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2/14/2015
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Using Metalinguistic Skills to
Enhance Reading, Writing, & Spelling
Julie Masterson, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Missouri State University
Phonological Awareness
Phonemic awareness: Segmenting/Blending Sounds
within Words and Syllables
◦ Critical early
◦ Important throughout
Stress awareness increasingly important
Difficulties marked by
◦ Failure to represent every sound (and later affix) by at least
one letter
◦ Failure to differentiate between sounds that are
acoustically similar (e.g. “short i” vs “short e”)
◦ Using letters that could represent added sounds or sounds
out of sequence may indicate lack of phonemic
“appreciation”
Orthographic Pattern Knowledge:
Base Words Important early and throughout as we encounter new
words
Sound-symbol correspondencesDifficulties marked by letter-sound confusions & illegal substitution:
“cas” for “catch”
Spelling requires knowledge of the patterns that govern spelling within root/base words
Difficulties marked by phonetically possible spellings that violate patterns: “ran” for rain; “lader” for ladder
Spelling requires knowledge of positional constraints (orthotactics) on spelling patterns.
Difficulties marked violation of orthotactic constraints: “tchop” for chop; “cacke” for cake
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Semantic KnowledgeSpelling requires knowledge of the effect of
spelling on word meanings (or vice
versa).
Difficulties in this ability are marked by:
Homophone confusions
“bear” vs. “bare”
“won” vs. “one”
“which” vs. “witch”
Morphological Awareness
Appears in earliest stages of spelling development; however, critical from middle elementary and on
The ability to be conscious of and manipulate the morphological units of a language.
Involves the ability to identify base words and their inflected or derived forms.
Inflections: Typically involve changes in number, tense, etc.
Derivations: Typically involve a change in part of speech
Morphological Complexity Transparent Derivations: the link between the base word
and the derived word is clear, or transparent.
Derivational forms do not affect spelling of the base word “friend, friendly”
Derivational forms alter the base word orthographically OR phonologically
“silly, silliness” (phonologically transparent)
“magic, magician” (orthographically transparent)
Opaque Derivations: The connection between the base and derived form is less clear because BOTH phonological and orthographic properties of the base word change
“admit, admission”
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MK Difficulties
• Misspelling of base word component (yet correct when alone)
• “magic” yet “majician”
• Misspelling of base modification• “hoped” for “hopped”
• Omission of morphemes• “walk” for “walked”
• Phonetic spelling of morphemes• walkt” for “walked”, “musishun” for “musician”
Mental Graphemic Representations
The representation of images or templates for words, morphemes, and syllables in memory
Also called Mental Orthographic Images Important early for frequently occurring and
words that violate patterns Developed through adequate exposure to
print and phonetic decoding. Inadequate MGRs may result from the use of
a partial-cues reading strategy Problems indicated by
• Legal misspellings
• Poor proofreading
Attributes of the Individual
Proficient spelling requires flexible,
simultaneous use of all these skills.
However, the importance of each varies at
different points of spelling mastery.
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Instructional Strategies
Memorized word lists
◦ Organized orthographically
◦ Organized thematically
Word study
◦ Attention drawn to ortho pattern, morph
characteristics
◦ Not usually “revisited”
Other Issues
◦ Reaction to misspellings
◦ Cursive Writing
Spelling & Reading
Children read spellings, spell spellings, and read the spellings of words they have spelled
Highly correlated (.68-.86), although less for non-typically developing students
Both are language skills
Both tap into similar knowledge sources (PA, MA, MOI, etc.)
Both follow similar developmental patterns
Spelling and Reading
Both require some direct instruction for most children
Teaching spelling improves reading skills (more in a minute) (Ellis & Cataldo, 1988; Ehri & Wilce, 1987)
Spelling is the more “stringent” measure of the literacy-related skills. It requires attention to conventional form, not just a plausible spelling.
