Yellow Crazy Ant

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P e s t a n i m a l r i s k a s s e s s m e n t

Yellow craz y ant

Anoplolepis gracilipes

Steve Csurhes and Clare Hankamer

Biosecurity Queensland

Department o Employment, Economic

Development and Innovation

GPO Box , Brisbane

February 2012

Note: Inormation is still being collected or this

species. Technical comments on this document

are most welcome.

D e p

a r t m e n t o f E m p l o y m e n t , E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t a n d I n n o v a t i o n

B i o s e c u r i t y Q u e e n s l a n d



CS /

© State o Queensland, Depar tment o Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, .

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Employment, Economic Development and Innovation as the source o the publication.

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Front cover: Anoplolepis gracilipes at sugar bait (Lautoka, Fiji)Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission

2

Pest anima l r isk a ssessmen t: Yellow crazy ant Anopl olepis grac ilip es

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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/deed.en




ContentsSummary

Introduction

Identity and taxonomy

Nomenclature

Description

Reproduction and dispersal

Diet

Origin and distribution

Preerred habitat

History as a pest elsewhere

Use

Pest potential in Queensland

Current impact in Australian territory

Christmas Island

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Northern Territory

New South Wales

Western Australia

Current distribution and impact in Queensland

Potential distribution and impact in Queensland

Likelihood o additional incursions

Reerences




Summary

Anoplolepis gracilipes is commonly known as the yellow crazy ant because o its colour and rantic behaviour when disturbed. While its origin is obscure,

there is increasing evidence that it is native to South-East Asia. Yellow crazy

ants are readily dispersed in sea cargo, especially timber, and have achieved a

pantropical distribution as a consequence o global trade.

The yellow crazy ant has been included among examples o the world’s

worst invasive species by the International Union or Conservation o Nature.

It has naturalised in numerous places, especially tropical islands, across the

world. On Christmas Island, yellow crazy ants are decimating the island’s iconic

red land crabs. A signicant population also exists in the Northern Territory.

Yellow crazy ants were rst detected in in Cairns. Since then, more than

additional sites have been ound, in and around Cairns, Townsville, Hervey

Bay, Caboolture and Brisbane. The total area o inestation involves at least

hectares. Populations at some o these sites have been eliminated, whereas

others are subject to ongoing control.

This pest risk assessment presents evidence that yellow crazy ants have

the potential to become a signicant pest in Queensland. Climate modelling

suggests the species could spread across substantial areas. Habitats most

at risk are oshore islands with dense orest, monsoon orest/rainorest and

plantations along the tropical east coast (generally shady, moist habitats).Negative impacts are likely to include indirect damage to ruit caused by the

ants’ tendency to protect various scale insects, loss or decreased abundance

o native ant species, and predation o a wide range o invertebrates and small

vertebrates, resulting in a general decline in biodiversity.




Introduction

Identity and taxonomy

Species Anoplolepis gracilipes Smith

Synonyms Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon

Anoplolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon

Anoplolepis triaciata Smith

Anoplolepis triasciata Smith

Formica gracilipes Smith

Formica longipes Jerdon

Formica triasciata Smith

Oecophylla longipes Jerdon

Plagiolepis gracilipes Smith

Plagiolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon

Plagiolepis longipes Jerdon

Plogiolepis (Anoplolepis) longipes Jerdon

Prenolepis gracilipes Smith

Common names Yellow crazy ant, crazy ant (English), gramang ant (Indonesian

Bahasa), long-legged ant (English), Maldive ant (English, Seychelles)

Sources: Antbase (); GISD (); Harris and Berry ().

Family: Formicidae (sub-amily: Formicinae)

Nomenclature

While the preerred scientic name is Anoplolepis gracilipes, much o the literature uses its

synonym Anoplolepis longipes (ITIS ; GISD ).

It is questionable whether the yellow crazy ant should be included in the genus Anoplolepis.

Even though the centre o diversity or Anoplolepis is in Arica, there is a growing body o

evidence that the yellow crazy ant is native to South-East Asia. There is a possibility that the

yellow crazy ant will be split rom the Anoplolepis genus in a similar manner to Paratrechina

longicornis, which is now recognised as a monotypic genus (LaPolla et al. ; B Homann,

CSIRO, pers. comm. ).

There is evidence o intraspecic variation. Based on mitochondrial DNA analysis o yellow

crazy ants rom the Tokelau Archipelago, Abbott et al. () revealed the presence o two

haplotypes (Type A and Type D). Haplotype D was more aggressive, invasive and able todisplace a higher proportion o other ant species ( per cent ewer ant species were ound on




islands invaded by haplotype D). The authors concluded that, contrar y to previous evidence

or invasive ant species where environmental actors were thought to play a key role, genetic

characteristics may be equally or more important to invasion success.

