 1997s @ economic reforms and struggle with radical /slamists

%.6.< ecrease of influence

o %.% ivil unrest since ,711

%.%.1 ,711 revolution and aftermath

%.%., Morsi's presidency

%.%.< ,71,@,71< Egyptian protests

%.%.6 After Morsi

• & #ee also

• + 4eferences

Khedivate of Egyptedit!Main articles: Khedivate of Egypt  and History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty 

This section is empty. Bou can

help by adding to it. (March 2014

British administrationedit!!urther information: History of Egypt under the "ritish and  #ra$i %evolt 

/n 100, opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst notable natives- the most

dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in #eptember 1001

forced the hedive "ewfiC to dismiss his ?rime Minister. /n April 100,- :rance and the =nited

ingdom sent warships to Ale5andria to bolster the hedive amidst a turbulent climate-

spreading fear of invasion throughout the country.

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"awfiC moved to Ale5andria for fear of his own safety as army officers led by Ahmed =rabi began

to ta$e control of the government. 2y Dune Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to

European domination of the country. "he naval bombardment of Ale5andria by the 4oyal

avy had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of  a 2ritish e5peditionary force at

both ends of the #uez anal in August 100,.

"he 2ritish succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at "el El ebir  in #eptember and too$

control of the country putting "awfiC bac$ in control. "he purpose of the invasion had been to

restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the hedive and international controls

which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 10+&. /t is unli$ely that the 2ritish

e5pected a long@term occupation from the outset- however ord romer - 2ritain's hief

4epresentative in Egypt at the time- viewed Egypt's financial reforms as part of a long@term

objective. romer too$ the view that political stability needed financial stability- and embar$ed on

a programme of long term investment in Egypt's productive resources- above all in the cotton

economy- the mainstay of the country's e5port earnings.

/n 197& the enshawai incident provo$ed a Cuestioning of 2ritish rule in Egypt. 2ritish

administration ended nominally with the establishment of a protectorate and the installation

of sultan 8ussein amel in 1916- but a 2ritish military presence in Egypt lasted until Dune 19%&.

Sultanate of Egyptedit!Main article: &ultanate of Egypt 

!urther information: Egyptian E'peditionary !orce and &inai and alestine )ampaign

/n 1916 as a result of the declaration of war with the ttoman Empire- of which Egypt was

nominally a part- 2ritain declared a ?rotectorate over Egypt and deposed the anti@2ritish

hedive- Abbas //- replacing him with his uncle 8usayn amel- who was made #ultan of Egypt by

the 2ritish. A group $nown as the >afd elegation attended the ?aris ?eace onference of

1919 to demand Egypt's independence. /ncluded in the group was political leader- #aad Faghlul-

who would later become ?rime Minister. >hen the group was arrested and deported to the island

of Malta- a huge uprising occurred in Egypt.

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:emale nationalists demonstrating in airo- 1919.

:rom March to April 1919- there were mass demonstrations that became uprisings. "his is $nown

in Egypt as the 1919 4evolution. Almost daily demonstrations and unrest continued throughout

Egypt for the remainder of the #pring. "o the surprise of the 2ritish authorities- Egyptian women

also demonstrated- led by 8uda #haGrawi H10+9*196+I- who would become the leading feminist

voice in Egypt in the first half of the twentieth century. "he first women(s demonstration was held

on #unday- 1& March 1919- and was followed by yet another one on "hursday- ,7 March 1919.

Egyptian women would continue to play an important and increasingly public nationalist role

throughout the spring and summer of 1919 and beyond.<!

2ritish suppression of the anticolonial riots led to the death of some 077 people. /n ovember

1919- the Milner ommission was sent to Egypt by the 2ritish to attempt to resolve the situation.

/n 19,7- ord Milner  submitted his report to ord urzon- the 2ritish :oreign #ecretary-

recommending that the protectorate should be replaced by a treaty of alliance. As a result-

urzon agreed to receive an Egyptian mission headed by Faghlul and   Adli ?asha to discuss the

proposals. "he mission arrived in ondon in Dune 19,7 and the agreement was concluded in

 August 19,7.

