YSS_2192_02_Sec_4E_5N_Prelim2010

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YISHUN SECONDARY SCHOOL

We Seek, We Strive, We Soar

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION 2010

Name: Reg. No: Class:

Sec 4 N(A) (Thro-trained)/ 4 EXP/ 5 N(A) Date: 13 SEP 2010

GEOGRAPHY ELECTIVE (2192/02) Duration: 1 hr 30 min

PAPER 2

MAX MARKS: 50

READ THESE INSTRUCTIONS FIRST:

Write your name, class and index number on every writing paper.

Section A

Answer one question.

Section B

Answer one question.

Write your answers on the writing papers.

Begin your answer to Section B on a new and separate sheet of paper.

Candidates are encouraged to support their answers with the use of relevant examples.

Sketch maps and diagrams should be drawn whenever they serve to illustrate an answer.

Fasten all the sheets of writing papers together.

Only pencil markings are allowed on the maps. Erase all markings after use.

INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES:

The number of marks is given in brackets[ ] at the end of each question or part question.

This document consists of 7 printed pages including the cover page

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Section A

Answer ONE question from this section.

1 (a) Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a type of forest.

Fig. 1

Identify the type of forest. Use information in Fig. 1 to describe the main features of this forest. [7]

* ground layer is also known as undergrowth layer

(b) Explain how tropical mangrove forest adapts to its environment. [5]

(c) Study the 1: 50 000 map of Victoria Falls.

Use information in the grid area below to describe the likely impacts of deforestation in this area. [5]

32

26 75 80

(d) For a named tropical rainforest area you have studied, assess how successful is the management of tropical rainforests in solving the problems of deforestation.

[8]

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2 (a) Study Table 1, which shows factors affecting the energy of a river.

Table 1

Factor Basin A Basin B Basin C

Gradient of channel 7° 4° 1°

Roughness of the channel Very rough Moderately rough smooth

Amount of rainfall Low Moderate Very high

Size of the drainage basin Big Bigger Biggest

Soil and rock type Permeable Slightly permeable Impermeable

Vegetation cover Very dense Moderately dense Sparse

Use Table 1 to identify and account for the river basin that has the lowest river energy. [6]

(b) Study the 1: 50 000 map of Victoria Falls.

Use information in the grid area below to explain the formation of a river landform, which is form as a result of erosion, that can be found at the upper course of

Zambezi River. [6]

29

10 68 88

(c) With the aid of well-labelled diagrams, describe the formation of the shore platform. [5]

(d) For one or more coastal areas, assess how successful are the hard and soft engineering measures used to protect these areas. [8]

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Section B

Answer ONE question from this section

3 (a) Study Fig. 2, which shows the trends for consumption of meat products per capita.

Fig. 2 Projected trends in per capita consumption of meat products to 2050 kg/person/yr

Adapted from World agriculture: Towards 2030/2050 Interim report Global Perspective Studies Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, June 2006

(i) Use Fig. 2 to compare the changes in global consumption of meat products. [4]

(ii) Explain the likely problems faced by people in these countries given their consumption pattern of meat products. [4]

(b) Study Fig. 3, which shows an interview with a farmer from a less developed country.

“I no longer grow rice like my father and my grandfather used to do. Nowadays, the government encourages us to grow cocoa. I don’t know why, but they give us subsidies and fertilizers to grow cocoa. I think it’s because they can sell to other countries. As long as I can earn more than growing rice, I can feed my family.”

Fig. 3

Source: PHS 2009 Prelim Exam

Use Fig. 3 to describe the factors that may have caused the farmer to change his farming choice. [5]

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(c) Study Fig. 4, which shows an excerpt from a newspaper article on Genetically Modified (GM) Food.

Vigilance needed on GM foods, but not overkill

You are what you eat. But what does that mean in today’s brave new world of genetic engineering?

People are already consuming staples like corn and soya bean – and their many by-products – which are inserted with foreign genes from say, bacteria, to produce crops with a variety of traits, such as being resistance to pests or producing higher yields. Does that mean that consumers will have foreign bacteria doing the backstrokes in their cells?

The harshest opponents of genetically modified foods are from developed countries where people can afford alternatives. But when your stomach is growling, any food is godsend. In Asia alone, close to 800 million people go to bed hungry every night, and food grain production must increase by 50 percent in the next 25 years to feed people adequately.