Description Yellow crazy ants are brownish-yellow or yellow-orange and – mm long (Figures and ).

Figure 1. Yellow crazy ant ( Anoplolepis gracilipes ) (Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission)

Figure 2. Yellow crazy ants deending their nest




Workers have uniorm morphology (Holway et al. ), with a long slender body and a gaster

that is usually darker than the head and thorax. The gaster is armed with an acidopore and

erect hairs are present. A sting is absent (Abbott et al. ).

The species has a characteristic erratic walking style when disturbed, an attribute leading

to its colloquial name ‘crazy ant’. Also known as the long-legged ant, yellow crazy ants are

noted or their remarkably long legs and antennae—the antennal scape length is more

than . times the head length and is a key diagnostic eature (Figure ). Antennae have

segments, including the scape.

Figure 3. Long antennal scapes o Anoplolepis gracilipes (Photo: Sarnat (), used with permission)

The body is relatively long, compared to other ants, and incorporates a long ‘neck’ attaching

the head to the thorax. It has a single waist segment—the petiole—which is thick and raised

(with an inverted U-shaped crest), not at (Wikipedia a). The mesosoma, or alitrunk, (the

rst three thoracic segments and the rst abdominal segment) is slender and lacks hairs on

the dorsum. The pronotum (the dorsal portion o the prothorax, the rst o the three thoracic

segments which bears the rst pair o legs) is narrow, with an almost straight dorsum in prole.

The anterior portion o the mesonotal dorsum, back to the propodeum, is gently concave in

prole. The propodeal dorsum is convex in prole (Wikipedia a). Spines are absent on the

propodeum (Abbott et al. ). The head is oval, with large convex eyes and erect hairs. The

mandibles have eight ‘teeth’ each and the clypeus is produced medially with a convex anterior margin, without longitudinal carinae (narrow, raised ridges) (Abbott et al. ).

The ollowing species might be conused with the yellow crazy ant:

• other genera o Formicinae in Australia that have antennae with segments, namely

Acropyga, Plagiolepis and Stigmacros. Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished rom these

genera by their larger size, longer legs and scapes and yellow colour (CSIRO )

• Wasmannia auropunctata, which also has antennae segments, but the last is enlarged

into a distinct club. It is smaller than the yellow crazy ant and has a painul sting—hence

its name ‘electric ant’ or ‘little re ant’ (Wikipedia a)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosoma

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronotum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propodeum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propodeum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronotum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosoma




• yellow tyrant ant ( Iridomyrmex pallidus ), which is native to open habitats in northern

Australia and very common and similar in size and colour to yellow crazy ants. The latter

can be distinguished by the length o the antennae, which extend ar above the head,

whereas the antennae o I. pallidus barely exceed the head. I. pallidus also has a larger

heart-shaped ace, bites when disturbed and exudes an extremely strong smell whencrushed, unlike yellow crazy ants (TERC )

• the genera Leptomyrmex and Oecophylla, which are both similar in size to the yellow

crazy ant and have similarly long legs. Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished by a circular

opening ( acidopore ) at the tip o the gaster, whereasLeptomyrmex has a slit-shaped

opening (CSIRO ; Sarnat ). Leptomyrmex rupes (red spider ant), ound in

Brisbane Forest Park, has an orange-black body with a black gaster and tends to orage

alone (Brisbane Insects and Spiders ). Yellow crazy ants can be distinguished rom

Oecophylla by their more compact petiole (Sarnat ). Oecophylla smaragdina (green

tree or weaver ant) is native to Australia and its body is elongate and pale yellow or green

in colour. Its nests are arboreal and made o leaves stitched together with silk produced bythe larvae (CSIRO )

• Paratrechina longicornis (crazy ant/black crazy ant/slender crazy ant/hairy ant), which is

known or its erratic behaviour, much like yellow crazy ants. It is also invasive and exists

in Australia. It is smaller (. mm) than yellow crazy ants and has numerous thick, paired

hairs over its entire body, an impressed mesosoma and is black (Sarnat )

• some species o Camponotus that are similar in overall size and shape to yellow crazy ants.

Camponotus maculatus has antennae segments, the mesosoma is not impressed and

there is a metapleural gland opening above its hind leg (CSIRO ). C. maculatus discors

is ound in Australia (CSIRO ).

There are a number o species with the common name ‘crazy ant’, including Paratrechina

longicornus (see above). The rasberry (sometimes spelt raspberry) crazy ant and Caribbean

crazy ant are both species o Nylanderia and are not ound in Australia.

