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ARCHAEOLOGY

Archaeologyisthestudyofthehumanpastusingmaterialremains.Theseremainscanbeanyobjectsthatpeoplecreated,modified,orused.

Portableremainsareusuallycalledartifacts.Artifactsincludetools,clothing,anddecorations.Non-portableremains,suchaspyramidsorpost-holes,arecalledfeatures.

Archaeologistsuseartifactsandfeaturestolearnhowpeoplelivedinspecifictimesandplaces.Theywanttoknowwhatthesepeople’sdailyliveswerelike,howtheyweregoverned,howtheyinteractedwitheachother,andwhattheybelievedandvalued.

Sometimes,artifactsandfeaturesprovidetheonlycluesaboutanancientcommunityorcivilization.Prehistoriccivilizationsdidnotleavebehindwrittenrecords,sowecannotreadaboutthem.

UnderstandingwhyancientculturesbuiltthegiantstonecirclesatStonehenge,England,forinstance,remainsachallenge5,000yearsafterthefirstmonolithswereerected.ArchaeologistsstudyingStonehengedonothaveancientmanuscriptstotellthemhowculturesusedthefeature.Theyrelyontheenormousstonesthemselves—howtheyarearrangedandthewaythesitedevelopedovertime.

Mostcultureswithwritingsystemsleavewrittenrecordsthatarchaeologistsconsultandstudy.Someofthemostvaluablewrittenrecordsareeverydayitems,suchasshoppinglistsandtaxforms.Latin,thelanguageofancient

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Rome,helpsarchaeologistsunderstandartifactsandfeaturesdiscoveredinpartsoftheRomanEmpire.TheuseofLatinshowshowfartheempire’sinfluenceextended,andtherecordsthemselvescantellarchaeologistswhatfoodswereavailableinanarea,howmuchtheycost,andwhatbuildingsbelongedtofamiliesorbusinesses.

Manyancientcivilizationshadcomplexwritingsystemsthatarchaeologistsandlinguistsarestillworkingtodecipher.ThewrittensystemoftheMayanlanguage,forinstance,remainedamysterytoscholarsuntilthe20thcentury.TheMayawereoneofthemostpowerfulpre-ColumbiancivilizationsinNorthAmerica,andtheirCentralAmericantemplesandmanuscriptsareinscribedwithacollectionofsquaredglyphs,orsymbols.Aseriesofcirclesandlinesrepresentsnumbers.

BydecipheringtheMayanscript,archaeologistswereabletotracetheancestryofMayankingsandchartthedevelopmentoftheircalendarandagriculturalseasons.UnderstandingthebasicsoftheMayanwritingsystemhelpsarchaeologistsdiscoverhowMayanculturefunctioned—howtheyweregoverned,howtheytradedwithsomeneighborsandwenttowarwithothers,whattheyate,andwhatgodstheyworshipped.

AsarchaeologistsbecomemorefluentinMayanwriting,theyaremakingnewdiscoveriesaboutthecultureeveryday.Today,somearchaeologistsworkwithlinguistsandpoetstopreservetheonce-lostMayanlanguage.

HistoryofArchaeology

Theword“archaeology”comesfromtheGreekword“arkhaios,”whichmeans“ancient.”Althoughsomearchaeologistsstudylivingcultures,mostarchaeologistsconcernthemselveswiththedistantpast.

Peoplehavedugupmonumentsandcollectedartifactsforthousandsofyears.Often,thesepeoplewerenotscholars,butlootersandgraverobberslookingto

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makemoneyorbuilduptheirpersonalcollections.

Forinstance,graverobbershavebeenplunderingthemagnificenttombsofEgyptsincethetimethePyramidswerebuilt.GraverobbingwassuchacommoncrimeinancientEgyptthatmanytombshavehiddenchamberswherethefamilyofthedeceasedwouldplacetreasures.

InEgyptinthemid-1800s,anEgyptianmansearchingforalostgoatstumbledacrossthetombofPharaohRamsesI.(Manyarchaeologistsdoubtthisstoryandsaygraverobbers,workingasanorganizedgroup,routinelyscoutedandplunderedmanytombsinthearea.)RamsesIruledforashorttimeinthe1290sBCE.Besidesthebodyofthepharaoh,thetombheldartifactssuchaspottery,paintings,andsculpture.Themansoldthemummiesandartifactsfromthetombtoanyonewhowouldpay.

ThemummyofRamsesIwoundupinamuseuminNiagaraFalls,Ontario,Canada,whereitremaineduntilthemuseumclosedin1999.TheCanadianmuseumsoldtheEgyptiancollectiontotheMichaelC.CarlosMuseuminAtlanta,Georgia,whichconfirmedthemummy’sroyalstatusthroughtheuseofCTscanners,X-rays,radiocarbondating,computerimaging,andothertechniques.RamsesIwasreturnedtoEgyptin2003.

Oneofthemostwell-knownarchaeologicalfindsisthetombofPharaohTutankhamun,alsoknownasKingTut.UnlikemanyotherEgyptiantombs,graverobbershadneverdiscoveredKingTut.Hisrestingplacelayundisturbedforthousandsofyears,untilitwasdiscoveredin1922.InadditiontomummiesofTutankhamunandhisfamily,thetombcontainedsome5,000artifacts.

Manyearlyarchaeologistsworkedintheserviceofinvadingarmies.WhenGen.NapoleonBonaparteofFrancesuccessfullyinvadedEgyptin1798,hebroughtartists,archaeologists,andhistorianstodocumenttheconquest.Napoleon’stroopstookhomehundredsoftonsofEgyptianartifacts:columns,coffins,stone

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tablets,monumentalstatues.Today,theseEgyptianantiquitiestakeupentirefloorsoftheLouvreMuseuminParis,France.

Somearchaeologistsofthistimewerewealthyadventurers,explorers,andmerchants.Theseamateurarchaeologistsoftenhadasincereinterestinthecultureandartifactstheystudied.However,theirworkisoftenregardedasanexampleofcolonialismandexploitation.Theso-calledElginMarblesareanexampleofthiscontroversy.

In1801,GreecehadbeentakenoverbytheOttomanEmpire.TheBritishambassadortotheOttomanEmpire,LordElgin,receivedpermissiontoremovehalfofthesculpturesfromthefamousAcropolisofAthens,Greece.ThesemarblesculptureswereapartofbuildingssuchastheParthenon.LordElginclaimedhewantedtoprotectthevaluablesculpturesfromdamagecausedbyconflictbetweentheGreeksandtheOttomans.