/n :ebruary 19,1- the 2ritish ?arliament approved the agreement and Egypt was as$ed to send

another mission to ondon with full powers to conclude a definitive treaty. Adli ?asha led this

mission- which arrived in Dune 19,1. 8owever- the ominion delegates at the 19,1 /mperial

onference had stressed the importance of maintaining control over the #uez anal Fone and

urzon could not persuade his abinet colleagues to agree to any terms that Adli ?asha was

prepared to accept. "he mission returned to Egypt in disgust.

Kingdom of Egyptedit!

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Main article: Kingdom of Egypt 

/n ecember 19,1- the 2ritish authorities in airo imposed martial law and once again deported

Faghlul. emonstrations again led to violence. /n deference to the growing nationalism and at

the suggestion of the 8igh ommissioner - ord Allenby- the = unilaterally declared Egyptian

independence on ,0 :ebruary 19,,- abolishing the protectorate and establishing an

independent ingdom of Egypt.

#arwat ?asha became prime minister . 2ritish influence- however- continued to dominate Egypt's

political life and fostered fiscal- administrative- and governmental reforms. 2ritain retained control

of the anal Fone- #udan and Egypt's e5ternal protection.

ing :uad died in 19<& and :arou$ inherited the throne at the age of si5teen. Alarmed by

/taly's recent invasion of Ethiopia- he signed the  Anglo@Egyptian "reaty- reCuiring 2ritain to

withdraw all troops from Egypt- e5cept at the #uez anal Hagreed to be evacuated by 1969I.

uring >orld >ar //- 2ritish troops used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the

region. 2ritish troops were withdrawn to the #uez anal area in 196+- but nationalist- anti@2ritish

feelings continued to grow after the war.

Republic of Egyptedit!Main article: History of the %epu$lic of Egypt 

Coup of 1952edit!

Main article: 1*+2 Egyptian revolution

n ,,*,& Duly 19%,- a group of disaffected army officers Hthe Jfree officersJI led by Muhammad

aguib and 3amal Abdel asser overthrew ing :arou$- whom the military blamed for Egypt's

poor performance in the 1960 war with /srael. ?opular e5pectations for immediate reforms led to

the wor$ers' riots in afr awar  on 1, August 19%,- which resulted in two death sentences.

:ollowing a brief e5periment with civilian rule- the :ree fficers abrogated the 19%< constitution

and declared Egypt a republic on 10 Dune 19%<.

Nasser's ruleedit!

Emergence of Arab socialismedit!

Main article: ,asser era

asser  evolved into a charismatic leader- not only of Egypt but of the Arab world- promoting and

implementing J Arab socialism.J

>hen the =nited #tates held up military sales in reaction to Egyptian neutrality regarding

the #oviet =nion- asser  concluded an arms deal with zechoslova$ia in #eptember 19%%.

>hen the =# and the >orld 2an$ withdrew their offer to help finance the  Aswan 8igh am in

mid@19%&- asser nationalized the privately owned #uez anal ompany. "he crisisthat

followed- e5acerbated by growing tensions with /srael over guerrilla attac$s from 3aza and /sraelireprisals- support for the :'s war of liberation against the :rench in Algeria and against

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2ritain's presence in the Arab world- resulted in the invasion of Egypt in ctober by :rance-

2ritain- and /srael. "his was also $nown as the #uez >ar . According to the historian Abd a/@Azim

4amadan- asser decision to nationalize the #uez anal was his alone- made without political or 

military consultation. "he events leading up to the nationalization of the #uez anal ompany- as

other events during asser(s rule- showed asser(s inclination to solitary decision ma$ing. 8e

considers asser to be far from a rational- responsible leader. 6!

nited Arab !epublicedit!

Main article: #nited Ara$ %epu$lic 

/n 19%0 Egypt joined with the 4epublic of #yria and anne5ed the 3aza #trip- ruled by the   All@

?alestine 3overnment- to form a state called the =nited Arab 4epublic. /t e5isted until #yria's

secession in 19&1- although Egypt continued to be $nown as the =A4 until 19+1.

asser helped establish with /ndia and Bugoslavia the on@Aligned Movement of developing

countries in #eptember 19&1- and continued to be a leading force in the movement until his

death.