Phoneme-Grapheme rules more ambiguous than Grapheme-Phoneme rules (Bain et al., 2001)◦ /f/ -> “f” “ff” “gh” “ph”
◦ “f” -> /f/
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Principles of Assessment
Baseline/Eligibility
Treatment Planning
Monitoring Progress (RtI)
Baseline/Eligibility Testing
Decoding
◦ Nonsense word (Word Attack-Woodcock)
◦ Read word (Word Identification-Woodcock)
◦ Test of Word Reading Efficiency (also
addresses fluency)
Spelling
◦ Test of Written Spelling-4
◦ Kaufman Brief and Comprehensive
◦ Woodcock-Johnson
◦ Wide Range Achievement Test
Contribution is Derived Score
Spelling Performance Evaluation for
Language and Literacy (SPELL)-2Masterson, Apel & Wasowicz 2006
Selecting Appropriate Instructional Ta
Disclosure: The presenter is a co-author of SPELL-2
and consequently has a financial interest in the product.
The analyses described in this presentation can be done
by hand or with the computer-based tool.
Prescriptive Assessment
Uses error analysis to determine why a
student misspells words and what type of
word study instruction is needed
Provides a clear roadmap for tailored
word study
SAF: Monomorphemic Words
SAF: Multimorphemic Words
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SPELL 2: Overview
SPELL 2: Testing Schedule
SPELL 2: Testing Schedule
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Orthographic Structure Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Consonants b,d,p,t,v,z r,l,
g, h, w, y, qu
Hard c and k
Soft c
Soft g
Flapped tt, dd, t, d
/ sh, ch, zh / spelled as
c(i), t(i), s(i)
Consonant diagraphs ng
wh, sh, th
Short vowel All short vowels
Long vowels Long vowels
spelled as vCe, and
digraphs
Long vowels in
multisyllabic words
Within word doubling All in Level 2
Nasal Clusters All in Level 2
Liquid Clusters All in Level 2
S – clusters and abutting
consonants
All in Level 2
Vocalic r, l All in Level 2
Silent e and silent
consonants
All in Level 2
Unstressed vowels
(schwas)
Schwa in 2 & 3
syllable words
Schwa in 4 + syllable
words
Inflected words All in Level 3
Derived words All in Level 4
SPELL 2: PA Goals
SPELL 2: OK Goals
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SPELL 2: MK Goals
SPELL 2: MOI/MGR Goals
SPELL-2G (Grouping tool)
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Word Study
• Word study is the specific and focused
attention to the encoding (spelling) and
decoding (word-level reading) of words
using one’s knowledge of the linguistic
properties of words (meta skills)
• With increased knowledge of language
through word study, reading (decoding
and comprehension) and writing
(spelling and composition) improve
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Word Study/Meta Skill Instruction
• Children develop their meta skills as a repertoire of strategies
• Meta skills begin emerging concurrently as early as kindergarten
• Developmental data suggest instruction should focus on improving meta skills for reading and writing across all five areas in tandem vs. sequentially
• Teachers can use the crop-duster approach
Word Study/Meta Skill Intervention
• Children struggling with word-level literacy often struggle with one or more of the meta skills needed to be successful with word-level literacy
• Specific, prescriptive assessments enable SLPs to identify needs in each of the five meta skill areas (PA, OPA, MA, SA, and MGR)– Spelling analysis
– Miscue analysis
• SLPs can use the prescriptive approach to remediate deficits
Basic Points re: Word Study
Instruction/Intervention
All activities are introduced by instructor models
before student attempts them (I do, we do, y’all do,
you do)
Focus is on the five meta skills
Educator provides
◦ explicit, focused attention to the five metal skills
via naturalistic and “contrived” experiences
◦ plenty of opportunities for text-level reading and
writing
Word study does not need to be solely a “subject:”
word study can occur across the curriculum
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Sample Activities for Meta SkillsPhonemic Awareness
Orthographic Pattern Awareness
Morphological Awareness
MGRs
Phonemic Awareness for Spelling
Use “Sound Strings”* to link PA to spelling
◦ Adult and student(s) each have a sound string
◦ After considerable modeling first (and possible “priming”), adult presents word
◦ Student moves beads
◦ Student places beads on top of paper
◦ Student writes at least one letter per bead
◦ Specialist discusses outcome, including “other knowledge” demonstrated by student (e.g., digraph awareness)
Keep in mind to:
Target specific segmentation errors
Control and gradually increase size of word or syllable
Consider word position
Consider phoneme properties
*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™
Orthographic Pattern Awareness for
Word-Level Reading and Spelling
Use Word Sorts
◦ Target contrasting rules
◦ Adult provides index cards with contrasting spelling patterns
◦ Student sorts into piles, with scaffolding as needed
◦ Student is encouraged to verbalize the pattern
◦ Key word is established if appropriate
◦ New pattern is practiced in controlled writing tasks
◦ Word searches occur in written text
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Morphological Awareness for Word-
Level Reading and Spelling
Use “Relatives and Friends”* to improve MA
◦ Adult discusses with student that family members can:
Look and sound alike
Look alike but not sound alike
Sound alike but not look alike
Not sound or look alike but still be related
◦ Adult explains that for many “word relatives” the same situations occur
◦ Adult and student brainstorm the relatives of a specific word and discuss how the “main relative” helps spell the others.