ThegovernmentofGreecehasbeenlobbyingforthereturnoftheElginMarbleseversince.MostGreeksviewthesculpturesaspartoftheirculturalheritage.GreecehascutoffdiplomaticrelationstotheUnitedKingdomseveraltimes,demandingthereturnofthesculptures,whichremainintheBritishMuseuminLondon.

Eventually,archaeologyevolvedintoamoresystematicdiscipline.Scientistsstartedusingstandardweightsandmeasuresandotherformalizedmethodsforrecordingandremovingartifacts.Theyrequireddetaileddrawingsanddraftsoftheentiredigsite,aswellasindividualpieces.Archaeologistsbegantoworkwithclassicists,historians,andlinguiststodevelopaunifiedpictureofthepast.

Inthe20thcentury,archaeologistsbegantore-assesstheirimpactontheculturesandenvironmentswheretheydig.Today,inmostcountries,archaeologicalremainsbecomethepropertyofthecountrywheretheywerefound,regardlessofwhofindsthem.Egypt,forexample,isscatteredwitharchaeologicalsitessponsoredbyAmericanuniversities.Theseteamsmust

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obtainpermissionfromtheEgyptiangovernmenttodigatthesites,andallartifactsbecomethepropertyofEgypt.

DisciplinesofArchaeology

Archaeologyisbasedonthescientificmethod.Archaeologistsaskquestionsanddevelophypotheses.Theyuseevidencetochooseadigsite,thenusescientificsamplingtechniquestoselectwhereonthesitetodig.Theyobserve,record,categorize,andinterpretwhattheyfind.Thentheysharetheirresultswithotherscientistsandthepublic.

Underwaterarchaeologistsstudymaterialsatthebottomoflakes,rivers,andoceans.Underwaterarchaeologyencompassesanyprehistoricandhistoricperiods,andalmostallsub-disciplinesasarchaeology.Artifactsandfeaturesaresimplysubmerged.

Artifactsstudiedbyunderwaterarchaeologistscouldbetheremainsofashipwreck.In1985,NationalGeographicExplorer-in-ResidenceDr.RobertBallardhelpedlocatethewreckofRMSTitanic,whichsankintheNorthAtlanticOceanin1912,killingabout1,500people.Ballardandotherscientistsusedsonartolocatethewreck,whichhadbeenlostsincetheoceanlinersank.ByexploringTitanicusingremote-controlledcameras,Ballardandhiscrewdiscoveredfactsabouttheshipwreck(suchasthefacttheshipbrokeintwolargepiecesasitsank)aswellashundredsofartifacts,suchasfurniture,lightingfixtures,andchildren’stoys.

Underwaterarchaeologyincludesmorethanjustshipwrecks,however.SitesincludehuntcampsonthecontinentalshelfoftheGulfofMexico,andportionsoftheancientcityofAlexandria,Egypt,submergedduetoearthquakesandsealevelrise.

Thisbasicframeworkcarriesacrossmanydifferentdisciplines,orareasof

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study,withinarchaeology.

PrehistoricandHistoricArchaeologyTherearetwomajordisciplinesofarchaeology:prehistoricarchaeologyandhistoricarchaeology.Withinthesegroupsaresubdisciplines,basedonthetimeperiodstudied,thecivilizationstudied,orthetypesofartifactsandfeaturesstudied.

Prehistoricarchaeologydealswithcivilizationsthatdidnotdevelopwriting.Artifactsfromthesesocietiesmayprovidetheonlyclueswehaveabouttheirlives.ArchaeologistsstudyingtheClovispeople,forinstance,haveonlyarrowheads—calledprojectilepoints—andstonetoolsasartifacts.TheuniqueprojectilepointswerefirstdiscoveredinClovis,NewMexico,intheUnitedStates,andtheculturewasnamedafterthetown.So-calledClovispointsestablishtheClovispeopleasoneofthefirstinhabitantsofNorthAmerica.ArchaeologistshavedatedClovispointstoabout13,000yearsago.

Asubdisciplineofprehistoricarchaeologyispaleopathology.Paleopathologyisthestudyofdiseaseinancientcultures.(Paleopathologyisalsoasubdisciplineofhistoricalarchaeology.)Paleopathologistsmayinvestigatethepresenceofspecificdiseases,whatareaslackedcertaindiseases,andhowdifferentcommunitiesreactedtodisease.Bystudyingthehistoryofadisease,paleopathologistsmaycontributetoanunderstandingofthewaymoderndiseasesprogress.Paleopathologistscanalsofindcluesaboutpeople’soverallhealth.Bystudyingtheteethofancientpeople,forexample,paleopathologistscandeducewhatkindsoffoodtheyate,howoftentheyate,andwhatnutrientsthefoodscontained.

Historicarchaeologyincorporateswrittenrecordsintoarchaeologicalresearch.OneofthemostfamousexamplesofhistoricarchaeologyisthediscoveryanddeciphermentoftheRosettaStone.TheRosettaStoneisalargeslabofmarblediscoverednearRashid,Egypt,byFrencharchaeologistsin1799.Itbecamean

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importanttoolofhistoricarchaeology.

ThestoneisinscribedwithadecreemadeonbehalfofPharaohPtolemyV.Thedecreewaswrittenandcarvedintothestoneinthreedifferentlanguages:hieroglyphic,demotic,andGreek.Hieroglyphicsarethepicture-symbolsusedforformaldocumentsinancientEgypt.DemoticistheinformalscriptofancientEgypt.BeforethediscoveryoftheRosettaStone,Egyptologistsdidnotunderstandhieroglyphicsordemotic.Theycould,however,understandGreek.UsingtheGreekportionoftheRosettaStone,archaeologistsandlinguistswereabletotranslatethetextanddecipherhieroglyphs.ThisknowledgehascontributedvastlytoourunderstandingofEgyptianhistory.

Historicarchaeologycontributestomanydisciplines,includingreligiousstudies.TheDeadSeaScrolls,forinstance,areacollectionofabout900documents.Thetightlyrolledparchmentandotherwritingsheetswerefoundbetween1947and1956in11cavesnearQumran,WestBank,neartheDeadSea.AmongthescrollsaretextsfromtheHebrewBible,writteninHebrew,Aramaic,andGreek.