For the supporters of GM food, GM farming is hailed as the second Green Revolution and can help to end the starvation crippling millions around the globe. This is because it uses less land, pesticides and fertilizers, and can even produce hardy crops from what was previously barren land.

Fig. 4

Source: The Straits Times, Tuesday, January 23, 2001.

Use Fig. 4 and your studies to explain the pros and cons of GM food crops. [4]

(d) With reference to examples, assess the success of chemical fertilisers and irrigation as a measure to manage food problem in the world. [8]

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4 (a) Study Fig. 5, which shows the employment structure of two groups of countries (i.e. A and B).

Fig. 5

Source: ULCES 2002

(i) Use Fig. 5 to explain the different levels of development in the Countries A and B. [6]

(ii) Explain why Bangladesh finds it difficult to raise its level of development. [4]

(b) Study Fig. 6, which shows a report on Guangdong, China.

Guangdong, a southern province of China, has seen extremely rapid economic growth, aided in part by its close trading links with Hong Kong, which borders it. It has been a magnet for foreign investment from or through Hong Kong. Almost all of Hong Kong’s manufacturing sector has shifted to Guangdong by companies in search of cheap land and labour.

Fig. 6

Source: ULCES 2002

Explain if Guangdong is experiencing a spread effect or a backwash effect? [4]

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(c) Study Fig. 7, which shows the headquarters and the factories of an electronics company, and information about its headquarter.

Information about the Company’s Headquarter

� The Headquarter is located where the company began operation.

� It houses the Management, main Finance, and Research and Development (R&D) Departments.

� The R&D Department develops the latest electronic products.

� The Headquarter employs 6 500 workers, all of whom are skilled workers.

Fig. 7

Source: YCSS 2008 Prelim Exam

Use Fig. 7 to explain the core-periphery relationships between the developed countries and the less developed countries. [3]

(d) With reference to examples, assess the success of education and population control measures in improving development in a country. [8]

Headquarter Factory

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Table of Specifications

Question AE (1 + 2) AE (1+3) Total

1 (a) 7

(b) 5

(c) 5

(d) 8

25

2 (a) 6

(b) 6

(c) 5

(d) 8

25

(a) (i) 4

(ii) 4

(b) 5

(c) 4

3

(d) 8

25

4 (a) (i) 6

(ii) 4

(b) 4

(c) 3

(d) 8

25

Suggested Answer

1. (a) Identify Forest

� Tropical Monsoon Forest

Describe Features

� Trees in the canopy layer are 25 to 30m in height.

� The crowns of the trees in the Canopy Layer do not interlock

� They are more spread out than those in a tropical rainforests.

� Plants such as Lianas are found within this layer.

� Lianas are thick woody vines that wind around tree trunks to reach for sunlight.

� Trees in the understorey layer are about 15m in height.

� Grasses grow densely in the undergrowth layer during the wet season.

� They are less dense during the dry season.

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(b) Adaptation

� Mangrove trees such as Avicennia and Sonneratia have aerial roots which are exposed at low tide to allow trees take in oxygen.

� Mangrove trees such as Rhizophora have prop roots and Bruguiera have kneed roots which anchor the trees firmly in the soft muddy soil by increasing surface area of attachment and binding more sediment.

� Mangrove trees are salt-tolerant. Rhizophora and Sonneratia trees are ultrafiltrators since they absorb salt and remove the excess salt by storing it in the old leaves, which then fall off.

� Avicennia trees are salt secretors. They secrete excess salt on their leaves, which are then removed by the wind or rain.

� Mangrove trees have broad, evergreen leaves with downward pointing drip tips to allow excess water to flow off quickly especially during the wet season.

� Their thick and leathery leave surface reduces water loss due through transpiration.

� Rhizophora fruits have elongated structure with sharp tips to help the fruits to drop directly into the soft muddy soil and take root, so as to increase chances of propagation.

� Avicennia trees have buoyant fruits for efficient dispersal by water.

� Flowers are colourful and bright to attract insects to carry out pollination.

(c) � Deforestation affects the nutrient cycle. Fewer leaf litter leads to less decomposed material. This results in less fertile soil.

� Vegetation provides a protective cover for the soil. The absence of vegetation will expose the soil to erosion, especially surface runoffs.