Reproduction and dispersalMany ant species build colonies with a single queen. Yellow crazy ants, however, build super-

colonies with multiple queens (up to ) and multiple nests, some o which are the largest

o any ant species in the world, extending over hectares (Wikipedia a). Crazy ant

densities o million ants per hectare have been recorded on Christmas Island (Abbott

) and around million per hectare on the Seychelles (Haines & Haines ). Super-colonies rely on a lack o aggression and cooperation between nests.

Worker ants have a lie cycle o – days. Queens survive or several years (Walsh &

Walters ). Workers are produced throughout the year, but production uctuates.

Yellow crazy ants appear able to breed with siblings (internidal mating) without suering

inbreeding depression as high heterozygosity is maintained in workers (Drescher et al. ;

Thomas et al. ). Sexual ospring are produced at any time in the year but generally

– months prior to the rainy season (Abbott et al. ; GISD ). Brood production is

dependent on the onset o the rainy season. In the Seychelles and Papua New Guinea, two

brood production events per year have been recorded (Baker ; Haines & Haines ),

whereas on Christmas Island only one has been recorded (Abbott et al. ).

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/PIAkey/Glossary.html#acidopore

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/PIAkey/Glossary.html#petiole

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/PIAkey/Glossary.html#petiole

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/PIAkey/Glossary.html#acidopore




Colonies reproduce using a process known as ‘budding’, where a queen (or queens) leave a

nest together with some workers to orm a new colony. Budding is a slower means o dispersal

than winged dispersal o alates (young queens and males); however, colonies have been

reported to spread – m per year on the Seychelles (Holway et al. ) and m

per year on Christmas Island (equivalent to average spread o m per day) (O’Dowd et al.). A. gracilipes relies on human-mediated dispersal to establish more distant colonies

(GISD ).

Winged dispersal is thought to be rare (GISD ), although mating ights o alates have

been observed on Christmas Island (Abbott et al. ). Mated queens may be capable o

starting new colonies, but there is no clear evidence o this. Workers alone are not capable o

establishing a new colony. Colonies migrate readily i disturbed (Abbott et al. ).

Yellow crazy ants are readily dispersed between countries as contaminants in a range o

cargo. They can be spread in soil and produce in the agricultural and horticultural industr y;

on contaminated military, mining and commercial road transport; and in sea and air reight

on timber, goods, packaging material and pallets. They have been deliberately dispersed as a

biological control agent in coconut, coee and cacao production (GISD ).

DietThe yellow crazy ant has been described as a ‘scavenging predator’ (Harris & Berry ).

It has a broad, opportunistic diet, a common trait shared by many invasive ant species (GISD

), utilising whatever ood resources are available (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ).

Hence, diet varies with location (K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ), and

presumably with the seasons. Like all ants, protein-rich oods are required or brood production

(O’Dowd et al. ).

A high percentage o the diet is based on carbohydrate-rich oods such as plant nectar

and honeydew. Yellow crazy ants arm all sap-sucking bugs (Hemiptera) (B Homann,

CSIRO, pers. comm. ) or honeydew, in particular scale insects. For example, in cocoa

plantations in Papua New Guinea, Hemiptera populations are thought to be necessary to

support and sustain A. gracilipes colonies (Holway et al. ). The proportion o honeydew

in a worker ant on the Seychelles was calculated to be per cent o its body weight (Haines

et al. ).

Carbohydrate supply may play an important role in the success o crazy ant invasions

(O’Dowd et al. ; Savage et al. ; GISD ). Similarly, population development and

‘invasion success’ in the Arican big-headed ant ( Pheidole megacephala ) is also thought tobe limited by carbohydrate quality ( Pisonia grandis) on the coral cays o the Great Barrier

Ree (Homann & Kay ). It has been suggested that survival o A. gracilipes in harsh, dry

habitats in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, may be due to the presence o acacias and other

plants providing an adequate supply o extra-oral carbohydrates (B Homann, CSIRO, pers.

comm. ).

Vertebrates and invertebrates are regularly targeted as sources o protein-rich ood. Yellow

crazy ants can kill invertebrate prey, or small vertebrates, by spraying ormic acid. This

does not kill the target by itsel, but can cause blindness and lead to death by starvation

(Wikipedia a; GISD ). Like many other ant species (in particular Solenopsis invicta,

but also Solenopsis geminata, Pheidole megacephala and Wasmannia auropunctata ), yellow




crazy ants debilitate larger animals such as land crabs, small reptiles, small mammals and

birds only i ant numbers are very high and i these animals are vulnerable (e.g. newly hatched

chicks) or are walking across super-colonies (as is the case with the Christmas Island red

crab) (TSSC ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ; B Homann, CSIRO, pers.

comm. ).

