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Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics
Towards a Theory of Space in NarrativeAuthor(s): Gabriel
ZoranReviewed work(s):Source: Poetics Today, Vol. 5, No. 2, The
Construction of Reality in Fiction (1984), pp. 309-335Published by:
Duke University PressStable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1771935.
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TOWARDS A THEORYOF SPACE IN NARRATIVE*GABRIEL ZORANHebrew and
Comparative Literature, Haifa
The purpose of this study is to present a general model of
thestructuring f space within thenarrative ext. The term pace is
usedhere to mean specifically the spatial aspects of the
reconstructedworld. This seems natural and ratherobvious, but the
term can beapplied to the literarytext in various ways and is,
itself,farfromunambiguous. It is.necessary, then, to examine the
whole range ofproblems arisingfromthe use of the termwithregardto
the literarytext. If this task as a whole lies outside the scope of
the presentstudy,we can at least clarifyone essential aspect of it:
therelation-shipbetween space and timein thenarrative ext.1. THE
ASYMMETRY OF TIME AND SPACE IN THE NARRATIVEIn the extra-literary
ield, there are good reasons to combine spaceand time: they are the
two complementaryaspects that togethercover all the dimensions of
empirical existence. Accordingly, itmakes no differencewhetherone
holds to a separativetheorywhichconsiders the aspects of space and
time to be parallel yet indepen-dent - e.g., the theories of
Euclid, Newton, Kant, and Leibnitz -or whether one supports a
theory which regardsthese aspects asinterdependent, composing
together a single, four-dimensionalcomplex (chronotopos, spacetime)
- as does Einstein. Independentor interdependent,space and time are
perceived as complementaryaspects of equal status,belongingto a
common fieldof debate.* This s a somewhat evised ersion f a
paperpresentedt Synopsis I, Narrative heoryand Poeticsof Fiction,
an internationalymposium eldat thePorternstitute orPoeticsand
Semiotics,Tel AvivUniversity,nd theVan LeerJerusalem
oundation,June16-22,1979.It is based on partsof a thesisfor
hedoctoraldegreeprepared nderthesupervisionfProfessor
enjaminHrushovski.
Poetics Today,Vol. 5:2 (1984) 309-335
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310 GABRIEL ZORANThis conception of the relations between space
and time isoccasionally applied to the narrativetext, and is
acceptable from
several viewpoints. From others, however, it is problematic.
Therelationshipbetween space and time in the narrativetext lacks
boththe clarity and the symmetry t possesses when applied to the
fieldof reality. Literature is basically an art of time. Although
no onetoday would state this as baldly as Lessing (1974:102-115)
did, thedominance of the time factor in the structuringf
thenarrative extremains an indisputablefact.The existence of space
is pushed into a corner,so to speak. It isnot altogether discarded,
but neither does it have a recognized andclear-cutstatuswithinthe
text. It can be understood in variousways,but none is as clear and
unambiguous as the termtime.This lack ofsymmetry n the
relationshipbetween space and time is evident notonly in
theirstatus in the text,but also in the extentof theprogressof
research on these concepts. Although the subject of space hasbeen
dealt with more than once, research in general on the subjectis
quite diffuse, and there are few assumptions that have
becomegenerally ccepted.The difficultyapparently lies in one basic
differencebetweenspace and time in narrative.One may speak of time
in termsof thecorrelationbetween the structuringf the text and
thatof theworld,whereas it is impossible to speak about space in
such terms.What-ever specific terms are used in discussingtime,
theywill always bedominated by the basic opposition between the
time of the textand that of the world (narratedtime and time of
narration,erzdhl-zeit-erza'hlte Zeit, time of presentationand
presented time, and toa large extent also fabula and sujet [see
especially Mtiller 1950;Liment 1955; Tomashevsky 1965; Even-Zohar
1968]). The variouspossible relationshipswithin these pairs of
components can createa wide range of categories, based on the modes
of correlation(whether it is a negative or a positive correlation
[see Even-Zohar19611), and on specific types of deviation fromthe
natural struc-turingof time (such as contraction,reversalof
temporalorder,etc.).In principle,one may also distinguishbetween
the application ofthe termspace to the reconstructedworld and its
application as adimension of the verbal text itself. The conception
of the verbaltext as an exclusively temporal structure as,
forexample, Lessing'sconception), is not acceptable today, and one
may mention in thisconnection Frank (1963) and Segre (1975).
Nevertheless,despitethe possibility of distinguishing etween the
space of the text andthat of the world, one cannot point to any
constant correlationbetween them.1.1. The spatial dimension of the
text may be conceived of as itsgraphic existence. There are texts,
particularly those of concrete
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 311poetry, in which
graphic space is exploited and activated as aninseparable part of
the generalstructuring f the text. Still,thisdoesnot alter the
factthat anguage is a systemof arbitrary igns; n otherwords, the
connection between the signifier nd the signified s notbased on any
real structural imilaritybetween them,but simplyonconvention. The
fact that a certain poem may attempt to createstructural
similaritybetween the described object and its graphicorganization
(for example, Lewis Carroll's poem arranged in theshape of a
mouse's tail) does not signify ny fundamentalconnectionor constant
correlationbetween the verbal text and the world, butrather the
opposite - the correlation here is an unexpected thing,a curiosity.
It is completely differentfrom the correlationwhichexists between
the two ordersof time in the narrative.The latterisa permanent
phenomenon based on the temporal structure oflanguage, existingeven
when there is a contradiction between thetwo orders of time (a
negativecorrelation s not the same as a lack
ofcorrelationaltogether).1.2. It is a more complicated matterwhen
thedimensionof space isattributedto the structureof signifieds n a
text.Here thereferenceis to the structuring f meaningsinto a
patternnot identical to thetemporal order in which they appear in
the text. A spatial pattern sany pattern perceived solely on the
basis of theconnection betweendiscontinuous units in a text,
demandingtherefore perception ofthe whole text or part of it as
givensimultaneously n space (whichis, forexample, the case of
analogies).1Two problems arise when the termspace is used to
describesuchpatterns: (a) the problem of whether the termhas the
same meaninghere as it has had thus far,and (b) the problem of
whether we canfind a kind of correlation between spatial structure
n this senseand the space of the world.As far as the firstproblem
is concerned, I believe thatwe havehere a completely differentusage
of the concept of space. Thejustificationfor the use of the word
here is that we are speaking ofintemporalityand coexistence.2 These
may, of course, be regardedas importantaspects of space; however,
ifwe consider the termasit is generallyused, and as we have used it
thusfar, t becomes clear1. This common use of theadjective spatial
is inspiredmainlyby the theory f Frank(1963) about the spatial form
n modern literature.Frank, however,used the conceptmainlyto
describea property f an historicalcorpus of texts,while today it is
used todescribe generaltextual properties.See, for example,
Sternberg's 1973:228-230) dis-cussionofanalogy, s wellas some ater
rticles fFrankhimselfe.g., 1978:275-290).2. A definition ased on
such a conception is the classic Leibnitziandefinition f spaceas
the order of possible coexistences ( ordre des
coexistencespossibles ), but it is notmerechance
thatLeibnitzconceives of space as a subjectiverelative
ystem,whileNewtonconceivesofitas somethingbsolute and objective,
kind of reservoir freality.