� Eroded materials from surface runoffs may lead to flooding. There might be flooding in Livingstone e.g. in GS 7726 and 7625, as the build-up is next to a river.

� Deforestation promotes soil leaching. Nutrients are being washed deeper into the soil and interrupt the nutrient cycle.

� Deforestation also leads to less transpiration. This reduces the amount of water vapour in the air. This will result in less rainfall. The water level in the two (e.g. GS 7531) lakes may decrease.

There must be at least two inferences to the map details, failing to do so, max 3m.

(d) Level Descriptor Mark

1 Brief description of 1 or 2 measures in controlling deforestation but no details e.g. stop cutting them down/ cut less down

No examples given

No place reference

No supported success e.g. it worked

1-3m

2

2 named examples provided e.g. conservation and controlling forest fire

Place reference given but little detail e.g. Kalimantan, Indonesia

Limited discussion on success and failure e.g. illegal logging has been reduced, rate of felling less

4-6m

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3

Detailed description of 3 to 4 measures in controlling deforestation

3-4 named examples provided e.g. conservation, controlling forest fire and selective logging

Place reference very specific e.g. Betung Kerihun Nature Reserve is a nature reserve in West Kalimantan. World Wildlife Fund collaborates with Indonesian, Brunei and Malaysian governments to prohibit logging companies and commercial farmers from logging and using these areas.

Discussion on success and failure of ALL measures e.g. This protects the diverse range of animals such as orang utans and Sumatran rhinoceros living in the reserve.

Clear statements of degree of success e.g. This protects the diverse range of animals in the reserve but the vastness of the nature reserves in Kalimantan, the remoteness of the logging sites and the shortage of park rangers and nature reserve officials, make it difficult to monitor and detect illegal logging.

7-8m

Conservation

Success

Betung Kerihun Nature Reserve is a nature reserve in West Kalimantan. World Wildlife Fund collaborates with Indonesian, Brunei and Malaysian governments to prohibit logging companies and commercial farmers from logging and using these areas. This protects the diverse range of animals such as orang utans and Sumatran rhinoceros living in the reserve.

The Basic Environmental Law requires an environmental impact assessment for all environment-related projects. Activities like ecotourism that do not damage the environment are allowed and encouraged nature reserves.

Failure

The vastness of the nature reserves in Kalimantan, the remoteness of the logging sites and the shortage of park rangers and nature reserve officials, make it difficult to monitor and detect illegal logging.

Bribery of monitoring officials is common and clearance of forest still carried out.

Controlling forest fire

Success

The Integrated Forest Fires Protection System and the National Fire Management Plan in Indonesia monitor forest fires. It is also illegal to clear forests by burning in Kalimantan and the environment ministry can arrest offenders. Annual forest fire awareness campaigns has been conducted by the government to educate the local people such as villagers on the impacts of forest fires and to discourage them from using fire to clear forests for farmland.

The Indonesian, Malaysian, Singaporean and Bruneian governments established a forest fire information system to control forest fires in the region.

Failure

Haze continues to occur annually in Southeast Asia. Plantation owners still find this the cheapest way clear land by fire. There are also many people who are reluctant to abandon the traditional methods of burning forests to clear land for agriculture. Haze poses economic cum health threats to the nations near Indonesia.

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Controlled Logging

Success

As the sale of timber provides income to Indonesia, logging is allowed but controlled by the MOF to minimize damage in rainforests. The MOF has introduced laws to ensure that forests are carefully logged. Severe penalties, such as fines and imprisonment, are enforced on irresponsible timber companies for offences such as illegal logging. It has also arranged for education and research programmes for timber companies so that they were informed of the damage caused by logging and what could be done to reduce the extent of damage.

For example, selective cutting is encouraged as a sustainable method of logging forests. In selective cutting, commercially valuable trees are first identified and then logged while other non-valuable trees are retained. In this way, much of the forest areas remain undisturbed. In addition, selective cutting has enabled young trees are able to grow to replace old trees as overcrowding at the canopy layer is reduced. Moreover, unlike clear cutting, selective cutting minimizes soil erosion.

Failure

It is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activities. This is due to the lack of manpower and the remoteness of forested areas, which has allowed illegal logging to continue undetected.

A significant variety of plant species could be damaged through selective cutting. For example, when trees are selectively removed, they may affect neighbouring trees as they may be joint by lianas or various plant species growing on them.