!egional inter"entionedit!

asser had loo$ed to a regime change in Bemen since 19%+ and finally put his desires into

practice in Danuary 19&, by giving the :ree Bemen Movement office space- financial support-

and radio air time. Anthony utting's biography of 3amal Abdel@asser  identifies several factors

that led the Egyptian ?resident to send e5peditionary forces to Bemen. "hese included the

unraveling of the union with #yria in 19&1- which dissolved his =nited Arab 4epublic H=A4I-

damaging his prestige. A Cuic$ decisive victory in Bemen could help him recover leadership of

the  Arab world. asser also had his reputation as an anti@colonial force- setting his sights on

ridding #outh Bemen- and its strategic port city of  Aden- of 2ritish forces.

asser ruled as an autocrat but remained e5tremely popular within Egypt and throughout the

 Arab world. 8is willingness to stand up to the >estern powers and to /srael won him support

throughout the region. 8owever- asser's foreign and military policies were central in provo$ing

the #i5 ay >ar  in 19&+. "his conflict saw the Egyptian- #yrian and Dordanian armed forces

routed by the /sraelis.

/srael afterward occupied the #inai ?eninsula and the 3aza #trip from Egypt- 3olan 8eights from

#yria- and >est 2an$ from Dordan. "his defeat was a severe blow to asser's prestige both at

home and abroad. :ollowing the defeat- asser made a dramatic offer to resign- which was only

retracted in the face of mass demonstrations urging him to stay. "he last three years of his

control over Egypt were far more subdued.

#adat eraedit!

Main article: &adat era

#adat era refers to the presidency of Muhammad Anwar al@#adat- the eleven@year period of

Egyptian history spanning from the death of president 3amal Abdel asser in 19+7- through#adat's assassination by fundamentalist army officers on & ctober 1901. #adat's presidency

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saw many changes in Egypt's direction- reversing some of the economic and political principles

of asserism by brea$ing with #oviet =nion to ma$e Egypt an ally of the =nited #tates- initiated

the peace process with /srael- re@instituting the multi@party system and abandoning socialism by

launching the /nfitah economic policy.

nder #o"iet influenceedit!

 After asser's death- another of the original revolutionary Jfree officers-J Kice ?resident  Anwar el@

#adat- was elected ?resident of Egypt. asser's supporters in government settled on #adat as a

transitional figure that Hthey believedI could be manipulated easily. 8owever- #adat had a long

term in office and many changes in mind for Egypt and by some astute political moves was able

to institute a Jcorrective revolutionJ- Hannounced on n 1% May 19+1 %!I which purged the

government- political and security establishments of the most ardent  asserists.&! #adat

encouraged the emergence of an /slamist movement which had been suppressed by asser.

2elieving /slamists to be socially conservative he gave them Jconsiderable cultural andideological autonomyJ in e5change for political support. +!

:ollowing the disastrous #i5@ay >ar  of 19&+- Egypt waged a >ar of Attrition in the #uez anal

zone. /n 19+1- three years into this war- #adat endorsed in a letter the peace proposals

of = negotiator 3unnar Darring- which seemed to lead to a full peace with /srael on the basis of

/srael's withdrawal to its pre@war borders. "his peace initiative failed as neither /srael nor the

=nited #tates of America accepted the terms as discussed then. "o provide /srael with more

incentive to negotiate with Egypt and return the #inai to it- and also because the #oviets had

refused #adat(s reCuests for more military support- #adat e5pelled the #oviet military advisers

from Egypt and proceeded to bolster his army for a renewed confrontation with /srael.0!

/n the months before the 19+< war #adat engaged in a diplomatic offensive and by the fall of

19+< had support for a war of more than a hundred states- including most of the countries of the

 Arab eague- on@Aligned Movement- and rganization of African =nity. #yria agreed to join

Egypt in attac$ing /srael.