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312 GABRIEL ZORANthat the above usage is not theusual one. For
one thing, pace is notnecessarilyan absence of time; the fact that
thingsare not arrangedin chronological order, but ratherin a
simultaneous pattern, doesnot make them necessarily spatial, except
in a purely metaphoricalsense. Again, our perceptionof space has to
do withconcepts such asvolume, extension, and three-dimensionality,
nd all these areunrelated to the concept of the spatial
pattern.This patternhas noparticular location, no contours,no
volume. It is a kind of abstractorganization,but it has nothingto
do with the real existence of thething t organizes.As to the second
problem - whether one may speak of theconnection between the
spatial patternand the space of theworld -here the situation is
more complex. It is impossible to reconstructthe space of the world
without structuring he information bout itinto some kind of a
spatial pattern, o there s a certainconnectionbetween the two. But
this characteristic s not necessarily imitedtoreconstructedspace
alone, since the reconstructionof everyaspectof the world
necessitates a spatial point of view - psychology,characters,norms,
and even, strangeas it may seem, plot and time.Still, there is no
doubt that the reconstructionof space is especiallydependent on a
spatial point of view.3 In any case, it is importantto
distinguishbetween the spatial point of view and the spatialobject
viewed. Moreover, although the connection between thecomponents is
a permanent one, this connection can certainlynotbe perceived as a
correlation. The spatial pattern of the text doesnot stand in any
kind of correlationwith the space of theworld.Finally,whateverthe
connection between the spatial patternandthe world may be, it
should be emphasized again that the spatialdimension of the text
has no autonomous existence. The text exists,and is
structuredfirstand foremost in time. The so-called spatialpattern
is actually nothing other than a superstructure f a sub-stance
whose basic structure is in time. It is thus impossible tobypass
the time factor in the narrative.The narrative,with allits
components, is arranged in time, so that in a certain sense onemay
speak of a temporal arrangement f space. We must thereforeidentify
the various principles of transformationfrom a worldexisting n
space to a mediumstructured n time.2. THE TRANSFORMATION FROM
SPATIAL OBJECTS TOTHE MEDIUM OF TIME2.1. The possibility of
describing the relation between the verbaltext and the world in
terms of transformation s not a peculiarity3. The importance f the
spatial point of viewforthereconstructionf fictional pacewillbe
discussed n more detail n the sectiondealingwiththefield ofvision.
See 4.1 andespecially .1.4.)
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 313of the poetics of
space. There are principles governingthe trans-formation of every
component of the world into the structuring finformation about this
component in the text. Characterization,forexample, can be
conceived of as transformation romthephysiol-ogical-psychological
existence of characters in the world to theirtextual existence,
i.e., dialogues, descriptions, actions, etc., allarranged in a
temporal verbal continuum. Needless to say, thetransformations a
two-wayrelationshipfromthe text to theworldand vice versa, and does
not necessarily reflect real processes ofreadingor of creating.The
peculiarity of the transformation f the time factor in thenarrative
is thus characterized by the fact of its being a transitionfrom one
type of temporal structure to another. For this reason,one can also
speak of a correlativerelationshipbetween them. Thistype of
relationship is also possible for the dialogic component ofthe
text, but for most aspects of the reconstructedworld it makesno
sense to speak of a correlation. The transformation akes
placebetween completely different evels of organization which have
nostructural imilaritybetween them. Space is unique in that here
thetransformationfroman object to a system of signsinvolvesalso
atransformationfrom a spatial arrangementto a temporal one.
Adiscussion of the problem of space in the narrativerequires, first
fall, a confrontationwiththeseprinciplesof transformation.2.2.
Space as it appears in the narrative s a verycomplex pattern,and
only a small part of its existence in the text is based on
directdescription. It is actually a combination of various kinds
and levelsof reconstruction.Before dealing with such a complex
problem, letus examine how, in general, language is activated to
describe anobject in space.A spatial object is characterized by its
being complete, full,andexisting simultaneously. In the attempt to
giveverbal expression tothe structure of such an object, the object
must first ose someof its completeness, since it is impossible to
give an identicalexpression to all its parts and aspects: some of
them may bedescribed explicitly, some of them implicitly,and some
bypassedaltogether. Language cannot give full expression to the
spatialexistence of any object. Second, when the simultaneous parts
areexpressed as units of information,they must receive some kind
oftemporal arrangement.One may begin fromthe overall patternandpass
to the individual units or vice versa; the various units can
bearranged in differentways: fromup to down, frontto back,
theimportantto the subordinate,etc. In any case, the spatial
aspects arecut off, so to speak, from their spatial and
simultaneous context,and are arranged long a temporal ine.Thus far
we have discussed descriptions of completely static
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314 GABRIEL ZORANobjects. However, space does not involve only
static objects andrelationships- thingsmay also move and change.
Space is one aspectof spacetime (chronotopos). Language can exploit
this situation byarranging ts items of informationby linkage to a
movement. Thismovement can be a real route of an object or a
transfer f the lookor the thoughtfromone object to another. In
daily speech there iseven a markedpreferenceforthe
spatial-temporalmethod of arrange-ment (i.e., along a line of
movement) over the static, map-likestructure, s was shownby Linde
(1974).42.3. When we transfer hese considerations fromthe
discussion ofthe possibilities of language in general to the
discussion of thestructuresof narrative exts,we must take into
account two essentialdifferences.First, as far as the usual verbal
usage is concerned, theobjects of space and of the world in general
constitutean externalfactor not dependent on language, whereas
within the narrativetext neitherspace nor the world have an
independent existence butrather an existence derived from the
language itself. In terms ofBenjamin Hrushovski's text theory
(1974, 1975), this is an internalfield of reference.Thus, the
importantquestion to be posed at thispoint is not onlyhow is a
givenspace expressed in language?but alsowhat is the nature of this
space? The decisions of the text bear notonly on
theverbalmaterial,but also on the world.The second differencewhich
must be taken into account is thatthe movement discussed above,
which can serve in daily speech asa vehicle for a
certainarrangementof information, an have in thenarrativetext a
most central and dominantstatus. In fact,the entireplot can be
regarded as such a movement. A plot can be spaceoriented, serving s
a motivationforthe inclusionof space units; anextreme example of
this is Nils Holgersson's WonderfulJourney,by Selma Lagerl6f, whose
plot serves to present, in several ways,a complete geography of
Sweden. Obviously, plot is not usuallysubordinate, especially in
relation to space, but whateverthe statusor functionsof plot in the
text, itmust be seen as more thansimplya structuren time. It
includes routes,movement,directions,volume,simultaneity, tc., and
thus is an active partner n the structuringfspace in the text.The
transformation f space into the temporal-verbal extmaybesketchedas
shown in Figure 1.The differentpoints of the verbal continuummay
referdirectlytopoints in space or to points in the continuum of
events,relatingtospace through spacetime (the chronotopos). The
text can referto4. In a studyshe carriedout on the ways English
speakersfrom givengroupdescribeapartments,Linde discoveredthat most
people organize theirdescription s a walkthroughheapartmentnd onlya
fewdo it likean aerial map.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 315
space-tinme
verbal continuum fcontinuum events n timeFigure1
space and spacetime units which are large or small, complete
orpartial, and can structurethem in any orderand manner
itchooses.3. THE THREE LEVELS OF STRUCTURINGFrom the above sketch,
one may distinguishthree different evelsof the structuringf space
in the text:The topographical level: space as a static entity
expressed in thediagramby the bottom of the cube).The chronotopic
level: the structure mposed on space by eventsand movements, i.e.,
by spacetime (in the diagram,the projectionsof the inside of the
cube on the lower square).The textual level: the structure mposed
on space by the fact thatit is signifiedwithin theverbaltext.These
levels all belong to the reconstructedworld, and can beregardedas
threelevels of reconstruction.The most immediate evelof
reconstruction s the textual one, in which the world
stillretainsseveral of the structuring atterns of the text. In the
chronotopiclevel, the reconstructed world is already independent of
the verbalarrangementof the text, but is still dependent on the
plot. Finally,on the highest level of reconstruction,the
topographic one, theworld is perceived as existing for itself, with
itsown naturalstructure, ut offentirelyfromany structure mposed by
theverbaltext and theplot.As mentioned in the discussion of
transformation section 2.1),it must be rememberedthat no temporal
order is implied here; thethree levels of reconstructiondo not
representdifferent tages in areal act of reconstructionor of
creation. The reader does not beginat the textual level and then
pass on to the others, or vice versa;rather, he is continually
moving back and forthamong the threelevels and, moreover,he
perceives them at once without being ableto separatethem.
