Year Book - Perdana Leadership Foundation

M A L A Y S I A

O F F I C I A L

Year Book V O L U M E F O U R

I 9 6 4

Malaysian Government Copyright reserved

Unless otherwise acknowledged all photographs are by the courtesy of the Director of Information [Services,

Malaysia

The text of this volume is set in Monotype, the type-face being 10-point Times New Roman, on 12-point body. The chapter headings are set in 24-point

Perpetua capitals

-

The Sultan of Kedah, H.H. Sultan Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah ibni Al -Marhum Sultan Badlishah,

D . M . N . , D . U . K . , D . K . , S . P . M . K .

The Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negri Sembilan, H .H. Tuanku Munawir ibni A l -Marhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman , D.M.N., S.M.N.,

D.K., S.P.M.B. (Brunei)

the Rulers The Sultan of Perak, H . H . Paduka Sri Sultan Idris Al-Mutawakki l Alallahi Shah ibni A l -Marhum Sultan Iskandar Shah Kaddasal lah,

D.M.N., D.K. , S.P.M.K., C.M.G.

The Regent of Perlis, H.H. Tengku Sulaiman ibni Al-Marhum Tengku

Bendahara Abu Bakar

CHAPTER I

AN INTRODUCTION TO MALAYSIA

GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND MALAYSIA covers an area of about 130 ,000 square miles. It occupies two distinct regions, the Malay peninsula which extends south-south-east from the narrow Kra Isthmus to the island of Singapore, and the north-western coastal area of the island of Borneo. The two regions are separated by about 400 miles of the South China Sea. A number of small islands off thè coast of Malaya, adjacent to Singapore, and off the Borneo coast, are also within its borders, It has land frontiers with Thailand on the Asian mainland and with the Republic of Indonesia (about 900 miles) in the island of Borneo. Across the narrow Straits of Malacca lies the Indonesian island of Sumatra, while to the north and north-east of Sabah (formerly known as North Borneo) across the Sulu Sea he the islands of Palawan and Mindanao which form part of the Republic of the Philippines.

The position of the Malay peninsula, and in particular of the island of Singapore, is focal in the geographical region of Southeast Asia. It lies at the meeting place of the continental and insular parts of the region, at the cross-roads of monsoon Asia where the wind systems of the Indian Ocean converge on those of the South China Sea: facts that contributed to its early commercial importance. Lying close to the shortest sea route between India and China and almost equidistant between those great population and land masses, astride the main sea and air routes to Australia and, across the Pacific, to the United States, Malaya is an area of great strategic importance.

The Borneo territories of Malaysia are not so nodally situated. They lie to the east of the main shipping routes from China and Japan to India and the west and in consequence have not profited to the same degree from the cultural and economic streams which have been close to the Malay peninsula. Their development has nevertheless reflected that of Malaya by virtue of the affinities forged over a considerable period of common influence under British rule.

Climate

Malaysia lies close to the equator between latitudes 1° and 7° north and longitudes 100° and 119° east. Both of its main regions, the Malay peninsula and the Borneo territories, are open to maritime influences and are subject

2 m a l a y s i a y e a r b o o k

to the interplay of the wind systems which originate in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. The year is commonly divided into the southwest and northeast monsoon seasons which in time correspond roughly with the summer and winter of the northern hemisphere.

In Malaya the northeast monsoon prevails from October to February, the Southwest monsoon from mid-May to September. The beginning and end of the monsoons are usually not well-defined, although the onset of the northeast monsoon is fairly definite. The rainfall and prevailing winds are largely governed by this seasonal division. The average rainfall here is between 120 and 160 inches. The driest part is Jelebu in the State of Negeri Sembilan with an average of 65 inches and the wettest place, Maxwell Hill (near Taiping, in the State of Perak) with an average of 232 inches.

In Sarawak, from the beginning of October until nearly the end of February, the northeast monsoon brings heavy rain, particularly in the coastal belt. From April to July a mild southeast monsoon occurs, and, during this period, rainfall often occurs in the form of afternoon thunder-storms. The annual rainfall here is between 60 and 120 inches.

In Sabah the northeast monsoon lasts from October or November until March or April, and the southwest monsoon from May to August, with interim periods of indeterminate winds between the two monsoons. On the west coast the wettest seasons occur during the southwest monsoon and the interim periods, while on the east coast heaviest rainfall occurs during the northeast monsoon. Rainfall averages about 10 inches throughout the year, though the annual fall varies between 60 and 160 inches. This varies from place to place and from year to year. The highest rainfall is in the southwest (Beaufort and Labuan) and the lowest in the interior, where it is more evenly distributed.

The average daily temperature throughout Malaysia varies from 70°F. to 90°F. though in higher areas temperatures are lower and vary widely. For example, at Cameron Highlands, in the State of Pahang, and Kinabalu in the State of Sabah, the extreme temperatures recorded are 79°F. and 36°F. Relative humidity is everywhere generally high though night temperatures in most places are comparatively cool.

a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o m a l a y s i a 3

towards the South China Sea. At their sources and in their upper reaches the rivers are quick-flowing, often with tortuous rapids and precipitous gorges, in the lower reaches the descent to the coastal plain is more gradual, and the water takes on a muddy colour from contamination with the lowland silts through which the rivers meander before reaching the coast. On the west coast the lower courses of the rivers sometimes he through swampy land, while on the east coast their entrance into the sea is sometimes impeded by sand and bars created by powerful onshore currents.

The Borneo territories consist in general of an alluvial and often swampy coastal plain, or more hilly rolling country further inland and of mountain ranges in the interior. The rivers rise in the interior ranges and flow down through steep gorges and over rapids. In Sarawak the highest peak is Mount Murud (7,950 feet) and the largest river is the Rejang which is 350 miles long and navigable for 100 miles. In Sabah the central mountain ranges rise more abruptly from the west coast. They are generally about 4,000 feet and 6,000 feet in height, but Mount Kinabalu rises to 13,455 feet and is the highest peak in Malaysia. Many rivers flow northwest and east to the South China and Sulu seas. The largest, the Kinabatangan, is navigable for considerable distances and waters the most extensive plain in the territory.

The greater part of Malaysia is still covered by dense, tropical rain-forest, the proportion of forest land being higher in the Borneo region than in the Malay peninsula, which is more developed. On the plains the tropical forest forms an almost unbroken canopy of a hundred feet or so above the ground, but in the higher mountains it tends to thin out and shows considerable variation in flora. In the swampy areas the high forest is replaced by a swamp flora often terminating in mangroves. The coastal plains have been cleared, but development is altogether much more advanced on the west coast of the Malay peninsula and on the island of Singapore than elsewhere, and here are to be found the major towns and cities and large areas of land given to mining, rubber planting, oil palm, pineapple and rice cultivation.

Malaysia's coastline extends for nearly 3,000 miles, and for many centuries the inhabitants of the country have been drawn to the sea for fishing, transport and commerce. Until recent times the rivers and the sea provided the best means of transport for the inhabitants. In Malaya the west coast is most accessible because the Straits of Malacca is sheltered and has the character of an inland sea. The east coast is more difficult of access, for during the northeast monsoon, high winds and rough seas limit coastal navigation. In Borneo the sea continues to be an extremely important means of com-munication between the areas of settlement, and there are a number of sheltered ports along the coast.

A more elaborate account on Malaysian topography may be found in the following section under "Geology".


G E O L O G Y

Malaya The Malay Peninsula forms the continuation of a series of mountain ranges extending from Eastern Burma southward through Thailand, and eventually swinging east to link with Borneo. Except for some local variations the dominant regional trend of the fold-axes (i.e. mountains and valleys) in Malaya is approximately south-southeast.

Almost half the total surface area of the country consists of granite which forms the Main Range and the Trengganu Border Range, as well as lesser ridges. The granite is believed to be of Jurassic age and is therefore, geologically speaking, younger than most of the other rocks of Malaya. During its emplacement the older sedimentary rocks into which it was intruded were folded and buckled into the ranges that make up the present Malayan topography. The granite is fairly uniform in character over most of Malaya, and it is the ultimate source of most of the economic minerals found in the country..

In between and on either side of the granite range lie various sedimentary and volcanic rocks and the coastal alluvium. The table opposite shows the relative ages of these rocks, the geological names assigned to them, their nature and approximate distribution, and the fossils that have been found in them. The table is not intended to be exhaustive: it has been somewhat simplified, and several details, as well as some controversial points, have been left out; moreover, there is a degree of uncertainty attached to the absolute ages (in million years) that are given in the table, and they should only be regarded as an approximation.

When studying the details given in the table it should be borne in mind that, although Malaya is now land, this has not always been so, and that the part of the world now occupied by the Malay Peninsula has during many periods of the geological past been covered by the sea. In fact, the formation of sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, shale, sandstone, and conglomerate normally takes place under water, and is equivalent to the formation of layers of mud and sand on the sea bottom and in the lakes and rivers of today. Therefore, if the table shows that sediments were laid down in Malaya in certain geological periods, we may assume that Malaya was, at that time, covered by the sea, or possibly by freshwater lakes; whereas if the table shows that no sediments are known to occur in Malaya during any geological period, it is likely that Malaya was land during those periods. Again, if the sediments of a certain geological age are confined to

6 MALAYSIA YEAR BOOK

later erosion has removed rocks that were originally there. It is on these principles, stated here in broadest outline only, that a picture of the geological history of Malaya has been built up.

The oldest rocks of the sedimentary succession so far positively identified occur in the extreme northwest of Malaya, in the Langkawi Islands, where they form a thick sequence of quartzites and shales named the Machinchang Formation, and belonging to the geological period known as the Cambrian. They are overlain by a series of predominantly calcareous rocks (limestones) which are named the Setul Formation, and belong to the geological periods known as Ordovician and Silurian. The Setul Formation is chiefly found in the Langkawi Islands and in Perlis, but three isolated occurrences in the Mahang area of Kedah, in the Kinta Valley of Perak (near Kanthan), and near Kuala Lumpur, are also known. We can therefore assume that, while most of Malaya was land during the period from the Cambrian to the Silurian, an arm of the sea extended into northwest Malaya at that time.

The bulk of the Malayan sedimentary rocks however falls within the geological periods ranging from the Carboniferous to the Triassic, and it may be concluded that a greater part of Malaya lay below the sea during that time. The rocks consist of repeated series of quartzites (sandstones) and shales with interbedded limestones and volcanic rocks, which are not always easy to distinguish from one another, and have been sub-divided into a number of groups and formations. The oldest of these is the Kuantan Group, a sequence of predominantly shaly rocks belonging to the early Carboniferous. This is followed in turn by the Bentong Group (consisting predominantly of quartzite and formerly known as the "Older Arenaceous Series"); the Raub Group (consisting chiefly of limestone and formerly known as the "Calcareous Series"); and the Lipis Group (consisting chiefly of quartzites and shales and formerly known as the "Younger Arenaceous Series"). As can be deduced from the names given to these rock groups, their most extensive development is found in Pahang. From Pahang the Bentong and Raub groups continued into Kelantan, Trengganu, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Kedah, and Perlis, while the Lipis Group continues chiefly into Johore. A sub-division of the Lipis Group, known as the Semanggol Formation, occurs in North Perak and Kedah.

One of the most outstanding topographical features of Malaya is formed chiefly by rocks of the Raub Group which has just been described. They are the prominent vertically-sided limestone hills situated in the neigh-bourhood of Kuala Lumpur (Batu Caves and Bukit Takun) in Selangor; near Ipoh in the Kinta Valley of Perak; and at many places in the States of

AN I N T R O D U C T I O N TO MALAYSIA 7

later exposed and isolated by the rapid action of tropical weathering on the surrounding rock. Their vertical faces usually result from the fact that corrosion by acidic groundwaters is more rapid at the base than near the top, so that the sides are being constantly undercut and collapse as a result. These hills are honey-combed by caves, from which quantities of bat guano are obtained for use as fertilizer.

A certain amount of volcanic activity took place in Malaya during the Permian period (as well as just before and after the Permian), The evidence left by the volcanic eruptions of that age consists of a series of volcanic tuffs and lavas that occur interbedded with the sedimentary rocks of the Raub Group and have been described in the literature as the Pahang Volcanic Rocks. The fact that these rocks are interbedded with sediments suggests that they were deposited in the sea, and that the volcanoes whose eruptions formed these rocks were situated close to the sea-shore or possibly below the surface of the sea. Volcanic rocks often give rise to soil that is more fertile than that found overlying sedimentary rocks or granite, and are therefore of some economic importance to agriculture.

Another series of sedimentary rocks, consisting chiefly of quartzites and pebble beds, is found near the tri-State corner Kelantan-Trengganu-Pabang and has been named the Gagau Formation. Plant remains indicate that the age of these rocks is late Jurassic or early Cretaceous, and their geological setting shows that they were not disturbed by the emplacement of the granite. It is therefore believed that these rocks were formed after the intrusion of the granite, although the time interval between the two events may have been very short.

Tertiary rocks in Malaya are represented by five small outcrops of shales and sandstones associated with thin bands of soft coal and lignite. The most famous of these are the deposits of Batu Arang, Selangor, which were worked for coal until 1960. Similar deposits occur at Enggor (Perak), Bukit Arang (Perlis), and at a few localities in Johore. The fossils found in these rocks suggest that these deposits were laid down in fresh water or brackish lakes rather than in the sea, a view which is confirmed by the irregular distribution and small extent of these beds. The scarcity of Tertiary rocks, being the only ones in Malaya known to contain accumulations of organic remains, is one of the main reasons for the view that an occurrence of natural oil in Malaya is unlikely.

The youngest formations encountered in Malaya are extensive tracts of Quaternary sands and clays, found in river valleys and coastal plains. These deposits, known as alluvium, are not consolidated, and are formed by the erosion of the older rocks over long periods of time, and the redepo-sition of the eroded material by rivers and by the sea. In many parts of Malaya, and particularly in the vicinity of the granite areas, the alluvium


may contain valuable concentrations of tin-ore, and it is in fact the most important source of tin-ore in the country.

For many years Malaya has been the world's leading producer of tin, the ore of which (cassiterite) is mined from alluvium, and occasionally from hard rock, near the margins of the granite where it has been concentrated naturally by geological processes. Recovery is chiefly by dredges and gravel pumps, but underground mining also takes place, and the largest single underground tin-mine in the world is situated at Sungei Lembing in Pahang. By-products of alluvial tin-mining include minerals such as columbite, scheelite, ilmenite, monazite, xenotime, zircon, and rutile, which are of varying commercial interest in accordance with fluctuations in their price and demand.

Iron-ore is mined on a large scale at Dungun in Trengganu, and on a somewhat smaller though increasing scale in the States of Kelantan, Perak, Kedah, Pahang, and Johore. Aluminium-ore (bauxite) is mined in Johore, while gold occurs in economic quantities in Kelantan, Pahang, and Perak. Deposits of other ores, such as those of tungsten, lead, manganese, copper, and silver have been worked in the past in different parts of the country.

Sarawak Sarawak occupies most of the northwestern coastal area of the island of Borneo. With an area of about 48,250 square miles, the territory covers a little less than one-sixth of the island, which is the third largest in the world and the largest of the 3,000 or more islands comprising the East Indies Archipelago.

The boundary between Sarawak and Indonesian Borneo follows the watershed between the rivers flowing generally northwesterly into the South China Sea and those flowing into the Celebes and Java Seas. Although much of this watershed is not particularly high, the country is generally rugged and topographically complex. In the north, Sarawak adjoins Sabah, and in the northwest the State of Brunei forms a double enclave. The boundaries between Sarawak and these two countries run through much easier country and sections have been surveyed as the need has arisen.

Mount Murud, at 7,950 feet, is Sarawak's highest mountain, dominating an area of practically unexplored ravines, plateaux and involved mountain ranges rising to over 5,000 feet. Knowledge of this area has been gained by visual reconnaissance from Royal Air Force aircraft (serial photography) and by various expeditions, notably those of the Sarawak Museum, Geo-


The remainder of the country comprises an alluvial coastal plain and a belt of undulating country separating the coastal plain from the sharply rising mountainous interior. The coastal plain varies in width from less than a mile at Miri to over a hundred miles, and contains large areas of peat swamps of various depths. The beaches are generally of mud and mangrove or nipah palm. The belt of undulating country is broken by a few mountain groups, generally not more than 2,500 feet in height. Shallow coastal waters and the existence of bars at river mouths limit the development of deep sea ports.

The main rivers rise in the interior ranges and flow fast through deep gorges and over numerous rapids until they reach the undulating country and the coastal plains, where they meander towards the sea. Inspite of the high rainfall and the steepness of the interior mountains, no spectacular waterfalls have yet been discovered, the rivers descending to the undulating country in a series of rapids rather than by waterfalls. The largest river, the Rejang, has a length of 350 miles and is navigable for small coastal steamers as far as Kapit, 150 miles upriver.

The greater part of Sarawak is still covered by primary rain forest, and large areas are practically uninhabited except for scattered bands of nomadic Punans. Much of the remainder of the land is used for agriculture, largely shifting cultivation or bush fallow farming. One distinctive feature of the country is the large areas of swamp forest. These forests produce the bulk of the timber exported, notably ramin, one of the main exports and used extensively in Great Britain and Australia for making furniture. There are a few small areas of natural grassland near the coast on which cattle are raised, but grazing land, either natural or developed, is very limited.

Sabah Sabah, with an area of 29,388 square miles, forms the apex of the island of Borneo. It is bounded on the west by the South China Sea, below which a continental shelf extends about forty miles to the Sabah Trough, in which depths of 11,000 feet have been recorded; on the northeast a shelf extends out to Kagayan Sulu Island, beyond which is the Sulu Sea Deep; on the southeast the coast falls away sharply into the deep Celebes Sea. The shape of the country has been aptly compared to a dog's head facing east. The coastline of over 800 miles is deeply indented by large bays, such as Marudu Bay in the north and Sandakan Harbour, Darvel Bay, and Cowie Harbour in the east.

One of the chief geographical features of the country is the Crocker Range, a range of mountains stretching parallel with the coast from the Sarawak border in the south-western corner of the country to the Kinabalu massif. The average height of the range is between 2,500 and 3,000 feet and the


mountains rise to over 4,000 feet along a central spine. The range culminates at its northern end in Mount Kinabalu (13,455 feet), the highest mountain in the Malay Archipelago and one of the finest mountains in South-east Asia. This lovely mountain, which is venerated by the natives as the resting place of the dead, may be seen from many parts of the country.

Mount Trus Madi (8,500 feet), on the border of the Keningau and Tam-bunan districts, lies to the east of the Crocker Range and is the highest mountain in the country after Mount Kinabalu. The whole of the Interior between the Crocker Range and the Kalimantan border, with the exception of the Keningau and Tambunan plains, is mountainous and difficult of access.

On the East Coast, much of the terrain inland from Tawau and Lahad Datu is mountainous and almost entirely undeveloped. The valleys of the Segama and Kinabatangan rivers traverse, by contrast, for much of their length, a broad, heavily forested plain, interspersed with hills and crossed by numbers of rivers. There are extensive areas of fertile volcanic soil in the Semporna peninsula.

Between the Crocker Range and the sea on the west coast is an extensive and relatively heavily populated coastal plain, in which is cultivated the major part of rubber and rice produced in the country. Inland from the coastal plain is the Tenom valley, which contains some of the best agricultural land on the West Coast. In the interior are the Keningau and Tambunan plains through which runs the Pegalan river. The Keningau plain consists of wide stretches of scrub and grassland; the Tambunan plain, on the other hand, is intensely cultivated and contains at least 4,000 acres of irrigated padi land.

Rivers are numerous throughout the country and are of considerable importance, constituting as they do the only means of communication in some districts. The longest river is the Kinabatangan, which, rising in the Witti Range in the interior, follows a course of 350 miles before reaching the sea between Sandakan and Tambisan. The river is navigable by large launches as far as Lamag and well beyond that point by smaller launches and shallow-draught craft powered by outboard engines. The Segama river is navigable for about sixty miles. The other main rivers flowing out to the East Coast are the Sugut and the Labuk. The rivers on the West Coast are shorter and swifter flowing. The longest of them is the Padas, which is navigable by small launches as far as Beaufort. The Padas has cut a deep and scenic gorge through the hills of the Crocker Range, and it is through this that the railway passes to connect Beaufort and Tenom. The Tagul river, which has its headwaters near the Indonesian border, flows through


General geology in the Borneo Region The island of Borneo is at a focal point between the mainland of Asia and the Indonesian and Philippine Archipelagoes. Its complex geology has evolved from interaction between the crystalline pre-Tertiary rocks that extend from the Malay peninsula into the stable Sunda Shield, of which west Borneo forms a part, and the powerful mountain building movements that gave rise to the surrounding island arcs which are built of younger sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The trends of these arcs, and of the late Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of Borneo, are to a large extent controlled by the stable mass forming the Sunda Shield.

In Borneo, the Sunda Shield is formed of granite, schist, and metamor-phosed volcanic rock that crop out in West Sarawak and western Kalimantan and form the "continental core" of the island. During the Jurassic, after an interval of stability and erosion, the northern flank of the continental core became submerged and, by late Cretaceous times, downwarps in the sea-floor had developed along its northern and eastern margins. Thus the two Tertiary geosynclines, or downwarps, of Borneo were initiated; the first, the Northwest Borneo Geosyncline, extends from central Sarawak and adjacent parts of Kalimantan into the western and northern parts of Sabah, and the second covers east Kalimantan and extends into southeastern Sabah.

Filling of the Northwest Borneo Geosyncline with detritus from the uplifted continental core, and probably from other uplifted areas now submerged, occupied part of late Cretaceous and most of Palaeocene and Eocene times. The resultant strata are mainly a monotonous succession of shale and sandstone. Environmental conditions were fully marine, the sediments being deposited in deep water some distance from land. The presence of ripple marks and carbonaceous matter towards the top of the succession is taken to indicate shallowing of the sea; this was followed, during the late Eocene, by strong folding of the rocks along the northern margin of the continental core. The effects of these movements decreased towards the north and west until, in Sabah, no late Eocene folding can be detected, and typical geosynclinal deposition continued into Miocene times. Thus, the axis of deposition moved northwest towards north Sarawak and Brunei and into Sabah.

Following the late Eocene folding a succession of hard fine-grained shaly and often calcareous sandstones, alternating with clay and shale, were deposited near the contemporary shore-line in north and central Sarawak. These sandstones are current-bedded and ripple-marked; the formations contain some sandy foraminiferal limestone lenses and shelly beds. During the same cycle of deposition, a monotonous succession of shale with minor layers of sandstone or siltstone was laid down off north Sarawak.


Whereas sedimentation up to late Miocene times was widespread, a number of isolated basins came into existence in the late Tertiary in north Sarawak and in the interior, northern, and eastern parts of Sabah. The presence in these basin deposits of lignite, current-bedding, ripple marks, and certain types of marine Foraminifera, indicate clearly a deltaic or lagoonal environ-ment developing into littoral. Towards the present coast, the environment changed to fully marine, the succession being sandstone and shale with subordinate limestone. Near the present coast of north Sarawak, the rocks of this age are dominantly sandy.

At the end of the Tertiary, a final relatively mild period of folding uplifted the Upper Miocene basin deposits; folding was strongest in central Sarawak and decreased in intensity towards Brunei, where the dominant pattern is now broad gentle synclines separated by relatively narrow, structurally complex anticlinal zones. Since the Pliocene, uplift of the Sarawak and Sabah hinterland by as much as 4,500 feet has taken place in at least two main stages. The corresponding uplift in coastal areas, however, has been little more than 450 feet and was interrupted in the late Pleistocene by a sea level rise of 150 to 200 feet; this resulted in the deep valleys, formed during the previous cycle of erosion, becoming filled with alluvium.

The igneous rocks of Sarawak and Sabah fall into two broad groups, namely a mainly Mesozoic group in West Sarawak associated with the Sunda Shield, and a younger, more widespread group associated with the Cretaceous to Tertiary Northwest Borneo Geosyncline.