Origin and distributionThe native range o the yellow crazy ant is unclear. Some authors suggest it is native to

either Arica or Asia (Holway et al. ; Abbott et al. ) as collection records or both

continents are pre- (Abbott et al. ). The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD

) lists the native range o the species as Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India,

Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and

Vietnam. Wetterer () proposed that yellow crazy ants are native to Asia, possibly

including Christmas Island. Abbott et al. () suggested this was unlikely as the centreo diversity or the genus is Arica and A. gracilipes is the only species distributed beyond

Arica (GISD ). However, the records or Arica are restricted, possibly to north-eastern

Tanzania (Abbott et al. ). Recently, evidence rom climate modelling (Chen ) and

studies o ant populations in Indonesia, where A. gracilipes appears unable to dominate or

colonise undisturbed rainorest (Bos et al. ) or even mature cacao plantations (Wielgoss

et al. ), cannot rule out that A. gracilipes may be native to South-East Asia (Drescher et

al. ). Moreover, there is a growing body o evidence that A. gracilipes is native to this

region, i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia and Borneo (not India and denitely not Arica) (B Homann,

CSIRO, pers. comm. ). In addition, it appears likely that A. gracilipes may eventually be

split rom the genus Anoplolepis (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ).

The native range o the species has been obscured by a long history o human-assisted

dispersal, as yellow crazy ants are readily moved to new areas within sea cargo. To this day,

these ants are regularly detected in shipping containers and other reight. Currently, yellow

crazy ants have a pantropical distribution and continue to expand into additional countries

and islands (Figure ). Many o the countries in tropical Asia mentioned previously are also

listed by various authors as part o the introduced range o the species, including Brunei,

Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore,

Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as parts o Arica including South Arica and

Tanzania (Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar), Central and South America (Brazil, Panama, Mexico),

and Australia (GISD ; Wetterer ).

Yellow crazy ants have been introduced to numerous oceanic islands in the Caribbean

(McGlynn ), Indian Ocean (Agalega, Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Madagascar,

Mauritius, Rodrigues, Réunion and Seychelles) and the Pacic, including Japan (Amami

Oshima, Bonin, Okinawa and Minami-Daito islands), Polynesia (Austral Islands, Cook Islands,

Gambier Islands, Hawaii, Line Islands, Marquesas Islands, Niue, Samoa, Society Islands,

Tokelau Islands, Tonga, Tuamotu Islands, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna), Micronesia (Caroline

Islands, Gilbert Islands, Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, Palau, Rotuma and Santa

Cruz Islands), Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Vanuatu and the

Galapagos archipelago) (Abbott et al. ; Haines & Haines ; Holway et al. ; Lewis

et al. ; Matsui et al. ; McGlynn ; O’Dowd et al. ; Veeresh & Gubbaiah ;

Wetterer ).

http://www.issg.org/database/species/distribution_display.asp?si=110&ri=18497&pc=*&sts=&status=Native&lang=EN#Native



























Figure 4. Global distribution o yellow crazy ants (Global Biodiversity Inormation Facility n.d.)

The yellow crazy ant is oten reerred to as a ‘tramp ant’, i.e. an ant ‘that is widely dispersed

(or reliant on dispersal) by commerce and other human-assisted activities’ (GISD ;

Passera ).

Preferred habitatPreerred climate is tropical, with some populations persisting in subtropical climates.

The species is abundant in the tropical lowlands o Asia, and islands o the Indian Ocean

and Pacic Ocean between the tropics o Cancer and Capricorn. Wetterer () reports

it occurring up to latitude –˚ N (northern India, southern China and southern islandso Japan) and ound ew records at higher latitudes, either north or south. The latter were

either conned to urban areas or were otherwise short-lived or ailed populations (Brisbane,

Australia; Auckland, New Zealand; Valparaiso, Chile; Durban, South Arica; and Zayul, Tibet).

Further verication is required or locations reported rom higher altitudes in Tibet and China

(Abbott et al. ). Global climate change is predicted to increase the range o avourable

environmental conditions or A. gracilipes at higher latitudes (Chen ).

A. gracilipes is reported rom low to mid elevations in Hawaii up to m (Holway et al.

; Mau & Kessing ). However, Homan and Kay () suggest it is unable to colonise

areas above m. Most collection records are rom elevations lower than m (Wetterer ; Abbott et al. ).

Preerred habitats include moist riverine and lowland tropical orest (Abbott et al. ; GISD

). For example, in India, it exists in moist habitats (Veeresh ) but is absent rom hot,

dry parts o the North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and Central India (Bingham ).

In northern Australia, yellow crazy ants were initially believed to preer rainorest, but recent

research conrms they can thrive in harsh, rocky, dry areas in Arnhem Land, Northern

Territory. The presence o acacias and other plants that supply extra-oral carbohydrates

appears to be a primary inuence on persistence. Some reerences state that the species can

survive in grasslands and savannah (GISD ).




