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Using Metalinguistic Skills to

Enhance Reading, Writing, & Spelling

Julie Masterson, Ph.D., CCC-SLP

Missouri State University

Phonological Awareness

Phonemic awareness: Segmenting/Blending Sounds

within Words and Syllables

◦ Critical early

◦ Important throughout

Stress awareness increasingly important

Difficulties marked by

◦ Failure to represent every sound (and later affix) by at least

one letter

◦ Failure to differentiate between sounds that are

acoustically similar (e.g. “short i” vs “short e”)

◦ Using letters that could represent added sounds or sounds

out of sequence may indicate lack of phonemic

“appreciation”

Orthographic Pattern Knowledge:

Base Words Important early and throughout as we encounter new

words

Sound-symbol correspondencesDifficulties marked by letter-sound confusions & illegal substitution:

“cas” for “catch”

Spelling requires knowledge of the patterns that govern spelling within root/base words

Difficulties marked by phonetically possible spellings that violate patterns: “ran” for rain; “lader” for ladder

Spelling requires knowledge of positional constraints (orthotactics) on spelling patterns.

Difficulties marked violation of orthotactic constraints: “tchop” for chop; “cacke” for cake

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Semantic KnowledgeSpelling requires knowledge of the effect of

spelling on word meanings (or vice

versa).

Difficulties in this ability are marked by:

Homophone confusions

“bear” vs. “bare”

“won” vs. “one”

“which” vs. “witch”

Morphological Awareness

Appears in earliest stages of spelling development; however, critical from middle elementary and on

The ability to be conscious of and manipulate the morphological units of a language.

Involves the ability to identify base words and their inflected or derived forms.

Inflections: Typically involve changes in number, tense, etc.

Derivations: Typically involve a change in part of speech

Morphological Complexity Transparent Derivations: the link between the base word

and the derived word is clear, or transparent.

Derivational forms do not affect spelling of the base word “friend, friendly”

Derivational forms alter the base word orthographically OR phonologically

“silly, silliness” (phonologically transparent)

“magic, magician” (orthographically transparent)

Opaque Derivations: The connection between the base and derived form is less clear because BOTH phonological and orthographic properties of the base word change

“admit, admission”

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MK Difficulties

• Misspelling of base word component (yet correct when alone)

• “magic” yet “majician”

• Misspelling of base modification• “hoped” for “hopped”

• Omission of morphemes• “walk” for “walked”

• Phonetic spelling of morphemes• walkt” for “walked”, “musishun” for “musician”

Mental Graphemic Representations

The representation of images or templates for words, morphemes, and syllables in memory

Also called Mental Orthographic Images Important early for frequently occurring and

words that violate patterns Developed through adequate exposure to

print and phonetic decoding. Inadequate MGRs may result from the use of

a partial-cues reading strategy Problems indicated by

• Legal misspellings

• Poor proofreading

Attributes of the Individual

Proficient spelling requires flexible,

simultaneous use of all these skills.

However, the importance of each varies at

different points of spelling mastery.

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Instructional Strategies

Memorized word lists

◦ Organized orthographically

◦ Organized thematically

Word study

◦ Attention drawn to ortho pattern, morph

characteristics

◦ Not usually “revisited”

Other Issues

◦ Reaction to misspellings

◦ Cursive Writing

Spelling & Reading

Children read spellings, spell spellings, and read the spellings of words they have spelled

Highly correlated (.68-.86), although less for non-typically developing students

Both are language skills

Both tap into similar knowledge sources (PA, MA, MOI, etc.)

Both follow similar developmental patterns

Spelling and Reading

Both require some direct instruction for most children

Teaching spelling improves reading skills (more in a minute) (Ellis & Cataldo, 1988; Ehri & Wilce, 1987)

Spelling is the more “stringent” measure of the literacy-related skills. It requires attention to conventional form, not just a plausible spelling.