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316 GABRIEL ZORANThe levels may be compared to three diapositive
slides coveringeach other. There is a differencen clarity mong
them: theyare not
all receptive to the same extent, nor do they attract
attentionequally. From the observer'spoint ofview, however,theyare
alwaysperceived together, ne throughthe other.53.1. The Level of
Topographical StructureAs mentioned, this is space at its
highestlevel of reconstruction,perceived as self-existent nd
independent of the temporalstructureof the world and sequential
arrangementof the text. The text canexpress topographical
structureby means of directdescriptions, .g.,as in Balzac's
well-knownopenings,but in facteveryunit of the text,whether
narrative,dialogic, or even essayistic, may contribute tothe
reconstruction f the topographicalstructure.This structure may be
conceived as a kind of map based onelements fromthe entire text,
including all its components. True,a map such as this cannot be
entirelyexhaustive. Some of its areasare blank, and in thereal
world it maynot be ofmuch use in findingone's way. For the purpose
of reading, however, it provides asufficiently learpictureof
theworld.The map is based on a series of oppositions, some of which
aregeneral and typical, others of which are more specific. It
encom-passes the horizontal structureof the world,
relationshipssuch asinside and outside, far and near, center and
periphery, city andvillage, etc. It may also include contours
signifying he verticalorganization of the world and representing he
opposition up-down.5. The distinctionbetween the three levels of
structuringwes a lot to two existingdistinctions: hat of Petsch
1942:162-189) and thatofKristeva 1970:191-197), but itdiffers rom
hese nsomeprincipal oints.Firstof all, these distinctionsrebinary,
otternary,nd both seem to be a result fthetendency o describe pace
in terms ntirelyymmetrical ith those used to describe ime,and
indescribingimethebinarydistinctionsreactuallyclearcut.Petschdiscriminates
etweenRaum and Lokal. The Lokal is space given nitself,nd
isthusmoreor less parallelto the level of topographical tructure.
aum is space connectedwith other evels of the text.Amongothers, t
is connected with the timefactor,beingaspace revealed step by step.
But this important spect is pointed out only as an
aside;actuallythe Raum is connected withmanyaspectsand properties f
the textthathavenoreal connection with each other: it is also space
experiencedby the characters, t issymbolic, t bears meanings, nd so
forth.Petsch's distinctions somewhat mbalancedin favor of the Raum.
The Raum is, in thefinal nalysis, nything f interest ne maysay
about space, while Lokal is nothing ut a neutralmaterial,acking ny
significancenitself. n contrast, he distinction etweenthe three
evels of structure roposedhere hasnothing o do withmeanings: very
evelcan be equallymeaningfulnd functionwithin hetext s a
whole.Kristeva'sdistinction s closerto myproposal.She
discriminatesetween space textueland espacegeographique.The
geographic pace in heranalysismay parallelboth thetopo-graphic nd
chronotopic evels, nd the espace textuel, fcourse,parallels he
textual evel.But thedevelopment f the distinction nd thedescription
f the evels re quitedifferent.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 317In addition, the map
has patternswhich refernot to the location ofthings,but rather to
their quality - patternsof colors, substances,typesof objects,
etc.Unlike topographicalmaps in reality, hismap can structure
paceon the basis of ontological principles as well; that is, space
can bedivided up according to the modes of existence of its units.
Thesemodes of existence sometimes overlap with the factor of
topo-graphical location: for example, the world of the gods - up;
theworld of man - down. Yet they may relate to one another in
rela-tionshipsin themselves ompletely unspatial,such as
therelationshipbetween the space of a dreamand thatof
realitywithinthenarrative.Again, the ontological levels may be
completely differentiated romone another, or they may be mingled,
appearing together in onecontinuous space, such as in
fantastictales.It is difficult to define beforehand all the
differentpossibilitiesof patterns n the topographicalworld,
forthese are not dependenton the logic of the verbal text - on the
contrary, s faras languageis concerned, everystructure s possible.
The possibilitiesopen to thewriter are, instead, dependent on his
personal outlook, tradition,culture, ndividualqualities, etc.
Only one aspect of the structure of topographical space
isdependent on the logic of the narrative text: the special
spatialexistence of the characters.The charactersare
generallyperceivedas belonging to a separate narrativelevel with
its own particularproblems. It should not be forgotten,
owever,thattheyalso exist asphysical bodies in space, but the
factthattheyhave many importantfunctions n other areas of the text
makes them,spatially,a distinctand exceptional entity. The
formation of a character's externalappearance constitutes a special
problem, different from theformation of an inanimate object -
although every text expressesthisdifference n a differentway.
Imagine the grotesque effect thatwould be created if a characterwas
handled as a physical object.In principle, therefore, one may state
that the differentiationbetween subject and object determinesa
basic differentiation ithinspace - between the external appearance
of the characters and theenvironmental bjects.66.
Someremarkabletudiesealing ithpace re ctuallyoncernedith uestions
hichmaybe regardeds belongingo
thetopographicaleveloforganization.noutstandingexamplesBachelard's1974)
poetics fspace,whichsa discussionf the opographyfspace n
thepoeticalmagination.owever, achelard'sonceptionf the iteraryext
svery roblematicndquite emote romwhatspresupposedere.
thertudiesegardhetopographicaltructureo a largextentsa structuref
igns,ndconnecttwith he evelofmeaninge.g.,Wilbur'study f thehouse
nPoe'stales Wilbur967]). This stypicalforstudies ased on a
mythicalonceptionf space,whetherheydealexplicitly
ithmythicrfolkloric aterial,rwhetherhey eveal hemythicevel
nwritteniterature.See,for xample,egal's 1974)discussionbout oviet
tructuralism.
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318 GABRIEL ZORAN3.2. The Level of Chronotopic StructureAs
mentioned earlier, this plane has to do with the effect on
thestructureand organization of space produced by the
chronotopos,the movement and the action of the narrative.Before
continuing,a clarification of the term chronotopos here is
necessary. ThisEinsteinian term was introduced into
literarycriticismby Bakhtin(1978), who uses it to signify he
entirecomplex of space and timetogether, including physical
objects, events, psychology, history,etc. I, however, have not used
the term to signifythe totality ofspace and time, but ratherto
describe a specific aspect; i.e., not tosignifyall thingsthat may
be found in space or in time,but onlywhat may be defined by an
integration of spatial and temporalcategories as movement and
change. One may thus speak of theeffectof the chronotopos on the
structure f space.Within the overall chronotopos of the
reconstructedworld, oneshould distinguishbetween synchronicand
diachronicrelationships,which each have a different ype of effecton
the spatial structure.3.2.1. Synchronic Relations: Motion and Rest.
At every point ofthe narrative,that is, at every synchronic
situation, some objectsmay be found at rest and others in motion.