/n ctober 19+<- Egypt's armed forces achieved initial successes in the rossing and advanced

1% $m- reaching the depth of the range of safe coverage of its own air force. 8aving defeated the

/sraeli forces to this e5tent- Egyptian forces- rather than advancing under air cover- decided to

immediately penetrate further into the #inai desert. /n spite of huge losses they $ept advancing-

creating the chance to open a gap between army forces. "hat gap was e5ploited by a tan$

division led by Ariel #haron- and he and his tan$s managed to penetrate- reaching #uez ity. /n

the mean time- the =nited #tates initiated a strategic airlift to provide replacement weapons and

supplies to /srael and appropriate L,., billion in emergency aid. ?E oil ministers- led by #audi

 Arabia retaliated with an oil embargo against the =#. A = resolution supported by the =nited

#tates and the #oviet =nion called for an end to hostilities and for peace tal$s to begin. n %

March 19+6 /srael withdrew the last of its troops from the west side of the #uez anal and 1,

days later Arab oil ministers announced the end of the embargo against the =nited #tates. :or

#adat and many Egyptians the war was much more a victory than a draw- as the initial Egyptian

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successes restored Egyptian national spirit and is considered among the factors- which

eventually led to peace tal$s with the /sraelis.

nder $estern influenceedit!

elebrating the signing of the amp avid Accords Menachem 2egin- Dimmy arter -  Anwar Al #adat.

/n foreign relations #adat instigated momentous change. ?resident #adat shifted Egypt from a

policy of confrontation with /srael to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations.

:ollowing the #inai isengagement Agreements of 19+6 and 19+%- #adat created a fresh

opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Derusalem in ovember 19++. "his led to the

invitation from ?residentDimmy arter  of the =nited #tates to ?resident #adat and /sraeli ?rime

Minister 2egin to enter trilateral negotiations at amp avid.

"he outcome was the historic amp avid accords- signed by Egypt and /srael and witnessed by

the =# on 1+ #eptember 19+0. "he accords led to ,& March 19+9- signing of the Egypt*/srael

?eace "reaty- by which Egypt regained control of the #inai in May 190,. "hroughout this

period- =#*Egyptian relations steadily improved- and Egypt became one of America's largestrecipients of foreign aid. #adat's willingness to brea$ ran$s by ma$ing peace with /srael earned

him the enmity of most other Arab states- however. /n 19++- Egypt fought a short border war  with

ibya.

#adat used his immense popularity with the Egyptian people to try to push through vast

economic reforms that ended the socialistic controls of asserism. #adat introduced greater

political freedom and a new economic policy- the most important aspect of which was

the infitah or Jopen doorJ. "his rela5ed government controls over the economy and encouraged

private investment. >hile the reforms created a wealthy and successful upper class and a small

middle class- these reforms had little effect upon the average Egyptian who began to grow

dissatisfied with #adat's rule. /n 19++- /nfitah policies led to massivespontaneous riots H'2read

4iots'I involving hundreds of thousands of Egyptians when the state announced that it was

retiring subsidies on basic foodstuffs.

iberalization also included the reinstitution of due process and the legal banning of torture.

#adat dismantled much of the e5isting political machine and brought to trial a number of former

government officials accused of criminal e5cesses during the asser era. #adat tried to e5pand

participation in the political process in the mid@19+7s but later abandoned this effort. /n the last

years of his life- Egypt was wrac$ed by violence arising from discontent with #adat's rule and

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sectarian tensions- and it e5perienced a renewed measure of repression including e5tra judicial

arrests.

Conflict %ith the &uslim rotherhoodedit!

 Another change #adat made from the asser era was a bow towards the /slamic revival. #adatloosened restrictions on the Muslim 2rotherhood- allowing it to publish a monthly magazine- al@

awa- which appeared regularly until #eptember 1901 Halthough he did not allow the groups

reconstitution.I9!

/n the late 19+7s- he began calling himself N"he 2eliever ?residentN and signing his

name Mohammad  Anwar #adat.N 8e ordered Egypt's state@run television to interrupt programs

with #alat Hcall to prayerI on the screen five times a day and to increase religious programming.