Phoneme-Grapheme rules more ambiguous than Grapheme-Phoneme rules (Bain et al., 2001)◦ /f/ -> “f” “ff” “gh” “ph”

◦ “f” -> /f/

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Principles of Assessment

Baseline/Eligibility

Treatment Planning

Monitoring Progress (RtI)

Baseline/Eligibility Testing

Decoding

◦ Nonsense word (Word Attack-Woodcock)

◦ Read word (Word Identification-Woodcock)

◦ Test of Word Reading Efficiency (also

addresses fluency)

Spelling

◦ Test of Written Spelling-4

◦ Kaufman Brief and Comprehensive

◦ Woodcock-Johnson

◦ Wide Range Achievement Test

Contribution is Derived Score

Spelling Performance Evaluation for

Language and Literacy (SPELL)-2Masterson, Apel & Wasowicz 2006

Selecting Appropriate Instructional Ta

Disclosure: The presenter is a co-author of SPELL-2

and consequently has a financial interest in the product.

The analyses described in this presentation can be done

by hand or with the computer-based tool.

Prescriptive Assessment

Uses error analysis to determine why a

student misspells words and what type of

word study instruction is needed

Provides a clear roadmap for tailored

word study

SAF: Monomorphemic Words

SAF: Multimorphemic Words

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SPELL 2: Overview

SPELL 2: Testing Schedule

SPELL 2: Testing Schedule

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Orthographic Structure Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

Consonants b,d,p,t,v,z r,l,

g, h, w, y, qu

Hard c and k

Soft c

Soft g

Flapped tt, dd, t, d

/ sh, ch, zh / spelled as

c(i), t(i), s(i)

Consonant diagraphs ng

wh, sh, th

Short vowel All short vowels

Long vowels Long vowels

spelled as vCe, and

digraphs

Long vowels in

multisyllabic words

Within word doubling All in Level 2

Nasal Clusters All in Level 2

Liquid Clusters All in Level 2

S – clusters and abutting

consonants

All in Level 2

Vocalic r, l All in Level 2

Silent e and silent

consonants

All in Level 2

Unstressed vowels

(schwas)

Schwa in 2 & 3

syllable words

Schwa in 4 + syllable

words

Inflected words All in Level 3

Derived words All in Level 4

SPELL 2: PA Goals

SPELL 2: OK Goals

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SPELL 2: MK Goals

SPELL 2: MOI/MGR Goals

SPELL-2G (Grouping tool)

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Word Study

• Word study is the specific and focused

attention to the encoding (spelling) and

decoding (word-level reading) of words

using one’s knowledge of the linguistic

properties of words (meta skills)

• With increased knowledge of language

through word study, reading (decoding

and comprehension) and writing

(spelling and composition) improve

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Word Study/Meta Skill Instruction

• Children develop their meta skills as a repertoire of strategies

• Meta skills begin emerging concurrently as early as kindergarten

• Developmental data suggest instruction should focus on improving meta skills for reading and writing across all five areas in tandem vs. sequentially

• Teachers can use the crop-duster approach

Word Study/Meta Skill Intervention

• Children struggling with word-level literacy often struggle with one or more of the meta skills needed to be successful with word-level literacy

• Specific, prescriptive assessments enable SLPs to identify needs in each of the five meta skill areas (PA, OPA, MA, SA, and MGR)– Spelling analysis

– Miscue analysis

• SLPs can use the prescriptive approach to remediate deficits

Basic Points re: Word Study

Instruction/Intervention

All activities are introduced by instructor models

before student attempts them (I do, we do, y’all do,

you do)

Focus is on the five meta skills

Educator provides

◦ explicit, focused attention to the five metal skills

via naturalistic and “contrived” experiences

◦ plenty of opportunities for text-level reading and

writing

Word study does not need to be solely a “subject:”

word study can occur across the curriculum

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Sample Activities for Meta SkillsPhonemic Awareness

Orthographic Pattern Awareness

Morphological Awareness

MGRs

Phonemic Awareness for Spelling

Use “Sound Strings”* to link PA to spelling

◦ Adult and student(s) each have a sound string

◦ After considerable modeling first (and possible “priming”), adult presents word

◦ Student moves beads

◦ Student places beads on top of paper

◦ Student writes at least one letter per bead

◦ Specialist discusses outcome, including “other knowledge” demonstrated by student (e.g., digraph awareness)

Keep in mind to:

Target specific segmentation errors

Control and gradually increase size of word or syllable

Consider word position

Consider phoneme properties

*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™

Orthographic Pattern Awareness for

Word-Level Reading and Spelling

Use Word Sorts

◦ Target contrasting rules

◦ Adult provides index cards with contrasting spelling patterns

◦ Student sorts into piles, with scaffolding as needed

◦ Student is encouraged to verbalize the pattern

◦ Key word is established if appropriate

◦ New pattern is practiced in controlled writing tasks

◦ Word searches occur in written text

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Morphological Awareness for Word-

Level Reading and Spelling

Use “Relatives and Friends”* to improve MA

◦ Adult discusses with student that family members can:

Look and sound alike

Look alike but not sound alike

Sound alike but not look alike

Not sound or look alike but still be related

◦ Adult explains that for many “word relatives” the same situations occur

◦ Adult and student brainstorm the relatives of a specific word and discuss how the “main relative” helps spell the others.

◦ Adult can include foils and have student discuss why this strategy should not be apply

*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™

Morphological Awareness for Word-Level

Reading and Spelling

Other tasks may include :

◦ Word building: given cards with prefixes, suffixes, or base words (roots), student and adult combine to make or recognize words (un+clear, salt+y)

◦ Word generating: given affix, student and adult generate words

◦ Morpheme finding: given a root or affix, student and adult search text for more or related examples

◦ Word sorts

Morphological Awareness for Word-

Level Reading and Spelling

Common prefixes:◦ re-, in-, dis-, im-

Common suffixes:◦ -tion, -y, -ly, -ant, -less, -er, -ment, -ful, -ness, -

able, -ous, -ish, -ist,

◦ -ive, -ic, -ary, -ern, -ship, -ent, -ing, -or, -al, -en, -ity, -ward

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MGRs for Word-Level Reading and

Spelling

Conducted when other meta skill strategies do not result in correct spelling

• “Picture This”* strategy◦ Adult models strategy of visualizing an entity first using a

picture and then an unseen image familiar to student (e.g., T.V. room)

◦ Using a target written word, student and adult look at the word and talk about its characteristics◦ Color code consonants and vowels

◦ Raise/lower voice for letter that go above midline or below base line

◦ Student spells word forward and backward

◦ Student takes “picture” of word

◦ Student visualizes word, spells it forward, then backward.

*SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing™

SPELL-Links

Three-volume spiral-bound curriculum

◦ Program overview and teacher's guide

◦ Systematically targets more than 70 spelling patterns

◦ 275 step-by-step activities for one-on-one, small group and whole classroom instruction

◦ Teaching plans and checklists, scope and sequence and student progress charts, starter word lists and

annotated student journal pages

SPELL-Links to Reaing & Writing

Disclosure: The presenter is a co-author of SPELL-Links and

consequently has a financial interest in the product.

Volume 1

◦ Consonants

◦ Consonant Digraphs

& Trigraphs

◦ Short Vowels

Volume 2

◦ Long Vowels

◦ Other Vowels & Diphthongs

◦ Within-Word Consonant

Doubling

's' Clusters

◦ 'l, r' Clusters

◦ 'm, n, ng' Clusters

Volume 3

◦ Silent Consonants

◦ Syllabic-r, Syllabic-I Vowel Sounds

◦ Unstressed Vowels

◦ Inflected Words

◦ Derived Words

◦ Homophones, Contractions, Possessive Nouns, Irregular Plural Nouns & Irregular Past-Tense Verbs

◦ Connected Writing Activities

◦ Timed Reading Activities

◦ Review & Practice

◦ Resource Materials

SPELL-Links to Reading

and Writing SPELL-Links to Reading & Writing

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SPELL-Links

Companion CD-ROM

◦ Student Word Study Journal pages

◦ Activity worksheets

◦ Lesson-planning worksheets

◦ Word cards

◦ Home-Link activities

SPELL-Links to Reading & Writing

Authentic Reading-Writing

Must be part of every word study lesson

Multilinguistic model must “permeate” the

entire day

How Do We Bring Word Study/Meta

Skills into the Classroom/Curriculum?