Yellow crazy ants typically colonise moist, shady, disturbed habitats such as rainorest

margins/gaps and agricultural land, particularly agroorestry. Coee, cacao, coconut, citrus

and cinnamon plantations are all reported to be readily invaded (GISD ; Bos et al. ;

Young ). However, the species can colonise relatively undisturbed (i.e. uncleared)

habitats such as monsoon rainorest on islands (e.g. on Christmas Island) (GISD ). It canreadily invade urban areas, making it a troublesome household and building pest (GISD ).

Yellow crazy ants orage day and night, generally when temperatures are – ˚C (Haines &

Haines ; Abbott et al. ). However, in the Solomon Islands, oraging was observed

to be most intense at dusk, when humidity and temperature were relatively high (Greenslade

). Unlike some ant species, use o conspicuous oraging trails is not common (Fotso

Kuate et al. ). High midday temperatures o more than ˚C prevent workers oraging

and activity also declines below ˚C (Abbott et al. ). Rain and strong winds may also

limit oraging (Mau & Kessing ). Increased oraging activit y and nest building have been

observed in the dry season (GISD ). However, Vanderwoude and Abbott () ound

that during prolonged dry periods, workers remain in the nest where they either use storedood or cannibalise their brood and other workers to survive. Baiting during this time is

thereore ineective.

High rainall may be an important actor determining distribution, as events associated

with brood production depend on the onset o the rainy season in Papua New Guinea, the

Seychelles and Christmas Island (Baker ; Haines & Haines ; Abbott et al. ).

Nests are usually made in the soil, in cracks and crevices, under lea litter and in bamboo

sections on the orest oor (GISD ). On Christmas Island, the ants readily take over the

burrows o red land crabs and also nest in the hollow base o allen palm leaves, but they are

also arboreal, nesting in canopy tree hollows and epiphytes (O’Dowd et al. ). In coconut

plantations they nest at the base and crown o the tree (CSIRO ; Young ; Zipcode

Zoo ).

History as a pest elsewhereThe yellow crazy ant is listed by the International Union or the Conservation o Nature’s

Invasive Species Specialist Group (IUCN-ISSG) among examples o some o the ‘world’s

worst invasive species’ (GISD ; Lowe et al. ) and is considered to be one o the

most destructive invasive ant species (Wetterer et al. ). It has caused substantial

environmental harm on numerous islands in Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia, includingPapua New Guinea (Sarnat ; PAPP ), and has achieved a pantropical distribution.

The yellow crazy ant is a ‘quarantine pest’ in the United States (APHIS ) and the

Republic o Korea ( Country report: the Republic o Korea ), but is not listed as an invasive

species in North America (invasive.org ). It was rst recorded in Hawaii in where it

has since become one o the most dominant invasive ant species (Krushelnycky et al. ).

Invasive ants are considered the most signicant invertebrate predators on Hawaii (Gillespie

& Reimer ).

It has been reported as a pest in East Arica, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Malaysia

(Borneo), Japan, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and India (Drescher et al. ;

Way ; Young ; Matsui et al. ; Veeresh ; Bos et al. ; AntWeb ). Its




impact in the Seychelles is well documented (Lewis et al. ; Haines & Haines ; Haines

et al. ; Feare ; Hill et al. ; Gerlach ). Gerlach () reported predation on

Hawksbill turtle hatchlings ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) on Bird Island, Seychelles.

Predation o invertebrates by yellow crazy ants is widely reported, including small isopods,

myriapods, molluscs, arachnids, land crabs and insects (O’Dowd et al. ; Vanderwoude

et al. ; Jeery ; Gerlach ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ;

B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Gillespie and Reimer () reported predation and

displacement o endemic spiders in Hawaii. Gerlach () reported a signicant reduction

in native ant species and paussine beetles caused by yellow crazy ants, but no change to

other invertebrates. Hence, the general trend appears to be a decline in species diversity

and abundance; however, ew papers quantiy the impacts (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm.

; Abbott et al. ). Impact is probably dependent on super-colony density (Abbott et

al. ).

Invasive ants can aect native ant–plant mutualisms, such as seed dispersal and pollination,

and alter species composition (Drescher et al. ). Native ants are reported to be displaced

by yellow crazy ants in India (GISD ). Similarly, Abbott (, , ), Bos et al.

() and Savage et al. () ound that native ant diversity is reduced in the vicinity o

yellow crazy ant super-colonies—or example, by up to per cent on islands in the Tokelau

Archipelago. Species aected range in size rom the tiny Monomorium minutula to the larger

Anochetus grafaei (head width . mm) (Abbott et al. ). Only two o the resident

ant species were able to coexist with yellow crazy ants on Christmas Island ( Paratrechina

longicornis and Paratrechina minutum ) (Abbott et al. ). Two dominant predatory ants

Oecophylla smaragdina and Leptogenys processionalis were eliminated by yellow crazy ants

in India (Veeresh & Gubbaiah, ).