TheDeadSeaScrollsaretheoldestversionsofBiblicaltextseverfound,datingfrombetweenthethirdcenturyBCEtothefirstcenturyCE.Thescrollsalsocontaintexts,psalms,andpropheciesthatarenotpartoftoday’sBible.DiscoveryofthescrollshasincreasedourknowledgeofthedevelopmentofJudaismandChristianity.

Asubdisciplineofhistoricarchaeologyisindustrialarchaeology.IndustrialarchaeologistsstudymaterialsthatwerecreatedorusedaftertheIndustrialRevolutionofthe1700sand1800s.TheIndustrialRevolutionwasstrongestinWesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,somostindustrialarchaeologistsstudyartifactsfoundthere.

OneofthemostimportantsitesforindustrialarchaeologistsistheIronbridgeGorgeinShropshire,England.TheRiverSevernrunsthroughthegorge,andduringtheIndustrialRevolution,itallowedforthetransportofrawmaterials

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suchascoal,limestone,andiron.Infact,theworld’sfirstironbridgespanstheSevernthere.Bystudyingartifactsandfeatures(suchastheironbridge),industrialarchaeologistsareabletotracethearea’seconomicdevelopmentasitmovedfromagriculturetomanufacturingandtrade.

OtherDisciplinesEthnoarchaeologistsstudyhowpeopleuseandorganizeobjectstoday.Theyusethisknowledgetounderstandhowpeopleusedtoolsinthepast.ArchaeologistsresearchingtheancientSancultureofsouthernAfrica,forinstance,studythewaymodernSanculturefunctions.Untilthemid-20thcentury,theSan,maintainedasomewhatnomadiclifestylebasedonhuntingandgathering.AlthoughtheSanculturehadevolvedsignificantly,archaeologistsstudyingthetoolsofthemodernSancouldstillstudythewayancientSantrackedandhuntedanimalsandgatherednativeplants.

Environmentalarchaeologistshelpusunderstandtheenvironmentalconditionsthatinfluencedpeopleinthepast.Sometimes,environmentalarchaeologyiscalledhumanpaleoecology.EnvironmentalarchaeologistsdiscoveredthattheexpansionoftheTaquara/ItararépeopleoftheBrazilianhighlandsiscloselylinkedwiththeexpansionoftheevergreenforestthere.Theforestgrewastheclimatebecamewetter.AstheforestprovidedmoreresourcestotheTaquara/Itararépeople(timber,aswellasplantsandanimalsthatdependedontheevergreentrees),theywereabletoexpandtheirterritory.

Experimentalarchaeologistsreplicatethetechniquesandprocessespeopleusedtocreateoruseobjectsinthepast.Often,re-creatinganancientworkshoporhomehelpsexperimentalarchaeologistsunderstandtheprocessormethodusedbyancientpeopletocreatefeaturesorartifacts.OneofthemostfamousexamplesofexperimentalarchaeologyistheKon-Tiki,alargeraftbuiltbyNorwegianexplorerThorHeyerdahl.In1947,HeyerdahlsailedtheKon-TikifromSouthAmericatoPolynesiatoshowthatancientmariners,withthesametoolsandtechnology,couldhavenavigatedthevastPacificOcean.

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ForensicarchaeologistssometimesworkwithgeneticiststosupportorquestionDNAevidence.Moreoften,theyexcavatetheremainsofvictimsofmurderorgenocideinareasofconflict.Forensicarchaeologyisimportanttotheunderstandingofthe“KillingFields”ofCambodia,forinstance.TheKillingFieldsarethesitesofmassgravesofthousandsofvictimsoftheKhmerRougeregimeofthe1970s.AfterthefalloftheKhmerRouge,forensicarchaeologistsstudiedtheremainsofthebodiesintheKillingFields,discoveringhowandwhentheydied.TheforensicarchaeologistshelpedestablishthattheKhmerRougeusedstarvationandoverwork,aswellasdirectkilling,tosilenceopponentsoftheregime.

Archaeologistsworkinginthefieldofculturalresourcemanagementhelpassessandpreserveremainsonsiteswhereconstructionisscheduledtooccur.Archaeologistsworkingasculturalresourcemanagersoftencollaboratewithlocalgovernmentstobalancetheinfrastructureandcommercialneedsofacommunitywithhistoricandculturalinterestsrepresentedbyartifactsandfeaturesfoundonconstructionsites.

WheretoDig?

Mostarchaeologyinvolvesdigging.Windsandfloodscarrysand,dustandsoil,depositingthemontopofabandonedfeaturesandartifacts.Thesedepositsbuildupovertime,buryingtheremains.Sometimescatastrophes,likevolcaniceruptions,speedupthisburialprocess.Inplaceswhereearthhasbeencarvedaway—likeintheGrandCanyonintheU.S.stateofArizona—youcanactuallyseethelayersofsoilthathavebuiltupoverthecenturies,likelayersofacake.

Citiesandcommunitiesalsotendtobebuiltinlayers.Rome,Italy,hasbeenanurbancenterforthousandsofyears.ThestreetsofdowntownRometodayareseveralmetershigherthantheywereduringthetimeofJuliusCaesar.CenturiesofRomanshavebuiltitup—medievalhomeontopofancienthome,modernhomeontopofmedievalhome.

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Establishingadigsiteinaninhabitedareacanbeaverydifficultprocess.Notonlyaretheinhabitantsoftheareainconvenienced,archaeologistsdon’tknowwhattheymayfind.ArchaeologistslookingforanancientRomanfortress,forinstance,mayhavetofirstexcavateaRenaissancebakeryandmedievalhospital.

Becausemostartifactslieunderground,scientistshavedevelopedmethodstohelpthemfigureoutwheretheyshoulddig.Sometimestheychoosesitesbasedonoldmythsandstoriesaboutwherepeoplelivedorwhereeventsoccurred.TheancientcityofTroy,writtenaboutbyGreekpoetHomerasearlyas1190BCE,wasthoughttobeaworkoffiction.Homer’sepicpoemtheIliadwasnamedafterTroy,whichtheGreeksknewasIlion.UsingtheIliadasaguide,GermanamateurarchaeologistHeinrichSchliemanndiscoveredtheruinsofthecitynearthetownofHisarlik,Turkey,in1870.Schliemann’sfindhelpedprovideevidencethattheTrojanWarmayhaveactuallytakenplace,andthatancientmanuscriptsmaybebasedonfact.