=nder his rule local officials banned the sale of alcohol e5cept at places catering to foreign

tourists in more than half of Egypt's ,& governorates. 17! ,

&ubara( eraedit!

Main article: Mu$ara- era

)residential inaugurationedit!

n & ctober 1901- ?resident #adat was assassinated by /slamic e5tremists. 8osni Mubara$-

Kice ?resident since 19+% and an air force commander during the ctober 19+< war- was

elected ?resident later that month. 8e was subseCuently confirmed by popular referendum for

three more &@year terms- most recently in #eptember ,77%. "he results of the referendums are

however of Cuestionable validity as they- with the e5ception of the one conducted in #eptember

,77%- listed only Mubara$ as the sole candidate.

Mubara$ maintained Egypt's commitment to the amp avid peace process- while at the same

time re@establishing Egypt's position as an Arab leader. Egypt was readmitted to the Arab

eague in 1909. Egypt also has played a moderating role in such international forums as the =

and the onaligned Movement.

199*s + economic reforms and struggle %ith radical ,slamistsedit!

 A section of present day airo- as seen from the airo "ower .

:rom 1991- Mubara$ undertoo$ an ambitious domestic economic reform program to reduce thesize of the public sector and e5pand the role of the private sector. uring the 1997s- a series of

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/nternational Monetary :und arrangements- coupled with massive e5ternal debt relief resulting

from Egypt's participation in the 3ulf >ar coalition- helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic

performance. "heeconomy of Egypt flourished during the 1997s and ,777s. "he 3overnment of

Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double@digit to a single digit. 3ross domestic product

H3?I per capita based on purchasing@power@parity H???I increased fourfold between 1901 and

,77&- from =#L1<%% in 1901- to =#L,%,% in 1991- to =#L<&0& in ,771 and to an estimated

=#L6%<% in ,77&.

"here was less progress in political reform. "he ovember ,777 ?eople's Assembly

elections saw <6 members of the opposition win seats in the 6%6@seat assembly- facing a clear

majority of <00 ultimately affiliated with the ruling ational emocratic ?arty H?I. A

constitutional amendment in May ,77% changed the presidential election to a multicandidate

popular vote rather than a popular validation of a candidate nominated by the ?eople(s Assembly

and on + #eptember Mubara$ was elected for another si5@year term with 0+ percent of the

popular vote- followed by a distant but strong showing by Ayman our - leader of the

opposition 3had ?arty and a well@$nown rights activist.

#hortly after mounting an unprecedented presidential campaign- our was jailed on forgery

charges critics called phony; he was released on 10 :ebruary ,779. 11! 2rotherhood members

were allowed to run for parliament in ,77% as independents- garnering 00 seats- or ,7 percent of

the ?eople(s Assembly.

"he opposition parties have been wea$ and divided and are not yet credible alternatives to the

?. "he Muslim 2rotherhood- founded in Egypt in 19,0- had remained an illegal organization

and may not be recognized as a political party Hcurrent Egyptian law prohibits the formation of

political parties based on religionI. Members are $nown publicly and openly spea$ their views.

Members of the 2rotherhood have been elected to the ?eople's Assembly and local councils as

independents. "he Egyptian political opposition also includes groups and popular movements

such as efaya and the & April Bouth Movement- although they are somewhat less organized

than officially registered political parties. 2loggers- or cyberactivists as ourtney . 4adsch

terms them- have also played an important political opposition role- writing- organizing- and

mobilizing public opposition.1,!

-ecrease of influenceedit!

?resident Mubara$ had tight- autocratic control over Egypt. 8owever- a dramatic drop in support

for Mubara$ and his domestic economic reform program increased with surfacing news about his

son Alaa being e5tremely corrupt and favored in government tenders and privatization. As Alaa

started getting out of the picture by ,777- Mubara$(s second son 3amal started rising in the

ational emocratic ?arty and succeeded in getting a newer generation of neo@liberals into the

party and eventually the government. 3amal Mubara$ branched out with a few colleagues to set

up Medinvest Associates td.- which manages a private eCuity fund- and to do some corporate

finance consultancy wor$.1<!

Ci"il unrest since 2*11edit!