Populations o yellow crazy ants in Hawaii have been shown to actively deend owers rom

other nectivores (Lach ).

Gerlach () reported A. gracilipes preying on blind snakes ( Ramphotyphlops braminus)

on Bird Island, Seychelles. Endemic geckoes and skinks are at risk on Christmas Island

(Commonwealth o Australia ).

Haines et al. () reported yellow crazy ants preying on newborn domestic animals such as

pigs, chickens and rabbits.

There is evidence that yellow crazy ants can kill young birds (Matsui et al. ). However,

it is not known whether this is direct predation or deensive. On islands, where birds are

oten ground-nesting and there is a lack o predators, bird populations have been negatively

aected. For example, on Minami-daito Island, Japan, yellow crazy ants inicted atal injuries

on edglings o bull-headed shrike ( Lanius bucephalus ) and Daito white-eye ( Zosterops

japonicas daitoensis ) (Matsui et al. ). Reproductive success in the Daito scops owl

( Otus elegans interpositus ) was not aected, but nesting behaviour was altered with adults

interchanging nesting sites more requently in ant-inested sites (Matsui et al. ).

High densities o yellow crazy ants on Bird Island, Seychelles, are associated with high

densities o coccid scale insects on the native tree Pisonia grandis, causing some tree

mortality and a reduction in the number and density o invertebrate species on oliage and on

the ground (Hill et al. ).




Yellow crazy ants can aect the health o coee, coconut and sugarcane crops by nesting at

the base o these plants, exposing the roots to disease and reducing yields (GISD ; Mau

& Kessing ; Feare ; Haines et al. ; Wood et al. ). They have been recorded

as a pest o mangoes in India (Srivastava, ). Coconut plantations inested by yellow crazy

ants experienced yield reductions o per cent in Papua New Guinea, due to inestation by thecoconut spathe moth ( Tirathaba ruvena ). Yellow crazy ants are believed to reduce populations

o various predators that normally control spathe moth (Young n.d.). Similarly, damage to

Hawaiian macadamia crops caused by Nezara viridula (green vegetable bug) is greater when

yellow crazy ants dominate, compared to areas patrolled by Pheidole megacephala (big-headed

or coastal brown ant) (Jones et al. ).

On Mahé, Seychelles, the abundance o the sap-sucking insect Ceraplastes rubens,

associated with sooty mould on citrus and cinnamon, sometimes increased a hundredold

in the presence o yellow crazy ants (up to per cent o leaves were inected) (Haines &

Haines ).

A. gracilipes has traditionally been used as a biological control agent in Papua New Guinea

against pod weevil in cacao crops as well as in coconut and coee agroorestr y systems (see

ollowing section). However, the negative impacts o yellow crazy ants would ar outweigh any

potential benet rom biocontrol, even within horticultural systems. The act that this ant will

tend all sap-sucking bugs makes it a pest in horticultural set tings (B Homann, CSIRO, pers.

comm. ).

Although yellow crazy ants do not bite, ormic acid sprayed when they are disturbed can

cause skin burns and eye irritation to arm workers (GISD ; Haines & Haines ;

Haines et al. ; K Abbott, Monash University, pers. comm. ).

Yellow crazy ants are considered troublesome household, building and village pests in someplaces (GISD ; Lewis et al. ; Vanderwoude et al. ; Walsh & Walters ).

Use Yellow crazy ants have been used successully as a biological control agent. A. gracilipes

limits pod weevil ( Pantorhytes szentivanyi , Crematogaster sp., Pheidole spp. and Camponotus

spp.) in cacao crops in Papua New Guinea (McGregor & Moxon ). It is also used as a

biocontrol agent in coconut and coee plantations (GISD ).




Pest potential in Queensland

Current impact in Australian territory

Christmas Island

The impact o yellow crazy ants on the biodiversity o Christmas Island has been proound.

Originally introduced some years ago, the ant population has increased dramatically in

recent years (CBD ). The Australian Government has spent $. million controlling crazy

ants over hectares o orest between and (Department o Environment and

Heritage a). Between million and million o the island’s iconic red land crabs have

been killed by crazy ants (Wikipedia b). This has caused ‘a rapid and catastrophic’

change within the rainorest ecosystem, as land crabs are a ‘keystone’ species within the

island’s ecosystem (O’Dowd et al. ).