Afforestation and reforestation

Success

The Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia, Kalimantan has tried to restore 900 000 hectares of forests annually under Forests and Land Restoration Initiatives. Under this Initiative, timbre companies must replant and retain 25 commercially valuable trees. In addition, afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands that have been abandoned by farmers.

Reforestation is successful because teak trees, not a native species, are planted. Replanting teak trees allows them to be logged at a sustainable rate. Teak trees grow very fast (5 years is all it takes to be able to log). Teak trees can be harvested for sale. East Kalimantan experience success because the project attracted the local’s participation.

Failure

However, replanting teak trees led to the forests losing its original biodiversity. Moreover, the rate of replanting is slower than the rate at which the trees are being cut down. In 2000, up to 90 000 km of forests were replanted as compared to the 250 000 square km of forest that were cleared. Local people are not interested because the money (incentive) given to them is too little.

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2. (a) � Basic A has the lowest river energy.

� Low river energy is a result of low river speed and low volume of the river.

� Among the three basins, Basin A has the gentlest gradient of channel. This results in the lowest speed of the river.

� As Basin A has the roughest of all channels compared to the other two basins, friction between flowing water and the river channel will be higher. This results in the lowest river speed.

� When there is low rainfall in Basin A, it will result in lower volume of river.

� Basin A has very dense vegetation cover. There will be higher interception and infiltration, leading to lesser surface runoff and lower volume of the river.

� Basin A is smallest basin size. Hence its catchment area is smaller and holds lower volume of the river.

� When the soil is permeable, infiltration is high as more water can seep into the ground. This results in lower surface runoff and lower volume in Basin A.

(b) � One feature is the gorge

� Gorges are commonly found at the upper course of the river where rivers flow quickly and erode by hydraulic action. [River flows across a layer of hard resistant rock. It plunges down at a great height to form a waterfall]

� When a river flows through an area with resistant rocks by its sides [The layer of soft less resistant rock underneath the hard resistant rock is easily eroded.]

� It can only erode its channel vertically (Vertical erosion) faster than laterally [It is more rapidly eroded than the layer of more resistant rock above it. This results in the undercutting of the soft less resistant rock.]

� Erosion of the river bed is more rapid than the river banks [Overtime, the lack of support for the overhanging hard resistant rock leads their collapse.]

� Over time, a deep, narrow and steep-sided valley, known as gorge, is formed. [Repeated erosion of the soft less resistant rock and the collapse of the overhang result in retreating upstream.]

OR

� One feature is the waterfall

� When a river flows across rocks of different resistance.

� The river erodes the less resistant rock more rapidly.

� This causes a change in the gradient of the river course.

� Over time, the river plunges from a great height over the ledge to hit the river bed below with tremendous force. A waterfall forms as a result.

� Repeated pounding of the river bed may leave a depression at the base of the waterfall.

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(c)

(i) Waves repeatedly pound against a rocky coast and weaken the rocks, causing line of weakness to form in the rock face. Over time, the waves erode the coast to cut a notch along the line of weakness (between the high tide and low tide mark).

(ii) The notch may be further eroded to form a cave.

(iii) Overhanging part of the notch or cave eventually collapses with repeated pounding of the waves. The part of the coast that is left forms cliff.

(iv) With continual erosion, the cliff recedes inland. Overtime, a shore/wave cut platform develops at the base of the cliff which is exposed during low tide.

(d) Level Descriptor Mark

1 Brief description of 1 or 2 measures but no details e.g. seawalls prevent coastal erosion

No examples given

No place reference

1-3m

2

2 named examples provided e.g. seawalls and planting mangroves

Place reference given but little detail e.g. Great Barrier Reef in Australia

Limited discussion on success and failure e.g. coastal erosion reduced

4-6m

3

Detailed description of 3 to 4 measures in coastal protection

3-4 named examples provided e.g. seawalls, groynes and stablising coastal dunes

Place reference very specific e.g. seawalls built along the coast of Esplanade in Georgetown, Penang (Malaysia) absorbs the energy of the waves

Discussion on success and failure of ALL measures e.g. protects the coast against strong waves, especially during storms.

7-8m

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Clear statements of degree of success e.g. A seawall absorbs the energy of the waves and protects the coast against strong waves. However, a seawall may not protect a coast from erosion in the long run. As waves break against the seawall, the energy of the waves is redirected downwards, to the base of the seawall, resulting in a strong backwash. The backwash wears away the base of the seawall, causing it to weaken and eventually collapse.