Naturally,the distribu-tion can vary from point to point. One may
generalize and statethat there are certain objects in space which
are characterized bytheir capacity for movement and otherswhich
remain at rest. Thisis not the same as the relationshipbetween
subject and object, orbetween characters and environmental objects;
the differentiationbetween the states of motion and rest may be
determinedamonginanimate objects and among characters like. There
are characterswhich have a capacity formovement and there are those
which are,so to speak, tied to theirplaces (see Uspensky 1973,
Lotman 1973).It is important to rememberthatmovement and rest are
relativeterms; rest is the state of being bound to a given spatial
context,while movementis the abilityto cut oneself offfrom patial
contextand to switch over to different ontexts. As to the nature of
thespatial context itself, this is determined by the narrative.
Forexample, the Cyclops in the Odyssey can move about freelyon
hisisland, but the structureof the work - based on Odysseus's
move-ment from place to place - determines the Cyclops's island as
asinglecontext, and theCyclops as a character t rest.3.2.2.
Diachronic Relations: Directions, Axes, Powers. The dia-chronic
structureof the chronotopos also imposes its own structureon space.
Space, in its topographical structure, s all potential - it
isneutral,with regardto any specificmovement or direction,and
onemay seeminglymove within it, from and to any point. In
contrast,the chronotopos determinesdefined directions n space: in
the space
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 319of a
givennarrative,one may move frompoint a to point b, but notvice
versa; in anothernarrative, he movementmay be reversible. nboth
cases, movement ceases to be potential; it is fullyrealized, andis,
so to speak, incarnated in space. Thus, forexample, in the
topo-graphical space of the Odyssey, Troy and Ithaca are two
places, andthereis a possibilityof movingfromone to the other.But
theactualdirection of movement is determinedby the chronotopic
structure;thus, one place is definedas the point of
departure,another as thetarget,and othersas stations on the way,
deviations,etc. Thus,axesof movement in space are determined; one
may state that space,on the chronotopic level, is structured s a
networkof axes havingdefinitedirectionsand a definitecharacter.Axes
may or may not be determinedby motions which actuallytake place in
the world of the text.An actual movement s a resultofseveral
powers: will, obstructions, ideal, characters'intentions,andso
forth. These powers can also act in space when there is no
realmovement. In Kafka's The Castle, for example, the line
stretchingbetween the village and the castle is the central axis in
the spatialstructureof the novel, focusing ll thepowers acting n
the world,despite the fact that it is never actively traversedby
the maincharacter. Chronotopic structure of space does not mean
anoccasional movement on a neutral scene, but rather a conceptionof
theentirespace in termsof afield ofpowers.73.3. The Level of
Textual StructureTo reiterate,this level encompasses the
structurewhich is imposedon space by the fact that it is
formedwithin the verbal text. Itshould be emphasized that the
structureunder discussion is notthat of the text itself as a
verbalmedium,nor that of its linguisticmaterials, but rather an
organization of the reconstructedworld.This structure,however,
although applied to the world, is notderived fromit. The objects
structuredbelong to the reconstructedworld, but the structure tself
s imposed on themby the linguisticnature of the text.
7. The concept of theaxis appears nMeyer's 1957) analysisofspace
inGoethe'sNovelle,where looking througha telescope creates an axis
connectingbetween the two mainlocalities.However,Meyer'suse of
theword is rather ocal and metaphoric, nd I believeit can be made
systematic nd consequent.Brown (1967) tackles,thoughnot in
detail,questionswhichseem to me to belongto thechronotopic
evel,when he triesto classifyspaces accordingto thedirections
fmovements akingplace within hem.The conceptionof space as a
fieldof power is inspiredmainlyby thetheory f KurtLewin,who
triedtoapply thephysicalconcept offieldand theprinciples ftopology
o psychologynd socialsciences Lewin 1936, 1938, 1957). Thismethod
eemstomeapplicablefortextual nalysisas well, but forthe timebeing
tspoetic potentialities ave not been developedto a largeextent. For
a fewexceptions, ee Lotman1973, O'Toole 1980).
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320 GABRIEL ZORANOne may compare this to the relationshipbetween
thefabula andthe sujet. Both belong to the reconstructedworld, both
may be
regarded as levels of organization of elements of reality
(events),but the fabula retain their natural arrangementwhereas the
sujetforces on the motives the verbal order of the text. Still,
thesujet initself is not identical to the verbal level. Here, too,
at the level oftextual structure, hereare patternsof organization
imposed on thereconstructed world which are not natural to it,
neither as spacenor as spacetime, but are rather forced onto it
because of its beingsignified n a verbal text.These patterns of
organization have to do mainly with threeaspects of the verbal
text: (1) the essential selectivity,or the in-capacity of language
to exhaust all the aspects of given objects;(2) the temporal
continuum, or the fact that language transmitsinformationonly along
a temporal line; (3) the point of view, andtheperspectivestructure
f the reconstructedworld due to it.3.3.1. The Selectivity of
Language, and its Effects. The fact thatlanguage cannot express all
aspects of space results in a certainmeasure of selectivity. t may
express some things n a concreteway,others in a vague or general
way, and may ignore still others al-together. What selection
actually takes place is of course up tothe specific text, but in
any event there must be some selection.Language is not able to give
a complete and continuous reportonspace and, moreover, the reader
does not always demand such areport. The reader is much more
demandingabout the filling n ofgaps on the narrativeplane than he
is about the filling n of gaps inspace.8 There are many gaps in the
information bout space, and it isnot essential to fill them all.
They do not always attract attentionduring the process of reading.
Yet their very existence causes apermanent distinction in space
between absolute, clear, specificelements and unclear, unspecific
elements. This distinction hasnothingto do with the real existence
of space in thereconstructedworld, but ratherwith its verbal
existence in the text. Thus, entireareas in space may be
differentiated romone anotherby the typeof verbal selection carried
out in them.In theOdyssey,forexample,the events taking place on
earth are sketched in greatdetail, whilethe scenes on Olympus do
not materialize and lack detail. Thisdistinction is congruent with
that between two ontological areas,but the congruence is not an
automatic one. In the liad, thenature8. The concept of
informational ap connected with the structure f plot has
beendeveloped to a large extentby Perry nd Sternberg1968) and
Sternberg1973). But,aswill be shown in the followingdiscussion,
tend to focusrather n whattheycall gapsthe filling f which s
automaticand unnecessary, .e., mydiscussionmakesmore use
ofIngarden's 1965) broader nd moreneutral
onceptofspotsofindeterminacy.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 321of the verbal
selection s identical n both areas: this,of course,createsa
completelydifferentmageof therelationshipsetweentheworldofgodsand
thatof man seealsoHellwig 964).3.3.2. The Linearityof the Text.