◦ Adult can include foils and have student discuss why this strategy should not be apply
*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™
Morphological Awareness for Word-Level
Reading and Spelling
Other tasks may include :
◦ Word building: given cards with prefixes, suffixes, or base words (roots), student and adult combine to make or recognize words (un+clear, salt+y)
◦ Word generating: given affix, student and adult generate words
◦ Morpheme finding: given a root or affix, student and adult search text for more or related examples
◦ Word sorts
Morphological Awareness for Word-
Level Reading and Spelling
Common prefixes:◦ re-, in-, dis-, im-
Common suffixes:◦ -tion, -y, -ly, -ant, -less, -er, -ment, -ful, -ness, -
able, -ous, -ish, -ist,
◦ -ive, -ic, -ary, -ern, -ship, -ent, -ing, -or, -al, -en, -ity, -ward
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MGRs for Word-Level Reading and
Spelling
Conducted when other meta skill strategies do not result in correct spelling
• “Picture This”* strategy◦ Adult models strategy of visualizing an entity first using a
picture and then an unseen image familiar to student (e.g., T.V. room)
◦ Using a target written word, student and adult look at the word and talk about its characteristics◦ Color code consonants and vowels
◦ Raise/lower voice for letter that go above midline or below base line
◦ Student spells word forward and backward
◦ Student takes “picture” of word
◦ Student visualizes word, spells it forward, then backward.
*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™
SPELL-Links
Three-volume spiral-bound curriculum
◦ Program overview and teacher's guide
◦ Systematically targets more than 70 spelling patterns
◦ 275 step-by-step activities for one-on-one, small group and whole classroom instruction
◦ Teaching plans and checklists, scope and sequence and student progress charts, starter word lists and
annotated student journal pages
SPELL-Links to Reaing & Writing
Disclosure: The presenter is a co-author of SPELL-Links and
consequently has a financial interest in the product.
Volume 1
◦ Consonants
◦ Consonant Digraphs
& Trigraphs
◦ Short Vowels
Volume 2
◦ Long Vowels
◦ Other Vowels & Diphthongs
◦ Within-Word Consonant
Doubling
's' Clusters
◦ 'l, r' Clusters
◦ 'm, n, ng' Clusters
Volume 3
◦ Silent Consonants
◦ Syllabic-r, Syllabic-I Vowel Sounds
◦ Unstressed Vowels
◦ Inflected Words
◦ Derived Words
◦ Homophones, Contractions, Possessive Nouns, Irregular Plural Nouns & Irregular Past-Tense Verbs
◦ Connected Writing Activities
◦ Timed Reading Activities
◦ Review & Practice
◦ Resource Materials
SPELL-Links to Reading
and Writing SPELL-Links to Reading & Writing
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SPELL-Links
Companion CD-ROM
◦ Student Word Study Journal pages
◦ Activity worksheets
◦ Lesson-planning worksheets
◦ Word cards
◦ Home-Link activities
SPELL-Links to Reading & Writing
Authentic Reading-Writing
Must be part of every word study lesson
Multilinguistic model must “permeate” the
entire day
How Do We Bring Word Study/Meta
Skills into the Classroom/Curriculum?