Sometimes,archaeologistsusehistoricalmapstofindancientartifacts.In1973,forinstance,archaeologistsusedhistoricalmapsandmoderntechnologytolocatethewreckoftheUSSMonitor,an“ironclad”shipusedbytheUnionduringtheCivilWar.TheMonitorsunkinastormoffthecoastofCapeHatteras,NorthCarolina,in1862.Afterarchaeologistsidentifiedtheironclad,theUnitedStatesdesignatedtheareaasthenation’sfirstmarinesanctuary.

Beforesecuringasite,anarchaeologicalteamsurveysthearea,lookingforsignsofremains.Thesemightincludeartifactsonthegroundorunusualmoundsintheearth.Newtechnologyhasgreatlyincreasedtheirabilitytosurveyanarea.Forexample,aerialandsatelliteimagerycanshowpatternsthatmightnotbevisiblefromtheground.

Othertechnologiesgivecluesaboutwhatliesunderthesurface.These

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techniquesinvolveradarandsonar.Radarandsonartechnologiesoftenuseradiowaves,electricalcurrents,andlasers.Archaeologistssendthesesignalsintotheearth.Asthesignalshitsomethingsolid,theybouncebackuptothesurface.Scientistsstudythetimeandpathsthesignalstaketofamiliarizethemselveswiththeundergroundlandscape.

Accidentalfindscanalsoleadarchaeologiststodigsites.Forinstance,farmersplowingtheirfieldsmightcomeacrosssherdsofpottery.Aconstructioncrewmightdiscoverruinsbeneathabuildingsite.

Anothermonumentaldiscoverywasmadebyaccident.In1974,agriculturalworkersinXian,China,werediggingawell.TheydiscoveredtheremainsofwhatturnedouttobeanenormousmausoleumforQinShiHuangdi,China’sfirstemperor.Thecomplexincludes8,000life-sizedclaysoldiers,horses,chariots,andartillery,popularlyknownastheTerraCottaWarriors.ThearchaeologicalresearchsurroundingtheTerraCottaWarriorshasprovidedinsightontheorganizationandleadershipstyleofQinShiHuangdiandthedevelopmentofChineseculture.

Onceasiteischosen,archaeologistsmustgetpermissiontodigfromthelandowner.Ifitispublicland,theymustobtaintheproperpermitsfromthelocal,state,orfederalgovernment.

Beforemovingasinglegrainofdirt,archaeologistsmakemapsoftheareaandtakedetailedphotographs.Oncetheybegindigging,theywilldestroytheoriginallandscape,soitisimportanttorecordhowthingslookedbeforehand.

Thelaststepbeforediggingistodividethesiteintoagridtokeeptrackofthelocationofeachfind.Thenarchaeologistschoosesamplesquaresfromthegridtodig.Thisallowsthearchaeologicalteamtoformacompletestudyofthearea.Theyalsoleavesomeplotsonthegriduntouched.Archaeologistsliketopreserveportionsoftheirdigsitesforfuturescientiststostudy—scientistswho

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mayhavebettertoolsandtechniquesthanareavailabletoday.

Forexample,duringtheGreatDepressioninthe1930s,programstocreatejobsledtomanyarchaeologicaldigsaroundtheUnitedStates.Somescientistsonthesedigsremovedartifacts,suchaspottery,butthrewawaycharcoalandanimalbones.Theseitemswereconsideredjunk.Today,scientistsareabletocarbon-datethecharcoalandanalyzethebonestoseewhatkindsofanimalspeopleweredomesticatingandeatingatthetime.Itisimportantthatarchaeologiststodaykeepsomepartsofeachsitepristine.

Notallarchaeologyinvolvesdiggingintheearth.Archaeologistsandengineersworkwithsophisticatedtechnologytoprobetheearthbelowwithoutdisturbingtheground.NationalGeographicEmergingExplorerDr.AlbertYu-MinLinleadsaninnovativearchaeologicalprojectcenteredinMongolia.TheValleyoftheKhansprojectisusingdigitalimaging,aerialphotography,radar,anddigitalsurveyingtolocatethetombofGenghisKhan.Usingsatellitetechnology,LinandhisteamcanaccessinformationabouttheprojectwithoutdisturbingthelandorevengoingtoMongolia.

TheBigDig

Theprocessofresearchingandsecuringadigsitecantakeyears.Diggingisthefieldworkofarchaeology.Onoccasion,archaeologistsmightneedtomoveearthwithbulldozersandbackhoes.Usually,however,archaeologistsusetoolssuchasbrushes,handshovels,andeventoothbrushestoscrapeawaytheeartharoundartifacts.

Themostcommontoolthatarchaeologistsusetodigisaflattrowel.Atrowelisahand-heldshovelusedforsmoothingaswellasdigging.Archaeologistsusetrowelstoslowlyscrapeawaysoil.Forverysmallordelicateremains,archaeologistsmightalsodigwithdentalpicks,spoons,orveryfineblades.Often,theywillsiftdirtthroughafinemeshscreen.Tinyremains,suchasbeads,canoftenbefoundthisway.

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Archaeologiststakelotsofnotesandphotographsalongeachstepoftheprocess.Sometimestheyincludeaudioandvideorecordings.Globalpositioningsystem(GPS)unitsanddatafromgeographicinformationsystems(GIS)helpthemmapthelocationofvariousfeatureswithahighlevelofprecision.

Whenarchaeologistsfindremains,theyareoftenbrokenordamagedafterhundredsoreventhousandsofyearsunderground.Sunlight,rain,soil,animals,bacteria,andothernaturalprocessescancauseartifactstoerode,rust,rot,break,andwarp.

Sometimes,however,naturalprocessescanhelppreservematerials.Forexample,sedimentsfromfloodsorvolcaniceruptionscanencasematerialsandpreservethem.Inonecase,thechillofanAlpineglacierpreservedthebodyofamanformorethan5,300years!Thediscovereroftheso-called“Iceman,”foundintheAlpsbetweenSwitzerlandandItaly,thoughthewasarecentvictimofmurder,oroneoftheglacier’screvasses.Forensicarchaeologistsstudyinghisbodyweresurprisedtolearnthathewasamurdervictim—thecrimejusttookplacemorethan5,000yearsago.