Recognition f the principle fthetemporal ontinuumf anguage,nd
thenecessityfstructuringinformationbout space in a temporal
ontinuum,eadsus to ask:(1) what is the principleof segmentationf
spatial nformation;that s, how does the textpass from ne unit of
space to another;and (2) what effects oes theorderof transmissionf
informationhaveon the mageofspaceandtheway
tisreconstructed.3.3.2.1. The principleof sequentialstructure,r the
ordering fspatialunits n thetext,maybe borrowed rom hespatial
tructurediscussed bove. It maybe based on thechronotopicevel- on
thetracing f movement n space: the movement f a character,f
anobject,of the eye,etc. It maybe based on
thetopographicalevel,proceedingfrom one object to the object
nearby,fromthe sur-rounding o the surrounded, rom heupperto the
ower, tc. Butit may also follow orders which are not spatial in
themselves:catalogues of items belongingto a
similarcategory,functionalrelationships,r scales ofvariouskinds,
tc. Naturally,ll the aboveprinciplesmay intermingle,verlap,dominate
n variousdegrees,andconnect nits fdifferentcopes.3.3.2.2. The
Effects of the OrderChosen. In the sameway thatdifferent rders
xistingn space can motivate he arrangementfthe text continuum long
a certain ine, the same orderscan beespecially tressed y meansof
the continuumtructure.When, orinstance,
hetextpassesfromhighobjectsto low ones,theverticaldimension f space
is stressedmorethan tsotherdimensions. hetext continuum an also
imposekindsof direction ponspace.Thisprocess s similar o thatof the
axes previously iscussed, ut herethe directionsre not determined y
powersor motions n space,but only bymeansof theverbal rrangement.ne
shouldalso takenote of thedifferentffects f thespatial mage
fthetextchoosesto movefrom he nternal o theexternal rviceversa, rom
hehighto the ow orviceversa, nd so forth.Another ffectworthnoting
oncernsheordernwhich nforma-tion of variousscopes is rendered.The
textsupplies nformationabout concreteocal itemswhich ompose
paceaswellas aboutthewiderglobalcontextswithinwhichthese tems
restructured. henthe global informationappears at an early stage in
the description,the concrete items oin in lateron, and
thepicturetakes on a unifiedcharacter. On the other hand, it is
possible to delay the appearanceof thisglobal information, n which
case the individual temsappear
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322 GABRIEL ZORAN- at least fora while - withouta
clear-cutcontext,and one receivesthe impressionof a non-unified,
isconnected space.3.3.3. The Perspectival Structure. The point of
view in the textforces upon the reconstructed space a perspective
structure. Thisstructure differs from the perspective organization
of space in adrawing, although it may sometimes aspire to similar
effects. Inprinciple, the spatial perspective of a drawing (or a
photograph) isbased on a continuous line stretchingfromthe onlooker
out to thehorizon along which the sizes of objects get continually
smaller.In contrast, the spatial perspective of language is not
based on acontinuous line but on a binaryopposition ofhere and
there.Here-thererelationshipsoccur in two ways: between the
spatiallocation of the act of narration and the world as a whole;
and,within the world, between thingsperceived at a certain
instantas in the foreground nd those perceivedas in
thebackground.Thesetwo here-thererelationships re parallel to two
typesof coordinationsystems n language (Miller,Johnson-Laird1976):
the deictic system,whose center ( hero ) is the spatio-temporal
ocation of the speechact; and the intrinsic ystem,whose centeris
any point in theworldchosen for that purpose. These two centers
exist side by sidethroughout the text as a matter of principle. But
the relationshipsbetween them can change at any point: they may
come closertogether,one may become prominent at the expense of the
other,the objects which are here and theremay change, and the
relation-shipsbetween here and theremay be reversed.4. THE
HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE OF SPACE4.0. So far we have discussed the
threelevels of space in the text.The differentiationbetween these
levels is to a large degree ver-tical. In order to proceed
furtherwith this analysis, it is necessaryto take account of a
horizontal viewpoint as well; that is, toexamine the parts of
space, its boundaries, its scope. Up to now wehave not
discriminatedbetween units of different copes, and haveconsidered
the space of the narrative s a complete whole. We mustnow examine
the nature of thiswhole. It may be seen as a complexentity
comprised of parts or, alternatively, t may be regarded asa
singleunit formingpart of some spatial totality extendingbeyondit.
Thus, one may speak of three possible scopes of spatial units:the
total space which encompasses the world of the text;
thespatialcomplex which the textactually presents;and thespatial
unitswhichcompose thiscomplex.It should be evident, in the light of
the distinction between thethree levels of structure,that the
different copes of spatial unitsare not expressed identically at
each level, nor do they necessarilycorrespond from level to level.
The discrimination between thescopes is a logical one ratherthana
clear-cutboundaryin space.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 323the otal pace
the omplex fspacetheunit fspace
--- 1 ---t levelf extualstructure- - ---- level
fchronotopicstructure
---- I - - t level ftopographicstructure4.1. Unitsof Space: The
Field of Vision4.1.1. The Basic Units Composing Space. The
largestunits that canbe conceived as parts in relation to the
entirespatial complex wouldbe something n the scope of a scene,
presuming hatspace is a seriesof such scenes, and that each such
unit consists of many smallerunits. Within the three levels of
spatial structure discussed above,a scene on the topographical
level is a place, on the chronotopicallevel a zone of action, and
on the textuallevel a field of vision.4.1.1.1. Places may be
houses, cities, streets, fields, mountains,forests,etc. A place is
a certain point, plane, or volume, spatiallycontinuous and with
fairlydistinctboundaries, or else surroundedby a spatial
partitionseparating t fromotherspatial units.4.1.1.2. A zone of
action is not definedby spatial continuityor aclear topographical
border, but rather by the proportions of theeventtakingplace within
t.The event itself has nothingto do with given spatial
bordersnordoes it necessarily take place in a defined topographical
unit; it isdefined, rather,by its relationship to other events
which occurredbefore or after t. Several simultaneous eventsmay
take place withinone place, forexample, in a room; or, a
singleeventmay take placein a discontinuous space. A telephone
conversation,for example,is one event which takes place in two
nonadjacent, disconnectedplaces (ignoring for the time being the
assertion that telephonewires or radio waves are a part of space;
they are a part of thephysical space, but not of the human
eventdefinedas the telephoneconversation).99. This claimis based on
thewell-known istinction etweenmathematical-physicalpaceand
experiencedspace, in which human lifeactuallytakes place
(erlebterRaum, espacevicu). See Minkovski1933, 1936);
Binswanger1955); Bollnow 1963); Bachelard 1974).
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324 GABRIEL ZORAN4.1.1.3. The concept field of vision may be
understood if weexamine for a moment the example of the telephone
conversation,consideringthe differentways inwhich such an event can
take shapein a text. The text may attach itself to one of the
conversants n hisroom, leaving the reader to reconstructthe words
of the otherone:in this case, we would say that the field of vision
of the text, or ofthis section, is attached to a place (room) but
not to an event.Or theopposite: The textmay choose to describethe
conversationfromthepoint of view of both conversers,seeing each one
as he acts in hisown place: in this case, the field of vision
attemptsto attach itselfto the disconnected zone of action. But a
field of vision is notnecessarily limited to places or zones of
action: it may actuallyencompass any spatial unit.In our discussion
on the perspectivestructureof space, we statedthat every point in
the text has certain elementsperceivedas hereand other elements
perceived as there. One may define thefieldof vision as thatpart of
the world perceived as being here. Otherfields of vision which
preceded it in the continuum,or which willfollow it, and spatial
units indirectlyformedor unrealized as fieldsof vision - all these
are perceivedas there.