Hard engineering includes structures such as seawalls, breakwaters, groynes and gabions to protect the coast from erosion.

To protect the coast from erosion, people have built seawalls in front of cliffs or along the coast. An example is seawalls built along the coast of Esplanade in Georgetown, Penang (Malaysia). A seawall is made of concrete, which absorbs the energy of the waves and protects the coast against strong waves, especially during storms.

However, a seawall may not protect a coast from erosion in the long run. As waves break against the seawall, the energy of the waves is redirected downwards, to the base of the seawall, resulting in a strong backwash. The backwash wears away the base of the seawall, causing it to weaken and eventually collapse. Hence, seawalls have to be carefully maintained. It is also expensive to build seawalls. In England, it can cost S$3 million to build a one kilometre stretch of seawall.

In some places such as in Sussex, England, to protect the beach from erosion, people have built groynes along the beach. A groyne is a low wall built at right angels to prevent materials from being transported away by the longshore drift. This enables the transported materials to accumulate on the other side of the groyne facing the longshore drift.

However, on the other side of the groyne, the beach will not be replenished by materials carried by the longshore drift. Hence, the beach further down the coasts will be eroded away. While a series of groynes can help to reduce this effect, they are expensive to build and spoil the natural beauty of the coastal environment.

Gabions are wire cages usually filled with crushed rocks. These cages are then piled up along the shore to prevent or reduce coastal erosion by weakening the wave energy. They are found along Hornsea Beach (England).

However, this method offers short-term protection (about 5-10years), they need regular maintenance as they easily corroded by sea water or they are affected by excessive trampling and vandalism. If not properly maintained, these wire baskets are unsightly and become a danger along the beach.

Breakwaters are built with one end attached to the coast or built away from the coast. They help to protect the coast and harbour by reducing the force of the high energy waves before they reach the shore. When constructed offshore, they can create a zone of calm water behind them and allow materials to be deposited there to form beaches. In Singapore, breakwaters have been built in East Coast Park, Siloso beach on Sentosa island.

However, zones that are located away from the breakwater will not be protected or receive any new supply of materials and will be eroded away.

Soft engineering involves applying knowledge of natural processes to stabilise the coast and reduce erosion. Such methods include stabilising coastal dunes, planting mangroves, beach nourishment and encouraging the growth of coral reefs. Sometimes, these soft engineering measures have the added advantage of improving natural habitats.

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Coastal dunes act as barriers along the coast and protect human property against coastal erosion and flooding from waves. The dunes also protect a habitat for many animals, including migratory birds. To stabilise dunes at Omaha Beach New Zealand, people have planted vegetation such as marram grass along the coasts. The roots of the vegetation trap and bind the sand together, thus preventing the sand from being blown inland.

While the vegetation can stabilise coastal dunes, they cannot totally prevent erosion. For coastal dunes to be stabilised in the long run, human activities, such as property development and recreational activities need to be minimised along the coast.

Another soft engineering method is beach nourishment. It is practiced in Sentosa Beach, Singapore. This involves adding large amount of sand to a beach that is being eroded. When longshore drift removes the sand from the beach and carries it further down the coast, people bring in sand from other areas and deposit the sand onto the beach again.

However, the effects of beach nourishment usually last for only about ten years. For example, Coral Reefs at Waikiki Beach in Hawaii are destroyed as imported sand gets washed out to sea, covers the corals and deprive them of light. Furthermore, the cost is extremely high because quality beach sand is very expensive and regular maintenance is required. For example, the cost of beach nourishment to renew 24 km of Miami beach in the USA in 2005 had cost S$105 million.

Another soft engineering method is planting mangroves. Mangroves help to trap sediments and reduce coastal erosion. Therefore, as mangrove communities grow and expand seawards, they also help to extend the coastal land seawards. Effectiveness of this measure is seen in lesser damage suffered from 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami in mangrove-rich coastal areas of Bangladesh when compared with areas like Sri Lanka without mangroves.

However, not all coastal regions can support mangroves, especially in areas affected by violent destructive waves. As sediments build up along the coast, the depth of the coast may become shallower and this affects coastal transportation and port activities of countries such as Singapore that depend heavily on maritime trade.