The Mesozoic group in west Sarawak comprises Upper Triassic volcanic rocks and late Cretaceous granite batholiths. The younger group of igneous rocks ranges in age from Cretaceous to Quaternary and includes a wide variety of intrusive and volcanic types formed during the development of the Northwest Borneo Geosyncline and occurring both with the geosynclinal sediments and with rocks of the West Sarawak shield area. The rocks within the geosynclinal zone comprise two distinct associations, namely (a) basalt and spilite erupted during the geosynclinal stage, and (b) a dacite-andesite-basalt association that erupted over the folded sediments in several parts of central Sarawak. Intrusive rocks are particularly prominent in Sabah, where a large granite mass, thrust upwards through ultrabasic intrusions and Tertiary sediments, builds Mount Kinabalu. In Sarawak, intrusive igneous rocks are associated with the lavas that erupted over the folded sediments in the central part of the territory.


with occasional periods of prosperity. In Sarawak, the maximum production of antimony was in 1872, of mercury in 1877, of coal in 1898, of gold in 1907, of oil in 1929, and of bauxite in 1961. Production of bauxite is now declining and the reserves will probably be worked out by the end of 1965, but recent years have seen encouraging results in offshore exploration for oil, and the discovery of a new field off Brunei in 1963 has enhanced the prospectings of oil off Sarawak. A Japanese Company has proved a seven-million ton coking coal deposit in west Sarawak and has formulated plans for its exploita-tion; fireclay deposits have also been discovered near the coalfield and are now being investigated. A modest production of gold of approximately 3,000 oz per year is still obtained from the Bau Mining District, and drilling by the Geological Survey is now in progress there to help boost production. A rise in the price of antimony in 1964 has brought about a revival of anti-mony mining at Bau, and about 100 tons of approximately 50 percent antimony ore was exported during the year. Most of the raw materials for cement manufacture are available in Sarawak and some deposits of sand at Bintulu, Marudi and Sematan have been shown to be of glass-making quality.

In Sabah, stone, coral sand and clay are the only mineral materials being exploited, but the value of the mineral resources in the State are far from being completely assessed. Knowledge of the mineral occurrences have been compiled from accounts of sporadic and incomplete investigations under-taken by various companies during the earlier part of the century and from recent reconnaissance mapping by the Geological Survey, supplemented by more detailed work in certain localities of economic interest, undertaken both by the Survey and by mining companies during the last few years. Current prospecting interest is mainly concentrated in the Labuk Valley area where copper mineralisation is being investigated by the United Nations Labuk Valley Project, and by mining companies. A five-year prospecting programme for chromite by a London mining company met with no success but discovered a very large tonnage of lateritic iron ore with small percentages of nickel on Tavai Plateau. Short fibre asbestos deposits on Malawai Island, some silver mineralisation on Semporna Peninsula, and cinnabar and gold occurrences near Ranau warrant further investigation. At least 3,000,000 tons of coking coal remain in a field that was formerly mined near Tawau and a probable reserves of 9,000,000 tons of steam coal on Labuan Island could be exploited if demand arose.

V E G E T A T I O N The natural vegetation of Malaysia is tropical rain forest, the richest and most luxuriant forest to be found anywhere 6n earth. The climate of this region provides the ideal conditions for plant growth—high temperatures, plenty


sunshine and adequate rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. It is only in the mountains, where the temperature is lower and clouds lap the summits for many days in the year that the vegetation becomes stunted.

To those who travel by road or by air down the west coast of Malaya or in coastal Sabah it may come as a surprise that slightly over 70 per cent of the whole of Malaysia is still covered with forest. For once a road or railway is opened it is immediately followed by development. Extensive plantations of rubber and oil palm, areas of padi on the alluvial soils, and the ribbon development of orchards of tropical fruits, rambutan, mangosteen, chiku, langsat, durian and many others, screen the road from the forest which still fills most of the hinterland. Even up the rivers the fertile alluvial soils in the lower reaches have almost all been planted with crops.

The rain forest is sombre in outward appearance, a sea of green tree crowns stretching as far as the eye can see. Inside, the forest is not nearly as impenetrable as popular literature would suggest. Huge trees, 120 to 150 and sometimes 200 feet high, rise cut of the forest shade with beautifully formed colunmal trunks, often unbranched for 80 to 100 feet. It is these trunks that provide the timber wealth of the Malaysian forest. Below this there are many smaller trees and the ground is thinly covered with small shrubs and seedlings, but only a few flowering herbs. Except in swamp or in the moun-tains it is relatively easy to move about, and the main hazards are the climbing palms whose stems are covered with formidable sharp spines and whose leaf tips are armed with long whip-like flagella bearing recurved thorns which can inflict a nasty wound. Dangerous animals and snakes are very rarely seen; leeches, however, may be numerous but can usually be kept off with adequate precautions. It is the dense secondary growth of shrubs and climbers, which thrive where there is abundant light on the edge of the forest or in clearings, that give the impression of an impenetrable wall of vegetation.

Because of the climate without seasons few plants flower gregariously at one time of the year, so that there is rarely a display of colour in the forest. Indeed many of the trees have rather insignificant flowers. Some of the climbers, for example the orange bauhinias, provide a vivid splash of colour; but much of the variety is due to the foliage. The forest canopy is made up of all shades of green and often the young or the dying leaves are brilliant colours, yellows, red or even deep purple. Particularly striking at certain times of the year is the brilliant red young foliage of the perah (Elaterios-permum tapos) and the scarlet falling leaves of the sea-shore tree, jelawai ketapang (Terminalia catappa).

A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O MALAYSIA 15

6,000 are trees. Indeed, it is not unusual to find 100 species of tree in an acre of forest. The most important family of trees in Malaysia is the Diptero-carpaceae—a famliy which does not occur in the tropical forests of West Africa or America—which provides a large proportion of the biggest trees in the lowland forest. Many of the most valuable timbers, meranti, kerning, balau, kapur, chengai, alan and others belong to various members of this family as does the important oil-bearing illipe nut (Shorea gysbertiana), which occurs in Borneo only. But many other families are represented of which some of the most important are Leguminosae (the pea family), Burse-raceae (the kedongdong family) and Myristicaceae (the nutmeg family).

Besides the trees, these forests contain a large variety of fascinating plant forms. Lianes hang down from the trees crowns in fantastic woody coils; their flowers and leaves are among the branches of the big trees; their stems are flexible and contain large vessels for the transport of water, so that their crowns can continue living even if their supports collapse. If a length of liane is cut at both ends, it will provide as much as a cupful of pure water. There are also epiphytes on the upper branches, plants which depend on the trees for support but not for food, such as orchids, ferns and aroids. And on the ground one may find curious and striking parasites such as Balanophora or the remarkable orange and red Rafflesia which has no leaves or stem but whose flowers measure a foot across. Many of the trees have unusual features also, stilt roots, plank-like buttresses supporting the bottom of the trunk or flowers emerging straight from the wood.

The kind of forest varies with its situation. Along the west coast of Malaya and Sarawak the rivers are laying down extensive estuarine deposits of fine silt. These areas are covered with mangrove forests, composed of trees of few families (principally Rhizophoraceae and Lythraceae) which are adapted to living in the highly saline and anaerobic conditions of the tidal muds. These are intensively managed and valuable forests. They also have great scientific interest because of the adaptations present in many of the trees which enable them to live in this kind of place. Many have stilt roots, others send up aerophores, roots which grow upwards out of the mud; both of these modifications allow the roots to obtain the oxygen which they require but which is lacking in the mud. In most species the seedlings develop on the tree and drop off when quite large; they can be seen as green cigars hanging on the trees along the side of any small creek in the mangrove. The forests of sandy shores are quite different. Most have been cleared for planting coconuts but there are traces in some places of the original forest and the beaches are now fringed with casuarinas, pandanus and jambu laut (Eugenia grandis). A particularly fine example of the scrubby forest and heath land that develops on poor sandy soils near the sea can be found in Bako National Park (near Kuching).


Behind these coastal forests there develop, especially in Sarawak, deep deposits of peat formed by the accumulation of the leaves and wood of generations of trees which have not been able to decay because of the acid and anaerobic conditions of the swamp in which they grow. The peat may be as much as 50 feet deep. The fringes of these forests in Sarawak often consist of remarkable pure forests of alan, Shorea albida, in which each tree is nearly 200 feet high.

Most of the intensively cultivated land of Malaysia has been won from lowland forests by clearing and draining; and huge areas still remain to be developed on soils which can be made fertile for agriculture. But, in spite of the luxuriant natural growth, the soil itself is often rather poor, much of the richness in the form of plant nutrients is present in the trees and may be lost when the forest is removed. Unless these are replaced by fertilisers, the forest must be allowed to recover for many years before the fertility of the soil is restored. This is the basis of the shifting cultivation practised by many of the indigenous peoples of Malaysia. The procedure is to fell and burn the forest and plant crops of hill padi and vegetables followed by longer lasting crops such as tapioca and bananas. The land is then allowed to revert to secondary forest while the cultivators move on. After a period of years they may move back to the first area and clear it again. In the course of this process the forest is often changed in compostion and may become rich in bamboo. But, if the cycle is repeated too frequently, the forest is destroyed and replaced by belukar or even by grassland. The large areas of unproductive lallang (Imperata cylindrica) and resam (Gleichenia spp.) in the west of Sabah have been produced in this way. Lallang will aslo invade where cultivation has been abandoned, as has happened for example in parts of Johore.

With increase in altitude the forests change their character. Most of the Dipterocarps disappear by about 4,000 feet and the forests at this altitude begin to be richer in other families, the oaks and chestnuts (Fagaceae), the laurels (Lauraceae), the conifers (Coniferae) the myrtles (Myrtaceae) and the tea family (Theaceae). Many of the forests at 5,000-8,000 feet on Kinabalu are almost entirely composed of these families. Kinabalu is the highest mountain in Malaysia and a brief account of it will illustrate the different kinds of vegetation. The forest of oaks and conifers at middle altitudes is not so lofty as the lowland forest (not more than 80-100 feet); it is not so rich in tree species nor so complex in structure. Higher still, at 10,000-12,000 feet the climate is cooler and wetter; the temperature may drop to 45° each night and cloud and mist are prevalent. Here the forest becomes more dwarf, not more than 20 feet high in exposed places, and contains abundant plants

AN INTRODUCTION TO MALAYSIA 17

a layer of red-brown peat and all the vegetation is covered with a mass of mosses, filmy ferns and epiphytic orchids. Flowering plants are more frequent and their colours more brilliant than in the lowlands. For the last few hundred feet the mountain consists of a cone of shattered granite, heated every day in the sun and dropping below freezing point on many nights in the year. Ice often forms here. This is a most unkind environment for plants and they are represented only by small shrubs and herbs sheltering in rock crevices. But, although insignificant, these plants are very interesting; for there are buttercups and gentians and other representatives of temperate families of plants, separated from their nearest neighbours by many thousand miles.

The mountains in Malaya are not so high. But on the isolated lower ranges some of these kinds of vegetation are found at much lower altitudes than they occur on the bigger mountain masses.

The Malaysian forests and mountains contain huge potential for develop-ment, as farm land, productive forest and national parks for recreation. There is still within them a wealth of beauty, scientific interest and economic value which waits to be discovered.

WILD LIFE The jungles of Malaysia abound with an enormous variety of wild life. This may surprise a visitor travelling by road or rail, as he will see comparatively little apart from birds and, occasionally, members of the monkey family. The reason for this apparent inconspicuity of wild life lies in the nature of the Malaysian terrain—the density of the undergrowth along the jungle fringes provides an effective screen to conceal the wild animals, most of which are shy by nature and avoid the populated areas.

Carnivores The tiger must obviously take pride of place amongst all animals, being the national animal of Malaysia (whose armorial bearings are supported by two such animals). Tigers are fairly plentiful, although seldom seen, and constitute little serious threat to life or limb unless wounded or very decrepit. This applies to all big game; a wild animal normally only attacks a human being when cornered and frightened, or when it is unable to forage for its food owing to age or injury. Panther and leopard are occasionally encountered; the clouded leopard is a particularly beautiful animal with spots and stripes merging into blotches, but it is so timid that it seldom appears in opened-up areas. Tiger and leopard are not found in Sarawak now, though tiger remains have been found in the prehistoric excavations at Niah. Other members of the cat tribe, such as civets (Musang) have fewer inhibitions and can often be found at the edge of kampongs or cultivation. The Malayan wild dog is another local breed, but is seldom seen.

1 8 m a l a y s i a y e a r b o o k

Omnivores Principal of the omnivores is the honey-bear, which is found in most of the world's zoos. Classified as big game, he can only be hunted under licence. Honey-bears seldom grow above about four feet in height, and are distin-guished by a medium-length black coat with a white star. They express their contentment in captivity, particularly after meals, by a curious purring noise not altogether unlike an electric refrigerator. In the Borneo Region these are the only mammals that the indigenous peoples fear as they can be dangerous and very bold particularly when with young.

Herbivores Elephant exists in medium-sized herds in the deep jungle of Malaysia and is comparatively plentiful. Less common is the seladang or banteng as is known in Sarawak. This is by far the largest member of the wild ox family in the world. These animals weigh anything up to twenty hundredweight, and are extremely vicious if cornered or injured; their skull structure, which is comparable to that of an elephant, makes them very difficult to kill. Three other big game animals are worthy of mention, and are totally protected on account of their rarity; the tapir—a beast still in the process of evolution which slightly resembles a boar but has the beginnings of a trunk-like probos-cis ; and the two species of rhinoceros—the Javan and Sumatran species, both called badak in Malay—which were thought until recently to be more or less extinct. It is now known that the Sumatran badak is not extinct, and there is good reason to believe that the same applies to its Javan Cousin. Two-horned rhinoceros is known to exist in Sarawak, but it is now believed to be extinct, being hunted out on account of the alleged aphrodisiac properties of its horns, feet and other appendages.

Smaller forms of wild life Amongst the smaller animals of the jungle, two are especially worthy of mention: the deer and the monkey families. The former range from rusa (sambah deer) to barking deer, and from kambing gurun (the goat antelope) to the three types of mouse-deer (pelandok, kanchil and napoh). The mouse-deer holds a position in Malaysian folklore very similar to that of brer rabbit in the western world, and is the hero of countless stories handed down over the generations relating how he outwits the powerful but rather dim-witted elephant or tiger. The monkey family covers a huge range including the berok (or pig-tailed monkey) which, when trained, is used for harvesting coconuts. The berok develops an almost fanatical loyalty to his master and can be described as a "one-man-monkey"; he may often be seen travelling to work

A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A L A Y S I A 19

be seen in Kuala Lumpur and other centres. The name kra is almost certainly onomatapoeic from the odd "khrr-khrr" noise the animal makes. Finally, there are the three species of gibbon, which are totally protected by law—the white-handed gibbon (or wah-wah), the black-handed species and the siamang, which is the largest of the three. Often seen, they are much more frequently heard—thanks to their distinctive signature-tunes. The siamang indicates his presence by puffing out his throat and emitting a loud booming noise-which carries for several miles. The wah-wah is one of nature's comedians, and gives voice by means of a series of wild ascending crescendo "whoops" which remind the devotee of naval war films of a destroyer preparing to do battle. Contrary to wide-spread belief, the gibbon is not in the least vicious; once tamed, he makes a most amusing and affectionate pet. House-training is however difficult—he has little regard for his owner's more fragile property, and his ideas on domestic hygiene are hardly likely to commend themselves to the fastidious. He is best kept out of doors.

Borneo Region has a particularly rich and varied selection of primates including present day representatives of nearly all the main groups which have ever existed. There are several species of tree-shrews which are thought to be closely related to the tree-shrew-like common ancestors of primates which lived some 50 million years ago. Further up the evolutionary scale come the slow loris and then the tarsier, both are nocturnal tree-living animals. Then come the leaf monkeys and macaques including the grotesque and peculiar proboscis monkeys which are found nowhere else but in Borneo where they frequent coastal mangrove and nipah swamps. Finally, there are the apes—the Sunda Island gibbon, whose beautiful, bubbling early morning calls earn them the local name of "wa-wa", and the magnificent Orang Hutan or Mias. The latter though fully protected is decreasing fast and is in danger of extinction. Besides, there is a great profusion of smaller mammals including civets, squirrels, rats, bearded pigs and countless thousands of lesser animals and insects.

Birds Where Malaysia is so rich is in its bird-life. Indeed, there are so many species that by no means have all been listed. Many are of extraordinary beauty with their bright plumage flashing in the sun. These include peafowl, trogons, broadbills, pittas, argus pheasant, golden auriole (a particularly beautiful bird), the entire range of kingfishers, the tukang, the sunbirds and the hornbill. Perhaps two of the most famous and magnificent of Bornean birds are the argus, the males of which stamp out dancing grounds in the forest, and the beautiful silver-tailed and blue-wattled bulwer's pheasant. Among the more familiar town and village-dwelling birds might be mentioned the plaintive cuckoo, whose infuriating monotonous song has earned it the name of


brainfever bird, the long-tailed night-jar or tok-tok, the magpie robin and the ever present and destructive munias or "pipit". Amongst the songsters is the merbok and the minah. The merbok is akin to the soprano lieder-singer, and competitions between rival owners are often staged. The minah is deservedly famous for its extraordinary coloratura performance ranging from the shrillest soprano to a sort of coloratura basso-prof undo. Its range includes all the barnyard and most of the industrial noises, and if the gibbon is the jungle's jester, the minah is undoubtedly its mimic.

Reptiles Snakes are very common in Malaysia, but comparatively few are poisonous, cobras forming the majority of the latter. Sea-snakes are invariably poisonous, but seldom attack humans. The principal constrictor is the python, some of which grow to great lengths. Snakes in Sarawak are known to have killed a large number of rats in the farms, and they are therefore doing a good service to the farmers. Crocodiles fall into two groups—the garial (or gavial) type which lives on fish and is harmless, and the estuarine type which is carni-vorous but seldom interferes with human beings. On the land, lizards range from the large monitor lizard, which is occasionally seen lumbering across the road, to the household chik-chak (again, the name is onomatopoeic) which lives on a diet of flies, thus performing a useful service.

Fish Facilities for fishing are available in the various parks of Malaysia, such as the King George V National Park or the Taman Negara, and in the rivers and reservoirs. Sea-fishing facilities are also available for those interested.

Protection of wild life Federal legislation exists to protect wild life generally, but the detailed working of the law lies with the State Governments. Big game may be hunted in season by licence, but the number of animals which may be taken is limited. Some animals are wholly protected, some partially; but as the law varies from State to State the prospective hunter is well advised to make contact with the local Game Warden before he sets out. Safari in the African sense is unknown to Malaysia. Trapping of animals is strictly controlled, and inhumane traps may involve the person setting them in substantial penalties.

CHAPTER II

THE PEOPLE A H I S T O R I C A L O U T L I N E

Early History MAINLAND MALAYSIA was significant at a very early epoch in human history as a land bridge between continental Asia and the lands of the south-west Pacific and it was one of the routes by which the prehistoric peoples of Indonesia, Melanesia and Australia travelled to their future homes. Archaeo-logical research in Malaysia has provided evidence of settlement from very ancient times; indeed, in the Niah Caves, in Sarawak, there is evidence of human life before 50,000 B.C. By the beginning of the Christian era iron age settlements had been established, and there is evidence, from that period, of well-developed commercial and trade contacts between settlements in Kedah, South Johore and Santubong, in west Borneo, with South China and with India and the west. It has, indeed, been speculated that the trade of the Golden Chersonese of classical times may well have included the products of west Borneo.

The earliest Malay kingdoms seem to have been in the north of the Malay peninsula where Kedah formed part of the Buddhist kingdom of Langkasuka, which was on a significant commercial and cultural route between India and Cambodia. Another Buddhist Malay kingdom arose later in east Sumatra. This was the State of Sri Vijaya based on Palembang. By the ninth century it had conquered Langkasuka, Kelantan, Trengganu and Pahang and was overlord of the Malay peninsula. Colonists from Palembang also settled in the island of Singapore in the thirteenth century, founding the separate kingdom of Temasek. Soon after this Sri Vijaya fell. At the beginning of the fourteenth century there arose in Java the powerful Hindu empire of Majapahit, the influence of which also extended northward to Borneo. Though the Brunei Malays are now all Muslims, the State's traditional ceremony, the royal procedure and the nomenclature of court officials still preserve Hindu elements which were probably introduced when the country was under Majapahit influence.

Islam, brought by Arab traders, reached the Malay world in the thirteenth century, the kingdom of Melayu in east Sumatra being one of the first States to adopt Islam as its religion. Melayu never extended its rule over the Malay peninsula but there is evidence to show that in the mid-fourteenth century, by which time Majapahit had overrun and destroyed the settled parts of Malaya and the kingdoms of Temasek, Palembang and Melayu, Islam had succeeded in establishing itself in parts of Malaya.


The destruction of Temasek by Majapahit, and the subsequent occupation of the island of Singapore by a Thai army, led to the rise of Malacca, to which the exiled Temasek ruler, Parameswara, a prince of Palembang origin, had fled. In 1405 Parameswara received the recognition of the Ming Emperor of China, who promised protection against the threat from the Thais now exerting pressure from the north after the withdrawal of Majapahit. In 1416 Parameswara embraced Islam, and thereafter the influence of Arab teachers and traders, and contact with the Arabic world, increased. It is significant nevertheless that Parameswara's successor still adopted the Sri Vijaya title of Sri Maharaja. At the same time Malacca continued to cultivate its political and trade connections with China, and as a result of its two-way trade with East Asia and with the Indian and Islamic worlds, it prospered increasingly. In the mid-fifteenth century the Golden Age of Malacca dawned. It was the time of Hang Tuah, the greatest of Malacca's warriors. Conquests were made in Malaya and Sumatra and the wealth and prestige of the State increased. From Malacca the influence of Islam continued to spread in the Malay world, and in the peninsula it gradually replaced Hinduism. Often Islam was carried by the merchant princes and traders who were an important element in Malacca's population.

By the early fifteenth century the influence of Islam had also spread to Borneo where it was adopted by the powerful State of Brunei which now controlled the trade of the area. In Borneo, as in Malaya, the same cultural and commercial influences—from India and the Islamic world and from China—were thus at work. But in the early sixteenth century these influences were joined by another which soon had far-reaching effects on the political and commercial life of the area.

In 1509 a Portuguese fleet sent by Albuquerque reached Malacca and in 1521 the first western expedition to circum-navigate the globe arrived at Brunei town.

The capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 destroyed the Malay empire which had controlled the peninsula and the east coast of Sumatra, and a period of Malay adversity followed. The Malacca dynasty established a new Sultanate based on the Riau islands and Johore, but Riau-Johore was never able to re-establish control over Malacca, which became the centre of Portuguese influence over the trade of South and East Asia. In 1641 the Dutch seized Malacca in order that it should no longer rival their own commercial centre at Batavia but they in turn had to face the hostility of Riau-Johore, after 1721 under the control of the Bugis, the warrior merchants

t h e p e o p l e 23

come under Thai influence. As the century wore on, however, Riau-Johore declined in power, and in 1743 Selangor achieved independence under a Bugis dynasty to be followed in 1773 by the Minangkabau States of Negeri Sembilan. Perak whose first ruler was the son of the last Malacca sultan, preserved its existence against the Bugis, but, as their power declined, found itself harassed by the Thais from the north.

The triumph of Islam over the greater part of the Malay world (Majapahit had fallen early in the sixteenth century to the new Javanese Islamic kingdom) provided the Malays with a unifying influence which neither the Portuguese nor the Dutch, despite their military power, could destroy. The trading influence of the Dutch, and later the British, nevertheless resulted in the disintegration of the larger Malay political units whose territories tended to become separate sultanates. Thus, when the Riau royal family divided into two branches, one under British and the other under Dutch influence, the officials of the State who ruled Pahang and Johore assumed the positions of independent princes. Similarly after the beginning of the seventeenth century the power of Brunei over Borneo declined as the Dutch established trading centres in the south and east of the island, until, by the beginning of the nineteenth century, it included only its present territory, Sarawak and parts of North Borneo (Sabah).