• Most aspects are already there
– Phonemic awareness
– Orthographic pattern awareness (aka phonics)
– Morphological awareness (aka vocabulary!)
– MGRs
• The trick is to:
– Ensure that all team members understand the on meanings (phoneme, morpheme, pattern)
– Help them see benefits
– Help them believe they are not violating “the way it should be done”
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Speaking the same “language”
• Some educators are:
– Unaware of terms/concepts associated with meta
skills
– Have false understanding of those terms/concepts
– Unclear on the benefits of those terms/concepts
• How can we all use these terms?
– In-service
– Through literature and creative means
– By example
Help Administrators See the
Benefits of Meta Skills
• Documentation:
– Case studies: Kelman & Apel (2004)
• 9.6 hours of direct intervention across 8 weeks led to
increase in reading and spelling (d=.5)
– Class studies: Apel, Masterson, & Hart (2004)
• Instruction over 9 week period resulted in substantial
improvement for experimental (3rd grade) class (d = .65)
but not for control class (d = -.07)
– Systematic review: Wolter, 2009
• Your own work with children who struggle
A Meta Skill Approach Does Not
Violate Common Practices• Using current curriculum
– Most curricula provide little guidance on word-level reading• A continuous voicing approach fits well with more
curricula but provides additional models/practice
– Many districts require educators use certain spelling lists; however, there typically is leeway in how those words are taught
– Most districts encourage vocabulary development• A morphological awareness approach to vocabulary
development has a greater impact than teaching isolated words– Helping student to fish vs. giving them a fish
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A Meta Skill Approach Does Not
Violate Common Practices
Using other curricula
◦ Many districts allow additional/supplemental
methods/lessons to improve literacy skills.
Possible resources include:
Chapters (e.g., Masterson & Apel, 2007)
Research articles (e.g., Apel & Masterson, 2001; Kelman
& Apel, 2004)
Curricula (e.g., SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing*)
PROGRESS MONITORING
RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION
Spelling Sensitivity System Sample can be curriculum based- specified list,
paragraph, narrative, etc.
Word is parsed into base word, juncture, and
affix elements
Each element is categorized and scored:
◦ Omitted: 0 points
◦ Illegal Spelling: 1 point
◦ Legal Spelling: 2 points
◦ Correct Spelling: 3 points
Overall Metric (SSScore-E; SSScore-W)
Percent categories for each target type
◦ Base word, juncture, affix
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• Network with colleagues and share your knowledge
• Keep up with current spelling and word study research
• Participate in Ask the Expert exchanges with leading
researchers and educators
• Become familiar with research-based products for spelling
assessment and instruction
SpellTalk
www.learningbydesign.com
http://mailman.listserve.com/listmanager/listinfo/spelltalk
An on-line discussion group for educators dedicated to improving their students' spelling and word study skills
Determining Treatment Goals and Strategies
TARGET SPELLING
jet jet
juice gus
jump gup
jog jog
jeep gep
zoo zu
joke jok
bake bak run run
seat set
bend bed
five fiv
beet bet
jive giv
lint lit
ESTABLISHING BASELINES AND MONITORING PROGRESS
Target Month 0 Month 3 Month 6 Month 9
gum gum gum gum gum
jog gag jog jog jog
shy si sy shy shy
bowl bo bol bole bowl coal co col cole coal
cure qr kur cuer cure
cute qt cut cute cute
hang hag haig haing hang
head hed head head head
leaf lef leef leaf leaf
pool pu pul pule pool
ship sip ship ship ship
chain can chan chane chain
cries kz cry crys cries
joked jok jokt joked joked
knife nif nife knife knife
pause poz pouz pauz pause
unite yount uny unite unite
usual uzl uzul uzule usule
argued rgu argyu argud argued
buckle bukl bukal buckel buckle
center sitr sinter senter center
choice chos choys chois choice enable nbl inabol inable enable
halves haf havs halfs halvs
ancient ast ashut ashunt anciunt
citizen situn sitasn sitasuzun citisun
giraffe grf guraf guraf giraff
stopped stap stopt stoped stopped
continue kntu kutyu cuntinu cuntinue
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