UncoveredArtifacts

Asartifactsareuncovered,thearchaeologicalteamrecordseverystepoftheprocessthroughphotos,drawings,andnotes.Oncetheartifactshavebeencompletelyremoved,theyarecleaned,labeled,andclassified.

Particularlyfragileordamagedartifactsaresenttoaconservator.Conservatorshavespecialtraininginpreservingandrestoringartifactssotheyarenotdestroyedwhenexposedtoairandlight.Textiles,includingclothingandbedding,areespeciallythreatenedbyexposure.Textileconservatorsmustbefamiliarwithclimate,aswellasthechemicalcompositionoftheclothanddyes,inordertopreservetheartifacts.

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In1961,SwedisharchaeologistsrecoveredtheshipVasa,whichsankin1628.ConservatorsprotectedthedelicateoakstructureofVasabysprayingitwithpolyethyleneglycol(PEG).TheshipwassprayedwithPEGfor17years,andallowedtodryfornine.Today,Vasasitsinitsownenormousmuseum,ahallmarkofSwedishheritage.

Thentheartifactsaresenttoalabforanalysis.Thisisusuallythemosttime-consumingpartofarchaeology.Foreverydayspentdigging,archaeologistsspendseveralweeksprocessingtheirfindsinthelab.

Allofthisanalysis—counting,weighing,categorizing—isnecessary.Archaeologistsusetheinformationtheyfindandcombineitwithwhatotherscientistshavediscovered.Theyusethecombineddatatoaddtothestoryofhumanity’spast.Whendidpeopledeveloptools,andhowdidtheyusethem?Whatdidtheyusetomakeclothing?Didtheirclothingstylesindicatetheirsocialranksandroles?Whatdidtheyeat?Didtheyliveinlargegroupsorsmallerfamilyunits?Didtheytradewithpeoplefromotherregions?Weretheywarlikeorpeaceful?Whatweretheirreligiouspractices?Archaeologistsaskallofthesequestionsandmore.

Thescientistswriteuptheirfindingsandpublishtheminscientificjournals.Otherscientistscanlookatthedataanddebatetheinterpretations,helpingusgetthemostaccuratestory.Publicationalsoletsthepublicknowwhatscientistsarelearningaboutourhistory.

Vocabulary

TermPartofSpeech

Definition

abandoned adjectivedeserted.accurate adjectiveexact.

Acropolis nounlarge,flat-toppedhillthatisthehighestpointofthecityofAthens,Greece.

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aerialphotograph nounpictureofpartoftheEarth'ssurface,usuallytakenfromanairplane.

agriculture nountheartandscienceofcultivatingthelandforgrowingcrops(farming)orraisinglivestock(ranching).

alpineglacier noun massoficethatmovesdownwardfromamountain.

Alpspluralnoun

(highestpeak:MontBlanc,4,807meters/15,771feet)largemountainrangeinsouthernEurope.

amateur adjectivepersonwhostudiesandworksatanactivityorinterestwithoutfinancialbenefitorbeingformallytrainedinit.

ambassador nounpersonwhorepresentsaplace,organization,oridea.

analysis nounprocessofstudyingaproblemorsituation,identifyingitscharacteristicsandhowtheyarerelated.

ancestry noun family(genealogical)orhistoricalbackground.ancient adjectiveveryold.antiquity noun ancientobject.

archaeologist nounpersonwhostudiesartifactsandlifestylesofancientcultures.

archaeology noun studyofhumanhistory,basedonmaterialremains.

artifact nounmaterialremainsofaculture,suchastools,clothing,orfood.

artillery nounweaponsthatlaunchorfirelargeprojectiles,suchascannonsorcatapults.

assess verb toevaluateordeterminetheamountof.

backhoe nounlargepieceofconstructionequipmentconsistingofadiggingbucketonamaneuverablearm.

TermPartofSpeech

Definition

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bacteriapluralnoun

(singular:bacterium)single-celledorganismsfoundineveryecosystemonEarth.

Bible noun holybookoftheChristianreligion.

bulldozer nounvehicleusedformovinglargeobstacles,suchasbouldersortrees.

carbon-date verbtoestimatetheageofanorganismbytrackingthedecayoftheisotopecarbon-14.Alsocalledradiocarbondating.

catastrophe noun disasterorsudden,violentchange.

charcoal nouncarbonmaterialmadebyburningwoodorotherorganicmaterialwithlittleair.

chariot nounvehiclewithtwoorfourwheelsandpulledbyhorses.

Christianity nounreligionbasedontheteachingsofJesusofNazareth.

civilization nouncomplexwayoflifethatdevelopedashumansbegantodevelopurbansettlements.

CivilWar noun(1860-1865)AmericanconflictbetweentheUnion(north)andConfederacy(south).

classicist nounpersonwhostudiesancientGreekandRomancivilization.

climate nounallweatherconditionsforagivenlocationoveraperiodoftime.

Clovispeople noun(13000-9000BCE)oneofthefirstpeopleandculturesnativetoNorthAmerica.AlsocalledLlano.

Clovispoint nounstyleofstoneknife,spearhead,orarrowhead(projectilepoint)foundthroughoutNorthAmericaandassociatedwiththeancientClovisculture.

coal noun dark,solidfossilfuelminedfromtheearth.

TermPartofSpeech

Definition

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coast nounedgeoflandalongtheseaorotherlargebodyofwater.

coffin noun boxcontainingthebodyofadeadperson.

colonialism nountypeofgovernmentwhereageographicareaisruledbyaforeignpower.

commercial adjectivehavingtodowiththebuyingandsellingofgoodsandservices.

community noungroupoforganismsorasocialgroupinteractinginaspecificregionundersimilarenvironmentalconditions.

complex adjectivecomplicated.

conflict nounadisagreementorfight,usuallyoverideasorprocedures.

conquest noun victory.

conservator nounpersonwhorepairs,restores,ormaintainsthequalityofvaluableitems.

continentalshelf nounpartofacontinentthatextendsunderwatertothedeep-oceanfloor.

controversy noun disagreementordebate.crevasse noun deepcrack,especiallyinaglacier.