Advent of the British The British interest in the East Indies and East Asia was, like that of the Portuguese and Dutch, to begin with primarily commercial. In the second half of the eighteenth century the British East India Company was badly in need of bases for its trade with China, and an attempt to establish a station in the area was made in North Borneo. There, the Sultan of Sulu, who had been released from Spanish captivity when the British captured Manila in 1763, had ceded to the company the land from the Kimanis river to the Straits of Macassar. This territory had earlier been given to the Sultan of Sulu by Brunei as a reward for services which he had rendered. The company opened a base at Balembangan, an island to the north of Marudu Bay, but the place was unhealthy and constantly menaced by pirates. In 1775 it was pillaged by Sulus and Illanuns, who forced the garrison to retire. In 1803 an attempt to re-establish the base was made but again without success, and the station was closed together with a company factory at Brunei. After this no further British efforts at settlement in Borneo were made for 40 years.

In Malaya British attempts to establish settlements were more successful. In 1786 Francis Light, on behalf of the East India Company, took possession of the island of Penang. The island belonged to Kedah which at the time was anxious to obtain a guarantee of military assistance against Siam (its nominal suzerain), the Bugis and Burma. The East India Company failed


to go to Kedah's assistance when she was attacked by the Siamese but after 1791, when Kedah tried unsuccessfully to re-capture Penang, it agreed to pay the Sultan of Kedah and his successors M$ 10,000 per year in return for the cession of Penang and Province Wellesley.

Malacca was surrendered to the British in 1795 during the Napoleonic wars. It was subsequently returned on two occasions to the Dutch, who finally gave it up in exchange for Bencoolen in west Sumatra in 1825. Mean-while, the termination of the Napoleonic wars and the re-occupation of Java by Holland again faced the East India Company with the need for a good East India trading station. The geographical position of Penang limited its value as a trading and naval base. The problem was solved when Sir Stamford Raffles took possession of Singapore in 1819.

In 1826 Penang, Malacca and Singapore were combined to form the Colony of the Straits Settlements and continued to be administered from India. In 1830 they were brought under the control of the presidency of Bengal and 21 years later transferred to the direct control of the Governor-General of India. In 1867 their administration became the responsibility of the Colonial Office.

For the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century it was the policy neither of the East India Company nor of the British Government to interfere in the Malay States of the peninsula or in Borneo. During the period, however, significant changes began to take place in the peninsular Malay States. With the coming of the British, trade had greatly increased in the area. There was a considerable development of tin mining by immigrant Chinese workers using new methods, and in consequence the control of the districts brought to the nobles greater revenue and power than attendance at the sultans' courts. At the same time the population grew and began to spread out over the countryside. Despite the economic progress the internal government of the Malay States was not satisfactory, from the British point of view. There was constant warfare between them and civil war was frequent. Piracy flourished and the people were burdened by service in the local wars of their rulers and by the system of slavery which was widespread. The situation was far from satisfactory to the increasingly prosperous commercial circles of Penang and Singapore. The transfer of the Straits Settlements to the Colonial Office enabled the Governor and leading merchants in the colony to represent the conditions in the Malay States more effectively to the British Government, with the result that in 1873 new instructions permitting a change of policy were issued to the Governor of the Straits Settlements in the following terms:

THE P E O P L E 25

Government and to the well-being of the British Settlements themselves, Her Majesty's Government find it incumbent upon them to employ such influence as they possess with the Native Princes to rescue, if possible, those fertile and productive countries from the ruin which must befall them if the present disorders continue".

The Governor was instructed to ascertain the actual situation in each State and in particular to consider whether it would be advisable to appoint a British officer to reside in any of them. "Such an appointment", the instruction went on, "could, of course, only be made with the full consent of the Native Government . . .

In the following year Britain intervened in the State of Perak, where, in addition to difficulties of the kind outlined above, there were strife between Malays and Chinese and feuds between rival Chinese secret societies in the tin fields of Larut. The Governor succeeded in negotiating a treaty with the Ruler and Chiefs by which the advice of a British Resident should be asked and acted upon on all questions other than those touching Malay religion and custom. In 1874, also, the Sultan of Selangor entered into a similar treaty and accepted a British Resident. Similar arrangements were made later with Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, and in 1895 these four States—Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang—became a federation with a British Resident-General and a system of centralised government.

Johore accepted a treaty of protection in 1885, and in 1914, under a new treaty, a General Adviser was appointed. By the Bangkok Treaty of 1909, Thailand transferred all rights of suzerainty, protection, administration and control of the four northern States of Kelantan, Trengganu, Perlis and Kedah to Britain. Up to then, those States had continued to suffer from the weak-nesses which had previously beset the States in the south. Although the provisions of the treaties negotiated with them and with Johore were almost similar to those of the earlier treaties, these States remained outside the Federation but accepted a British Adviser in each of their governments.

It should be noted that neither the Federated Malay States nor Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu and Johore were ever declared British territory, but an administrative link existed between the States and the British Straits Settlements, since the High Commissioner for the Malay States was also Governor of the Straits Settlements.

The course of events in the Borneo territories in the second half of the nineteenth century was not entirely dissimilar from what took place in Malaya. By the middle of the century the once powerful State of Brunei consisted of only its present territory, with a shadowy authority over Sarawak and part of North Borneo. Anarchy was rife and Illanun and Sulu pirates went almost uncontrolled. Britain took action to secure the safety of the seas in the area for her commerce and navigation. In 1840 James Brooke, an


adventurous Englishman, intervened in a dispute in Sarawak occasioned by the revolt of the Malays and Land Dayaks against the rule of the Sultan of Brunei's viceroy. As a reward for his services in pacifying the country the Sultan installed him as Rajah (Viceroy). Brooke sought and obtained the assistance of the British Navy to suppress piracy which was then rife. Subsequently he secured the intervention of the Navy in North Borneo where, in 1845, a successful action occurred against pirates in Marudu Bay. In order that it should have a base for further operations against piracy, Britain in 1846 obtained the cession from the Sultan of Brunei of the island of Labuan, which became a Crown Colony under the government of the Straits Settlements. In the following year Brunei concluded a treaty for the promotion of commerce and the suppression of piracy with Britain.

Rajah Brooke meanwhile had continued the work of pacifying Sarawak, reducing head-hunting and laying the foundations of administration. His country's independence was recognised by the United States in 1850, and in 1864 Great Britain appointed a Consul. His son and successor, Sir Charles Brooke, over a period of 50 years built on his predecessor's foundations. The State was enlarged, piracy all but disappeared, head-hunting was greatly reduced, prosperity increased and a system of administration was established.

The development of North Borneo was largely undertaken as a commercial proposition by businessmen attracted by the country's timber, its reported mineral wealth and its land. Some early attempts to establish settlements had failed, but in 1877 the Sultan of Brunei and in 1878 the Sultan of Sulu ceded possessions in north and in east Borneo to Baron Overbeck. and Alfred Dent. Immediate steps were taken to establish the rudiments of government. In 1881 the British Government granted a charter to the British North Borneo Provisional Association Ltd. The charter provided, inter alia, that the company should always be British, that it should undertake to abolish slavery, to administer justice with due regard to native customs and laws and not to interfere with the religion of the inhabitants. In 1882 the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company was founded, and in 1888 the British presence in Borneo as a whole was formalised when North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak became British protectorates.

The commerce of the territories was vastly stimulated by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, by the introduction of the rubber tree from South America in 1877 and by the rapid expansion of tin mining in the peninsula. These developments were accompanied by a great influx of Chinese and Indian labour. In Malaya, in the early years of the twentieth century, the construction of railways and roads went on at a rapid pace to allow the


settlement and communications as in Malaya. In North Borneo economic development was most marked on the west coast where the Chartered Company offered land on attractive terms. A railway was Constructed and proved its worth at the time of the rubber boom in the early nineteen-hundreds.

In the early years of British administration the local populations were not associated in government by means of any elected legislatures but efforts were made to govern the country in association with local leaders. In both the federated and unfederated Malay States the British Residents and British Advisers officiated as advisers to the existing Rulers or all matters excepting those relating to Muslim law and Malay custom. In 1909, in the federated States, a Federal Council was created by Sir John Anderson, the membership being the Rulers, the Resident-General, the four British Residents and four unofficials nominated by the High Commissioner who presided over the council.

In the Straits Settlements, as early as the mid-nineteenth century, municipal committees had been established in Penang, Singapore and Malacca during the period of company rule. These organs enabled the leaders of all com-munities to express their views to the government. Singapore became a municipality in 1856. Under Crown Colony government a Straits Settlements Legislative Council, consisting of eleven officials and six nominated unofficials was established and recruitment to the civil service of the Settlements by competitive examination was initiated.

The system of law introduced by the British in the Straits Settlements and subsequently adopted alike by the federated and unfederated Malay States was the Indian Evidence Act, and Penal and Criminal Procedure Codes (of British India), with slight alterations and a Civil Procedure Code based on the English Judicature Acts. In Sarawak and Borneo the basis of Criminal Law is again the Indian Penal Code and it is provided that in both territories save insofar as provision is made by any written laws in force, the common law of England and the doctrines of Equity shall apply as far as local circum-stances permit.

The Inter-War Years In the years between 1918 and 1939 Malaya and the Borneo territories

suffered, like most other countries, from the effects of the trade recession in the 'twenties and of the world economic depression of the 'thirties. Nevertheless considerable progress was made in expanding public utilities and social services.

In the Federated Malay States the largest items of government expenditure during the 'twenties were on the extension of railways and the construction of new roads and buildings. Medical and educational services were also expanded and other social services showed a moderate advance. The world economic depression forced the government to introduce sweeping economies


and impose additional taxation. Construction of new public works was impeded and departmental expenditure cut, but with, the recovery of revenue after 1934 services were again expanded.

Development in the Unfederated Malay States also went ahead in the inter-war years. Johore, the largest and wealthiest, saw a considerable expansion of public works and social services. In Kedah, Perlis and Kelantan, much less revenue was available and the scale of development lower. Trengganu was still in the early stages of development during the period and the surplus revenues available for services were small. The beneficial effect of security and justice is nevertheless indicated by the fourteenfold increase in the revenue of the State between 1911 and 1937.

The Straits Settlements Government embarked in 1919 on a programme of expansion. The Singapore Harbour Works were improved. Expenditure on medical services and education increased very considerably. Expenditure on public works rose from M$458,000 in 1918 to over M$6 million in 1927. After the depression progress was resumed, and by 1930 medical expenditure in the three municipalities was over M$5 million. The expansion of the naval base also helped the island's economy.

In Sarawak Sir Vyner Brooke, the third Rajah, succeeded his father in 1917 and continued his policies. Head-hunting was reduced to sporadic pro-portions, revenue increased and medical and educational services were improved. At the outbreak of war the State was in a sound economic position with a large sum of money in reserve. In North Borneo the chartered company was able to achieve creditable, if somewhat slow, progress. The economy was affected by the world slump in 1931 but thereafter the company was able to achieve a balanced economy based largely on the export of rubber, timber and copra. Sandakan, the then seat of Government, Jesselton, Beaufort, Tawau and Kudat had developed into small but prosperous towns, but good communications were still mainly limited to the west coast.

Constitutionally there were some advances in the period. In 1927 the Federal Council of the Federated Malay States was changed when the Rulers withdrew, the officials were increased to 13 and the unofficial to 11. The proceedings of the council then began to adopt something of the modern aspect of Government and Opposition. In the Straits Settlements after 1924, the Legislative Council had equal numbers of officials and unofficial appointed by the Governor, who, in carrying out his duties, was advised by an Executive Council consisting mainly of officials. Co-ordination of policy throughout the peninsula continued to be achieved by the Governor as High Commissioner for the Malay States.


the Rajah of Sarawak, in celebration of the centenary of his family's rule, enacted a new constitution which abrogated his absolute powers and set his people on the first stage of the road to democratic self-government.

During the inter-war years there were few people who thought in terms of achieving independence in the near future for any of the territories. For the most part the Malays were satisfied with a system of administrative tutelage which gave them opportunity and time to develop and which preserved the sovereignty of their traditional rulers. On the eve of the Second World War, however, there were signs of some political activity among young Malays. There had emerged a group calling itself the Young Malay Union (Kesatuan Melayu Muda), drawing its inspiration from the nationalist movement in Indonesia. Some of its leaders were members of the Indonesian Nationalist Party. These political activities were forced underground because political parties and even trade unions were then still illegal. Many of the leaders of this Malay political movement were arrested and detained by the British administration at the time war broke out in Malaya. A number of prominent political leaders in Malaya today were connected with this embryonic Malay nationalist movement which started in the late 1930s.

The immigrant races, though numerically important, to a large extent, still thought in terms of a return to their homelands. The object of many of the Indian labourers who came to work in the Federation's plantations was to amass sufficient money to return in comparative affluence to India and they were not at all interested in the possibility of taking part in politics in Malaya. The immigrant Chinese on the other hand were beginning to be interested in politics, but it was an interest in the politics of mainland China and not of Malaya or Borneo. Both the Kuomintang and, after 1924, the Chinese Communist Party, established branches in Malaya, but they were concerned to a large extent with winning the support of the comparatively wealthy overseas Chinese group with its financial resources so valuable to their ends in China, rather than in influencing political development locally. After the Japanese invasion of China, the Chinese in Malaya and Borneo increasingly gave support to the organisations seeking to aid, by financial or other means, the Chinese Government in its resistance.

The Second World War Between the outbreak of the war in Europe and the Japanese Occupation,

the production of rubber, tin and oil in Malaya and Borneo greatly aided the British war effort through its conservation of foreign exchange, especially United States dollars. Japan, however, entered the war in 1941 at a time when Britain was desperately engaged in the west. After a campaign lasting two months, Malaya and the Borneo territories were overrun and Singapore, the centre of Britain's power in the area, surrendered in February 1942.

30 M A L A Y S I A Y E A R B O O K

The Japanese Occupation, despite the promise of the "Greater East-Asia Co-prosperity Sphere", was a tremendous setback to the economic progress of all the territories.

Destruction was caused by both sides in the war. Because there was no market for the commodities, rubber estates and tin mines were neglected. All economic activity was harnessed to the Japanese war effort during the occupation, and the inhabitants underwent great hardships for years.

Despite the severities of the occupation a spirit of resistance nevertheless gradually developed among the people. There was among all groups an awakening of political consciousness that was to bear fruit when the Japanese had left. The Japanese Occupation, destructive as it was, did have the effect of stimulating a desire for national independence.

One effect of the Japanese Occupation was to abolish once and for all the myth of the superiority of the white man. It also broke the grip which British colonial rule had exercised over the country. The occupation also forced the people of Malaya to fend for themselves. Though the Japanese Military Administration appointed Japanese heads to the various government departments, it became apparent that they served only as overseers while the local men, who had been pressed into returning to their posts, were carrying out the actual job of running the administration. Local administra-tors, doctors, lawyers, engineers and technicians proved that they were quite capable of filling the places vacated by the British, in spite of the added difficulties and shortages in a war-time situation.

Post- War Reforms Thus, when the British returned after the war to reimpose their colonial

rule, they were met with very strong resistance. They proposed that the pre-war system of Federated and Unfederated Malay States (all of which were protectorates, not colonies) should be replaced by a centralised Malayan Union which would deprive the Malay Rulers and the Malay States of all but nominal authority. Penang and Malacca would form part of the Union but Singapore, on account of its large entrepot trade and its special economic and social interests, would become a separate colony.

Orders in Council constituting the Malayan Union and the Colony of Singapore came into operation on 1st April, 1946. While the Orders conferred constitutions on the territories and decreed the creation of Legislative, State and Settlement Councils, such councils were not to come into being until a later date, after full consultation with local opinion had been possible. In the meantime, in the Malayan Union and Singapore, nominated


Singapore became a separate colony but the proposals for the creation of a Malayan Union were never fully implemented, although the Union itself had a brief existence from 1946-48 after the end of the British Military Administration. This was because the Malays, in their opposition to these proposals, had been able to organise an effective country-wide boycott of the new constitution so as to make it impossible for implementation. The Malays were extremely dissatisfied with the proposals for the Union, especially those which transferred jurisdiction from the Malay Rulers to the British Crown and contained conditions of citizenship which the Malays feared would result in Chinese domination. The Malays were led by Dato' Onn, leader of the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) which rapidly formed branches throughout Malaya.

In place of the Malayan Union a federal scheme was drawn up by a representative Malay working committee, and, after consultation with the non-Malay communities and the United Kingdom Government, there emerged the Federation of Malaya Agreement of 1948, under which the States and Settlements were to retain their own individuality but were to be united under a strong central government. The Malay Rulers remained sovereign in the Malay States and Penang and Malacca remained British territory. The Federation of Malaya Agreement provided for a High Com-missioner and a Federal Legislative Council consisting of 75 members, 50 of whom were unofficial, and considerable authority was left to the State and Settlement governments particularly where land administration was concerned. A promise was made that elections would be held as soon as practicable. A form of common citizenship was created for all who acknow-ledged Malaya as their permanent home. Out of a population of approxi-mately 5 million in 1948, some 3.1 million qualified automatically for federal citizenship of whom 78 per cent were Malays, 12 per cent Chinese, and 7 per cent Indian. By December 1951 a further 327,773 persons, mainly Chinese, had become federal citizens by application.

After becoming a separate colony Singapore was given a new constitution providing for it to be administered by a Governor with a nominated Executive Council and a partly elected Legislative Council. The Legislative Council elected in 1948 consisted of the Governor as President, 6 members elected by territorial constituencies, 3 elected by the three Chambers of Commerce, 4 nominated unofficial, 5 officials and 4 ex officio members. After the 1951 elections the number of elected members was increased to 12 of whom 9 represented territorial seats.

In 1952 a committee of unofficial Legislative Council members established by the Governor recommended the increase of territorially elected represen-tatives to 18 and the complete review of Singapore's constitution. Such a review was carried out by a commission under the chairmanship of Sir


George Rendel. All the Rendel Commission's recommendations were accepted by the British Government, a new constitution was brought into force and elections were held in April 1955.

In Sarawak, after the Japanese Occupation, the Rajah resumed adminis-tration. It was, however, evident to him that greater resources than he could command would be necessary to restore the country's prosperity. He there-fore considered it best for Sarawak to come under the British Crown. A Bill to this effect was passed by the Council Negeri in 1946, and in June of that year an Order-in-Council establishing the Colony of Sarawak came into force. The Supreme Council and the Council Negeri established under the 1941 Constitution retained their authority under the new arrangements. Legislative and financial jurisdiction lay with the Council Negeri, a body of 25 members of whom 14 were official members appointed from the Sarawak Civil Service and 11 unofficial members representative of the different peoples of the country and their interests. In addition, there were several standing members of the Council Negeri immediately before the enactment of the new Consti-tution Ordinance. The council had the power to make laws for the peace, order and good government of the country, and no public money could be expended without its consent. The constitution also provided for a Supreme Council of not less than five members of whom a majority should be members of the Sarawak Civil Service and the Council Negeri. The powers of the Rajah in Council were henceforth vested in the Governor in Council.

With the ending of the British Military Administration in 1946, North Borneo, including Labuan, became a Crown Colony. Government was conducted by the Governor who had the assistance of an Advisory Council. The almost total destruction by the Japanese of all that had been achieved by the Chartered Company meant that, in the immediate years after liberation, all attention had to be given to the physical tasks of rehabilitation and reconstruction. To effect this, grants and loans were made by the British Government. In 1950 a new Constitution came into being, providing for the establishment of Executive and Legislative Councils, the unofficial members of which were not in a majority and were chosen by the Governor from persons considered to be as representative as possible of the various sectors of the community.

The Emergency in Malaya The Governments of Malaya, Sarawak and North Borneo (Sabah) were

all faced with the tasks of reconstructing and developing their economies and preparing for responsible self-government, but the Government of the Federation of Malaya had to face these tasks against the background of

T H E P E O P L E 33

the jungle in September 1945, had hoped to gain control of the country but in this aim they were foiled by the arrival of the British Military Administration. Failing in their endeavour to seize power or even be associated in the govern-ment of the country, they made determined efforts to paralyse economic re-covery and finally launched a campaign of violence and murder in which the principal targets were British rubber planters and miners, on whom the eco-nomy largely depended, and those Chinese who actively opposed the Commu-nists. To cope with the situation a State of Emergency was declared in June 1948.

Years of unremitting struggle followed—the emergency was not lifted until 1960—but gradually the forces of Communism were destroyed. Victory was not achieved by the military effort alone, although as the years went by, Malayan, British and other Commonwealth forces were called on unceasingly to prosecute arduous jungle campaigns, but also by measures involving the protection of whole sections of the civil population from the depredations and intimidation of the terrorists. Chief among these methods was the plan which involved the re-settling into new villages of nearly half a million dispersed rural dwellers, often illegal Chinese squatters, who previously had been obliged in their unprotected and isolated habitations to contribute support in manpower, money and food, to the Communist movement. The new settlements made it possible for Government to bring to the re-settled population the benefits of better administration and social services and to prosecute the campaign of winning their "hearts and minds" so that they would actively support Government's efforts instead of sitting on the fence. As confidence was restored, such active support was increasingly forth-coming until some guard units composed of new villagers were themselves able to undertake the defence of the settlements. Food denial measures aimed at cutting off the supply of food to the terrorists were also applied and, although these caused some hardship, the population accepted them as a fair means of ending terrorism.

The final victory over the Communist terrorist organisation was achieved within three years of the achievement of independence by Malaya. It was as Chief Minister of Malaya's first elected Government that Tunku Abdul Rahman held talks with Chin Peng, the Secretary-General of the Malayan Communist Party in Baling at the end of 1955. After the Communist leader had rejected his terms for giving up the armed struggle^ Tunku Abdul Rahman—who was to lead Malaya to independence and full nationhood two years later—made up his mind that they must be defeated.

Independence and After A considerable advance had already been made toward self-government

with the introduction of the "Member" system in 1951. This was in effect the first step toward ministerial responsibility. Various departments and


subjects were grouped under the supervision of individual members of the Legislative Council, most of whom were political and community leaders. In 1952 the composition of the Executive Council was changed to include all those in the Legislative Council who were "Members". The leaders of the various communities and politicians thus associated themselves with Government in the prosecution of the emergency and there is no doubt that the national effort and purpose which this association engendered did much to give the people a feeling of being united as a single Malayan people. The ordeal of the emergency in a sense therefore contributed towards the develop-ment of Malayan national identity.

In 1955 a new constitution was introduced which transferred to the elected representatives of the people most of the responsibility for the government of the Federation. It was based on the recommendation of an almost entirely Malayan Committee appointed by the High Commissioner in 1953. The new Federal Legislative Council was to consist of 52 elected members, 3 ex officio members (Chief Secretary, Attorney-General, Financial Secretary), 11 State and Settlement representatives, 22 representatives of scheduled interests (for example: mining, agriculture and labour), 3 representatives of racial minorities (Aborigines, Ceylonese, Eurasians) and 7 nominated reserve members. Of the 7 seats reserved for the High Commissioner's nomination, 2 were filled by officials and 5 by unofficial after consultation with the leader of the majority party among elected members. Provision was thus made for a substantial popular majority in the council.

In the elections held in July 1955 the Alliance Party, which had been formed by a coalition of the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO), the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA) and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC), won a sweeping victory under its leader, Tunku Abdul Rahman, on its electoral platform of early independence and gained 51 out of the 52 elected seats. Early in 1956 a conference was held in London to discuss the problems involved in advancing further toward self-government. As a result of agreement reached at the conference, the Federation of Malaya achieved internal self-government and arrangements were set in train for the achieve-ment of full independence by August 1957.

In March 1956 an independent Constitutional Commission headed by Lord Reid was appointed, and its report, on which the new Malayan consti-tution was ultimately based, was published in February 1957. The Legislative Council then accepted the constitutional proposals which had been finalised after constitution between the United Malay National Organisation, the Malayan Chinese Association, the Malayan Indian Congress and the British Government. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was signed on behalf

THE PEOPLE 35

The Constitution of .the new State was unique. The Federation became an elective monarchy, the sovereign, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, being elected by and from among the Malay Rulers for a period of five years. The form of Government remained federal with a bicameral legislature. Under the new Constitution provision was made for a Federal list of powers, a State list and a Concurrent list with residual powers lying with the States,

The lower house (Dewan Ra'ayat—House of Representatives) consisted of 104 members and the Senate (Dewan Negara) of 38 members—2 elected by the Legislative Assembly of each State and 16 appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on such grounds as having achieved distinction in public life or their professions. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong as a constitutional monarch chose his Prime Minister from the party in the lower house which commanded a majority. Each of the States and Settlements had a written Constitution, and the Rulers of the States and the Governors of the Settle-ments acted in like manner to the Supreme Head of State as constitutional heads choosing their chief executive from the leader of the majority party in the legislature.