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Main article: Egyptian )risis (2011.present

2*11 re"olution and aftermathedit!

Main articles: 2011 Egyptian revolution and Aftermath of the 2011 Egyptian revolution

2eginning on ,% Danuary ,711- a series of street demonstrations- protests- and civildisobedience acts have ta$en place in Egypt- with organizers counting on the "unisian

uprising to inspire the crowds to mobilize. "he demonstrations and riots were reported to have

started over  police brutality- state of emergency laws- unemployment- desire to raise

the minimum wage- lac$ of housing- food inflation- corruption- lac$ of freedom of speech- and

poor living conditions.16! "he protests' main goal was to oust ?resident 8osni Mubara$'s regime.

n 11 :ebruary ,711- Mubara$ resigned and fled airo. Kice ?resident mar

#uleiman announced that Mubara$ had stepped down and that the Egyptian military would

assume control of the nation's affairs in the short term. 1%!1&! H#ee also 2011 revolution.I Dubilant

celebrations bro$e out in "ahrir #Cuare at the news.1+! Mubara$ may have left airo for #harm el@

#hei$h the previous night- before or shortly after the airing of a taped speech in which Mubara$

vowed he would not step down or leave. 10!

n 1< :ebruary ,711- the high level military command of Egypt announced that both the

constitution and the parliament of Egypt had been dissolved. "he parliamentary election was to

be held in #eptember .19!

 A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March ,711. n ,0 ovember ,711- Egypt held

its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. "urnout was high

and there were no reports of irregularities or violence- although members of some parties bro$e

the ban on campaigning at polling places by handing out pamphlets and banners. ,7!

 A constituent assembly- founded in ,& March ,71,- started to wor$ for implementing a new

constitution. ?residential elections- were held in March*Dune ,71,- with a final runoff between

former ?rime Minister Ahmed #hafi$ and Muslim 2rotherhood parliamentarian Mohamed Morsi.

n ,6 Dune ,71,- Egypt's election commission announced that Morsi had won the run@off.

&orsi's presidencyedit!

Main article: /imeline of the Egyptian )risis under Mohamed Morsi 

n 0 Duly ,71,- Egypt's new president Mohamed Morsi said that he's overriding a

military edict that dissolved the country's elected parliament and calling on lawma$ers bac$ into

session.

n 17 Duly ,71,- the #upreme onstitutional ourt of Egypt negated the decision by ?resident

Mohamed Morsi to call the nation's parliament bac$ into session. ,1! n , August ,71,- Egypt(s

?rime Minister 8isham Oandil announced his <% member cabinet comprising ,0 newcomers

including four from the influential Muslim 2rotherhood- si5 others and the former military ruler

"antawi as the efence Minister from the previous 3overnment. ,,!

2*12+2*1 Egyptian protestsedit!

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Main article: 2012 Egyptian protests

n ,, ovember ,71,- Egyptian Mohamed Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees

from challenge and see$ing to protect the wor$ of the onstituent Assemblydrafting the new

constitution.,<! "he declaration also reCuires a retrial of those accused in the Mubara$@era $illings

of protesters- who had been acCuitted- and e5tends the mandate of the constituent assembly by

two months. Additionally- the declaration authorizes Morsi to ta$e any measures necessary to

protect the revolution. iberal and secular groups previously wal$ed out of the constitutional

constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict /slamic practices- while

Muslim 2rotherhood bac$ers threw their support behind Morsi. ,6!

"he move has been criticized by Mohamed El2aradei who stated JMorsi today usurped all state

powers P appointed himself Egypt's new pharaohJ on his "witter feed. ,%!,&! "he move has led

to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.,+!

After &orsiedit!

Main article: ostcoup unrest in Egypt (201.14

"his section reCuires e5pansion.

(March 2014

uring the months after the coup d'Qtat- a new constitution was prepared- which too$ effect on 10

Danuary ,716. After that- presidential and parliamentary elections have to be held within &

months.

n ,6 March ,716- %,9 Morsi's supporters were sentenced to death- while the trial of

Morsi himself was still ongoing.,0!