CTscanner noun

(computerizedtomographyscanner)devicecombiningX-rayandcomputerizedequipmenttoprovidecross-sectionalimagesofinternalbodystructures.AlsocalledaCATscanner.

culturalheritage noun traditionsandcustomsofaspecificpopulation.

culturalresourcemanagement

nounthepracticeofstudyingandpreservingancientremainsonsiteswhereconstructionisscheduledtooccur.

current nounsteady,predictableflowoffluidwithinalargerbodyofthatfluid.

TermPartofSpeech

Definition

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datapluralnoun

(singular:datum)informationcollectedduringascientificstudy.

DeadSeaScrolls noun(100BCE-135CE)leather,papyrus,andcopperscrollscontainingancientJewishwritings.

debate verb toargueordisagreeinaformalsetting.deceased adjectivedead.decipher verb tofigureoutorinterpret.decree noun formalorlegalorder.deduce verb toreachaconclusionbasedoncluesorevidence.

demotic noun(700BCE-400CE)informalwrittenlanguageofancientEgypt.

dentalpick nounsmall,sharpinstrumentusedtoremovematerialfromteeth.

designate verb tonameorsingleout.

digitalimaging nounprocessofcreating,processing,storing,anddisplayingimagesmadefrombinarycode.

diplomaticrelations

noun theformaltiesbetweennations.

discipline noun fieldofstudy.disease noun aharmfulconditionofabodypartororgan.

DNA noun

(deoxyribonucleicacid)moleculeineverylivingorganismthatcontainsspecificgeneticinformationonthatorganism.

domesticate verb totameoradaptforhumanuse.

dust nountiny,dryparticlesofmaterialsolidenoughforwindtocarry.

dye noun pigmentusedtocolorclothoranotherobject.

earthquake nounthesuddenshakingofEarth'scrustcausedbythereleaseofenergyalongfaultlinesorfromvolcanicactivity.

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economic adjectivehavingtodowithmoney.

Egyptologist nounpersonwhostudiesthecultureandhistoryofancientEgypt.

ElginMarbles noun(440-430BCE)largecollectionofancientGreekstatuarydisplayedintheBritishMuseum,London,England.AlsocalledtheParthenonMarbles.

EmergingExplorer nounanadventurer,scientist,innovator,orstorytellerrecognizedbyNationalGeographicfortheirvisionaryworkwhilestillearlyintheircareers.

emperor noun rulerofanempire.encase verb toencloseorcompletelyconfine.

engineer nounpersonwhoplansthebuildingofthings,suchasstructures(constructionengineer)orsubstances(chemicalengineer).

enormous adjectiveverylarge.environmentalarchaeologist

nounpersonwhostudieshowenvironmentalconditionsinfluencedpeopleinthepast.

erode verb towearaway.

ethnoarchaeologistnoun

personwhostudieshowpeopletodayuseandorganizeobjectsinordertounderstandhowtheyusedandorganizedobjectsinthepast.

evergreen noun treethatdoesnotloseitsleaves.excavate verb toexposebydigging.experimentalarchaeologist

nounpersonwhoreplicatestechniquesandprocessesusedtocreateoruseobjectsinthepast.

exploit verb touseortakeadvantageofforprofit.explorer noun personwhostudiesunknownareas.

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Explorer-in-Residence

noun

pre-eminentexplorersandscientistscollaboratingwiththeNationalGeographicSocietytomakegroundbreakingdiscoveriesthatgeneratecriticalscientificinformation,conservation-relatedinitiativesandcompellingstories.

extend verb toenlargeorcontinue.extinct adjectivenolongerexisting.familiarize verb tounderstandhowsomethingworksoroperates.

feature nounnon-portablearchaeologicalremains,suchaspyramidsorpost-holes.

fiction nounmedia,suchasbooksorfilms,thatareimaginativeandnottruestories.

fieldwork nounscientificstudiesdoneoutsideofalab,classroom,oroffice.

flood noun overflowofabodyofwaterontoland.fluent adjectiveabletospeak,write,andunderstandalanguage.

food nounmaterial,usuallyofplantoranimalorigin,thatlivingorganismsusetoobtainnutrients.

forensicarchaeologist noun

personwhoexcavatesandstudiestheremainsandartifactssurroundingareascontaininggraves,orsitesofmurderorgenocide.

formal adjectiveofficialorstandardized.fortress noun protectedplace.Alsocalledafort.fragile noun delicateoreasilybroken.

geneticist nounscientistwhostudiesthechemistry,behavior,andpurposesofDNA,genes,andchromosomes.

GenghisKhan noun (1162-1227)founderoftheMongolempire.

genocide nounintentionalmassmurderofaspecificreligious,cultural,orethnicgroup.

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geographicinformationsystem(GIS)

nounanysystemforcapturing,storing,checking,anddisplayingdatarelatedtopositionsontheEarth'ssurface.

glacier noun massoficethatmovesslowlyoverland.GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)

nounsystemofsatellitesandreceivingdevicesusedtodeterminethelocationofsomethingonEarth.

glyph nounwrittenmarkorsignthatindicatesthemeaningofwhatiswritten,suchasaletterorsymbol.

gorge noundeep,narrowvalleywithsteepsides,usuallysmallerthanacanyon.

govern verbtomakepublic-policydecisionsforagrouporindividuals.

government nounsystemororderofanation,state,orotherpoliticalunit.

GrandCanyon nounlargegorgemadebytheColoradoRiverintheU.S.stateofArizona.

graverobber nounpersonwhostealsvaluableobjectsfromatomb,mausoleum,orotherburialsite.

GreatDepression noun(1929-1941)periodofveryloweconomicactivityintheU.S.andthroughouttheworld.

grid nounhorizontalandverticallinesusedtolocateobjectsinrelationtooneanotheronamap.

HebrewBible nounholywritingsoftheJewishfaiththatcorrespondwiththeOldTestamentwritingsoftheChristianfaith.AlsocalledtheHebrewScriptures.

HeinrichSchliemann

noun (1822-1890)Germanarchaeologist.

heritage noun culturalorfamilybackground.

hieroglyphicspluralnoun

writtenlanguageusingimagestorepresentwords.

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highlandspluralnoun

plateauorelevatedregionofland.

historicalmap nounrepresentationofspatialinformationdisplayingsitesofhistoricalinterest.

historicarchaeology

nounstudyofpeople,culture,andcivilizationsthatdevelopedwritingsystems.