Coral reefs serve as undersea barriers to reduce the impact of wave energy. Artificial reefs can be created along the coast by placing environmentally friendly and durable materials such as steel or concrete on the sea floor. In Maldives, coral growing has been carried out to combat beach erosion on many islands. In Ihuru, Maldives, the large variety of corals has not only reduced the rate of beach erosion but also encouraged the thriving of a large variety of marine animals and organisms, thus sustaining its tourism industry.

However, success of coral reefs growing depends on the cooperation of the various groups of people, industries, fishermen and the governing authorities as they can be easily damaged by reclamation, pollution and human activities. When coral reefs are destroyed, the waves are able to move to the shore at full force and wash away the beaches.

3. (a) (i) � From 1990s to 2050, consumption is expected to increase.

� For developed countries from 84.3 kg/person/yr to 103 kg/person/yr (22%)

� For less developed countries from 18.2 kg/person/yr to 44 kg/person/yr (141.7%)

� The greatest increase is found in the less developed countries’ consumption of meat where for the same period (1990 -2000), it was an increase by 8.5 kg/person/yr.

� Although increase is rapid in the less developed countries, the consumption of meat even in 2050 is not expected to reach anywhere near the levels of the developed countries. (44 kg/person/yr as oppose to 103 kg/person/yr)

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(ii) � One likely problem is rising number of obesity cases.

� This is because a person consumes more nutrients (i.e. fats) than the body can use.

� Another reason is rich food such as meat contains a higher percentage of fats.

� Obesity may lead to health conditions such as high blood pressure.

� It also causes heart disease.

� These diseases may lower productivity when the sick do not report for work.

� Governments may have less money for development projects as bulk is spent on medical facilities and services to look after an increasing number of sick people.

(b) Political

� government policies can encourage farmers to grow more cocoa.

� It provided subsidies and fertilisers

� Other measures can include providing land, facilities, tools, seeds, constructing houses within the plantation estate, processing factories for the harvests and transport infrastructure

Economic

� high worldwide demand for cocoa products e.g. chocolate.

� high demand can lead to higher production of cocoa in this country: cocoa is now popular in all parts of the world in various forms

� government also helps provide the farmers with capital in the form of fertilizers.

Social

� need to feed family and keep them healthier

(c) Pros:

� A large reduction in the use of pesticides and herbicides will be environment friendly and helps farmers save money on these chemicals. For example, bacterium gene inserted into corn to create Bt corn.

� Plants can be developed to withstand greater climatic extremes (such as being drought tolerant) and poorer soils than naturally evolved plants. Hence, crops can produce high yields.

� Plants can be developed to be resistant to key diseases and pests. Hence, crops can produce high yields.

� New farming area could be opened up using adapted plant types.

� Increased production can overcome food shortages and end starvation.

� The creation of Golden Rice, which is enriched with Vitamin A, increase nutritional value of rice. This is important in LDCs 350 000 people become blind each year due to malnourishment

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Cons:

� Transplanted genes in some GM food such as Brazil nut genes in soya beans may cause allergic reactions in some people (another e.g. lectin in potatoes added to protect against aphids).

� European Union has banned the import and cultivation of most GM food crops such as GM pea in fear of the unknown consequences of consuming food that is not natural that leads people to avoid GM food. Even starving nations in Africa like Zambia have rejected GM food imports, fearing the health impact of such food.

� When larvae of Monarch butterfly feed on plants dusted with Bt corn pollen, the larvae grow more slowly and die at a higher rate than larvae that are not exposed to the pollen. This may eventually lead to an extinction Monarch butterfly and hence a loss of biodiversity. Moreover, it would also affect the animals further up the food chain. Furthermore, accidental decrease in population of Monarch butterflies show risks to other species may be possible.

� When the pollen of a pest-resistant crop is carried to compatible natural species, the offspring of the organic crops will also become pest-resistant. Such gene pollution is irreversible and may lead to a loss of natural species in the long run.

� GM plants can cross-breed with wild plants producing superweeds which will be resistant to herbicides and difficult to remove.

� GM crop inputs are controlled tightly by large agrobusinesses as they have patent rights over them and are thus expensive for poor farmers in LDCs. For example, the Monsanto company’s sterile seeds causes farmers to be dependent on it to purchase seeds yearly.