All who were citizens of the Federation before independence Day (August 31, 1957) continued to be citizens and all born in the country after that date were citizens by operation of the law. Persons over 18 years of age who were born in any State in the Federation before independence and who had resided there for periods of 5 out of the previous 7 years also became citizens if they intended to become permanent residents, provided they possessed certain qualifications such as some knowledge of Malay and took an oath of loyalty to the Federation. Those who had resided in the Federation for 8 of the previous 12 years at the time of independence could also, subject to the same qualification, become citizens. Provision was made for the acquiring of citizenship by naturalisation and for the acquiring of citizenship by women married to citizens.

The franchise was based on universal suffrage of all federal citizens on a common electoral roll. At the time the Federation became independent the Legislature was only partially elected. One of the transitional provisions of the Constitution was the requirement that the first fully elected House of Representatives should be elected within two years of independence. The effect of the new provisions regarding citizenship on the franchise can be judged by comparing the figure of 1,240,000 names on the electoral rolls for the 1955 elections with the 2,240,000 names on the rolls prepared after independence for the 1959 elections.

In the general elections held in April, 1964, the ruling Alliance scored a landslide victory in both the Parliamentary and State Elections. The Alliance Party consisting of its three partners, the United Malays National Organisation, the Malayan Chinese Association and the Malayan Indian


Congress, won 89 out of the 104 Parliamentary seats, 15 more than in the 1959 elections. The anti-Malaysia party, the Socialist Front, won only 2 seats compared with 8 in 1959. The Pan-Malayan Islamic Party won 9 seats, the People's Progressive Party 2, and the People's Action Party and the United Democratic Party 1 seat each.

In the State Elections, the Alliance won 240 out of 282 seats. The position of political parties in the House of Representatives (Dewan

Ra'ayat) is as follows: Alliance (Malaya) 89 Pan-Malayan Islamic Party .. .. .. 9 Socialist Front 2 People's Progressive Party 2 United Democratic Party 1 People's Action Party 13 Barisan Socialist Singapore .. .. .. 3 Alliance (Sarawak) 18 Alliance (Sabah) 16 Party Negara Sarawak 3 Sarawak United People's Party .. .. 3

159

The State of Singapore The 1955 constitution took Singapore far on the road to self-government

and gave the people a large measure of control over their own affairs. The new Legislative Assembly consisted of a Speaker and 32 members of whom 25 were popularly elected in single-member constituencies. There were 3 ex officio members and 4 unofficial nominated by the Governor. The former Executive Council was replaced by a Council of Ministers consisting of 3 ex officio Ministers (the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General and the Financial Secretary) and 6 Ministers drawn from the Legislative Assembly and appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the majority leader in the House. The leading elected Minister was styled Chief Minister.

At the elections all adult citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies in Singapore were entitled to vote, subject to one year's residential qualifi-cation. Out of a population of about 1,250,000 the qualified electorate numbered just over 300,000.

The leader of the victorious labour Front/Alliance Coalition, Mr David


as Chief Minister, agreed with the Secretary of State for the Colonies to hold further talks in 1957. The 1957 conference was a success and agreement was reached on a constitution that would give full internal self-government to Singapore whilst leaving responsibility for defence and external affairs with the United Kingdom Government. In 1958 the State of Singapore Act was passed in the British Parliament providing for the establishment of the new State and enabling promulgation of the new constitution by Order-in-Council. Under it the legislature was to consist of one house—the Legislative Assembly—with 51 members elected from single member constituencies. There was a cabinet of nine members including the Prime Minister, drawn from the leadership of the majority party. Though external affairs and defence were reserved to the United Kingdom Government, the Singapore Government was given delegated authority to conduct matters concerning relations with other countries subject to safeguards in respect of Britain's international responsibilities. The Queen's representative in Singapore was to be known as the Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State) while the represen-tative of the British Government was the United Kingdom Commissioner.

Internal security became the responsibility of the Singapore Government but, in recognition of the relationship between internal security and defence, the constitution provided for an Internal Security Council. This was to consist of the United Kingdom Commissioner as chairman, two other British members, the Prime Minister and two other members of the Singapore Cabinet and a nominee of the Government of Malaya. The council was given the power to make decisions by vote binding on the Singapore Govern-ment.

A separate citizenship of Singapore had been constituted by the Singapore Citizenship Ordinance, 1957, and subsequent amendments. Birth was a qualification but citizenship could be granted to British, Irish or Common-wealth citizens who had resided in Singapore for 8 out of the 12 years preceding the date of application. Citizens of other States might also be granted citizenship subject to more residential qualifications and, if under 45 years of age, to a Malay language qualification. Citizenship of Singapore became equal in status to that of independent Commonwealth members when the 1959 Constitution was introduced. The growth of the electorate was rapid. From 22,000 in the 1948 elections it had grown to more than 60,000 in the 1959 elections.

The first elections under the new constitution Were held at the end of May 1959 and resulted in an overwhelming victory for the People's Action Party led by Mr Lee Kuan Yew. The party, left-wing in its general policies, made it clear from the beginning that its ultimate hope was to gain independence through a merger with the Federation of Malaya. The problem that f emained was to find a form of association that would be acceptable to Malaya.


In the elections held on 21st September, 1963, a few days after the estab-lishment of Malaysia, the ruling People's Action Party secured 37 of the 51 seats. 13 seats were won by the Barisan Sosialis and 1 by the United People's Party. The results affirmed the peoples' verdict that they were in favour of an accepted Malaysia.

Progress in the Borneo States Events in Malaya and Singapore in the second half of the 1950s were

watched with close interest in the Borneo territories and inevitably the examples of the speedy attainment of self-government and independence began to have their influence on the leaders of the various countries. The British Government was committed to further steps on the road to self-government, and the recovery of the territories' economies and the increased political awareness made the time ripe for further changes.

In Sarawak in August 1956 an Order-in-Council was made, and Letters Patent and Royal Instructions were promulgated which, between them, contained a new Constitution for the country. Under the new arrangements there was to be a new Legislature of 45 members of whom 24 were elected unofficial, 14 ex officio, 4 to be nominated to represent interests which the Governor considered to be inadequately represented and the remaining 3 standing members. The new Supreme (or Executive) Council consisted of 3 ex officio members, namely the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General and the Financial Secretary, 2 nominated members and 5 elected members who were to be elected, nominated or standing members of the Legislative Council (Council Negeri). Twenty-one of the 24 unofficial members were to be elected by councils representing the five Administrative Divisions of Sarawak or Divisional Advisory Councils and the remaining three by the Kuching Municipal Council, the Sibu Urban District Council and the Miri District Council.

Local authorities had after 1948 been established on a racial basis which proved unsound. After 1957 the whole population of the country came under the jurisdiction of inter-racial territorial local authorities. These authorities had a dual function: local government within the limits of the Local Authority Ordinance and, as sub-electoral colleges, the election of members to the District Advisory Councils.

The first general election of representatives to the District Councils were held from November to December 1959. The council areas were divided into wards to avoid, as far as possible, the creation of groups on a racial basis. The suffrage was based on male heads of household. Great interest was shown in the election and about 71 per cent of the electorate cast their 'ote.

THE P E O P L E 39

chose the unofficial members of the Council Negeri. The elections were accompanied by a vigorous development of political parties whose activities increasingly stimulated the various peoples of the territory to consider what their position might be as the progress toward self-government continued.

During 1961 certain proposals were accepted by the Council Negeri for further electoral and constitutional advance to take place, it was anticipated, in 1963. The 1961 proposals included the extension of the franchise to all qualified persons over the age of 21, the continuance of the three-tier electoral system except that Kuching Municipal, Sibu Urban District and Miri District Council direct representation should be ended, the replacement of the Council Negeri President (currently the Chief Secretary) by a Speaker, and the reduction to 15 of the nominated members of whom not less than four should be unofficials. It was also anticipated that, at an appropriate time, some unofficial members of the Supreme Council would be associated in the formulation of government policy.

However, on March 10, 1963, the Sarawak Council Negeri (State Legis-lature) unanimously adopted a motion to amend the constitution to provide for a Supreme (Executive) Council consisting of a Chief Minister, three ex officio members and five members of the Council Negeri to be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister; and a Council Negeri consisting of a Speaker, three ex officio members, 36 elected members, 1 standing member and not more than 3 nominated members.

Elections on the basis of these new provisions were completed in mid-August 1963 and the pro-Malaysia Alliance Party won an overwhelming majority of the seats in the Council Negeri. As a result, Mr Stephen Kalong Ningkan, Secretary-General of the Alliance, was appointed the State's first Chief Minister.

In North Borneo from 1951 onward considerable progress had been made in establishing local authorities in rural areas, and after 1954 the Municipal and Urban Authorities Act provided for the establishment of Town Board and Township Authorities. By 1960 most of the territory was under the jurisdiction of a local authority. The membership of these bodies became almost entirely unofficial, the members, though not elected, being chosen from among the prominent leaders of the various communities. The asso-ciation of representatives of the people in day-to-day government thus made very considerable strides during the decade.

In 1960 the Royal Instructions and Order-in-Council were amended to provide for an unofficial majority in the Legislative Council and an increase unofficial membership of the Executive Council whilst official membership decreased. The nominated members of the Legislative Council were sub-sequently appointed by the Governor from lists of names submitted to him


by Town Board, District Council, the Native Chiefs Conference and Chambers of Commerce. The council thus became broadly representative of the people of North Borneo and soon included leaders of the main political parties which had now developed. By 1962 the composition of the Legislative Council was 18 unofficial, 4 ex officio and 3 official members.

As was the case in Sarawak, in preparation for the State's entry into Malaysia, further constitutional advance was made in April, 1963, when elections were completed for membership of the local authorities. These newly elected local councils in turn functioned as electoral colleges for the election of members to the State Legislature. Thus by August, prior to becoming a member State of Malaysia, Sabah had a State Cabinet consisting of a Chief Minister and members appointed on the advice of the Chief Minister, and a State Legislature with a majority of elected members.

In June and July, 1963, members were for the first time elected to the Legislative Council. The pro-Malaysia Alliance won all the 18 seats in the elections and Mr Donald Stephens, chairman of its executive committee, was appointed the State's first Chief Minister.

D E M O G R A P H I C B A C K G R O U N D

General The population of Malaysia numbers just over 10,000,000 people according

to census and population estimate figures as at the end of 1961, made up as follows:

Malaya Singapore Sarawak Sabah Total % Indigenous people 3,620,000 238,000 529,000 320,000 4,707,000 46.20 Chinese 2,670,000 1,279,000 243,000 110,000 4,302,000 42.20 Indians and Pakistanis 813,000 142,000 — — 955,000 9.40 Others* 129,000 41,000 8,000 45,000 223,000 2.20 Total 7,232,000 1,700,000 780,000 475,000 10,187,000 100.00 Percentage of Distribu-tion 70.9 16.7 7.7 4.7 100

The indigenous people of Sarawak are made up of 137,000 Malays, 246,000 Sea Dayaks, 61,000 Land Dayaks, 46,000 Melanaus, and 39,000 people of other minor groups. The indigenous people of Sabah consist of 152,000 Kadazans, 63,000 Bajaus, 22,000 Muruts and 83,000 Brunei Malays,



¡Pakistan and Ceylon the immigrants have brought Hinduism, Islam and IHinayana Buddhism. In Sabah the indigenous peoples have preserved from a remote past cultures, if not so intellectually complex as those of India and China, at least of comparable interest and originality, their arts, crafts and customs constantly showing the presence of intelligence and vitality. The western world has also, through its association with this area over the past five centuries, contributed its share to the cultural and religious heritage of Malaysia, where the various denominations of Christianity have a oonsider-able number of followers.

Yet, despite the diversity which exists, there are signs that point to the emergence of a distinctive Malaysian society. Increasingly, links of friendship and common loyalty, crossing racial and religious barriers, are forged by Malaysian institutions, by the armed forces and by the sporting, cultural, social, and educational organisations which are an essential part of modern Malaysian society. Though many tongues are spoken in Malaysia, for many years most people have made use of simple Malay as the lingua franca. There is an increasing use at all levels of the rapidly developing Malay language, Malaysia's national language, which will be the vehicle in which Malaysian culture and consciousness will presently express itself.

It will be apparent from the tables which follow thafTthe population of the States of Malaya consists of not one, but three main races, each with its own linguistic, cultural and religious background.\rhe present population (in round numbers) is eight million, of which just about half are Malays, the original inhabitants of the country: about one-third are of Chinese origin; approximately one-tenth hailed originally from the Indian sub-continent. The other races—Eurasians and Europeans principally—account for only some two per cent of the total.

Racially, the Malays have much in common in language and culture with their Indonesian and Bornean neighbours. Their language is Malay and by religion they are Muslims.

The Chinese have a long history of immigration into Malaya, extending back some hundred of years. The main immigration, however, occurred between the eighties of the last century and about 1920, and the majority came from southern China. Their main dialects* are Cantonese, Hokkien,

S T A T E S O F M A L A Y A ( /

THE P E O P L E 43

Teochew, Hakka and Hainanese; they are mostly Buddhists, although a sizeable number are Christians. ¡3%

The Indians came chiefly from southern India, attracted by the booming rubber industry during the first three decades of this century. The majority are Tamil-speakers and most of them profess the Hindu religion. *

Each gf these main races has brought its own culture with it, and today there is evolving one of the most interesting amalgams of thought and ideal which the world has ever seen. Visitors to the States of Malaya invariably observe that communal friction is the most conspicuous on account of its absencej But because a plural society must of necessity present problems (for instance, in education) which do not exist in countries with a wholly indigenous population, the compilers of a census must enumerate the races separately so that the authorities can make the necessary arrangements for the welfare of all sections of the community: but lest there should be any misunderstanding, all Malayans are Malayan, irrespective of their origin.

Census Although many censuses of population have been taken in the Straits Settlements and some Malay States before 1921s the first Pan-Malayan Census was taken in that year, followed by another ten years later. Another one was planned for 1941, but had to be postponed due to the war. It was finally carried out in 1947.

This short demographic account of the States of Malaya is based mainly on the reports of these Censuses, especially the Final Report of the 1957 Census.

Total Population The total enumerated population of the States of Malaya increased by over one hundred per cent from 1911 to 1947 and almost trebled by 1959. In 1911, the total population was only 2,339,051; in 1947, it was 4,908,086 and it is estimated at 7.7 million in 1963. This large increase was not due to births alone; immigration played a large part in the beginning of the century, but it is now of little importance due to much stricter immigration laws.

In the 1830's, before the great development of the western coastal belt the total population was "guesstimated" at less than half a million. These figures were obtained from various sources, the reliability of which is questionable, but which gives an indication of how the population has grown since then. By 1933, the population had increased to over million and by 1957, it had grown to over 6} million.


TOTAL POPULATION BY STATES (In thousands)

CENSUS YEAR

By States The States of Malaya comprises 11 States, two of which used to form part of the Straits Settlements. The preceding table and the diagram overleaf give an idea of the actual distribution of population among the various States as reported in the various Censuses but a better picture of the change in the distribution is given by the next diagram and table on pages 34 and 35 respectively.

Right from 1911, Perak has had the largest population of all the States, with Selangor a poor second in 1911, but almost catching up with it by 1957. The population in Johore has also increased tremendously from 1911 to 1957, and it has become the third most populous state from the 6th in 1911. Kelantan, which was just a little behind Selangor in 1911 fell to sixth place in 1957, with only 8 per cent of the total population. The percentage of the total population residing in Penang and Province Wellesley, Malacca and Trengganu also decreased from 1911 to 1957, but there was a slight increase for Kedah and Negeri Sembilan. The percentage for Pahang and Perlis has hardly varied.

THE P E O P L E 45

GROWTH OF POPULATION 1830-1957

PERLIS TRENGGANU

KELANTAN

KEDAH

JOHORE

PAHANG

NEGRI SEMBILAN

SELANGOR

PERAK

MALACCA

PENANG

(Note—Estimated population in January, 1962—7,200,000).

46

PERCENTAGE POPULATION BY STATES ACCORDING TO

CENSUS

THE P E O P L E 47

U R B A N P O P U L A T I O N ( G A Z E T T E D A R E A S 10,000 P O P U L A T I O N A N D O V E R ) B Y S T A T E S


PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL POPULATION BY STATES

Urbanisation It is difficult to define an urban area properly, since so many factors con-tribute to what is in mind when we refer to a place as urban. Here an urban area has been restricted to gazetted administration areas with a population of 1,000 or over; all other areas are classified as rural.

A population of 1,000 is a very low minimum and could over-emphasise the degree of urbanisation which has taken place. So, a table showing the population for gazetted administration areas of 10,000 and over is also given.

URBAN POPULATION (GAZETTED AREAS 1,000 POPULATION AND OYER) BY STATES

THE PEOPLE 49

economic activity only rose by 13.3 per cent in manufacturing. Obviously the expansion of manufacturing industries, and economic activity in general, have played a very minor part in post-war urbanisation. The Emergency is probably the cause for many families in rural areas leaving their homes (voluntarily or by decree) to seek the security of the towns and new villages. A contributary factor on the economic side has been the rapid extension of government administration and other activities, concentrated heavily in the Federation and State capitals, and the increase in the building activity.

Gazetted administrative areas with a population of ten thousand and over (as obtained from the 1957 census) are shown in the following table.

MUNICIPALITIES, TOWN COUNCILS, NEW VILLAGES, ETC., WITH A POPULATION OF 10,000 OR OVER


Although the Emergency has probably been the main factor in the post-war urban development, the growth of secondary industries contributed to the high rates of increase in population between 1947 and 1957 for such centres as Kuala Lumpur, Klang, Johore Bahru, Butterworth and Kluang. Excluding palm oil and rubber factories, almost 85 per cent of the total number of factories in the State of Selangor are in Kuala Lumpur or within a very short distance of it. Kuala Lumpur and the nearby new town of Petaling Jaya have many advantages and attractions for industrial develop-ment over other areas, since Kuala Lumpur (the Federal capital) is not only situated in the centre of the west coast but possesses the many facilities conducive to industrial development. Klang and Port Swettenham have many industries such as oilmills, sawmills, a pineapple cannery, ice and aerated water factories, etc., and with the development of the north Klang Straits, further industrial expansion is bound to take place.

Johore Bahru has pineapple canneries, sawmills, rubber shoe factories, biscuit factories and woodworking and furniture-making factories. In the past few years, there has been a tendency for industry to move from Penang (free port) to Butterworth, which is within the Principal Customs area. Kluang is situated on the main east-west road in Johore and is also on the railway. It is probably one of the most rapidly growing urban areas and is the centre of a developing area in pineapple, oil palm, rubber and timber.

Racial Distribution Striking changes have occurred in the racial composition of the population as can be seen in the following table.

RACIAL COMPOSITION—1921 TO 1957

Population in thousands Percentages Race Census Year Census Year

THE PEOPLE 51

was restricted later on and after 1931 the percentage of Malays has increased, especially with their high birth rate. The previous increase in the proportion of Chinese was accounted for by the heavy net immigration. The slight post-war percentage decline was partly accounted for by a net immigrational outflow to Singapore and overseas and the fact that the natural rate of increase of the Chinese was less than that of the largest racial group, i.e., the Malays.

The percentage of Indians in the States of Malaya fluctuated from one period to another. It was 15 per cent in 1921 and this percentage held till about 1937. From 1938-41 an immigrational deficit occurred, and the Japanese invaded Malaya in 1942. At the 1947 Census it had decreased to under 11 per cent but there was a net inflow of Indians during the post-war period and the natural rate of increase was also higher than for the other two main racial groups; so by 1957, the percentage had increased to over 11 per cent.

The 1957 Census data showed that, of the 2.67 million persons living in urban centres, 1.7 million were Chinese, 0.7 million Malays and 0.3 million Indians. In percentage figures, the Chinese comprised approximately 64 per cent of all urban dwellers, the Malays 23 per cent and the Indians 11 per cent. The Chinese community is the most heavily concentrated in urban areas, but although there are more Malays living in towns and villages than Indians, actually the Indians are more heavily concentrated in urban areas.

Sex Ratio The 1911 to 1957 Censuses show a continuous improvement in the sex ratio for the non-indigenous communities and in consequence, in that for the population as a whole.

NUMBER OF FEMALES PER 1,000 MALES

In the earlier years the improvement recorded above was partly due to the influx of Chinese females between 1934 and 1938, but the chief cause of improvement of the sex-ratios is natural increase.

Birth-place and Migration The growth of the population in the States of Malaya can be ascribed to two main factors, viz., natural increase and net immigration. Before the Second


World War both factors were present; in the post-war period net immigration ceased to be of any real importance and the rapid increase in the population is entirely accounted for by the high rate of natural increase.

PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION BY RACE, ENUMERATED IN THE STATES OF MALAYA AND

BORN IN THE STATES OF MALAYA OR SINGAPORE

The Malays are indigenous to the country, and as would be expected, net immigration has played only a very small part in the growth of the community. With the Chinese, Indians and other minority groups, immi-gration has been very important, though the above table reveals that between 1921 and 1957, a period of rapid population growth, the increases in the proportion of locally born have been very substantial. In fact, the 1957 Census figures show that, of the young persons aged 15 and under, 98.6 per cent of the Chinese and 96.6 per cent of the Indians were born locally.

Birth rates and Death rates A high rate of increase in the population of the States of Malaya has been maintained in each inter-censual period and the rates are amongst the highest in the world.

POPULATION—1911 TO 1957 AND ANNUAL RATES OF INCREASE AS PER CENSUS

THE PEOPLE 53

C R U D E B I R T H A N D D E A T H R A T E S

These figures show that although the average annual rate of increase for the inter-censual (1947-57) year was 2.8 per cent, the actual rate has exceeded 3 per cent in the past ten years. If such rates of increase continue, the population will be doubled in less than 25 years.

As a matter of interest, the following table has been included showing the life expectancy of the three main races at birth and at various ages.

AVERAGE LENGTH OF LIFE AFTER A GIVEN AGE OF THOSE SURVIVING TO THAT AGE

Occupation and Industry The States of Malaya is essentially an agricultural country, producing rubber, rice, coconuts, oil-palm, pineapple, tea, timber, fish and a wide


variety of other agricultural and forestry products, but with a high degree of commercial activity associated with agriculture. Rubber, palm-oil and tea are cash crops of which almost the whole of the output is exported. Other important exports are tinned pineapples, coconut-oil, copra and timber. In 1957, the export of agricultural, fishery and forestry products accounted for approximately 70 per cent of the value of all Malayan exports. In addition, there is a considerable commercial sale of such produce as rice, fruit, vegetables and fish for local consumption.

The mining industry (dominated by tin) is also an important contributor to the national income, though in no way comparable in importance to agriculture.

From the 1957 Census, manufactures, as measured by the number em-ployed is the third largest industrial group, agriculture and commerce (in that order) being first and second. However, out of a total of 135,000 persons employed in manufactures, no less than 45,600, or 34 per cent were self-employed and unpaid family workers. In fact, the 1957 Census shows 43 per cent of all the persons in employment as self-employed or unpaid family workers.

The distribution of the labour force among the various industries in 1957 is shown in the following table:

DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR FORCE BY INDUSTRY— 1957 CENSUS {In thousands)

THE PEOPLE 55

The States of Malaya is predominantly an agricultural country and a large percentage (in fact nearly 50 per cent in 1957) of the total working population is engaged in agricultural occupations such as rubber-tapping, weeding, padi-planting, fishing, market-gardening, etc. However, many individuals follow more than one occupation during a year, e.g., many agriculturalists are engaged part of the year as padi-planters and part of the year as rubber-tappers, weeders, fishermen, etc. Hence the distribution of the population by occupation will differ according to the period of the year.