Homer noun(~800BCE)probablyfictitiousauthoroftheancientGreekepicsTheIliadandTheOdyssey.

hypothesis nounstatementorsuggestionthatexplainscertainquestionsaboutcertainfacts.Ahypothesisistestedtodetermineifitisaccurate.

Iceman noun(3300-3255BCE)naturallymummifiedbodyofamanfoundintheAlpsbetweenItalyandSwitzerland.Nicknamed"Otzi."

Iliad noun(~750BCE)epicbytheGreekpoetHomer,abouteventsoftheTrojanWar.

inconvenience verb todisturborbother.industrialarchaeology

nounstudyofthematerialscreatedduringtheIndustrialRevolution.

IndustrialRevolution

nounchangeineconomicandsocialactivities,beginninginthe18thcentury,broughtbythereplacementofhandtoolswithmachineryandmassproduction.

influence verbtoencourageorpersuadeapersonororganizationtoactacertainway.

infrastructure nounstructuresandfacilitiesnecessaryforthefunctioningofasociety,suchasroads.

inhabit verb toliveinaspecificplace.innovative adjectivenew,advanced,ororiginal.inscribe verb tomarkorengraveasurface.iron noun chemicalelementwiththesymbolFe.

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ironclad nounsteam-propelledwarshipprotectedbyplatesofironoranothermetal.

Jewish adjectivehavingtodowiththereligionorcultureofpeopletracingtheirancestrytotheancientMiddleEastandthespiritualleadersAbraham,Isaac,andJacob.

Judaism nounreligionbasedontheholybookoftheTorahandtheteachingsurroundingit.

JuliusCaesar noun (100BCE-44BCE)leaderofancientRome.

KhmerRouge noun(1975-1979)communist,dictatorialgovernmentofCambodialedbyPolPot.

KillingFields nounsitesinCambodiawherethousandsofvictimsoftheKhmerRougeregimeareburiedinmassgraves.

Kon-Tiki noun(1947)raftusedbyexplorerThorHeyerdahltosailfromSouthAmericatothePolynesianislands.

lab noun(laboratory)placewherescientificexperimentsareperformed.

landscape noun thegeographicfeaturesofaregion.

laser noun

(acronymforlightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation)aninstrumentthatemitsathinbeamoflightthatdoesnotfadeoverlongdistances.

Latin noun languageofancientRomeandtheRomanEmpire.

limestone nountypeofsedimentaryrockmostlymadeofcalciumcarbonatefromshellsandskeletonsofmarineorganisms.

linguist noun personwhostudieslanguage.

lobby verbtotrytoinfluencetheactionofgovernmentorotherauthority.

looter noun thief.magnificent adjectiveveryimpressive.

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manufacturing noun productionofgoodsorproductsinafactory.manuscript noun writtenmaterial.marble noun typeofmetamorphicrock.mariner noun sailor.

marinesanctuary noun

partoftheoceanprotectedbythegovernmenttopreserveitsnaturalandculturalfeatureswhileallowingpeopletouseandenjoyitinasustainableway.

massgrave nounlargeburialsitewithmanycorpses,usuallyunidentified.

mausoleum noun impressivetomborburialsite.

Maya nounpeopleandculturenativetosoutheasternMexicoandCentralAmerica.

medieval adjectivehavingtodowiththeMiddleAges(500-1400)inEurope.

merchant noun personwhosellsgoodsandservices.

meshnoun,adjective

sheetofwireswoventogetherwithsmall,uniformopenings.

monarch noun kingorqueen.

Monitor noun(1861-1862)steam-poweredmilitaryshipprotectedbymetalplates(an"ironclad")commissionedbytheU.S.NavyduringtheCivilWar.

monolith nountallcolumnorstatuemadefromasingleblockofstone.

monument nounlargestructurerepresentinganevent,idea,orperson.

mummy nouncorpseofapersonoranimalthathasbeenpreservedbynaturalenvironmentalconditionsorhumantechniques.

murder verb tokillaperson.

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museum nounspacewherevaluableworksofart,history,orsciencearekeptforpublicview.

myth noun legendortraditionalstory.NapoleonBonaparte

noun(1769-1821)militarygeneralandemperorofFrance.

navigate verb toplananddirectthecourseofajourney.

nomadic adjectivehavingtodowithawayoflifelackingpermanentsettlement.

nutrient nounsubstanceanorganismneedsforenergy,growth,andlife.

obtain verb togetortakepossessionof.

OttomanEmpire noun(1299-1923)empirebasedinTurkeyandstretchingthroughoutsouthernEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.

overwork verb todemandtoomuchofsomeoneorsomething.

paleopathology nounstudyofthehistoryofadiseaseorthehistoryofdiseaseinancientcultures.

parchment nouncarefullypreparedskinofgoatsorotheranimalsusedasmaterialonwhichtowrite.

Parthenon noun(438BCE)ancienttempletothegoddessAthenaontheAcropolisofAthens,Greece.

permit nounofficial,writtenpermissiontodosomething.Sometimescalledalicense.

pharaoh noun rulerofancientEgypt.

plownoun,verb

toolusedforcutting,lifting,andturningthesoilinpreparationforplanting.

plunder verb toroborsteal.

Polynesia nounislandgroupinthePacificOceanbetweenNewZealand,Hawaii,andEasterIsland.

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portable adjectiveabletobeeasilytransportedfromoneplacetoanother.

post-hole noundepressionwheresupports(posts)forastructureoncestood.

pottery nounpots,vessels,orothermaterialmadefromclayorceramic.

pre-Columbian adjectivehavingtodowiththeAmericasbeforethearrivalofChristopherColumbusin1492.

prehistoric adjectiveperiodoftimethatoccurredbeforetheinventionofwrittenrecords.

prehistoricarchaeology

nounstudyofpeople,culture,andcivilizationsthatdidnotdevelopwritingsystems.

prior adjectivebeforeoraheadof.pristine adjectivepureorunpolluted.

projectilepoint nounarchaeologicaltermusedtodescribeasharpstonetoolthatcouldbethrown(projected),suchasanarrowhead,spearhead,dart,orblade.

prophecy noun predictionofthefuture.psalm noun sacredsongormusicalpoem.