� GM crop inputs utilize advanced technology which farmers have to be trained to use and this may be a problem for lowly educated farmers in LDCs. Hence, poor farmers will not reap the benefits of GM food.

� Farmers’ income can get lowered by an increase in food supply and a decrease in food prices. This will restrict poor farmers in LDCs from improving their standard of living.

(d) Level Descriptor Mark

1 States 1 or 2 suggestions about increase or damage, eg. ‘extra water helps crops grow more’

No examples given

No place reference or very general

No supported success/limitation e.g. ‘and the environment is damaged’

1-3m

2

Suggests two benefits and two problems on how both irrigation and chemicals may increase food eg. ‘extra water helps crops grow more and pesticides stop them being eaten by insects’, ‘water means new land can be used and chemicals make plants grow’

Place reference given but little detail e.g. ‘In America’

Limited discussion on success and limitation e.g. ‘but runs off and affects the river and streams’, or ‘but might be a poison to birds’

4-6m

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3

Suggests 3 or more well elaborated/detailed suggestions (often linked to location chosen) eg. ‘ 80% agricultural output in Pakistan relies on irrigation’, or ‘ land that was once desert in Egypt now grows crops with water from the Aswan High Dam’

Place reference is fairly specific eg. ‘most of this water is diverted from the Indus’, ‘ most farm land in the Murray Darling Basin is now irrigated’

Detailed /supported extent/counter argument clear, eg. ‘but soil quality is reduced when salt is left behind after evaporation’, ‘birds eat crops covered in pesticides which make their eggs infertile’

7-8m

Irrigation: Success

� Irrigation allows greater areas of land to be farmed as it enables farmers to control the amount of water supplied to crops. Hence, it is usually practiced in countries where rainfall is insufficient such as Egypt or countries where rainfall is irregular such as India. Owing to irrigation, farmers in India no longer need to depend on rain or worry during dry seasons. They can grow two to three rice crops in a year instead of one crop without irrigation. Thus, food production can be increased.

Irrigation: Failure

� Over-irrigation leads to waterlogging. Waterlogging causes the soil to become saturated, and prevents air and nutrients from reaching the roots of the crops. Crops wither and die, thus crop output and food production is reduced.

� Continuous cycles of flood irrigation result in salinisation. When the water in the field (which contains naturally occurring salts) is used up by plants or has evaporated into the atmosphere, the salts in the water are left behind. Over time the salts in the soil build up, thus lowering the quality of soil. Plants die when their roots come into contact with saline water as salt reduces ability of plants to take in water and transpire.

� In Egypt, the construction of the Aswan High Dam across the River Nile disrupts the flow of water. This leads to sediments and minerals trapped in the reservoir behind the dam. The minerals will then dissolve in the water and when this water is used to irrigate the fields, it will increase the salinity of the soil.

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Chemical Fertilisers: Success

� The application of chemicals such as fertilisers help to add nutrients to the soil to encourage growth of crops. There is no need for a fallow period before the next cultivation, and hence double cropping can be carried out and this will increase yields.

� Farming regions, eg Mekong Delta, Ganges Delta, Irrawaddy Delta & Plains of the Chao Phraya of Thailand have high rice yields due to use of fertilizers

Chemical Fertilisers: Failure

� Chemical fertilizers are not able to restore all the nutrients that have been used up (only 2 of the 20 nutrients are restored by chemical fertilisers).

� Excess chemical fertilisers used in farms may be washed by rain into nearby rivers or lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which is the rapid growth of algae by the excess fertilizers in water bodies. Eventually, many aquatic plants and animals die from lack of oxygen. The algae bloom also prevents light from reaching below, killing the aquatic plants and disrupting water ecosystem.

4. (a) (i) � Japan & USA have about 25-30% in the tertiary sector, about 75-80% in the secondary sector, with a low 5-10% in the primary industry.

� Nigeria and Bangladesh have about 12-18% in the tertiary sector, 25-28% in the secondary sector and a high 55-63% in the primary sector

� DCs like USA and Japan have less emphasis on primary industries as it generates less wealth.

� They focus on secondary and tertiary sector as these activities generate more income and are productive in the long-run.

� On the other hand, LDCs like Nigeria and Bangladesh emphasize on the primary sector more as agricultural development has to keep pace with the high population growth.