An expanding economy relies very heavily on its professional and technical workers, and its craftsmen and artisans for the introduction and application of modern productive techniques. "Professional and technical workers" covers a wide range of skills and includes scientists, architects, engineers, doctors, dentists, nurses, teachers, kathis, lawyers, economists and skilled and experienced technical workers and laboratory assistants. This composite group totals 59,600 in 1957 (or nearly 24 per cent of the total working population) which is already an increase of 71 per cent over the past ten years, but still not sufficient for the present needs of the country.

Literacy Malay is the national language of the country, although English is officially recognised and is widely used in government, industry and commerce, and is an important medium of instruction in many schools. In a multi-racial nation like the States of Malaya, however, many languages and dialects are spoken.

The table below gives the literacy (in any language) figures for males and females aged ten and over.

LITERACY RATES IN ANY LANGUAGE FOR MALES AND FEMALES—1957 CENSUS

(Per hundred)


Number and composition of Households In the States of Malaya, as in other countries, most of the population is composed of private households. In fact, during the 1957 Census, only about three per cent of the total population were enumerated in institutions such as hotels, hospitals, etc.

During the 1921 and 1931 Censuses, information was collected on the number of occupied houses but the 1947 one included information on households. Only information on households is available for 1957.

NUMBER OF OCCUPIED HOUSES AND HOUSEHOLDS GIVEN IN THE CENSUSES

Census of Occupied Houses Households

1921 .. 624,928 .. — 1931 .. 688,421 .. — 1947 .. 847,479 . . 1,076,608 1957 .. — .. 1,257,138

In the States of Malaya there is a variety of types of dwellings. Some are houses accommodating single households, and others might be large houses which have been divided into cubicles for sub-letting and so would accom-modate several households. Then there is the "line" which consists of a row of rooms (or pairs of rooms), joined together and under one roof. The other type is the "bangsal" which is like the "line" type, i.e., a long building, but with no sub-division, being ordinarily used as a kind of dormitory for men.

In general, Census procedure regards the "line" as containing as many dwellings as it does rooms (or pairs of rooms), whereas the "bangsal" is considered as a single dwelling.

An accurate figure is not available for 1911, but the average number of persons per occupied house was approximately five. In 1921, the average was 4.7. In 1931 and 1947, the average number of persons per occupied house was 4.8 and 5.2 respectively; these figures were calculated without including the population and houses on estates, and so are not quite com-parable to the 1921 figure.

Although the average number of persons per house was 5.2 in 1947, the average number of persons per household was only 4.6; on the estates the average number per household was 3.4. Thus the overall average was, 4.5 persons per household for 1947. In 1957 the average rose to 4.8. However both the 1947 and 1957 Censuses showed the largest percentage of house-

THE PEOPLE 57

The following table gives the percentage of private households by size of households for the total population and the three main races, as given in the 1957 Census.

DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL HOUSEHOLDS, MALAYS, CHINESE AND INDIANS HOUSEHOLDS BY SIZE OF HOUSEHOLD

(per cent)

* Includes other races.

SARAWAK The last census of population was taken in Sarawak in June, 1960, made up as follows:


birth registrations increases as the demands of modern life, particularly in relation to education, make it essential for an individual to be able to prove his birth-date and place of origin, but there is less incentive to report deaths, and many go unrecorded.

The population calculation does not include persons leaving and entering the country, as most of them are casual visitors and temporary residents employed by various concerns. Permits and certificates allowing for per-manent residence are issued at the rate of only about 200 a year. Of these more than half are elderly people joining relatives in Sarawak.

The Chinese are probably now the largest group and have a greater natural increase than any other race. As in other parts of what they call the "Nanyang" or the South Seas, a large proportion of them are engaged in trade and commerce. Most of them live in towns and smaller trading centres, including the three principal towns of Kuching, Sibu and Miri. There are, however, substantial numbers of rural Chinese engaged mainly in rubber and pepper cultivation, especially in the First Division and the Lower Rejang area.

Approximately equal in numbers to the Chinese are the Sea Dayaks or the Ibans. In spite of their name, this group, together with the Land Dayaks and other indigenous races, is an inland longhouse dwelling people. Unlike other similar groups, the Ibans like to settle in new places and are now found in most parts of the country, including the Delta areas of the Rejang and Batang Lupar rivers. Here they plant dry padi. They also own and cultivate substantial areas of rubber and are now planting high-yielding rubber under Government supervision and subsidies.

The Malays and Melanaus are mostly swamp-land rice farmers, fishermen and sago cultivators. There are also considerable numbers of them living in villages and around towns. All Malays and some Melanaus are Muslims.

All groups of the population have at least one distinctive language. Malay is, however, widely understood for ordinary day-to-day purposes. The use of English is spreading fast with the development of education. In the past, a traveller conversant in English and Malay would find difficulty in making themselves understood in areas mainly inhabited by Chinese. Today, however, with the Government's drive in Malay Adult Education Classes, even in the remote areas, anyone knowing this language would find himself at home amongst the community.


According to the 1960 census, the total population was 454,421. This accounts for an increase of 120,280 or 36 percent as compared with that of 1951. If allowance is made for net immigration during this period, the total net increase is 99,713, which represents a rate of natural increase of 2.9 per cent per annum. This is a remarkably high figure if compared with the inclusive rates of 0.9 per cent a year between 1931 and 1951 and 0.5 per cent a year between 1921 and 1931.

Although the population of Sabah is small, it is composed of a variety of races. Indeed the census went so far as to list eleven native tribes, six Chinese clans and nine other dialectical groups. Earlier census had listed even more. But for most purposes, it is sufficient to group them under seven main headings, as indicated in the following table.

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF POPULATION IN 1951 AND 1960

The Kadazans are the largest racial group, constituting almost one-third of the total population. They inhabit chiefly the West Coast and the plains of Tambunan and Ranau in the Interior, where they grow rice, and are generally quite prosperous and self-supporting.

The Bajaus, a Muslim people, are found on both the East and West Coasts. They, together with the Illanuns, Sulus, Obians, Binadans and the kindreds, confine their energies mainly to fishing, rice-growing and cattle-rearing. The last of all is by far their most important contribution to the country's economy.

Among the other indigenous races, the most important are the Brunei Malays and the Kedayans. Both are Muslim people, mainly engaged in rice-growing and fishing. Most of them inhabit the West Coastal fringe from Brunei Bay to Jesselton.

The Muruts live in the more inaccessible parts of the Interior. They follow the aged-long system of shifting-cultivation, obtaining by this means a normally adequate supply of tapioca and hill-padi. They are good hunters, using spears and blow-pipes with poisoned darts. For ready cash they


rely on the collection of jungle produce and on periods of work at the rubber plantations along the road and railway route from Keningau to Papar. At the beginning of the century, this community seemed to have decreased in numbers, but since 1951 they have increased steadily—round about 18 per cent—an increase associated almost entirely with natural causes, viz. greater proportion of married women with fertile marriages and lesser mortality rates among infants.

The Chinese are the largest immigrant community, mainly engaged in agriculture and commerce. They also supply most of the manpower in industry and civil services. The business and shopkeeping communities, particularly on the East Coast, are mostly Cantonese and have long-established connections with Hongkong, while in the West Coast most of them are Hokkiens and tend to be more closely associated with Singapore.

Grouped under "others" are immigrants from Indonesia, the Philippines, India and Ceylon, Sarawak, the Cocos Islands, Singapore, Malaya, etc. Many of the Indonesians, who are in an overall majority, came to the country in the 'twenties and 'thirties as estate workers and who have since chosen to settle, while many more have immigrated recently from Indonesian Borneo, Timor and the Celebes.

Density of Population Sabah, with a population of 498,031 according to census and population figures as at the end of 1963, has a density of sixteen persons per square mile, slightly higher than in Sarawak. It varies greatly in the districts—for example, in Jesselton, there are as many as 160 persons per square mile, while in the most outlaying districts of Kinabatangan and Pensiangan, where large areas are still under jungle, it is only two persons per square mile. The most concentrated area is the West Coast, where over forty per cent of the population live, with a density of 66 persons per square mile.

Birth and Death rates The following is a summary of the statistics of births and deaths registered* in Sabah during 1963:

CHAPTER III

HIS MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT T H E O R I G I N S O F T H E F E D E R A L C O N S T I T U T I O N

L I K E MOST written laws, the Federal Constitution is a legal document which is not easily comprehensible to the layman. It is couched for the most part in technical language; and if the layman occasionally comes across one of its provisions which appears to be straightforward and categorical, he is just as likely to find another provision a hundred or so articles later which modifies the first. To bring together the various articles of the Constitution, an attempt has been made to compile in simple language an alphabetical digest which is reproduced at Appendix I of this volume. The digest should however be treated with reserve in that it inevitably oversimplifies the issues or imports material (by way of illustration) which is not in the original text of the Constitution.

Even so, a full understanding of the Constitution is not easy unless its history is known, and the text itself throws little light on its evolution. In consequence, the following notes may be in the meantime be of some assistance to the reader.

Malaya has always consisted of a collection of sovereign monarchical States, the boundaries and composition of which varied from time to time. The States of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang federated as far back as 1895; Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Trengganu remained separate, although the interchange of administrative and technical officials lent a measure of uniformity to their governmental structure, policies and laws. Malacca and Penang had long since become Colonies under the British Crown. All the States however remained monarchies, the Sultans having for practical purposes done no more than merely transfer their control over foreign affairs in exchange for protection and for advice in establishing government machinery. It is important that this continuity of sovereignty and monarchy should be appreciated, for it is the key to the preamble to the Proclamation of Independence of 31st July, 1957: the new nation would " . . . . safeguard the rights and prerogatives of their High-nesses the Rulers and the fundamental rights and liberties of the p e o p l e . . . . " and there would be established " . . . . a constitutional monarchy based on parliamentary democracy". The Proclamation concluded with a prayer that Malaya should "for ever be a sovereign democratic and independent State founded upon the principle of liberty and justice and ever seeking the welfare and happiness of its people and the maintenance of a just peace amongst all nations".

62 M A L A Y S I A Y E A R BOOK

The above quotations set out with clarity the intentions of the Rulers and the aspirations of their people. The phrases "constitutional monarchy" and "parliamentary democracy" are in turn the key to a remark made in the Legislature when the draft Constitution was adopted. The Prime Minister on that occasion said:

"It must be remembered that the freedom to which we aspire is the freedom to govern ourselves under a system in which parliamentary institutions shall be exclusively representative of the people's will".

In monarchies, constitutions are "granted" by the sovereign in exercise of the royal prerogative. What guarantee, it might well be asked, was there that the new Constitution was truly representative of the people's will? The short answer is that some things cannot be guaranteed and must be taken on trust. No law has ever satisfied everyone. But here, the Rulers and the Queen had appointed a Constitutional Commission of independent and experienced persons of international reputation: these gentlemen in turn had invited members of the public to express their opinions, publicly or in private: many organisations and individuals—and almost all political parties—had done so with full publicity. What further steps could have been taken to ascertain public opinion? Certainly not a referendum, in so intricate a matter as a federal constitution. The Commission's general recommendations were accepted by the Sovereigns and endorsed by a Malayan legislature unanimously. The Constitution was accordingly "granted". It is at this stage that the people come into their own: the power to amend, vary or even repeal the Constitution is now with them, through their elected parliamentarians, and it is in this manner that we have a "parliamentary institution . . . . exclusively representative of the people's will".

This deals with the succession of sovereignty. It may now be useful to trace the vaiious steps which led up to the present constitutional position. It would probably be true to say that every civilised nation has progressed at some time to liberal democracy from autocratic rule. Power tended initially to be concentrated in the hands of one person. The philosopher may deplore this, but there may be many excellent practical reasons for such a system : in the early development of any state, a strong central authority is necessary to preserve peace and security. This is particularly necessary during a period when a liberal tradition is being created; when the people are largely illiterate ; when the social structure is such that the distribution of wealth or capital cannot ensure a reasonable measure of personal or political equality ; when there is little or no established rule of law ; and so on. This was very much the case in the States of Malaya, say, in the last quarter of the

HIS MAJESTY'S G O V E R N M E N T 63

hands of the ruler—the making and enforcement of laws, the collection of revenue, the undertaking of public works, and the convicting and sentencing of those who infringed the criminal law or interfered with the personal liberty of their fellow men.

At some time, however, a stage is reached when it is impossible not to distribute power. There may be many reasons for this—the prevention of depotism being one, in Lord Acton's dictum "power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely" is to be accepted. In the case of Malaya, however, it seems much more likely that the distribution of power came about for purely mechanical reasons: it became increasingly difficult for one person, no matter how industrious or liberal, to control all aspects of a rapidly developing society with its increasing wealth and complexities. This stage was first reached in Perak in 1877, when the Ruler established a State Council with both executive and legislative powers. The Council was purely advisory, and the Sultan retained full powers of disallowance; nevertheless, it was a first step towards "Cabinet" government, and Perak's example was followed fairly soon after by some of the other States.

The next step was taken by the Sultan of Johore in 1895, when he caused the powers and responsibilities of his Council of State to be set out in writing. This document also specified the matters in which his Council could act on his behalf. Once again, the Sultan retained very wide powers of disallowance, but the document can nevertheless be regarded as the first Constitution of Johore, and the prototype of what followed later in the other States.

1895 is important for another reason. The four States of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang agreed to enter into a loose confederation. The Treaty establishing the Federated Malay States was very brief, and did little more than express a need for the participant States to combine their forces and resources for the common benefit; but it did at least indicate that the existence of several small political jurisdictions was not viable, and that a measure of combination was necessary. No distinction was drawn between the Federal and the State authority, but the germ of true federation is there. By 1909, the Federal Council had been established with legislative power and (what was really important) it enacted laws separating Federal and State responsibility. In the Unfederated States, measures were gradually taken to confer increased powers on the legislature and to limit the power of the executive. Likewise, the various functions of government departments and officials were more clearly specified, and we see emerging the necessary "checks and balances" which are the foundation of a free society where individual liberty is respected. Although there was no serious movement before the last war to extend the principle of federation throughout the peninsula, it is likely that federation was in the minds of many serious people who foresaw the need to build a strong and cohesive Malayan nation.


It is perhaps worthy of note that during the years between 1895 and 1940, the judiciary became increasingly distinct as an organ separate from and independent of the rest of the Government. By the outbreak of war in 1939, Malaya enjoyed in full measure the classical separation of its governmental functions and the administration of its justice.

The Japanese occupation in 1942 temporarily suspended all further constitutional development, and the next milestone is thus the establishment, in 1945, cf the British Military Administration of Malaya. The country had undergone considerable devastation, and the authorities felt that the penin-sula would have to be administered as one unit for a period of at least some months to restore more normal conditions before the re-emergence of a civilian Government. Whilst the country was run by the Military Adminis-tration, the planners in London conceived and announced the idea of uniting all nine States and both the Settlements into a single unitary state to be called the Malayan Union.

This sudden and unheralded reorganisation was received with both suspicion and misgivings: the precipitate action of Whitehall rather suggested an absence of mature consideration of the problem.

The Malayan Union proposals vaguely envisaged a common citizenship which would be easily obtained and which would not be restricted to Malays but open to all—Malays, Chinese, Indians and others who could claim to belong to the country by reason of birth or domicile. To achieve this first step, the Rulers felt constrained (many of them against their better judge-ment) to surrender their sovereignty to the British Crown. Later, the British Crown would relinquish sovereignty to the new independent nation. This immediately evoked the resentment and hostility of the Malays, who feared that a common citizenship and a unitary system of government might undermine their former political status. After a period of some bitterness new arrangements were made which revested in the Rulers their status, powers, prerogatives and privileges; and it was also admitted without any great difficulty by all concerned that the time was ripe for a wider federation of the entire peninsula. Thus came into being the Federation of Malaya, established by Agreement in 1948. Each Ruler retained his sovereignty and his subjects; but a common federal citizenship was estab-lished over and above. This was satisfactory to the Malays in that their special position was recognised and reaffirmed. The new federation had much in common with the Malayan Union, but was not so highly centralised; the States surrendered those functions which were obviously better managed on a concerted basis, but retained executive control, and to a limited extent, legislative control over matters of more regional concern. History alone


its haste, prematurity and lack of proper consultation. In the event, little damage was done, and the Union's unpopularity undoubtedly gave impetus to a political consciousness and leadership which had hitherto been dormant. It also (if unconsciously) created the federation which succeeded it—a poli-tical structure far more aligned to contemporary thought both then and today.

The Federation of Malaya Agreement, therefore, was one of the last steps taken under the protecting power to establish a basic form of parlia-mentary government. It envisaged a High Commissioner, with power of disallowance; but (legislatively) he generally acted on the advice and with the consent of a Federal Legislative Council. At that stage the latter was wholly nominated, and contained as members both officials and unofficial. Similarly, the Agreement provided for an Executive Council, presided over by the High Commissioner, which became the model of the Cabinet system now used. Until 1951, the Executive Council consisted of officials (who were truly "executive" in that they were civil servants in direct control of their departments) and a number of unofficial whose functions were largely advisory, but whose advice was given a considerable weight. In that year the next step was taken: certain of the unofficial members of the Executive Council were entrusted, in a ministerial capacity, with steering the affairs of departments, and were answerable to the people, through their nominated representatives in the Legislative Council, for the manner in which their departments were administered. This is what was called the "Member" system, and it served two very useful functions: firstly, to get the Government service accustomed to the fact that, eventually, it would be subject to political rather than professional policy direction; and secondly, because it provided an opportunity for Malayan leaders to assume a form of ministeiial responsibility. For all practical purposes, then, there existed a unicameral Parliament whose members were nominated; and the Executive Council functioned as an embryonic Cabinet.

The final pre-Independence stage was reached after the first parliamentary general elections cf 1955, when the Alliance Party was elected with fifty-one out of the fifty-two seats available foi the elected representatives out of a membership of ninety-nine. The "Member" system was modified to the extent that soon only three officials (other than the High Commissioner) sat in the Executive Council; all the others were Ministers drawn from the victorious party who not only enjoyed membership of the legislature, but who also shouldered a collective responsibility as members of a Cabinet.

On Independence Day, therefore, there came into being a system which had been tried experimentally and modified as necessary. It was, in effect a synthesis more advanced in democratic conception than any of the components of the various systems which had been inaugurated in 1877


some eighty years earlier, and which, in different parts of the federation had been consciously developed under Malayan conditions. Although the Federal Constitution was drawn up by distinguished jurists from many parts of the Commonwealth, and although they applied their combined experience to producing a federal system both viable and workable, the fact remains that they were able to draw from the well of practical experience and retain what Malaya had found to be good, and to reject or modify measures which had failed to secure and retain the confidence of the people.

That, then, is the evolution of the Constitution. It is genuinely a case of evolution and not of revolution. Its growth had followed lines indicated by experience rather than political theory. We have seen how the functions of Government started under a rule both traditional and authoritarian: how these functions were distributed as the machinery of government became more complex; how representative government was introduced, first by nomination, then by direct popular franchise; how a strong central adminis-tration came into being, but not so remote as to be an ivory tower; how the executive was divorced from the legislative, but still remained answerable to the latter; and how the many checks and balances of representative government were established to ensure that the system would remain "exclusively representative of the people's will". The old autocracy dis-played, in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th, an almost anachronistic sense of enlightened liberalism in conceding a partial abdication in favour of the principles of democracy. Until 1955, however, it was but the simulacrum of democracy, for true democracy could not be established until the nominees of the sovereigns had handed over the reins of government to the elected representatives of the people.

Before turning to the form of Government which is created under the Constitution, it may be useful to summarise the Chapters of the Consti-tution. Although the main provisions of the Constitution are set out alpha-betically in Appendix I to this volume, they are grouped functionally in the original text, and this underlines the basic distribution of power which is inherent in a liberal system of democracy. Part I—describes the composition of the federation, its religion and its laws. Part II—sets out the rights and responsibilities of the citizen. Part III—establishes citizenship generally, its acquisition and deprivation. Part IV—establishes the position and prerogatives of the Head of State and

the Royal Succession, and the Conference of Rulers; the division of power as between the executive (Cabinet) and legislature (Parliament); the composition and rights of Parliament, and the basic legislative procedures.


Part VI—distinguishes between the legislative and executive competence of the Central Government and the States.

Part VII— deals with financial provisions. Part VIII—is concerned with establishing an Elections Commission, the

delineation of constituencies, the capacity of voters and the conduct of elections.

Part IX—establishes an independent Judiciary. Part X—provides for the control of the public service. Part XI—confers special enabling powers on the executive (subject to

legislative confirmation) to provide for national defence and to deal with subversion.

Part XII—is a miscellaneous part, concerned principally with the national language, the advancement of the Malays, inter-State and Central Government co-operation, and amendment to the Constitution.

Part XIII— makes provision for the transition between the Federation of Malaya Agreement and the present Federal Constitution.

Part XIV—reaffirms the continued sovereignty, powers, privileges and prerogatives of Their Highnesses the Rulers.

C O N S T I T U T I O N A L P R O G R E S S By 1961 the Federation of Malaya had been independent for four years. In that time it had achieved an enviable measure of stability and had made marked social and economic progress. Apart from a few guerilla remnants in the hills near the border with Thailand, the long harsh war against the Communist terrorists had been won. Though prosperity continued to depend upon satisfactory world prices for rubber and tin, the two main sources of Malaya's wealth, the economy remained buoyant and an efficient govern-ment and administration were pressing ahead with imaginative schemes for development, particularly in the rural areas. Nevertheless, the Malayan Government continued to be exercised by the potential threat posed to its long-term security by Singapore with its proclivities towards political extremism.

The position of Singapore was much more precarious. In 1959 the State had achieved full internal self-government. Subsequent general elections saw the People's Action Party, led by Mr Lee Kuan Yew, won 43 of the 51 seats in the Legislative Assembly on a platform which included merger with the Federation of Malaya as one of its main planks. Mr Lee, conscious of the fact that the island's traditional entreport trade could never expand at a rate fast enough to support the rapidly growing population, saw merger as providing a wider base from which Singapore could hope to meet its economic problems by industrialisation. Without merger, he argued,


Singapore could look forward to increasingly bleak prospects leading in due course to the victory of political extremists who would find their greatest opportunity in conditions of economic hardship.

The terms under which merger between Singapore and the Federation of Malaya might be effected became the main issue in the bitter power struggle which developed between the moderates in the People's Action Party, led by the Prime Minister, and the Communist-oriental extremists led by Mr Lim Chin Siong. By mid-1961 this rift had become an open split with the extremist wing forming a powerful new Opposition party, the Barisan Sosialis (Socialist Front). With the Government's majority in the Legislative Assembly reduced to two, the "Battle for Merger" as Mr Lee described it, had reached a crucial stage and on its outcome hung the political future of Singapore and probably of Malaya, too.

To Singapore, merger opened the way to meaningful independence, political stability, and economic growth. Participation in a Malaysian federation offered similar benefits to the people of the Borneo territories. Boih Sarawak and North Borneo had legislatures with elected majorities and Brunei possessed a constitution providing for representatives institutions. None of them, however, had reasonable prospect of achieving viable in-dependence alone.

It was out of this growing sense of awareness among the five states concerned of the extent and strength of their common links and their weakness in isolation that the Malaysia plan emerged.

The first positive move towards the formation of a Malaysian federation came on 27th May, 1961, when the Prime Minister of Malaya, Tunku Abdul Rahman, said at a luncheon meeting of the Foreign Correspondents' Association of Singapore, "Malaya today as a nation realises she cannot stand alone and in isolation . . . sooner or later she should have an under-standing with Britain and the peoples of the territories of Singapore, North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak . . . it is invitable that we should look ahead to this objective and think of a plan whereby these territories could be brought closer together in a political and economic co-operation".