Although we perceive the field of vision as being here, it
shouldnot be understood as a focalized, spatial unit givento clear
localiza-tion.We have alreadyseen thatfrom the topographicalpoint
of view,it does not necessarily have to encompass a solid,
continuous, orclosed unit. The text refers to this spatial unit,
however, as if itwere somethingcontinuous and defined,and it
surveys t in a singleview, independent of real conditions of vision
or of perceptionexisting n the world.The field of vision of the
text is thus different romthe ordinaryoptical field of vision. The
text may refer to an entirecityas a fieldof vision, to a split
event (such as a telephone conversation), to acomplete battlefield,
to a complete house (disregardingthe wallswhich divide its rooms),
etc. Naturally,thereis also the possibilityof followingoptical
rules of perception in a field of vision,but thisis only one
convention among others and it is no more naturalfor the field of
vision than the convention of linear perspectiveisfor a
drawing.104.1.2. Two Examples of Field of Vision. To illustratethe
Field ofVision, let us pick two concrete examples - the opening
sentencesThe importanceof this distinctionfor the historyof the
concept of space in literarycriticismshighlymportant.10. Examplesof
analysesof visualand sensual structuresf fieldsof visionmaybe
foundin Alewin (1957) and Iskra (1967), althoughtheirdiscussions re
in terms f descriptionandofcoursenotoffield fvision.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 325of two short stories:
Wolfgang Borchert's Die Drei DunklenK6nige ( The Three Dark Kings )
and Heinrichvon Kleist's DasErdbeben in Chili ( The Earthquake in
Chile ).Er tapptedurchdie dunkleVorstadt.Die Hiuser standen
bgebrochen egenden Himmel. Der Mond fehlteund das Pflasterwar
erschrockenfiberdenspatenSchritt.Dann fand er eine alte Planke.Da
trat r mit dem Fuss gegen,bis eine Latte morschaufseufzteund
losbrach.Das Holz roch miirbeundsiiss.Durchdie dunkle
Vorstadttappteerzuriick. ternewarennichtda.(Borchert1949)
(He gropedhisway through he dark suburb.The houses stood in a
brokenline againstthe sky.The moon was absent and thepavementwas
frightenedby the late step. Then he found an old plank.He
kickedagainst twith hisfoot until a lath gavea rotten igh nd broke
oose. The wood smelledrottenand sweet.Throughthe darksuburbhe
gropedhisway back.There werenostars.)In St. Jago,derHaupstadtdes
K6nigreichs hili, tandgerade
ndemAugen-blickedergrossenErdeschiitterungomJahre1647, bei
welchervieletausendMenschen hrenUntergang anden,ein unger
ufeinVerbrechenngeklagterSpanier, NamensJeronimoRugera, an einem
Pfeiler des Gefangnisses,nwelchesman ihneingespert atte,und wolte
sich erhenken. (Kleist 1923)(In Santiago, the capital of the
kingdomof Chile,at theverymomentof thegreat arthquakeof 1647 in
whichmanythousands f lives were ost,a youngSpaniard by the name
ofJeronimoRugera,who had been locked up on acriminal harge,was
standing gainsta prison pillar,about to hanghimself.)In the first
xample, thereader sees in one glance an area whichis about the size
of a suburb,and which could be similarly urveyedin reality.The
scene includes a perceptiblebackground (the houses)and a foreground
the man kickingat the plank). The topographicalplace (the suburb)
is entirely overlapped by the zone of action(defined by his
walking) and by the field of vision. The secondexcerpt presentsa
different indof fieldof vision.Here, too, there sa perceptibleand
ratherconcreteplace (the cell), but itsbackground,in contrastto
that of the Borchertexcerpt, is not a seriesof objectsseen
togetherwith thecharacterbut an immensespace whichcannotbe shown as
vividly s theprison.This is due not only to the interior-exterior
relation, but also to the fact that there are two differentkinds of
perception here: a concrete and visual perception, and aconceptual
sight from a historical-geographic oint of view. Butthe condensed
structureof the sentence forces thesetwo domains -although
perceived in entirelydifferentways - to be surveyed inone fieldof
vision.These two examples cannot, of course, exhaust the
largerangeofpossible structures of fields of vision,nor do
theyrepresentall theaspects of such structures.An
extensiveanalysisis beyond the scope
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326 GABRIEL ZORANof this paper, which proposes to analyze the
concept field ofvision ratherthanits concretephenomena.4.1.3. Field
of Vision and Description. One should bear in mind thedifference
etween a field of visionand a scenic description.Both areverbal
units definedby theirreferenceto the fictionalworld. But ascenic
description is a particular instance of a field of vision, andonly
one of its possible components. A field of vision may consistof a
scenic description,an action, a dialogue, a summary,an essay,etc.
The concept of field of vision solves, in my opinion, theambiguity
caused by the classical dichotomy between descriptionand
narration,and its automatic parallelismwith the pair space
andaction. This set of concepts is to a great extent responsible
for thefalse identification of space in the narrative with the
descriptivesections, and for excluding action as well as most of
the othercomponents of the text from the phenomena relevant to
space. Afield of vision is not a phenomenon confined to those
specificsections in the text thatcontain direct nformation bout
space; eachsection in the text constitutesa fieldof vision
fromthepoint of viewof its spatial reference, although this spatial
reference can be ofseveral kinds and degrees. Thus, fields of
vision may differ n theamount of informationabout space they
contain and in the im-portance of this information,but they do not
differ n their basicrelevanceto space.4.1.4. The Problem of
Identification and Delimitation of the Fieldof Vision. If everyunit
of the text constitutes a field of vision, thequestion may then be
posed: What is it that causes the reader toidentifya
particularspatial unit as a field of vision,to differentiatetfrom
another unit and at the same time demarcate a specific unitwithin
the reconstructed world? Here we must deal with the mainproblem of
the concept field of vision - the fact that it is a unit ofthe
reconstructed world, determined not by properties of theworld as
such but ratherby the perception of the world throughlanguage.At
this point it is necessary to examine the function of the readerin
the course of his reading. t was stated earlier that a field of
visionis what the reader can perceive as being here.
Strictlyspeaking,thismeans that at any one momentof reading,there s
only one tinyunit, or aspect, in frontof the reader,and
thatduringthereadingprocess he passes fromone tinyunit to the next,
so that the overallimage of space must be like a chain of tiny
objects. This is whatLessing (1974, Laokoon, Chap. 16) implied when
he negated thepossibility of reconstructingthe appearance of an
object in one'smind froma detailed descriptionof its parts. He
argues that by thetime the list ofpartsis finished, he first
temswill alreadyhave been
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 327forgotten.This, to a
certainextent, s an atomisticconception of theprocess of reading,
reducingit to a row of points, each of which isconnected only to
the point just before or after t. The functionofthe memoryis
reduced to that of merelyconnecting adjacent units.In a conception
such as Lessing's, there is no place for a field ofvision: when he
speaks of space, he is referring nly to solitaryobjects -
Agammemnon's sceptre, Hera's chariot - never to anentire systemof
spatial relationships.When theact of reconstructionis
identifiedwith the verbal decoding, space cannot be
perceptibleotherthanas a series of smallparticles.Space can be
truly perceptible only in the framework f a con-ception which
assumes that the reconstructionof the world is notparallel to the
verbal interpretation lone, but also has to do withaccumulation in
the memory and with various acts of linking: Aconception of this
type was proposed by Segre (1975), forexample.He describes the
point at which the reader findshimself t a certainmoment of
readingas being continuallyin a systemof relationshipswithsynthesis
n memory,whichpreserves ll which has alreadybeenread, including the
possibilities that have been eliminated,while atthe same time
aspiring towards the open possibilities in the con-tinuation of the
text. Only in the framework f such a model can theconcept field of
vision be explained. The field of vision is the com-bination of the
presentmoment of readingwith the synthesisof thememory.Here,
however,backward synthesisrefersnot to thewholecomplex of passages
read, but only to those passages which relatein some way to the
spatial framework f the itemabout whichone ispresently reading.