The extinction o the Christmas Island pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus murrayi ) was reported thisyear (IUCN SSC, March ) and is attr ibuted to an increase in crazy ant abundance, which

reduced red crab numbers, causing an increase in the abundance o giant millipedes, which

prey on roosting pipistrelles.

The red crab also provides biotic resistance to other invaders such as the giant Arican

snail ( Achatina ulica ) and some weed species. Thus, a reduction in red crab numbers has

acilitated secondary invasions (Wikipedia b).

Since the crabs are the island’s primary detritus (lea litter etc.) consumers, a reduction in

their numbers has caused signicant changes to orest structure, increasing tree seedling

survival rates and reducing the breakdown o lea litter. This has had ow-on eects on other

species such as the Christmas Island thrush ( Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus ), altering

its oraging success (Davis et al. ; Department o Environment and Heritage ).

The broadscale arming o scale insects by yellow crazy ants has caused an increase in sooty

mould inections, severely reducing canopy health and resulting in tree mortality (O’Dowd et

al. ). The Tahitian chestnut ( Ingocarpus agier ) in particular has been adversely aected

and may become eligible or listing as a ‘vulnerable’ species (Commonwealth o Australia

). Changes to the island’s orests have caused loss o essential breeding habitat or the

endangered Abbott’s booby ( Papasula abbotti ) (Department o Environment and Heritage

b) as well as signicant declines in populations o various skinks, blind snakes, geckos

and bats. Endemic snails and a number o insects appear to have become extinct.

Once yellow crazy ants attained super-colony status on Christmas Island, there was noticeable

predation on turtle hatchlings and coconut crabs (Jeery ).

Cocos (Keeling) Islands

Yellow crazy ants have been on North Keeling or a number o years but, as yet, have not

ormed destructive super-colonies (Reid & Hill ). The species is a potential threat to the

endangered endemic bu-banded rail ( Gallirallus philippensis andrewsi ) (Department o

the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts ). I super-colonies develop, the island’s

pisonia orest may be at risk, together with dependent auna (Commonwealth Attorney-

General’s Department ).

http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/136769/0

http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/136769/0




Northern Territory

In Arnhem Land, crazy ants occupy km² (Young et al. ) and are considered a serious

threat to invertebrate auna o the monsoon rainorests (Young et al. ). Invertebrates at

risk include the endangered Gove crow buttery ( Euploea alchathoe enastri ) (Braby & Wilson

). However, this study was unable to nd detailed inormation on their impact.

New South Wales

Forty percent o crazy ant quarantine interceptions in Australia to date occurred in New

South Wales ports. Only one naturalised population has been detected in New South

Wales, at Yamba in , and this was eradicated by (New South Wales Department o

Environment and Conservation ).

Western Australia

Yellow crazy ants have been intercepted in shipping reight arriving at Freemantle

(GISD ).

Current distribution and impact in Queensland Yellow crazy ants were rst detected in in Cairns. Since then, more than additional

sites have been ound, in and around Cairns, Townsville, Hervey Bay, Caboolture and

Brisbane (Table ). The total area o inestation involves at least hectares. Populations at

some o these sites have been eliminated, whereas others are subject to ongoing control.




Table 1. Locations where yellow crazy ants have been ound in Queensland (current at March )

LocationDetection

date

Infestation

area (ha)Site description

Cairns –

Portsmith

Apr

Apr Industrial

Hamilton Nov n/a Port area

Port o Brisbane Nov n/a Port area

Edmonton –

CreekMay Residential and orest

Caboolture Dec . Timber yard and industrial

Urangan (Hervey

Bay)Mar Timber roo truss actory and industrial

Slacks Creek Mar . Timber yard

Wacol Mar n/a Correctional centre

Banyo Jul . Timber importer

Gordonvale Jul n/a Rural residential

Townsville Jul n/a Port area

Hamilton Aug n/a Timber yard

Cairns –

PortsmithDec n/a Industrial

Cairns –

PortsmithFeb . Port area

Cairns – Worree Mar Industrial – transport company

Tingalpa Apr . Timber staircase actory

Kedron Oct . Industrial

Chermside Feb Timber joinery

Arundel Mar . Timber yard – vacated

Woodridge Mar . Timber roo truss actory

Eagle Farm Mar . Timber joinery

Pinkenba Mar Industrial – transport company

Bentley Park May . New housing development and orest

Townsville –

Mount Saint John Jun Industrial – timber yard and vacant land

Edmonton Aug . Cane paddock, school, roadside

Acacia Ridge Aug Timber yard

Eagle Farm Apr Industrial – transport company

Townsville –

DouglasApr .

Hospital/university housing

accommodation

RockleaApr

May .

Industrial – transport company and old

container park

Townsville –

GarbuttMar . Industrial – timber truss plant

n/a = not availableSource: Department o Employment, Economic Development and Innovation ().