The Tunku did not specify, in this first public canvassing of the idea of a Malaysian federation, whether Singapore, North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak should enter the Federation of Malaya as member states, or whether Singapore and the proposed federation of the Borneo territories (with Brunei linked or separate) should join Malaya in a confederation of Malaysian states. On 4th July, however, in a broadcast over Radio Brunei, the Tunku spoke of the incorporation of the Borneo territories as three separate states of the federation.


merger with Singapore. Sympathetic in principle though the Malayan Government may have been to the known desire of Mr Lee Kuan Yew's government and party to achieve independence for Singapore through merger, the Federation of Malaya had not until this time been able to devise a means of ending the island's political separation which did not entail unacceptable risks of upsetting the fine balance between its two main racial groups, a balance vital to the maintenance of racial harmony. Complete merger with Singapore would mean a clear-cut Chinese majority in the new state. With fresh memories of the long drawn out struggle against the Communist terrorists, the Malayan Government harboured natural appre-hensions of full union with a large metropolitan community, many of whose citizens gave their political allegiance to leaders whose left wing extremism drew its inspiration and perhaps its guidance from Communist China.

It was indeed the threat a Communist Singapore would present that finally brought the Malayan Government to face up squarely to the possibility of merger. Whatever the risks attending such an enterprise, the passage of time was likely only to increase them. The thesis of the Singapore Govern-ment was accepted—that a Singapore cut-off from the Malayan mainland would sooner or later fall prey to the Communists, as the economic strait-jacket of the entrepot trade gave increasing cause for political discontent. A Communist Singapore would in turn menace the mainland itself. Merger, on the other hand, would give the Central Government a chance to control and contain the subversive elements in Singapore. The participation of the Borneo territories would mean, among other advantages, that the racial balance would not be seriously altered.

Reactions to the Tunku's Proposal The reaction of the Singapore Government to the Tunku's proposal was understandably enthusiastic. In the months following the Tunku's speech a series of discussions were held to consider the terms on which a merger between the two states might be achieved within the context of a Malaysian federation. A joint working party was set up to consider, first, arrangements whereby Singapore would retain autonomy in the fields of education and labour (the Central Government remaining responsible for defence, external affairs, and security) and, second, the financial contribution Singapore should make to the Central Government for federal services. It was envisaged that the integration of the two territories should take place "in or about June 1963" when the Singapore constitution was due for review.

Britain's response to the idea of Malaysia was also favourable and the then Prime Minister, Mr Macmillan, described it as meriting the widest discussion. In British eyes the chief virtues of the plan were that it offered Britain's remaining dependent territories in South-East Asia independence


that they would have a chance of maintaining, while avoiding the creation of a dangerous power vacuum in an area of vital political and strategic importance.

In the Borneo territories, on the other hand, the initial reactions were of caution and hesitancy, even of opposition. Acutely conscious of the extent to which they lagged behind Singapore and Malaya in political and economic development and concerned at their lack of trained personnel to carry the administrative responsibilities self-government would bring, the leaders of Sarawak and North Borneo were afraid that they would be unequal partners in the proposed federation. Gradually, however, opinion began to swing in favour of the Malaysia plan. Towards the end of July 1961, following a meeting in Singapore of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, a Malaysia Solidarity Consultative Committee, comprising representatives from Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei, and North Borneo, was set up. Its chairman was Mr Donald Stephens, of North Borneo, who, after initial opposition to the proposal, had become convinced that Malaysia offered his country its only chance of achieving early independence with a reasonable prospect of security and stability. In Sarawak the somewhat unrealistic feeling that the territory should be given independence before considering becoming part of a Bornean or Malaysian federation retained its hold largely because of the advocacy of this point of view by the leftist Sarawak United People's Party.

Early Negotiations In August 1961, following the first round of talks between the Tunku and Mr Lee, all Opposition parties in Singapore were asked for their views on the basic principles of the proposed merger, namely, that the Central Govern-ment would be responsible for defence, external affairs, and security, while Singapore would retain control of educational and labour policies. Only the Barisan Sosialis (Socialist Front) was prepared to give a reply. It would, the party said, support immediate complete merger, with Singapore as the twelfth state in the Federation of Malaya and Singapore citizens automatically enjoying full Federal citizenship and proportional representation in the Federal Parliament, this merger to be followed by a Federal General Election; alternatively, it would support an interim confederal arrangement under which Singapore would concede by treaty external affairs and defence to the Central Government, but would retain responsibility for internal matters, including internal security.


envisaged would not give the people of Singapore Malayan citizenship and the right to vote for a pan-Malayan Government. It was already becoming clear that the Barisan Sosialis would be opposed to any plan which did not contain seeds of discord from which they might hope to reap an eventual harvest.

The basic proposals agreed upon by Tunku Abdul Rahman and Mr Lee Kuan Yew were set out in a White Paper tabled in the Singapore Legislative Assembly on 15th November, 1961. Apart from the general division of authority between the Malayan and Singapore Governments mentioned above, the main provision of the agreement was that Singapore should be entitled to send 15 representatives to the Federal House of Representatives (and two to the Senate). This number, less than the State's entitlement on a simple population proportion basis, took account of the substantial measure of autonomy Singapore would retain in various fields. The Singapore Legislative Assembly would remain as a State Legislature. On 6th December, 1961, the Assembly approved the White Paper proposals by 33 votes to nil, but the 18 Opposition assemblymen, including all the Barisan Sosialis members, walked out before the vote was taken.

The early reactions of the other political parties in Malaya and Singapore to the proposed merger of the two territories varied from non-committal to enthusiastic. In Malaya, the Malayan Chinese Association appeared more in favour of an integrated state than its partner, the United Malay National Organisation. The highly conservative Pan-Malayan Islamic Party said that it welcomed the return of Singapore to the Federation of Malaya, but expressed doubts about the "different way of thinking" which had developed on the island. The People's Progressive Party asserted that the PAP Government was too unrepresentative to negotiate merger on behalf of Singapore. In Singapore all the Opposition parties, apart from the Barisan Sosialis, finally came out in favour of merger in principle, although expressing varying measures of dissatisfaction about the particular terms on which it was being negotiated.

Meanwhile, in order to launch the Malaysia Plan, it was essential for the Malayan Government to gain consent from Britain, which still had major responsibilities in four of the territories concerned—Singapore, the colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak, and the protected state of Brunei. Accordingly, parallel with the discussions between Malaya and Singapore, negotiations were carried on between Malaya and Britain. The main points considered were the transfer of sovereignty in the Borneo territories and the future of British defence installations and obligations in an integrated Malayan-Singapore state. Correspondence between the two Governments culminated in a meeting of the Malayan and British Prime Ministers in London from 21st-23rd November, 1961. In a joint statement issued at


the end of their talks, the two Prime Ministers gave their approval in principle to the proposed formation of Malaysia. They also took note of the framework for merger worked out between Malaya and Singapore. It was agreed, however, that before any final decision was reached, the views of the peoples of North Borneo and Sarawak would need to be ascertained, and a British-Malayan Commission would be set up to carry out this task. At the same time the views of the Sultan of Brunei would be sought.

Political Developments in the Borneo Territories

The November talks in London marked the completion of the first stage in the Malaysia negotiations. Meanwhile, in the Borneo territories, the growth of political consciousness proceeded apace under the influence of this new stimulus.

Five main political parties had emerged in North Borneo by the end of 1961: the United National Kadazan Organisation (UNKO), the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO), the United National Pasok Momo-gun Organisation, the United Party and the Democratic Party. The first two supported Malaysia, the third opposed, and the latter two preferred a period of self-government before federation. The United National Kadazan Organisation appealed for its membership to Kadazans living around Jesselton and by extension to all the Kadazan people who, as a racial group, form approximately one-third of the population. Under the leadership of Donald Stephens UNKO favoured Malaysia. The United Sabah National Organisation, a Muslim party, led by Datu Mustapha bin Datu Harun, also welcomed Malaysia. The United Party, multi-racial but drawing its main strength from the Chinese, and the Democratic Party, also largely Chinese in its following, both advocated self-government before Malaysia, although neither party opposed in principle of the plan. The United National Pasok Momogun Organisation, which drew its support mainly from the Kadazan and Murut people of the interior, opposed Malaysia and would have liked to see the status quo maintained.

The growth of these political parties was largely the product of the Malaysia plan. The lead in their formation came from prominent non-governmental members of the Executive and Legislative Councils and other persons of standing in the community. Naturally, there were a number of shifts in allegiance and alignment and it was more or less inevitable that parties tended to form on communal lines rather than on the basis of shared political convictions and objectives. Ultimately, however, all these parties united in


The anxieties which were widely felt at the prospect of joining Malaysia when the country was just beginning to move towards full constitutional development, were echoed, and answered, in the Governor's speech at the opening of the new session of the Legislative Assembly in December 1961. Addressing his remarks to the aspirations of many Borneans for independence outside Malaysia and pointing to the wisdom of expediency, he said "If we reject Malaysia, shall we be responsible to future generations for failing in courage to grasp this opportunity to safeguard the future of this country? If we accept Malaysia, what constitutional provisions should we seek to ensure that Malaysia will stand up to the test of time and will meet the needs of the future? In the affairs of men and nations, the best is rarely attainable. We must strive for the best that is possible "

The development of political parties was more advanced in Sarawak. By early 1962 their number had grown from two to four. One supported Malaysia, one had not yet clarified its stand, and two were against Malaysia. The Party Negara Sarawak (PANAS), a predominantly Malay party, supported Malaysia on the grounds that merger provided the only solution to the Communist threat in Sarawak and that only as a member of Malaysia could Sarawak's independence prove meaningful. The Barisan Ra'ayat Jati Sarawak (BARJASA), which drew its support from Malays and Ibans, was also strongly anti-Communist but had still to make up its mind on Malaysia. The new Sarawak National Party (SNAP) was anti-Malaysia as was the Sarawak United People's Party (SUPP). The SUPP, founded in 1959, was the first political party in Sarawak and by far the best organised. Largely Chinese in its following, it contained then, as now, an extremist left wing with distinct and militant Communist sympathies.

The Cobbold Commission and Report, 1962-63

In January 1962 it was announced that Lord Cobbold, a former Governor of the Bank of England, would lead a five-man Commission of Inquiry to test opinion in North Borneo and Sarawak about the proposed Malaysian federation. Two further members were nominated by the British Government and two by the Malayan Government. The Commission held hearings in the Borneo territories from February till mid-April. It travelled extensively throughout the two territories, interviewed over 4,000 people, and considered some 2,200 written submissions from town boards, district unions, religious, political, and native leaders, and individual members of the community. Public opinion was thus extensively canvassed.

The Commission's Report, published in June 1962, recorded the unanimous conclusion that—with certain safeguards of the kind recommended by the Malaysia Solidarity Committee —"the federation of Malaysia is an attractive


and workable project and is in the best interests of the Borneo Territories". Among other things the Committee recommended:

(a) That a decision of principle about the future of the territories should be taken by the relevant governments as soon as possible;

(b) That the existing constitution of the Federation of Malaya should be taken as the basis of the constitution of the new federation;

(c) That the representation of the Borneo Territories in the Federal Parliament of Malaysia should take account not only of their popula-tion but also of their size and potentialities;

(d) That special provision should be made for the indigenous races in the Borneo territories; and

(e) That Borneoanisation of the public services should proceed as quickly as possible.

Divergence within the Commission came over the question of phasing. The British members recommended two distinct stages, the earlier or transitional period to be used for the territories to gain political and admini-strative experience. The Malayan members, on the other hand, recom-mended that complete federation should take place within 12 months.

The Cobbold Commission also reported on the attitudes of the political parties and other organisations towards the proposed Federation. The Sarawak United People's Party, the Commission found, opposed the plan ostensibly because it involved the transfer of political power from the United Kingdom to another sovereign state. Willingness to consider a federation of Malaysia after independence was expressed by some S.U.P.P. delegates. The National Pasok Momogun Organisation, the Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, and the United Party (all of North Borneo) and a large number of Chinese associations expressed varying degree of opposition to the Malaysia plan for the same reason. Misgivings were also shown by certain sections of the population who feared social, political, and cultural subjugation and both the Malayan Government and the Cobbold Com-mission went out of their way to assure the territories that Malaya had no wish to "colonise" them. The Commission's conclusion was that at that early stage, about one-third of the population in each territory favoured the early realisation of Malaysia, another third, many of them favourable to federation, asked for various conditions and safeguards, and the remaining third (divided between those who insisted on independence before Malaysia and those who preferred a continuation of British rule) can be loosely described as opposed to Malaysia.

H I S M A J E S T Y ' S G O V E R N M E N T 75

Malayan Prime Ministers followed in July. On 1st August the two Govern-ments said in a joint statement that they had accepted almost all the unani-mous recommendations of the Commission and had decided in principle that the proposed federation of Malaysia should be brought into being by 31st August, 1963. This would entail the transfer of sovereignty over Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo and detailed constitutional arrange-ments for North Borneo and Sarawak, including safeguards for their special interests, would be drawn up after consultation with the legislatures of the two territories. These latter tasks were entrusted to an Inter-Governmental Committee comprising representatives of Britain, Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak under the chairmanship of the British Minister of State for Colonial Affairs, Lord Lansdowne.

A preliminary meeting of the Inter-Governmental Committee was held in Jesselton on 30th August and five sub-committees were set up to consider the constitutional, fiscal, legal, public service, and departmental organisation aspects of federation. The Legislative Assemblies in North Borneo and Sarawak both adopted motions welcoming the decision in principle to estab-lish Malaysia, providing their special interests were safeguarded, and appointed representatives to the committee.

The Singapore Referendum While the complicated process of investigation and ascertainment was going on in the Borneo territories, in Singapore the People's Action Party Government was continuing its struggle against the opponents of Malaysia, principally the Barisan Sosialis who professed to see in the plan a "neo-colonialist plot" to perpetuate British control.

In January 1962 the Government made a bold bid and announced its intention to hold a referendum on the merger proposals. The referendum did not provide for the people of Singapore to decide whether or not they wanted merger (since this had been one of the principal planks in the Govern-ment's platform for the 1959 general elections), but the sort of merger they wanted to achieve. At first the Government proposed to ask the electorate to choose between the merger arrangements negotiated by the Singapore and Malayan Governments and the "unconditional" merger (i.e., on the same terms as the existing 11 states of Malaya) demanded by the Opposition. The Government was, of course, quick to point out that merger on these terms would mean loss of citizenship for a large proportion of the population. A third type of merger suggested by the leader of the Singapore Alliance, Tun Lim Yew Hock, providing for merger on terms "no less favourable" than those of North Borneo and Sarawak (as yet undecided) was accepted by the Government for inclusion among the questions to be put to the electorate.


397,626 votes

9,422 votes

7,911 votes 144,077 votes

The referendum took place on 1st September, 1962, the Government calling for a vote for Alternative A and the Barisan Sosialis calling for the casting of blank votes. The result was as follows:

Alternative A: Merger under the terms of the Govern-ments' November 1961 agreement with Malaya Alternative B: "Unconditional merger" on the same terms as the existing 11 states of Malaya Alternative C: Merger on terms "on less favourable" than those for the Borneo territories Blank votes Some 560,000 votes were cast in an electorate of 625,000 and the result

constituted an undeniable endorsement of the Government's merger proposals.

Report of the Inter-Governmental Committee A measure of the extent to which opinion had swung in favour of the

Malaysia plan was provided by the results of North Borneo's first elections which took place only a few days after the Brunei revolt broke out. Though only at the local body level the elections were fought almost entirely on the Malaysia issue. Conducted on the basis of universal adult suffrage they resulted in an overwhelming victory for the pro-Malaysia Sabah Alliance or its constituent parties who won 104 of 119 seats in a poll where approxi-mately 80 per cent of those registered cast their votes.

When the Malaysia Solidarity Action Committee (comprising senior representatives of the major political parties in the five territories) met in February 1963 opinion had hardened into resolve. At the end of its deliberations the committee condemned the Brunei revolt, expressed their determination to see Malaysia established by 31st August, 1963, and condemned outside interference in their plans to federate.

On 27th February, 1963, after months of painstaking work, the Inter-Governmental Committee published its report. It made detailed recommen-dations on the form the constitutional arrangements for Sarawak and North Borneo should take, recommendations designed to ensure both that the states would have sufficient safeguards to protect their distinct interests.

The report was laid before the legislatures of North Borneo, both of which had by now a majority of elected members. In Sarawak the Council endorsed the report without dissentient vote, four SUPP members abstaining. The adoption of the report by the North Borneo Legislative Council was unanimous.


majority for candidates of pro-Malaysia parties, notably the Sarawak Alliance, and in both territories constitutional changes were introduced with the object of ensuring that on their entry to Malaysia, each would have a system of Cabinet government and almost completed elective legislatures.

The Malaysia Agreement, July 1963 The long and painstaking process of negotiation, consultation, hard

bargaining, and sensible compromise was now virtually complete. It now remained to conclude the formal agreements by which Britain would relinquish sovereignty over Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak and those territories become part of Malaysia. Early in July the leaders of all the states concerned gathered in London and on 9th July the final agreement on the establishment of Malaysia was signed. The signatories agreed that the Colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak, and the State of Singapore would be federated with the existing states of the Federation of Malaya and the States of Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore and that the federation would be known as "Malaysia". The agreement provided for Britain and the Federation of Malaya to take the necessary constitutional steps to bring Malaysia into being on 31st August, 1963. These steps included the estab-lishment of new constitutions for Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak and the relinquishment of British sovereignty in those States. In North Borneo, provision was made for a State Cabinet consisting of a Chief Minister, not more than eight nor less than four other members appointed by the Yang di-Pertua Negara (Head of State) on the advice of the Chief Minister, plus three ex officio* members, namely, the State Secretary, State Attorney-General, and the State Financial Secretary, this Cabinet to be collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly consists of the Speaker, 32 elected members, and not more than five nominated members.

The new constitution for Sarawak also provided for a ministerial system. The Supreme Council or Cabinet is composed of the Chief Minister, five other members appointed by the Governor from the legislature on the advice of the Chief Minister, and three ex officio members (the State Secretary, the Attorney-General, and the Financial Secretary). The Council Negri, the legislative assembly, consists of the Speaker, three ex officio members, 36 elected members, and not more than three nominated members.

The Malaysia Agreement provided for the Immigration Ordinance 1959, of the Federation of Malaya to be extended and adapted to Malaysia with additional provision to prevent an influx of immigrants from the densely

* The ex officio members have been excluded in the reconstitution of the State Legisla-tive in mid-1964.

78 M A L A Y S I A YEAR B O O K

populated areas of western Malaysia (Singapore and the States of Malaya) into sparsely populated Borneo territories.

On the vitally important question of defence arrangements, it was decided that the 1957 Agreement between Britain and the Federation of Malaya, with which New Zealand and Australia are associated, should be extended to cover Malaysia. This means that the British Government have undertaken "to afford to the Government of Malaysia such assistance as the Government of Malaysia may require for the external defence of its territory". The Malaysians, for their part, will afford Britain the right to maintain its bases in Singapore "for the purpose of assisting in the defence of Malaysia, and for Commonwealth defence and for the preservation of peace in South-East Asia".

As the result of tough and prolonged discussion and bargaining provision was made for a bilateral agreement between the Federation of Malaya and Singapore relating to Common Market and financial arrangements. Provision was made for a Tariff Advisory Board to be established and report within six months from Malaysia Day on the range of protective duties that should be imposed in setting up a Malaysian Common Market.

External Opposition The London agreement of 9th July, 1963 was the final step in the nego-

tiations towards the formation of Malaysia. Regretfully, however, the proposed new federation, which might reasonably have been welcomed by its immediate neighbours as an end to colonialism and as promoting the general security and welfare of the region, became the object of their in-creasing opposition and hostility. The reservations of the Philippines stemmed in large part from the unresolved question of its claim to sovereignty over parts of North Borneo. Indonesian hostility, on the other hand, is a complex web of factors—ideological, economic, and political.

Indonesia did not at first take a strong public position against Malaysia. Indeed in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly in 1961, the Indonesian Foreign Minister, Dr Subandrio, spoke favourably of the proposed federation. Especially after the Brunei revolt of December 1962, however, its mounting opposition to the proposed new federation became public and strong. The Indonesian contention, which ignored the long and through canvassing of opinion in all the territories directly concerned, was that Malaysia was a neo-colonialist device whereby the British would ostensibly withdraw from colonial rule of the Borneo territories, but would


that Malaysia would be weak and would come under Chinese and thence Communist domination. Another factor was perhaps a feeling that a major political development should not be attempted in Indonesia's geographic area without its concurrence having been sought.

Expressions of Indonesian hostility to the formation of Malaysia continued throughout February and the Malayan Government took steps to strengthen its defences. In an attempt to leach a peaceful settlement a meeting was held between Tunku Abdul Rahman and Dr Sukarno in Tokyo from 31st May to 1st June and the two leaders agreed to end acrimonious attacks and disparaging remarks. They also reaffirmed their faith in the Treaty of Friendship concluded between their two countries in 1959. This hopeful, if insubstantial, development was followed in June by a meeting in Manila between the Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia and the Foreign Ministers of the Philippines and Indonesia.

At this meeting it was decided to arrange for an assessment of popular opinion on Malaysia in the Borneo territories. Whatever the strict legal interpretation of the Foreign Minister's agreement may be, President Sukarno later (after the London Agreement on Malaysia in July) claimed that a referendum was intended and that the signing of the London Agreement on 9th July prior to the holding of a referendum was a breach of faith on the Tunku's part and contrary to the spirit of the meeting between the two at Tokyo. The Malayans argued that no assessment of opinion could be undertaken in the Borneo territories until the resolutions of the Foreign Ministers were ratified by the Prime Ministers at a subsequent meeting. President Sukarno then announced that he would renew his confrontation policy. Further recriminations followed and the Summit meeting scheduled for the end of July was placed in jeopardy, with President Sukarno refusing to say whether he would attend the talks until shortly before he left for Manila. A high degree of tension continued, but after some hard bargaining the Summit agreed on a joint statement and declaration and on the agreement, known as the Manila Accord, previously drawn up by the Foreign Ministers. The principal points of agreement were as follow:

(a) The Secretary-General of the United Nations or his representative should, by a fresh approach, ascertain prior to the establishment of Malaysia the wishes of the people of Sabah and Sarawak. In making this assessment the Secretary-General was expected to take into account the nature and conduct of the recent elections in Sabah and Sarawak as well as the wishes of those who being qualified to vote would have exercised their right of self-determination in those elections but for their detention for political activities, imprisonment for political offences, or absence from Sabah or Sarawak;


(b) Malaya, Indonesia, and the Philippines should send observers to witness the Secretary-General's ascertainment of public opinion in those territories ;

(c) The three countries should have close consultation (Musjawarah) among themselves to preserve the peace and security of their region; and

(id) Foreign bases, which were recognised as being temporary in nature, should not be allowed to be used directly or indirectly to defer the national independence of any of the three countries who agreed to abstain from the use of collective defence arrangements to serve the particular interests of any of the big powers.

The Secretary-General's Assessment and Report On 10th August, amid growing clamour in Sarawak, Sabah and Singapore

against delay beyond 31st August in the establishment of Malaysia, the British Government agreed to the United Nations ascertainment. The commencement of this new assessment was delayed by disagreement over the number of observers the Indonesian and Philippine Governments should send, but when the United Nations team finally began its work the Secretary-General estimated that his report would be ready by 14th September. Constitutional necessity required that a new date for the estab-lishment of Malaysia be promulgated before 31st August, and on 29th August it was announced that the formation of Malaysia had been post-poned until 16th September.

The Secretary-General's mission arranged for consultation with the populations of North Borneo and Sarawak through the elected representatives of the people, leaders of political parties and other groups and organisations, and with all persons who were willing to express their views. Every effort was made to ascertain the wishes of the special groups (political detainees and absentees) mentioned in the Manila Joint Statement. The Mission gathered and studied all available documents, reports, and other material on the governmental institutions, political organisation, electoral processes in the two teriitories, and othei matters relevant to its terms of reference.

The Secretary-General came to the conclusion that the majority of the people of North Borneo and Sarawak wished to engage in an enlarged federation of Malaysia. He confirmed:

(a) That the question of Malaysia had been a major issue in the recent elections in both territories;

(b) That the electoral registers had been properly compiled ; (c) That the elections had been freely held ; (d) That the votes had been properly polled and counted ;


(e) That the votes of absentees or those in detention would not have been sufficient to have had a material effect on the results of the elections; that a substantial limitation of the campaigning potential of the group opposed to Malaysia had not occurred so seriously and signi-ficantly as to have affected the result of the elections.