• Most aspects are already there

– Phonemic awareness

– Orthographic pattern awareness (aka phonics)

– Morphological awareness (aka vocabulary!)

– MGRs

• The trick is to:

– Ensure that all team members understand the on meanings (phoneme, morpheme, pattern)

– Help them see benefits

– Help them believe they are not violating “the way it should be done”

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Speaking the same “language”

• Some educators are:

– Unaware of terms/concepts associated with meta

skills

– Have false understanding of those terms/concepts

– Unclear on the benefits of those terms/concepts

• How can we all use these terms?

– In-service

– Through literature and creative means

– By example

Help Administrators See the

Benefits of Meta Skills

• Documentation:

– Case studies: Kelman & Apel (2004)

• 9.6 hours of direct intervention across 8 weeks led to

increase in reading and spelling (d=.5)

– Class studies: Apel, Masterson, & Hart (2004)

• Instruction over 9 week period resulted in substantial

improvement for experimental (3rd grade) class (d = .65)

but not for control class (d = -.07)

– Systematic review: Wolter, 2009

• Your own work with children who struggle

A Meta Skill Approach Does Not

Violate Common Practices• Using current curriculum

– Most curricula provide little guidance on word-level reading• A continuous voicing approach fits well with more

curricula but provides additional models/practice

– Many districts require educators use certain spelling lists; however, there typically is leeway in how those words are taught

– Most districts encourage vocabulary development• A morphological awareness approach to vocabulary

development has a greater impact than teaching isolated words– Helping student to fish vs. giving them a fish

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A Meta Skill Approach Does Not

Violate Common Practices

Using other curricula

◦ Many districts allow additional/supplemental

methods/lessons to improve literacy skills.

Possible resources include:

Chapters (e.g., Masterson & Apel, 2007)

Research articles (e.g., Apel & Masterson, 2001; Kelman

& Apel, 2004)

Curricula (e.g., SPELL-Links to Reading and Writing*)

PROGRESS MONITORING

RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION

Spelling Sensitivity System Sample can be curriculum based- specified list,

paragraph, narrative, etc.

Word is parsed into base word, juncture, and

affix elements

Each element is categorized and scored:

◦ Omitted: 0 points

◦ Illegal Spelling: 1 point

◦ Legal Spelling: 2 points

◦ Correct Spelling: 3 points

Overall Metric (SSScore-E; SSScore-W)

Percent categories for each target type

◦ Base word, juncture, affix

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• Network with colleagues and share your knowledge

• Keep up with current spelling and word study research

• Participate in Ask the Expert exchanges with leading

researchers and educators

• Become familiar with research-based products for spelling

assessment and instruction

SpellTalk

www.learningbydesign.com

http://mailman.listserve.com/listmanager/listinfo/spelltalk

An on-line discussion group for educators dedicated to improving their students' spelling and word study skills

Determining Treatment Goals and Strategies

TARGET SPELLING

jet jet

juice gus

jump gup

jog jog

jeep gep

zoo zu

joke jok

bake bak run run

seat set

bend bed

five fiv

beet bet

jive giv

lint lit

ESTABLISHING BASELINES AND MONITORING PROGRESS

Target Month 0 Month 3 Month 6 Month 9

gum gum gum gum gum

jog gag jog jog jog

shy si sy shy shy

bowl bo bol bole bowl coal co col cole coal

cure qr kur cuer cure

cute qt cut cute cute

hang hag haig haing hang

head hed head head head

leaf lef leef leaf leaf

pool pu pul pule pool

ship sip ship ship ship

chain can chan chane chain

cries kz cry crys cries

joked jok jokt joked joked

knife nif nife knife knife

pause poz pouz pauz pause

unite yount uny unite unite

usual uzl uzul uzule usule

argued rgu argyu argud argued

buckle bukl bukal buckel buckle

center sitr sinter senter center

choice chos choys chois choice enable nbl inabol inable enable

halves haf havs halfs halvs

ancient ast ashut ashunt anciunt

citizen situn sitasn sitasuzun citisun

giraffe grf guraf guraf giraff

stopped stap stopt stoped stopped

continue kntu kutyu cuntinu cuntinue

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