The total area o land with populations o yellow crazy ants in Queensland is relatively small.

As such, the species is in its very early stages o population development, with minimal

impacts. To date, Biosecurity Queensland has spent more than $ on control. The

species was declared a Class pest in .

O the total number o quarantine border detections in Australia prior to , Brisbane

accounted or per cent (Scanlan & Davis ).

Potential distribution and impact in QueenslandClimate-modelling sotware called Climatch (Bureau o Rural Sciences ) was used to

predict areas o Queensland where climate appears similar to that experienced within the

native range o the species (assumed to be Indonesia, Malaysia/Borneo). Coastal Queensland

appears most suitable (Figure ). The detection o a number o small populations o yellow

crazy ants along the Queensland coast (and in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory) is consistent

with this prediction.

Figure 5. Area o Australia where climate appears suitable or survival o yellow crazy ants. Red andorange are highly suitable, yellow is marginally suitable, and green and blue are unsuitable. Map

produced using Climatch computer sotware (Bureau o Rural Sciences )

Little is known about actors that inuence the success o yellow crazy ant colonies on

the Australian mainland (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Research suggests that

the availability o plant-based carbohydrates may play an important role in population

development (Holway et al. ; O’Dowd et al. ). While the impacts o the species

overseas may provide useul insights into its potential impact in Australia, most signicant

impacts are associated with relatively small islands. These islands oten have depauperate

ecosystems (simple ecosystems characterised by relatively low biodiversity). For example,

the impacts o crazy ants on Christmas Island may be somewhat unique, due to unusually

high ant numbers and the presence o a very inuential ‘keystone’ species, the Christmas

Island red crab (B Homann, CSIRO, pers. comm. ). Mainland ecosystems are ar morecomplex than on islands and ecologists oten argue that complexity coners resilience to




invasion. However, Homann and Saul () suggest biotic resistance may not be sufcient

to mediate the spread o yellow crazy ants in northern Australia, despite the presence o

highly competitive native ant communities. Hence, the potential impact o crazy ants on

mainland Australian ecosystems is difcult to predict.

Since yellow crazy ants have well-documented negative impacts on tropical islands around

the world, they can be expected to have a signicant impact on Queensland’s oshore

islands. Other invasive ant species such as Pheidole megacephala, Tetramorium sp. and

Monomorium sp. have already caused widespread mortality o Pisonia grandis populations

on the Capricornia Cays and in the Coral Sea Cays by arming Pulvinaria urbicola (Olds

). These islands host breeding populations o globally threatened sea turtle species

(loggerhead, hawksbill, green and leatherback).

The yellow crazy ant is one o six national priority species o invasive tramp ants likely to

threaten the biodiversity o Australia or its territories (Commonwealth o Australia ). It is

also listed as a ‘key threatening process’ on Christmas Island and in New South Wales.

In New South Wales, the ollowing species may become ‘threatened’ as a result o yellow

crazy ant invasions (New South Wales Department o Environment and Conservation ):

• ants such as Rhytidoponera spp., Pheidole spp. and Paratrechina spp.

• eastern sedgerog Litoria allax

• eastern grass skink Lampropholis delicata

• a burrowing skink Ophioscincus truncates

• a range o other ground-dwelling invertebrates and vertebrates.

In addition to potential impacts on a number o rare and threatened species, yellow crazy ants

are perhaps most likely to cause a general decline in abundance, and perhaps diversity, o a

range o other invertebrates. The degree to which this may happen is difcult to predict and

may be heavily inuenced by competing native ant species.

Considering the impact o yellow crazy ants on various crops overseas, they can be expected

to have some impact on similar crops in Queensland. Perhaps their most signicant impact

will be their eects on the abundance o various sap-sucking insects (e.g. scale insects).

Major eects on human health are not expected, unlike re ants.

Yellow crazy ants could become troublesome pests in towns and cities. While their bites

are not dangerous, they can spray ormic acid, which can irritate people’s skin and eyes

(Figure ).




Figure 6. Skin irritation (‘burn’) caused by ormic acid sprayed by yellow crazy ants

A number o Pacic Islands have produced risk assessments or yellow crazy ants, e.g.

Samoa (Nuulua Island) (Vanderwoude et al. ) and Tokelau (PAPP ). A detailedand comprehensive pest risk assessment is available or New Zealand (Abbott et al. ).

Guidelines produced by the IUCN-ISSG recommended the production o a Pacic Ant Prevention

Plan (PAPP) to guide quarantine activities in the region (PAPP ).

Likelihood o additional incursions

Additional incursions o yellow crazy ants into Queensland are inevitable, considering the

previous history o incursions here and elsewhere.




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Yellow Crazy Ant

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