Although the Secretary-General's Report left no doubt that the majority in North Borneo and Sarawak wanted Malaysia it is worth noting that the establishment of Malaysia was not made dependent upon the terms of the Secretary-General's Report. Had that report been unfavourable it would still have been possible to proceed with Malaysia's establishment although in those circumstances the Philippine and Indonesian Governments would have been under no obligation to welcome the new federation.

Indonesian and Philippine Reactions to the Secretary-General's Report Despite the Secretary-General's endorsement, the Indonesian Government refused to accept Malaysia. They objected principally to the proclamation of Malaysia Day prior to the publication of the Secretary-General's Report and also contended that the absence of Indonesian observers during the early part of the United Nations assessment made the Secretary-General's findings unacceptable. In the Indonesian view, both these shortcomings reflected a spirit contrary to that of the Manila Summit meeting.

On 15th September, the day before Malaysia was due to be established, the Indonesian Foreign Minister, Dr Subandrio, said that Indonesia could not recognise Malaysia "as it is now". President Macapagal of the Philippines "deferred action" on recognition.

Malaysia was established on 16th September in an atmosphere of rapidly rising tension. That day the British and Malaysian Embassies in Djakarta were damaged by rioters. Indonesia's decision not to recognise Malaysia led to the withdrawal of Malaysia's diplomatic and consular representatives in Indonesia. The decision of the Philippine Government to reduce the status of its diplomatic mission in Kuala Lumpur to that of a Consulate resulted in the breaking of diplomatic relations between the two countries. Two days later the British Embassy in Djakarta was sacked and burned. Finally the Indonesian Government announced a total blockade of trade and travel between Indonesia and Malaysia, a blockade designed to weaken the internal unity of Malaysia by causing hardship in Singapore through which a substantial proportion of Indonesian exports were channelled.

T H E C R O W N His Majesty The Supreme Head of Malaysia is called, in Malay, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the nearest English equivalent of which is "Supreme Sovereign" or

82 M A L A Y S I A YEAR BOOK

"King". Being elected by the Conference of Rulers,* he takes absolute precedence over everyone else in the federation, his Consort the Raja Permaisuri Agong taking precedence immediately after him. As fountain of justice, he appoints the Judges who administer the laws made in his name and by his authority, and he is therefore absolutely immune from any legal proceedings whatsoever in his courts; as fountain of honour, he can bestow orders of chivalry or give other honours or recognition. The third traditional attribute of sovereignty—the prerogative of mercy—is in his case however very limited: the Rulers and Governors are, in their own States, the fountains of mercy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercising the prerogative only in sentences imposed by a court martial or (in the case of Penang, Malacca and Singapore, where he is Head of the Muslim Religion) in sentences imposed by the Muslim Religious Courts.

The Royal Succession as Head of State Malaysia is unique as a monarchy in that the Head of State is elected by the Rulers of the States from one of their number. He holds office for five years, but may resign at any time by presenting an instrument under his hand to the Conference of Ruleis, the latter being the electoral college. He may also be removed from office by the Conference by reason of physical, mental or other disability, and automatically ceases to hold office if for any reason he ceases (for similar causes) to be the de jure Ruler of his State.

The method of selecting the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is prescribed in the Constitution, and is of interest. First of all, the Conference of Rulers meets in camera without the Governors of Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak, and it is open to any Ruler to decline to offer himself for election; whereupon the name of the Ruler so declining is struck off the list. A secret ballot is then taken as to the suitability of the Ruler next in prece-dence* after the late or retired Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and if he secures at least five affiimative votes he is thereupon declared as rightful successor to the throne. If on the other hand this Ruler fails to secure election, the process continues by a ballot on the next Ruler in precedence, and so on until a successor is elected. Thus, a Yang di-Pertuan Agong who had retired on completing his term of five years could only be re-elected if all the remain-ing eight Rulers either declined to offer themselves or were adjudged unsuit-able, or a combination of both.

The Constitution provides that a Ruler elected as Yang di-Pertuan Agong ceases thereupon de facto to rule in his own State. To maintain executive sovereignty in that State, therefore, a Regent is appointed under the pro-

HIS MAJESTY'S G O V E R N M E N T

Head of the Muslim Religion in his State, and he must also give his assent to any change in the State Constitution during the continuance of the Regency. He also temporarily resumes full sovereignty in his State if necessary for the appointment of a new Regent or Council of Regency.

The Constitution also foresees the possibility that the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may be unable to perform the functions of his office through absence from the federation, illness or other cause. Provision is therefore made for the election by the Conference of Rulers of a Timbalan (or Deputy) Yang di-Pertuan Agong who, on such occasions, enjoys all the rights, prerogatives and privileges of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong though he may not exercise those functions during the latter's absence of less than fifteen days. He also assumes responsibility for the affairs of the State between the death of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the election of a successor. When this has happened, the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong automatically resigns his post, but may be re-elected.

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong, then, is a sovereign in every sense of the word. The laws are his laws, assented to by him "with the advice and consent" of Parliament. Every Executive act is an act of His Majesty's Government made on his behalf and on his authority on the advice of his Ministers; and the third organ of Government—the Judiciary—consists of his Judges who are appointed by him and who are completely independent of the other two organs the legislature and the executive. In the succeeding pages the functioning of these organs of government will be examined.

THE CONFERENCE OF RULERS The Constitution provides for a Conference of Rulers, known in Malay as the Majlis Raja-Raja. It consists of the nine Rulers of the Malay States and the other five Heads of States not having rulers, namely: Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

This Conference has firstly the function of electing, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Governors of Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak do not however take part in this election. Secondly, the Conference has the function of agreeing or otherwise to the extension of any Muslim religious acts, observances or ceremonies to the federation as a whole; and consenting or withholding consent to any law effecting the position of the Rulers and making or giving advice on any appointment which under the Constitution requires the consent of the Conference or is to be made by or after consultation with the Conference, e.g., the Judiciary, Auditor-General and members of the Election Commission and Services Commissions. The Conference may also deliberate on questions of national policy (e.g., changes in immigration policy) and any other matters it thinks fit.


When the Conference deliberates on matters of national policy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is accompanied by the Prime Minister, and the other Rulers and the Governors by their Mentri-Mentri Besar or Chief Ministers; and the deliberations are among the functions exercised, by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet, and by the other Rulers and the Governors in accordance with the advice of their Executive Councils. No law directly affecting the privileges, position, honours or dignities of the Riders can be passed without the consent of the Conference of Rulers. The Conference must also be consulted before any change can be made in policy affecting administrative action in connection with the special position of the Malays and the legitimate interests of other communities.

The members of the Conference of Rulers may act in their discretion in any proceedings relating to the election, or removal from office, of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or his Deputy; the advising on any appointment; the giving or withholding of consent to any law altering the boundaries of a State; matters affecting the Rulers' privileges, position, honours or dignities; and the agreeing or otherwise of the extension of the extent to which Muslim religious acts, observances or ceremonies may be applied to the federation as a whole.

The Federal Parliament of Malaysia* comprises the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or Head of State, and two Dewan or Houses, namely, the Dewan Negara or Senate, and the Dewan Ra'ayat or House of Representatives. Its life is fixed by the Federal Constitution at five years, a period which is reckoned to commence from the date of the first meeting of Parliament held on the summons of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. On the expiry of five years, Parliament automatically stands dissolved. Provision is also made for the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to dissolve Parliament at any time within this prescribed maximum period.

The period of time commencing with the date of the first meeting of Parliament and terminating with the date of its dissolution is designated as "a Parliament", following a usage borrowed from the Parliament of the United Kingdom, on which the Federal Parliament itself is modelled to a considerable extent. Within each "Parliament" so-called, there are divisions of time known as "sessions", each session denoting the period covered between the summoning by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of a meeting of Parliament at the commencement of one session and its subsequent proro-gation by him preparatory to the summoning of the next session. In the

THE FEDERAL PARLIAMENT


first meeting of the next session, Parliament is said to be "in recess". During each session, meetings of each House of Parliament are held from time to time; the Dewan Negara normally meets for one or two days at any one time, and the Dewan Ra'ayat for anything from three days to twenty days at a time, depending on the pressure of public business. A House of Parlia-ment is said to be "in adjournment" in between meetings. Each day in which a House meets is described as "a sitting" of that House.

Each House of Parliament collectively possesses the right to fix the dates on which it decides to hold its meetings. But only the Yang di-Pertuan Agong can summon Parliament into session; also, only he possesses the prerogative of proroguing or dissolving Parliament. There are constitutional limitations placed on the exercise of these prerogatives by him, however, that are designed to ensure that Parliament is not frustrated by the executive branch of Government from playing its proper role in the conduct of the nation's affairs by overlong periods of recess or dissolution. Thus the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is constitutionally required to summon a fresh session of Parliament within six months of the prorogation of the preceding session; and within sixty days of the date of dissolution of Parliament general elections must be held, and Parliament summoned within ninety days of that date.

The Dewan Negara or Senate The Senate has a membership of sixty, twenty-eight of whom are elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the fourteen component States of Malaysia, while thirty-two are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. These appointed Senators are drawn from the ranks of persons who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (to use the words of Article 45 of the Federal Constitution) "have rendered distinguished public service or have achieved distinction in the professions, commerce, industry, agriculture, cultural activities or social service or are representative of racial minorities or are capable of representing the interests of aborigines".

The normal term of office of a Senator is six years. In the first elections and appointments of Senators, however, the term of office of half of them was limited to three years only, the purpose of this being to ensure that half the membership of the Senate should fall due for renewal every three years. The Senate being unaffected by a dissolution of Parliament, this periodic renewal of half of its membership has the desirable effect of ensuring that it would remain responsive to public opinion, whilst still retaining its essential characteristic of stability and continuity of experience.

The principal officer of the Senate is the President, who is elected by the Senators from their own number. He presides over meetings of the Senate, maintaining order in debate and giving direction on points of parliamentary practice and procedure when required.


Parliament is empowered by the Constitution to make variations in the composition of the Senate, such as increasing the number of Senators to be elected by each State Legislative Assembly to three, providing for Senators to be returned by the direct vote of electors, and reducing the number of, or abolishing, appointed Senators.

The Dewan Ra'ayat or House of Representatives The House of Representatives, as its name implies, is the elective Chamber. The present House has a membership of 159. Members are returned from single-member constituencies on the basis of a simple majority of all the votes cast in a constituency, each voter being entitled to one vote, and the electorate, comprising all citizens above the age of 21 who are eligible to vote.

The first Parliamentary General Elections to the House of Representatives were held on 19th August, 1959. The state of parties before the formation of Malaysia was as follows :

The Alliance Party 73 The Pan-Malayan Islamic Party 12 The Socialist Front .. .. .. .. .. .. 8 The Peoples Progressive Party of Malaya .. .. 5 The Malayan Party 1 Independents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

104

Following the formation of Malaysia, the composition of the parties has changed with the coming in of the parties of the other component States. In the General Elections held in April 1964, the House of Representatives was made up of the following:

Alliance Party (Malaya) 89 Alliance Party (Sabah) 16 Alliance Party (Sarawak) .. .. .. .. .. 18 People's Action Party (Singapore) 13 Pan-Malayan Islamic Party 9 Party Negara Sarawak .. 3 Sarawak United People's Party 3 Barisan Sosialis (Singapore) 3 Socialist Front (Malaya) 2 Peoples Progressive Party (Malaya) 2 United Democratic Party (Malaya) 1


The deliberations of the House of Representatives are presided over by the Speaker, who is elected by the House. It is his responsibility to maintain order in the House, to ensure that relevancy is observed in debates, and to interpret the Standing Orders in case of dispute arising. It is the Speaker's duty to certify which Bills passed by the House are "money Bills" before such Bills are transmitted to the Senate, and Bills so certified must be passed by the Senate within one month, without amendment. The Speaker's certificate must also be given in the case of a Bill which is passed under the provisions of Clause (2) of Article 68 of the Constitution, i.e., where the House insists on "the enactment of a non-money Bill over the opposition of the Senate.

Qualifications for Membership Only Malaysian citizens are eligible to become members of Parliament, and acquisition by a Malaysian citizen of foreign citizenship or the rights of such citizenship results immediately in forfeiture of this right. Some of the other disqualifications for membership of Parliament are insanity, bank-ruptcy, holding of office of profit, and conviction for an offence on which a sentence of not less than two years has been passed. A minimum age limit of 30 years is imposed for Senators and 21 years for Representatives.

Contrasted with these general provisions setting up the disqualifications for membership of Parliament, there are provisions to guard against double membership of Parliament. A member of Parliament, for example, may not be elected to the House of Representatives for more than one constituency or to the Senate for more than one State; he may not be at the same time both a Senator and a Representative; and if a Senator, he may not be both an elected and an appointed member of the Senate.

The Functions of Parliament Parliament performs a number of functions of vital importance in the life of the federation.

It is the legislative authority for the federation, and in this capacity Parliament makes laws applicable to the federation as a whole. It thus wields a considerable and far-reaching influence on the life of the federation.

Parliament is not, however, the sole repository of the legislative power in the federation, for the Legislative Assemblies of the fourteen States composing the federation are also empowered to make laws for their respective States. However, the subjects on which the Federal Parliament and the Legislatures of the States respectively have power to make laws are set down in three Legislative Lists appended to the Federal Constitution as the Ninth


Schedule.* The Federal Parliament may make laws on matters set out in the Federal and the Concurrent Lists, while a State Legislature may make laws relating to matters in the State and the Concurrent Lists, subject in both cases to the conditions or restrictions imposed with respect to any particular matter by the Constitution. The Federal Parliament is also vested with the power to make laws on any matter reserved to the States under certain conditions, for example, in the interests of promoting uniformity of the laws of two or more States, or if requested by a State Legislature. Furthermore, where a State law is inconsistent with a Federal law, the State law is void but only to the extent of that inconsistency.

Secondly, Parliament controls the finances of the Government. Federal taxes and rates can only be raised under the authority of Parliament as expressed in the form of federal law. All revenues, however raised, must be paid into the federation's Consolidated Fund, and expenditure of all monies out of the Fund may be made only under the authority of Parliament, again as expressed in the form of federal law.

Lastly, Parliament serves as the forum for criticism and the focus of public opinion on national affairs. Through debate in Parliament, the policies and actions of the Government are kept attuned to the state of public opinion, and the Government called to account for its stewardship. The Government is responsible to Parliament, in particular to the House of Representatives; if it has lost the confidence of that House of Parliament, it must resign, because government without majority support there would no longer be possible.

The exercise of these functions by Parliament is not equally shared between the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Constitution, reflecting the accepted view that the principles of parliamentary government require that ultimate responsibility should rest with the elective chamber, places the more direct control of legislation and administration in the House of Repre-sentatives. Thus, it is mandatory that the Prime Minister be appointed from among the members of the House of Representatives, and that if he loses the confidence of the majority of the members of that House, he must request the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to dissolve Parliament, failing which he must tender the resignation of his Cabinet. In the matter of legislation, consti-tutional provision is made for the House of Representatives to prevail over the Senate. The Senate can, however, impose a measure of delay, which in the case of ordinary Bills, is one year, and one month in the case of money Bills which must bear the certificate of the Speaker of the House of Repre-


of amendment to the Constitution, which must be passed by a two-thirds majority in each House to become valid.

The Senate really comes into its own as an influential forum of debate and discussion and as a body which will contribute valuable revision to legislation; its power to impose a measure of delay in exceptional cases enables the country to have second thoughts on matters of major importance or controversy.

Parliamentary Privilege To enable Parliament to undertake fully and effectively the responsibilities entrusted to it, the Constitution confers certain rights and legal immunities designated "Parliamentary Privileges" upon Parliament. These privileges are enjoyed by each House as a whole, and by individual members of Parliament.

Each House is empowered to regulate its own procedure; each has exclusive control over its own proceedings, the validity of which may not be questioned in any court; and each House can punish for breaches of the privilege or "contempts" of that House. Members of Parliament individually enjoy immunity from civil and criminal proceedings in respect of things said or done by them in Parliament, and the same immunity protects other persons acting under the authority of either House.

Parliamentary Procedure Each House of Parliament regulates its own proceedings in accordance with its own set of rules of procedure or Standing Orders. In general, the procedure in both Houses is very similar. The experience of other Commonwealth Parliaments and notably that of the United Kingdom, in matters of parlia-mentary practice and procedure has been drawn upon extensively, with modifications where necessary to adapt these practices and procedures to local circumstances. But as experience in the parliamentary form of Government increases in the federation, it may be expected that each House of Parliament will evolve in time its own form of parliamentary practice and procedure, forms having a purely Malaysian idiom.

The principal methods by which Parliament carries out its functions are by way of Questions to Ministers, by debate on a Motion, by speeches on a Motion to adjourn, and lastly by debate on a Bill.

Questions to Ministers may be either oral or written, and must relate to matters for which they are responsible. An hour each day is set aside at the beginning of the sitting for oral questions, while answers to written questions are printed and circulated to members. Questions in Parliament constitute one of the most effective means to secure action by the Government.


The most usual method by which a House of Parliament arrives at a formal expression of its opinion or a decision is by way of debate on a motion. It is a cardinal principle of parliamentary procedure that debate can only arise when there is a question placed before a House, cast in the form of a motion, which then represents the collective decision or expression of opinion when approved after debate.

Speeches on a motion for the adjournment of a House provide Members with another opportunity to make their views heard. A motion for adjourn-ment may be one of two types: an ordinary motion for the adjournment of the House at the end of each sitting day, or a motion to adjourn the House for the purpose of discussing a matter of urgent public importance. To move the latter certain requirements set out in the Standing Orders must be complied with. In both cases, an opportunity is afforded to Members to make their views heard, and thus enable the Government to ascertain the state of opinion in the House on matter raised without the necessity of coming to a formal decision.

The most authoritative and concrete expression of Parliament's decision is by way of Acts of Parliament. An Act of Parliament originates in the form of a Bill introduced either by the Government or by a Private Member in either House of Parliament. Each Bill must undergo three "readings" in each House, before it is passed. The most important and crucial stage of a Bill is when a motion is before the House for its second reading, as at this stage the general principles of the Bill and the policies it incorporates are debated. Should the House not give its approval to the second reading of a Bill, it cannot become law. After a Bill has been passed through both Houses, it is submitted to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for his assent to be signified, after which it becomes an Act of Parliament.

Remuneration of Members of Parliament Members of Parliament, other than Ministers and Assistant Ministers, are paid a monthly allowance at the following rates:

Member of Dewan Negara $500

Member of Dewan Ra'ayat .. .. 750

T H E E L E C T O R A L M A C H I N E R Y To ensure that election results truly reflect the will of the people, the Federal Constitution provides four essential safeguards. These are parity of repre-sentation, secrecy of the ballot, elimination of duplicate votes, and the


The Election Commission The impartial and independent body just referred to is the Election Commission, which is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong after consultation with the Conference of Rulers. Its Chairman and two members are chosen from persons who "enjoy public confidence". They must not be members of any legislature, nor may they hold an "office of profit" (i.e., they cannot be Government servants); similarly, they may not engage in any other gainful employment. They enjoy the same security of tenure as the Judges and their remuneration is provided by law and is charged on the Consolidated Fund. They must retire at the age of sixty-five, although they may resign at any time. They are completely independent of both legislature and executive in the performance of their official functions.

The Commission's principal duties may be summarised as follows: the Commission divides the country into constituencies in such a maimer that each constituency has approximately the same number of electors, and further sub-divides these into wards and polling districts; it prepares and thereafter maintains an up-to-date register of electors (called the electoral roll)-, at a general or bye-election it issues election writs and arranges for nomination of candidates; and lastly, it arranges for polling to take place if a constituency is contested (which it almost invariably is). Today, the Election Commission is responsible for the conduct of all elections at all levels except (at present) to the Senate, but only assumed responsibility for local (Government) elections fairly recently. The first elections organised by the Commission in respect of municipalities, town councils and rural district councils were held between April and June in 1961; local council elections were similarly held early in 1962.

The Commission sits in the Federal Capital at Kuala Lumpur, but also maintains branch offices in the States each under the control of a Supervisor of Elections.

Parliamentary and Legislative Assembly Electoral System At present, the federation is divided into 159 Federal parliamentary constituencies, each returning one member as prescribed in the Constitution. No change can be made in the actual number of constituencies or seats, without an amendment to the Constitution, but the Election Commission is required to review the boundaries of the constituencies once in every eight to ten years to ensure that numerical parity of the constituencies is substantially maintained.

Similarly, the various States are divided into smaller constituencies for the purpose of elections to the State Legislative Assemblies, once again on the basis of numerical parity. At present, there are 282 such State constituencies in all.


At local authority level the same formula applies on an even smaller scale. Here, the sub-divisions are called wards, but the election technique is the same as in Federal and State constituencies. The polling districts of all local government wards are now also Parliamentary and State polling districts.

Electoral Law The Constitution itself lays down the framework within which the electoral system may function. Other legislation lies within the jurisdiction of Parlia-ment, the two principal statutes in force today being the Elections Ordinance of 1958 (which consolidated and amended the Federal and State legislation of 1954) and the Election Offences Ordinance of 1954. Subsidiary legislation, which is largely of a mechanical nature, is made by the Elections Commission with the consent of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. This latter legislation is concerned principally with the registration of electors and the conduct of nomination and subsequent polling.

Registration of Electors Electoral rolls were first prepared in 1954 and 1955 and were the basis of the first representative Federal and State elections in the latter year; at that time, the rolls contained 1,240,000 names. By the next general elections in 1959, this number had increased to 2,240,000, the register of March 1961 contains 2,425,000 names, March 1962 contains 2,471,366 names, and the present register of March 1964 contains 2,725,393 names.

Each year, the Election Commission conducts either a complete regis-tration or a revision of the register. This takes place between two dates announced well in advance by the Commission. The day before the first date is called the "qualifying day", and any citizen who is at least twenty-one years of age and resident on that date in the constituency is entitled to be emplaced on the roll. After the electoral rolls have been revised and brought up-to-date, there comes a period for "claims and objections" during which members of the public may call attention to omissions or errors; and when these have been rectified the roll is certified by the registering officer responsible for it. Thereafter, no change may be made until the next annual revision. Registration is undertaken largely by Government officers in addition to their ordinary duties. This is in conformity with the Federal Constitution, which imposes on all public officers the obligation to afford all reasonable assistance to the Commission.


called a "Writ of Election" addressed to an official known as the returning officer of the constituency concerned (generally the District Officer or Chairman of the local authority) charging him with responsibility for organising the forthcoming election. This responsibility involves two distinct operations—nomination, followed generally by polling. Whatever happens, the fresh election must be completed within sixty days of the vacancy or dissolution.

"Nomination" is the system whereby a person qualified to be elected to the legislature concerned may be nominated to stand for election. He must be supported by no less than six persons (including his proposer and seconder) who must be electors in the constituency itself; but it is not necessary that the nominee (who is called the candidate) should be an elector in that particular constituency: he must however give his written consent to nomination. On a specified date between 10 a.m. and noon (not less than ten days from the issue of the Writ) the returning officer is available to receive these nominations which must be accompanied by a deposit in legal tender, the amount of which varies depending on the legislature whose vacant seat is in contest. No nomination may be received except within that two-hour period. At exactly noon, nominations close, and the returning officer must satisfy himself by 1.30 p.m. that every candidate nominated is properly qualified to offer himself for election, and he must furthermore give to the other candidates (if any) and to the electors of the constituency an opportunity to object to the nomination. Objections can however only be made on grounds of legal disability (viz., that the candidate is a minor, insane, a bankrupt or is under some other disability). Once these claims and objections have been heard and considered, the way is clear to the election proper: if there is only one qualified candidate, the returning officer declares him to be elected and he is forthwith "returned" to the appropriate legislature (this is termed an uncontested election); if there is more than one candidate, the selection must rest with the people later on polling day.

Polling Day is also fixed by the Election Commission and must be not less than three nor more than eight weeks after nomination day. It is during this period principally that the various candidates and their parties canvass public support.

Polling

The principal feature of an electoral poll is its absolute secrecy and the guarantee that a ballot-box cannot be "stuffed" (i.e., filled with fictitious or unauthorised votes). The initial safeguard against "stuffing" has already been taken when the electoral rolls were opened to public scrutiny during


the registration period*, the electors being made aware of the polling area in which they are resident.