� Such countries have a low emphasis on the tertiary and secondary industries especially due to lack of skills and funding for such value-added industries

(ii) � a very large population with very high birth rates � very high demand on natural resources � the national budget is spent on meeting the people’s basic needs so there is little left for national development

� low literacy level and low level of technology � processes are carried out in a traditional way � low productivity � largely subsistence level

� processes are carried out in a traditional way � low productivity � Bangladesh cannot manufacture goods for the world market � earnings are low

� low level of technology � does not have the technology to predict natural disasters � when these natural disasters strike, they hit the country hard with a lot of deaths and damage � a lot of money is spent trying to repair the damage

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(b) � Guangdong is experiencing the ‘spread effect’.

Reasons

� There is a spread of wealth from Hong Kong, the core. Employment opportunities were created. These led to economic growth of Guangdong.

� Hong Kong’s manufacturing sector set up industries in Guangdong to reduce manufacturing costs, therefore stimulating growth in the latter.

� There is a inflow of foreign investments from Hong Kong, the core, and other countries through Hong Kong

(c) � Japan, where the headquarter is sited, is a developed country and a core. Core is affluent and possesses people with high level of education and advanced technology

� South America and Southeast Asia are where some of the factories are sited. They are LDCs and the periphery. Periphery is poor, lower literacy rate and low level of technology

� Cheap labour/land at periphery used by core

� Concentration of factories in the periphery, most of its investment in the core (DC/Japan)

� Finance, R&D department in core

(d) Level Descriptor Mark

1 Only simple identification of the 2 methods

No comment on how successful or not they are

Eg.

Yes, methods like education and population control used have been effective

No, I do not agree that the methods used are effective

1-3m

2

More detailed explanation of choice, and with a more balanced view of the method, bringing in some disadvantages

Some indication of awareness of other view

4-6m

3

Detailed explanation of choice. A balanced view. Clear indication of other views.

Conclusion: Therefore, in order for the measures to be truly effective, the government must work together with the local government and the local people so as to gain their understanding and trust.

7-8m

Education

� In less developed areas, the standard of education is generally low.

� There are usually few schools and many people tend to be illiterate.

� This has a negative effect on the people as they are often stuck in low paying agricultural jobs and are not able to escape from poverty.

Education: Success

� In Thailand, the government started the Hill Tribe Education Project to increase the education standards of people living in the hill tribes.

� Formal and informal education programmes were developed to suit the needs of the hill tribe communities.

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� E.g. The people were taught the Thai language and Mathematics, as well as basic life and social skills.

� Volunteer teachers were also brought in from the more developed regions to live with the hill tribe community and to teach them.

� A community learning centre was built in each village and both children and adults could have access to education.

� As the villagers learnt about sustainable farming methods, this helped them to increase agricultural production as well.

� Increased educational standards helped the tribe people to find employment in the cities, which helped to increase their income.

Education: Failure

� The hill tribes live in small communities, making it difficult for the government to reach out to large numbers of people.

� Communication barriers between the tribe people and the volunteers also made it a big challenge.

Population

� There is a need to control population growth as overpopulation will result in shortage of jobs and housing, limited access to education, as well as too many people competing for too few resources.

Population: Success

� In the 1970s, the Chinese government realized that there was a need to control the population as it was growing too quickly.

� As a result, it implemented the ‘One Child’ policy, to ensure that each couple in China had only one child.

� Local governments devised methods to reach out to the people.

� Many volunteers were recruited to promote late marriage, late childbearing and the use of contraceptives in order to keep birth rates low.

� Birth rates have dropped since the implementation of the policy.

� In fact, it is so successful that the government has to make changes to the policy so that they would be enough people in the workforce, and enough people to support the elderly in future.

Population: Failure

� It was difficult to implement the policy in the rural areas as people in the rural areas tended to have more children so that they would have more hands to help out on the farm.

� Couples in China also prefer to have sons, so they would continue to bear children until they get one.

Conclusion/ Link back

Education is one of the key pillars of developing a country as it trains up the population to work and engineer future development for itself instead of relying on foreign aid. However, it is not always the case that an LDC is able to install formal education easily due to circumstances like the lack of funding. Other developmental strategies such as controlling population growth in order to shift funds from feeding the population to development projects are necessary. It must be clear also that the problem is not with the development strategy per say, but rather, whether the strategy is appropriate and properly administered in particular contexts.