This is a combination of the element perceivedat this moment of
reading, togetherwith other items and informa-tion, in such a way
that they may be perceived as spatially con-tinuous and as forming
one spatial wholeness, given to a singlesurvey.This synthesisof
memory may encompass a scene extendingover many pages, or may be
limited to a shortdescription. In anycase, the backward
synthesisneeded for the field of vision acts ona consecutive
textual unit: the overall synthesis can of courseencompass
informationtransmitted n earliertextual units,relatingto other
parts of space, or even to the same part within a differentcontext,
but this informationwill not belong to the same field ofvision. Its
functionmay be that of an invisiblebackgroundwhich isalso an
importantelement in the general complex of space, but nolonger
belongs to what is perceived as here. The field of vision isthus to
a certainextentthepoint of intersectionbetween the hereof space and
the now of the text. It is a unit of reconstructedspace which has a
correlativein the verbal text: it may be locatedand identifiedboth
withinthe text and withintheworld.
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328 GABRIEL ZORAN4.2. The Complex of SpaceWe have observedin the
foregoing hatthe textual existence of spaceis like a series of
fields of vision. We have defined and demarcateda single field of
vision, but it remains for us to understand howdifferentfields of
vision combine to create the complex of spaceas a whole. This
process takes place in two dimensions: the dimen-sion of the text
continuum - how fields of vision change as thereader progresses
throughthe text; and the world dimension -the arrangementof fields
of vision within the reconstructedworlditself.Fields of vision may
shift from one to another in various ways.Most obviously, there may
be a break, such as a chapteror sectionending. However, this is not
necessarily the most characteristicmethod. Unlike scenes in a
naturalistic theater, textual fields ofvision do not always occur
in complete, closed units. They may bemuch more fluid, they may
widen or narrow in scope, as with amovie camera, or move
graduallyfromone place to another,makingtheir demarcation less
clear-cut than our previous discussion mightindicate (see
section4.1.4). They may also shift y wayofprojection:one field of
vision may be constructedfrompieces of informationsupplied by
another. A character in fieldA may relate somethingthatoccurredin
anotherplace, therebycreatingfieldB.There are also various ways
forfieldsof visionto combine withinthe reconstructedworld. The
firstpossibilitythat comes to mind isthe perspectival one, in which
one field is perceived as being infront and another serves as
background. This is the situation ofalmost everyfield of visionin
relationto the other fields n the text:what is perceived at any
given moment is foreground; the otherfields of vision form the
unseen background. This foreground-background relation is
especially apparent in cases of projection.Although projection
usually results in a complete substitutionofone field of vision for
another, the perspectival aspect can bepreserved,creatingthe effect
of two simultaneous fields of vision.This can happen when the
projected area is not structuredas anautonomous field of vision -
for example, in the case of discon-tinuous mentioningof certain
places by charactersin a givenfieldof vision (i.e., not a
continuous narrationby one of the characters,which would mean a
complete displacement to the new field ofvision). Here the field of
vision, rather than being autonomous,becomes a kind of background
existing outside the area of theprimary field.11 But two concrete
and fully autonomous fields of11. A similar ffect, lthoughmuch more
rare, s sometimesgainedwhen theprojectedfield of vision s dominant
nd autonomousbut the text mentions nsistentlyheprimaryfield of
vision.For instance, ake thedescription f Achilles's shield n the
liad: there re,of course, autonomous fieldsof visionencompassing he
realitydepicted on the shield,
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 329vision cannot occur
simultaneously because by definition a fieldof vision encompasses
all the items of space surveyed at a givenmoment.So we returnto the
question, what does join the fields of visionto form a map of
reality. I propose that it is the materials of realitythemselves,
in a furtherdegree of reconstruction; that is, at thechronotopic
and topographic evels. At these levelsof reconstruction,the
materials are abstracted from their fields of vision and
re-organized in the topographic and chronotopic patterns of the
text(the horizontal and vertical structures,the system of axes,
etc.;see sections 3.1, 3.2).4.3. Total SpaceHaving constructed a
scheme of the complex of space, based on aseries of fields of
vision, we still may discover that some spatialinformation xists
which is not structuredwithin ny field of vision;that is, spatial
elements that the text presupposes, or providesindirectly,but does
not show. This informationbelongs to thetotal space - that spatial
information which exists beyond theboundaries of the
actuallypresented space.
The concept of total space in a text is necessarybecause of
theway we generallythinkabout space. It is impossibleto
imaginespaceas anything other than total. Of course, we do consider
limitedsections of space, but at the same time we regardthem as
parts ofa larger pace encompassingthem.This tendency is not
necessarily connected with the Euclideanconception of empty
space;12 it may also be connected with thesemantic properties of
words. Thus, for example, the meaning ofthe word room includes the
possibilities for additional rooms, ahouse, a place of
settlement,and so forth.Any spatial object mayalso be perceived as
a synecdoche fora more comprehensive space.Total space, however, is
not merelya vague duplication of spaceactually shaped in a
literarytext: it is an essential component withits own functions
and modes of existence, as can be shown withregardto the three
evels of structuring.4.3.1. Total Space from the TopographicPoint
of View. From thepoint of view of the topographic level, the
concept total spaceis needed because it enables us to locate the
events, to answer thebut the textcontinues nsistently
bymeansofnamingmaterials nd verbs fproducingto referback to the
primary ieldof vision,Hephaestus'workshop,which s in the
fore-ground.12. The irrelevance f theEuclidean conceptionof space
to the literarywork of artwasclaimedby Ingarden 1965).
Ingarden,however,concluded from t the finiteness f theliterary
pace,which eemstome a wrong onclusion.
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330 GABRIEL ZORANquestion, where does it happen? All the
internal relationshipstaking place on the topographical level
answer only the question,what does it look like? or how is it made?
- but in order toreconstruct pace, the answer to thisquestion alone
is not sufficient.It is essentialto locate the entiresystemwithin
some larger pace.Texts may be differentiatedfromone another by the
degree ofimportancewhich they attach to thequestion of
localization, as wellas by the degree of exactness withwhich they
answerthisquestion.Place of eventsmaybe located preciselyby street
nd house number,or in a very general way - by the name of the city
or country,oreven less than this. Each of these cases implies a
differentway of
coordination withinthe total space.Apart from the question of
specific location, total space also hasto do with theassumptionsof
the textabout thenatureof the worldin general, and thus it is
stronglyconnected with the externalfieldof reference (see
Hrushovski 1976). The text refersthe reader to acertain model of
external reality by means of which he must re-construct the world.
As regards the spatial complex of the text,there is constant play
between thismodel and the internalfield ofreference, whereas in
total space the external field of referencebecomes the prominent
factor.The external field of referencemaybe of several types:
historical, geographical, mythical,
science-fictional,fantastic,etc. Naturally,the clarityof the
localization andreconstruction s dependent on the typeof fieldof
reference eferredto in the text. In any event, it should be
emphasized that the con-nection between total space and the
external field of referenceinno way signifies that we are dealing
here with something whichdepends for itsvalidityon somethingoutside
the text.The text itselfdetermines the nature of its total world,
and the model of externalreality, although not necessarily created
by the text, is chosen,modified,and fullycontrolledby it.4.3.2.
Total Space from the Chronotopic Point of View. Here onemust
examine the possible connections in the domain of plotbetween total
space and the complex of space. One can imagine anabsolute
separation between them in the case where total space hasno
significant elation to theplot, serving nly as a
staticbackgroundagainstwhich the plot unfolds. In this case, the
narrative onstructsan entirely autonomous chronotopos. Examples of
this possibilitycan be found in the stories of Edgar Allan Poe.