PtolemyI noun(367-283BCE)GreekgeneralwhobecamepharaohofEgypt.AlsocalledPtolemySoter.

PtolemyV noun(210-181BCE)Egyptianpharaoh.AlsocalledPtolemyEpiphanes.

publish verbtoprovideawrittenpieceofwork,suchasabookornewspaper,forsaleordistribution.

pyramid nounthree-dimensionalshapewithasquarebaseandtriangularsidesthatmeetinapoint.

QinShiHuangdi noun (259-210BCE)firstemperorofChina.

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radar noun(RAdioDetectionAndRanging)methodofdeterminingthepresenceandlocationofanobjectusingradiowaves.

radiocarbondating nountoestimatetheageofanorganismbytrackingthedecayoftheisotopecarbon-14.Alsocalledcarbon-dating.

radiowave noun

electromagneticwavewithawavelengthbetween1millimeterand30,000meters,orafrequencybetween10kilohertzand300,000megahertz.

rawmaterial nounmatterthatneedstobeprocessedintoaproducttouseorsell.

regime noun systemofgovernment.rely verb todependon.

Renaissance nounperiodofgreatdevelopmentinscience,art,andeconomyinWesternEuropefromthe14thtothe17thcenturies.

RobertBallard noun(1942-present)oceanographerandNationalGeographicExplorer-in-Residence.

RomanEmpire noun(27BCE-476CE)periodinthehistoryofancientRomewhenthestatewasruledbyanemperor.

RosettaStone noun

(196BCE)largeblackstonecarvedwithadecreeaboutthecoronationofPharaohPtolemyV.Thedecreeiscarvedinthreelanguages:Greek,demotic,andhieroglyphic.

rot verb todecayorspoil.

rust verbtodissolveandformabrittlecoating,asirondoeswhenexposedtoairandmoisture.

San nounpeopleandculturenativetosouthernAfrica.AlsocalledBushmen.

sand noun small,loosegrainsofdisintegratedrocks.

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satelliteimagery noun photographsofaplanettakenbyorfromasatellite.scholar noun educatedperson.

scientificjournal nounmagazinethatfocusesondevelopmentsinscientificresearch.

scientificmethod nounmethodofresearchinwhichaquestionisasked,dataaregathered,ahypothesisismade,andthehypothesisistested.

script noun textorsystemofwriting.

scroll nounrolled-upsheetofpaperorotherthinmaterialforwriting.

sealevelrise nounincreaseintheaveragereachoftheocean.Thecurrentsealevelriseis1.8millimeters(.07inch)peryear.

sediment nounsolidmaterialtransportedanddepositedbywater,ice,andwind.

sherd noun fragmentofpottery.Alsoshard.shipwreck noun remainsofasunkenmarinevessel.

sift verbtoseparatelargerpiecesofmaterialfromsmallerones.

significant adjectiveimportantorimpressive.sincere adjectivegenuineorreal.slab noun flat,thickpieceofmaterialsuchasearthorstone.

soil nountoplayeroftheEarth'ssurfacewhereplantscangrow.

sonar nounmethodofdeterminingthepresenceandlocationofanobjectusingsoundwaves(echolocation).

sophisticated adjectiveknowledgeableorcomplex.specific adjectiveexactorprecise.starvation noun dyingfromlackoffood.Stonehenge noun prehistoricmonumentinSalisburyPlain,England.

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storm nounsevereweatherindicatingadisturbedstateoftheatmosphereresultingfromupliftedair.

subdiscipline noun fieldofstudywithinalargerareaofresearch.submerge verb toputunderwater.

subway nounundergroundrailway;apopularformofpublictransportationinlargeurbanareas.

survey nounastudyoranalysisofcharacteristicsofanareaorapopulation.

system nouncollectionofitemsororganismsthatarelinkedandrelated,functioningasawhole.

tax nounmoneyorgoodscitizensprovidetogovernmentinreturnforpublicservicessuchasmilitaryprotection.

technology nounthescienceofusingtoolsandcomplexmachinestomakehumanlifeeasierormoreprofitable.

temple noun buildingusedforworship.

TerraCottaWarriors

noun

(~210BCE)collectionofthousandsoflife-sizeclayfiguresofsoldiers,horses,chariots,andotherartifactsinXian,China,buriedwithQinShiHuangdi,China'sfirstemperor.

territory nounlandananimal,human,orgovernmentprotectsfromintruders.

textile noun clothorotherwovenfabric.ThorHeyerdahl noun (1914-2002)Norwegianexplorer.timber noun woodinanunfinishedform,eithertreesorlogs.time-consuming adjectivetakingalongtimetofinish.

Titanic nounluxurycruiseshipthatsankintheNorthAtlanticOceanin1912.

tomb noun enclosedburialplace.

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trade nounbuying,selling,orexchangingofgoodsandservices.

transportationengineer

nounpersonwhoplans,designs,andmaintainsfacilitiesfortransportingpeopleandgoods.

TrojanWar noun(~1194-1184BCE)ancientconflictbetweentheGreeksandtheTrojans,writtenaboutbyancientpoetsandhistoriansinworkssuchastheIliad.

troop noun asoldier.trowel noun hand-heldshovelwithaflatblade.

Troy nounancientcityontheAegeancoastofwhatisnownorthwesternTurkey.AlsocalledTroiaandIlion.

tunnel-boringmachine

nounenormousmachinethatdrillstunnelsforsubwaysorundergroundrailwaylines.

Tutankhamun noun (1341-1323BCE)Egyptianpharaoh.underwaterarchaeologist

nounpersonwhostudiesartifactsandfeaturesfoundatthebottomoflakes,rivers,andoceans.

Union adjectivehavingtodowithstatessupportingtheUnitedStates(north)duringtheU.S.CivilWar.

urbancenter noundenselypopulatedarea,usuallyacityanditssurroundingsuburbs.

vast adjectivehugeandspreadout.

volcaniceruption nounactivitythatincludesadischargeofgas,ash,orlavafromavolcano.

warp verb tobendoutofshape.wealthy adjectiveveryrich.

wind noun

movementofair(fromahighpressurezonetoalowpressurezone)causedbytheunevenheatingoftheEarthbythesun.

X-ray nounradiationintheelectromagneticspectrumwithaveryshortwavelengthandveryhighenergy.

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