Even if one couldlocate his stories in some
geographical-historicalpace, it would beinsignificant; ne can
conceive of his total space as emptyspace. Atthe otherextreme,
there is the possibilityof active connectionwithtotal space, such
as when general historical events determine thecourse of action. In
this case, total space may be schematized as afield of powers, the
center of which is outside the actual complex
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 331of space, but does, of
course, affect t. The connection is not neces-sarily made by means
of abstractpower lines: one can also imaginereal axes of movement
in the text that continue into total spaceor emerge from it. The
best example of chronotopic connectionbetween total space and the
complex of space occurs in the epics; infact,the connection is so
close that it almost annuls thedifferentia-tion between them. The
voyages ofOdysseus encompass all the areasof the world fixed in the
conscience of its contemporaryreader,the early Greek, ust as
Paradise Lost covers the entirecosmologicalsystem of the
Renaissance. In these cases, the text totally exhauststhe world.
These are spaces which can no longerbe imaginedas partsof
somethinglarger. From the chronotopic aspect, the complex ofspace
here is almost identical to total space.4.3.3. Total Space from the
Textual Point of View. From thepointof view of the textual level,
the nature of total space and its relationto the space complex
should be describedby means of two distinc-tions: one between
presentation and representation,and the otherbetween determinacyand
indeterminacy.'3 These two distinctions,of course, are applicable
not only to the relation between thecomplex of space and total
space, but also to otherareas of the textand the world. Within the
complex of space and even withina singlefield of vision, there are
also spots of indeterminacy nd representedelements, but total space
is the most complete and comprehensivearea whichcan be describedby
these two attributes.It should be stressed,however, that thesetwo
distinctions re notoverlappingand that these attributesare not
applicable to the sameaspects orpartsof total space.The quality of
representationbelongs to all thatcan be positivelysaid about total
space. All these thingsdifferfromthe informationabout the complex
of space because they are rendered indirectly:they are
notpresentedbut represented.Actually,this s what we saidat the
beginningof our discussion (4.3) when we claimed that totalspace is
not structured n the fields of vision. Fields of vision arethe
modes of presenting space; the materials of total space arenot
structuredwithin them but scattered in various
indirectways:mentioningofplaces by charactersand
evenbythenarrator,materialsof metaphors and similes,synedochic
itemswhich enable to rebuildtheworld,and so forth.But this
information, apart from being indirect, is sparse inrelation to the
information bout the complex of space. One of theprominentqualities
of total space is the immensedomain ofmissing13. The distinction
between presentationand representationwas suggested by
B.Hrushovski. The distinctionbetween determinacy nd indeterminacy
s, of course,Ingarden's 1965).
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332 GABRIEL ZORANinformation. All that can be said about it,
both on the basis oftextual hints and on the basis of a
generalknowledgeof the externalfield of reference- all thatdoes not
abolish its indeterminacy.Totalspace is an immense area of
indeterminacy,and relative darkness,in which the complex of space
appears as an island of determinacyand clarity.Total space is also
an essential assumption for determiningtheperspectivalstructureof
the world. To a certain extent it constitutesthe absolute
there,because it is always conceived as being beyondthe horizon of
the field of vision. But similarly,t is necessarywhenlocating the
primary here - the act of narration. If the act ofnarration s not
actually concretized as a partof thenarratedworld,its spatial
existence and the coordinates connecting t with theworldare also
one of the aspects of total space.4.3.4. The Ontological Opacity of
Total Space. Finally,an importantcharacteristicof total space,
which concerns all the levels of struc-turing,to a certain extent,
is lack of ontological clarity.This is ofcourse related to the
generalpropertyof indeterminacywhichexistsin total space, but here
it is not only the result of an absence ofinformation, but rather
of certain contradictions or fundamentallacks of claritywhich are
covered, so to speak, by the general in-determinacy of this area:
total space is a kind of no man's landbridgingdifferent ntological
areas. It is perceived not only as thedirect continuation of the
reconstructedworld in the text,but alsoas a continuation of the
real space of the reader, of the externalfield of reference,the act
of narration,and possibly more. All theseareas, which could be
completely incompatible fromthe ontologicalpoint of view, are
somehow swallowed up in the total space, and areperceivedas
existingon one continuousplane ofbeing.This situationis best
typifiedby the frequent location of fairytales in distantlands: The
ontological passage from the reader's world which isdominated by
realisticprobabilityto a world of imaginationis thusexpressed by a
physical remotenesswithinan indeterminate pace.14
14. One shouldpointout threeconceptionsrelevantn some way to
theconceptoftotalspace proposed here. Timpe (1971) distinguishes
etweenactual space and thepotentialone, but thedescription f
potential pace as the dimensions he actual space can achieveis
rathervague. Hrushovski,n his studyon War nd Peace (1976),
raisestheproblemoftotal space while discussing he possibility f
locatingthe fictional alon of Annawithinthehistorical etersburg.
ut, in thisdiscussion, he conceptof externalfield of referenceis
used forwhat I call total space. I believethatthese
redifferentoncepts, lthough heyhave a close connection see section
4.3.1). And, finally,Rokem's discussion bout theoff-stage orld n
the theater 1979) may throw ome lighton theproblemof total
spacefrom very nterestingngle.
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TOWARDS A THEORY OF SPACE IN NARRATIVE 3335. CONCLUSIONIn
thispaper I attempted to set forth model which would indicatethe
central aspects of space in the narrative and determine theirmutual
relationships. The aspects discussed have to do mainlywiththe
inherentstructureof space and its mode of existingas a partofthe
reconstructedworld. This may clarify s well the issuesI did notdeal
with in theframework f thisstudy- the functionality f spacewithin
the overall structure of the text. The discussion was limitedto
themode of existence of space and did not deal withitsfunctions.It
goes without saying that space is not a neutral material
justexisting n the world; it has variousfunctionsrelating o
otherplanesof the text. Every element in space - actually
everyelement in thetext - has to be regarded,to use the termof
Hrushovski 1976), asa juncture, in which patternsfromall the
textual planes may inter-sect: patterns of space togetherwith
patternsof characterization,ideas, mythology, nd so forth.The
functions of space may appear clearly when dealing withsingle texts
and pointing out the system of relations within thecomplex of its
components. One could, perhaps, even describe andanalyze its
possible functionswithinthe framework f a theoreticaldiscussion;
this, however, is a domain of questions entirelydifferentfromthose
dealt with here. The fact thatspace hereis
neutralized-formethodical purposes - from tsspecificfunctionsdoes
not meanthat space in itself is conceived here as a neutral factor.
On thecontrary, the assumption that all the textual components
havefunctionalrelations with each other is
rigorouslymaintained;what islacking here is an assumption about a
hierarchy: did not stipulatein advance which element is the means
and which is the end. Despiteany functional approach, one tends to
regard space as subordinateto charactersrather than characters to
space, and the same aboutthe relation of space to other aspects of
the text: it is alwaysregardedas a means to certain ends. It was
exactly thissituationthatprompted many discussionsdevoted to space
to deal withcharacters,ideas, or general nterpretation, eglecting
heirspecific ssue.I, however, tried to begin with space and end
with it, withoutturning aside even at junctions with roads that
seem, from anhierarchicalpoint of view, more like highways.No
discussion aboutthe functionsof space could be worthwhilewithout
analyzing firstits mode of existence and its several aspects.
Furthermore, partfromthe way it may be exploited in
specifictextsand themeaningswhich may be conveyed through t, it
should not be forgotten hatspace is first nd foremost centralaspect
of theworld,whetherrealor fictional and in whatever medium it may
be transmitted.Thepurpose of the model suggested here was to throw
light on someproblems raised by the status of space within a
fictional worldconveyed through verbalmedium.
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334 GABRIEL ZORANRE FERENCESAlewyn,Richard,1957. Eine Landschaft
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