Long before polling day the Commission will have fixed sites for polling stations (and made the location known to the electors) and polling staffs will have been recruited to run them. Again, most of the staff is drawn from the Government service. On polling day, most stations are open for the twelve hours of daylight, although the Commission has power to prescribe different times in small or remote districts. Before the station opens, the staff arrives and arranges the necessary equipment such as booths, tables, pencils, ballot-boxes and the like. At the appointed time, the presiding officer (who is in charge of the station) publicly demonstrates that the ballot-box is empty, and thereupon locks and seals it; this done, the box is placed in a prominent place in the station where it can be seen not only by the staff but by everyone in the station. Polling may now commence.

As each elector enters the station, his identity is established, his name called out and the electoral roll is checked, He is then handed a ballot paper and a mark is made on the roll against his name to indicate that this has been done. These ballot papers are printed under the most stringent security conditions to prevent fraud, and each is serially numbered; as a further precaution, the paper is marked with a perforator stamp before it is handed to the elector. The serial number however has no relation to the serial number of the elector on the roll—the papers are issued in order to the electors as they present themselves. Each paper has a counterfoil, and onto this counterfoil is endorsed the electoral roll serial number of the elector. The elector then goes to the polling booth and marks his "mark" against one candidate's name and graphic symbol (the latter being used to assist the illiterate). He may not disclose his identity on the ballot paper, otherwise his vote will be disallowed at the count. Having done this, he folds the paper so that nobody can see how he has voted, and then publicly drops the paper into the ballot-box. This action is watched by the staff and the various candidates' agents to ensure that one paper, and one paper only, is so inserted. This is another safeguard against "stuffing" and prevents an unscrupulous person from selling a blank ballot paper issued to him. If the elector is blind or so crippled that he cannot mark his paper, the presiding officer will do it for him in the booth, but the presiding officer is bound to absolute secrecy.

Balloting is done in person except in the case of the Armed Forces, the Police and other persons who, by reason of their calling, cannot be present. This is done by postal vote which is despatched direct to the Returning Officer.


It can happen that an elector arrives at the polling station only to find that a mark has been made against his name indicating that he has already voted. This could arise from personation on the part of a member of the public or from a clerical error on the part of the polling staff. If this happens, the elector is given a ballot paper which is distinctively coloured, and he casts his vote in the ordinary manner. These are known as "tendered votes" and the presiding officer keeps a list of "tendered ballot papers".

At the exact time appointed by the Election Commission, polling ceases. The presiding officer then seals the aperture of the ballot-box in public, and seals his documents in three different packages. These are, firstly, the marked electoral roll and the counterfoils of the issued ballot papers; secondly, the unused or spoiled ballot papers (a "spoiled" paper is one which an elector has mismarked by mistake and surrendered to the presiding officer in exchange for a fresh paper); and thirdly, the list of tendered votes. He also prepares a statement in which he accounts for all the ballot papers issued to him. This done, he takes the boxes and packages under police escort to the returning officer by fastest means.

The Count When all the ballot-boxes and their accompanying documents have arrived at the place of count, the returning officer (in the presence of the candidates, their agents and counting agents) causes each box to be opened individually and the number of papers counted. This is compared with the presiding officer's statement. If there is found in the box more ballots then were issued, all are scrutinised and any palpably false paper is extracted (again, in public) and sent under seal to the Elections Commission for investigation. When all boxes have been opened and found correct, their contents are mixed together so that it is impossible to distinguish the political inclination of any individual polling area or station. The returning officer also adds the postal votes he has received to the others. The count then begins.

This is done by the counting clerks. If a paper is badly marked, it is referred to the returning officer for his opinion as to the intention of the voter. If there is any doubt, the vote is rejected. Tendered votes are not counted but are sealed in a separate package for scrutiny in the event of an election petition. When counting is complete, the returning officer announces the name of the winner, who is forthwith returned. The money he deposited on nomination day is refunded to him. The other candidates likewise obtain a refund of deposit unless they have failed to secure at least one-eighth of the total votes cast, when the deposit is forfeit.

Security of Documents Even though the result of the election is now known, the returning officer and his staff have one final duty to perform. All ballot papers, together with


the counterfoils and marked electoral rolls, are put into a container and sealed. These documents are preserved under lock and key by the returning officer for six months, after which they are destroyed by fire without being unsealed. It is thus impossible for anyone to compare the ballot paper with its counterfoil, and from the counterfoil to ascertain the name of the voter. There is only one occasion on which these documents will ever again see the light of day, and that is if there is an election petition. It is then open to the Election Judge hearing the petition to order an examination of the documents if he thinks it necessary to detect a fraud in the polling or counting. This examination is however made under conditions of the utmost confidence, and the secrecy of the elector's choice remains inviolate. When the time for destruction of records comes, the political parties are notified and are at liberty if they so wish to witness the burning of the documents.

These slow but sure measures to maintain secrecy have stood the test of time. The ballot papers are printed and numbered under security conditions; they are issued to the presiding officer of the polling station, who is account-able for them; their numbers are checked and counted by a different staff at the counting station; and thereafter, only a Judge may inspect them— something which so far has not been necessary in Malaya. A breach of secrecy could only be brought about by a collusion so gigantic that it is scarcely worth considering.

Election Petitions Any elector or candidate who feels aggrieved on the grounds that polling and counting has been improperly carried out, or that a nomination was improperly rejected, may challenge the validity of the election. He does this by means of filing an election petition which is considered by an Election Judge—a Judge of the Supreme Court nominated by the Chief Justice. Elections can also be challenged on grounds of improper behaviour by candidates, their agents or their supporters, and petitions of this nature are also heard by the Election Judge, whose decision is final.

THE PARTY SYSTEM Political parties in the accepted sense can be said to have come into their own in the States of Malaya since the last war, and by the time the first federal elections were held in 1955 they had all developed their own distinctive platforms. At these elections all the elective unofficial seats on the Legislative Council (with one exception) were won by the Alliance—a combination of three political organisations, namely the United Malay National Organisation

HIS MAJESTY'S GOVERNMENT 99

the Legislative Council was however elected, the remaining members being nominated.

After Independence, on the occasion of the first parliamentary elections to a wholly elected House of Representatives in 1959, the Alliance again was returned to power with 73 seats*—slightly more than a two-thirds majority out of the 104 seats. The Pan-Malayan Islamic Party was the largest of the opposition parties with 13 seats, followed by the Socialist Front (SF) with 8 seats, the Peoples Progressive Party (PPP) with 5 seats, and one member each for the Party Negara (PN)* and the Malayan Party (MP). There were four Independents*.

After the formation of Malaysia, general elections were held in April 1964 in which the ruling Alliance Party scored a landslide victory in both the Parliamentary and State Elections. The Alliance Party won 89 out of the 104 Parliamentary seats. The Socialist Front won only two seats compared with eight in 1959. The Pan-Malayan Islamic Party won nine seats, the Peoples Progressive Party two, and the People's Action Party and the United Democratic Party one seat each. In the State Election, the Alliance Party won 240 out of the 282 seats. There is thus a defined party system in the House.

During the 1959 elections, 73.3 per cent of the electorate cast votes in the Parliamentary election and 74 per cent in the State elections. In the 1964 general elections, there was an increase of 5.6 per cent of the votes cast in the Parliamentary elections and 4.9 per cent increase in the State elections. These figures are analysed in the preceding pages.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE

Origins The Public Service in Malaysia has grown up over a considerable period of years. Originally, all the senior officers were expatriates recruited chiefly in the United Kingdom and appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. It would thus be true to say that the public service in the federation today is the heir to a long tradition which started several hundred years ago in Britain. However, it was only about one hundred and thirty years ago that the civil service in Britain was reconstituted in its present form. Before that time, appointment and preferment was generally gained by political patronage, and the service suffered as a result from a lack of continuity and cohesiveness which in turn reacted against stability. Even where political persuasion played no part, each department had the right to select and thereafter control its staff, and there was in consequence little if any common

* The Alliance lost one seat to an independent candidate in a bye-election in 1961: but gained one from the Party Negara in 1962.


standard of education, control and discipline. To place the service on a sounder footing, a number of radical reforms were introduced about the middle of the nineteenth century. These reforms are important to Malaysia in that they affected the Colonial Service (as it was later called) just about the time when the British actively intervened in the affairs of the Malay peninsula and the Borneo States. It thus come about that the Colonial Service, staffed with British officials in the higher ranks, was subject to the same code of ethics and standards of conduct as applied to the corresponding section of the Home Civil Service. As more and more Malaysians attained the necessary academic and other qualifications to assume posts of authority, so did they absorb that same tradition and sense of corporative responsibility which they shared with their expatriate colleagues. This process continued without interruption until Independence.

Development of the Service Between the eighteen-seventies and the end of the first world war, the entire development of the country—which was very rapid—followed lines pres-cribed by the protecting power. At the beginning of the period, educational facilities were almost non-existent except in the Straits Settlements, and in consequence the paucity of trained professional men and administrators involved the undertaking by the Government of numerous activities which, in the more developed countries, would have been undertaken by private individuals or commercial enterprise. Railways were constructed by the government; health and hospital services were likewise provided; and some of the educational facilities were provided by the Education Department, although missionary societies performed considerable and valuable work in the field.

With the expansion of secondary and higher education, more and more Malaysians became eligible for appointment for senior posts. For instance, the first group of graduates from the King Edward VII Medical School in Singapore qualified in 1910, and the number increased yearly thereafter. The same applied in other fields of government service, particularly in the professional departments. The establishment in the early nineteen-hundreds of the Malay College at Kuala Kangsar provided a source of recruitment for Malays wishing to enter civil service; to begin with, they filled only the more junior or executive grades, but in 1921 promotions were made by from what was called "the Malay Officers' Scheme" and the scheme for "Malay Assistants" to the Malayan Civil Service* proper. Up to the outbreak of the war, the proportion of Malayans in the government service


grew slowly but steadily. It is a tribute to them that, during the Japanese occupation, they were able to keep abreast of government administration despite the absence of their more numerous expatriate colleagues, who were interned or evacuated, and despite the enormous problems caused by instability and the lack of foodstuffs and supplies.

By the end of 1946 conditions of stability were more or less restored. Increasing numbers of Malayans became qualified to fill posts in the Malayan Civil Service and the professional departments: by August 1956 (ten years later) 31 per cent of the senior officers were Malayans, and this figure increased to 82 per cent by the end of June 1961. All this was achieved with the minimum dislocation: within the various services there was a sense of complete continuity and no sense whatsoever of break. The well-established service traditions had endured and had given the nation one of the finest civil services in the world.

Until 1954, most government officers were held on what was called the Malayan Establishment, and were liable to transfer throughout the States of Malaya, Singapore and Brunei. The Malayan Establishment was abolished in that year, and the federation has since preserved its own independent establishment.

Politics and the Service The key-stone of any political system of authority must necessarily depend on the integrity and impartiality of the civil service which is responsible for the implementation of parliamentary and cabinet policy. For that reason, a person entering the government service (particularly in the senior grades) has to accept certain disabilities and restrictions in his fundamental liberties as set out in the Federal Constitution. He may not hold office in a political party, nor may he canvass support for a party (although this does not apply to certain very subordinate officers where such activities would be unlikely to affect the impartial performance of their duties); he may vote at elections, but must observe a due reticence as to his affiliations; and he may not divulge information in his custody for political purposes. In advising his Minister, the civil servant must draw the former's attention to the administrative and financial implications which will arise from the implementing of a policy: if he is satisfied that a policy is viable, he may support it; if he considers it impractical, he is bound to say so quite frankly. In short, he must gather together all facts and arguments and present them to his Minister in orderly and logical sequence. The decision thereafter rests with the Minister or the Cabinet, and once it has been reached the civil servant is bound to implement it with all the skill and energy at his command, even though it runs directly contrary to the advice he has tendered. His personal opinion (whether political or administrative) must not affect his actions thereafter. By the same


token, the civil servant is obliged to give the same loyalty and dispassionate advice to an incoming government even though he utterly disagrees with its policy: he is the servant of the government of the day, and not its master.

The civil servant on the other hand has certain compensations for the restriction imposed on his political freedom: he cannot be attacked in Parliament for any lawful act he has performed pursuant to his ministerial direction; the Minister himself is responsible to Parliament and can be censured, but not the permanent official. Although he is technically employed at the pleasure of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he enjoys a considerable measure of security of tenure; disciplinary action taken against him is subject to the overriding supervision of the Service Commission responsible for his department, and as these Commissions are completely independent of the executive and act judicially, he is free of sanctions which might be imposed on him for purely political ends.

The Divisions of the Service All the various departments, branches and forces in the service of the Crown, whatever their function, contain staffs of different gardes. These are :

(а) Division I of the Service: This is the Administrative Grade—Malaysian Civil Service, Branch "A" of the External Affairs Service, and other posts for which qualifications equivalent to a university honours degree are required. Officers in Division I are responsible for the day-to-day implementation and interpretation of policy at a high level. In the Malaysian Civil Service they advise their Minister or State Government; and in many of the States they are in overall charge of their districts as District Officers.

(б) Division II of the Service: This is either executive or supervisory. In this category will be found persons whose duties involve a lesser degree or responsibility, and whose educational qualifications are therefore less than those applicable to Division I. Division II includes the more junior members of Malayan Administrative Service and the State Civil Services, Police Inspectors and other posts which do not involve ultimate authority or command.

(c) Division III of the Service: This is largely clerical, but includes steno-graphers and certain of the higher manipulative occupations normally found in Division IV. It also includes rank and file in the Police.

(d) Division IV of the Service: This is purely manipulative, embracing as it does copy typists, junior postal workers, hospital assistants, drivers, office-boys and so on.

HIS M A J E S T Y ' S G O V E R N M E N T 103

The Service Commissions The public service can only remain entirely impartial and politically unbiassed if it is divorced altogether from political control. Appointments, promotions, transfers and disciplinary control over servants of the Crown are the respon-sibility of three Service Commissions which act judicially—i.e., they are completely independent, and are answerable not to Parliament or the Cabinet but to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who appoints their members. The Commissions are established under the Constitution, and membership is either according to office or by nomination by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. In practice, all are nominated in that the ex-officio members are themselves appointed to the office they hold by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Non-ex-officio members must not be Members of Parliament or of a State legislature, nor may they be servants of the Government, of local authorities or of trade unions. Once appointed, they serve for five years or for such shorter terms as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may determine. Their emoluments are charged against the Consolidated Fund; they can resign at any time, but cannot be dismissed except in the manner prescribed for a Judge (i.e., a Commission of Judges or ex-Judges must consider a case for removal from office on grounds of misbehaviour, inability, infirmity or any other cause). These safeguards are guarantees of the independence of the Commissions themselves. The following are the Commissions:

{a) The Public Services Commission: This is the principal Commission and consists of a Chairman and Deputy Chairman (one of whom must but both may have been civil servants who had retired within five years of appointment) and not less than four nor more than eight members. All are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in his discretion: he must consider the advice of the Prime Minister and the Conference of Rulers, but he is not obliged to follow it. This Commission has jurisdiction over all departments of Government other than the Police Force, the Armed Forces and the Railway: but the appointment of Judges of the Supreme Court is excluded.

(b) The Railway Service Commission: This is similarly constituted, but it is smaller. The Chairman and Deputy are appointed in the same manner as in the Public Services Commission: membership must be not less than two nor more than six; and two members must, if possible, have had experience in Railway administration.

(c) The Police Force Commission: This is quite differently constituted, and is presided over by the Minister of Home Affairs. The Commis-sioner of Police and the Secretary to the Ministry are ex-officio members, and four others are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

Lastly, there is the Armed Forces Council, the much wider functions of which are examined at Chapter VII. In its relationship with the personnel


of the Armed forces, however, it fills much the same purpose as the Commis-sions. Its Chairman is the Minister of Defence, and its membership contains a preponderance of senior officers in the Army, Navy and Air Force.

Until June 1960, there was also a Judicial and Legal Service Commission, but this has now been abolished and most of its functions have been trans-ferred to the Public Services Commission. The Chief Justice is now appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the Prime Minister, and after consultation with the Conference of Rulers; in appointing the other Judges of the Supreme Court, the views of the Chief Justice must first be ascertained. The Public Services Commission only has jurisdiction over the appointment of judicial officers in the Subordinate Courts, but direct administrative control of these Courts vests in the Chief Justice.

Control of the Service General control over the activities of the service is maintained from the Prime Minister's Department, the Permanent Secretary of which is the official head of the entire government service. The Permanent Secretary has two principal roles: firstly, he submits his recommendations to the Prime Minister as to the filling of the more senior posts (known as "scheduled" posts), thereby enabling the latter to make a suitable recommendation in turn to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong; and secondly, he co-ordinates the activities of both the Federal Establishment Office and the Treasury in matters affecting the service generally, the Establishment Office being responsible for terms and conditions of service, the Treasury for salary structure and kindred financial matters. A close relationship exists between the Permanent Secretary's office and the Service Commissions, and this liaison is naturally conducive to that unity and uniformity which is so essential in the running of a modern governmental machine.

Inter-Administration Problems—The Federal Cadre The Public Services Commission is responsible for the selection and discipline of federal officers only. Its jurisdiction is now extended to State Officers in Penang, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan and Perlis.

It is not at all infrequent to find State-appointed officers serving in federal departments, and vice versa. When this happens, the officer concerned remains subject to the conditions of service and the discipline prescribed by the authority appointing him, but his emoluments are paid by the adminis-tration employing him. To illustrate this, the majority of the clerical posts in the wholly Federal Judicial Department are filled by State officers, who

H I S M A J E S T Y ' S G O V E R N M E N T 1 0 5

Services Commission, but on appointment to a State post they are answerable to the State Government in the performance of their duty. They are paid by the State and are subject to policy direction by the latter; but in matters of promotion and discipline their future is determined by the Federal Public Services Commission. In the technical or specialised departments, such as Public Works, Forestry and Agriculture, they come under the professional control of the Director of their particular service, who is also responsible for posting them to their appointments under the State Government.

Working Relations between the Service and Government It is a tradition that public servants do not resort to strike action in the event of a dispute with their employer, the Government. This does not mean that disagreement does not occasionally occur, or that there is no need for consultation. In an organisation the size and complexity of a government service, anomalies—particularly in terms of service and salary structure—are bound to arise, and to deal with these effectively and speedily machinery exists which is known as National Whitley Councils. These Councils originated in the United Kingdom and are named after Mr Speaker Whitley, a former Speaker of the House of Commons who presided over a committee set up to investigate industrial unrest between 1916 and 1919.

In the federation, two Whitley Councils exist, one for officers in Divisions I to IV and the other for daily-rated employees. The Chairman of the fust-named is the Permanent Secretary to the Prime Minister's Department; the Principal Establishment Officer presides over the other. The various staff associations are represented on one side, with representatives of the Govern-ment nominated by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the other. All proposals affecting the terms and conditions of service are discussed at these meetings before they are implemented, and any disagreements which arise are considered in an atmosphere of detachment. The constitutions of the Whitley Councils provide that reference is made to an independent Arbi-tration Tribunal in the event of deadlock in any negotiations. Whitley Council machinery is not confined to discussion at national level, but extends to departmental level as well.

The main reason which led the Government to favour the establishment of Whitley Councils in 1953 was their proven worth elsewhere, particularly in Britain. Their existence helps to eliminate sources of misunderstanding and the possibility of unintentional injustice, and thus consolidates the confidence and loyalty to the Government of the staffs employed by it.

THE EXECUTIVE By virtue of Article 39 of the Constitution, the executive authority of Malaysia is vested in the Yang di-Pertuan Agong acting on the advice


of the Cabinet or one of its members. Every executive act of the Federal Government flows from the Royal authority, whether directly or indirectly. Where Parliament vests powers in a Minister or other person, the vesting of that power only becomes effective when the Royal Assent has been accorded to a Bill enacted "with the advice and consent" of Parliament, and so it is true to say that thread of Royal authority remains unbroken.

The Formation of a Cabinet The Cabinet may best be described as a committee presided over by the Prime Minister whose membership is drawn from the majority party or coalition in Parliament. When the country is without a Government (as is the case immediately after the result of a general election has been declared) the Yang di-Pertuan Agong sends for a member of the new House of Represen-tatives who, in his opinion, commands the confidence of that House, and invites him to form a Government. On acceptance of this invitation, the person so called is appointed Prime Minister, and he submits to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong a list of his political colleagues who are prepared to accept ministerial responsibility. On the recommendation of the Prime Minister, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints these persons (who must be members of Parliament and who can be drawn from either House) as Ministers of the Crown and members of the Cabinet. All hold office at pleasure, and may resign at any time; a Minister may be removed from office by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. If the Prime Minister loses the confidence of the House of Representatives, he must tender his resignation and the resignation of the entire Cabinet to the Sovereign, and a new Cabinet is then formed by the same process. If this is found impossible, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may dissolve Parliament, whereupon fresh elections are held to ascertain the nation's wishes. Once again thereafter, the process of forming a Cabinet starts afresh. Between the dissolution of the old Parliament and the election of a new one, the former Cabinet continues to function, but by convention the Ministers merely perform their bare statutory functions to keep the machinery of Government in motion, and work on a "caretaker" basis.

The Cabinet The policy of the Government is formulated by the Cabinet, and the implementation of policy is the individual responsibility of each Minister, assisted by the civil service. The Cabinet meets regularly, generally once a week, and although a formal agenda is prepared and adhered to, discussion


distinct portfolios, but seven of these are headed by three Ministers. The portfolios are as follows:

The Prime Minister, who is the acknowledged head of the Government and who also is Minister of External Affairs; in addition, he is responsi-ble for the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports; The Minister of Defence, who also heads the Ministry of National and Rural Development; in addition, he is Deputy Prime Minister; The Minister of Home Affairs, who is also Minister of Justice; and The Ministers of Finance, Works (including Posts and Telecommuni-cations), Agiiculture and Co-operatives, Transport, Health, Labour, Welfare Services, Commerce and Industry, Education, Information and Broadcasting, Local Government and Housing, Lands and Mines.

The distribution of ministerial functions is tabulated in Appendix II.

Cabinet Responsibility and Secrecy The proceedings of the Cabinet are matters of the highest confidence. Each member takes an oath of secrecy and may divulge nothing without the approval of his colleagues. Records of discussion are not kept, the Cabinet minutes being merely a bald statement of what has been decided and a direction to the Minister concerned and the civil service to implement the decision. If a Minister feels unable to agree with his colleagues on a point of cardinal importance or substance, resignation is the only honourable course open to him; if he does not resign, he has accepted his portion of the collective responsibility of the Cabinet. Even if he resigns, he is at liberty to attack in Parliament the policy which caused his resignation, but he is still bound by his oath of secrecy: he cannot divulge the nature of the dis-cussion and the individual viewpoints of the other members.

This system of "collective responsibility" is the cornerstone of executive power. Although a Minister is personally answerable to Parliament for the conduct of affairs within his portfolio, all members of the Cabinet must support him because they, in Cabinet, have underwritten his policy; they stand or fall together.

The Prime Minister As the head of the Government, the Prime Minister is charged with responsibility for keeping the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in touch with the general administration of the country. He holds office at the Royal Pleasure, but may resign at will. He must be a Malaysian citizen by operation of law, not by registration or naturalisation; and he must be a member of the House of Representatives, rot the Senate. His principal function is to preside over the Cabinet, where he is primus inter pares—the first amongst equals. An equally important function however is co-ordination of policy and


effort; as the leader of his political party he enjoys the confidence of his Cabinet colleagues and is thus available to reconcile differences of opinion between them. Having a general overall view of government policy and administration he is undoubtedly in a position to see more dispassionately the relative importance of perfectly justifiable conflicts of interest which are bound to occur between portfolios in a modern system of government.

The Prime Minister has certain constitutional and statutory functions in addition to the ones described above. He advises the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the appointment of the Judges, the Service and Elections Commissions, and the filling of certain senior posts in the civil service. He also tenders advice on the bestowal of orders of chivalry and other awards.

The post of Deputy Prime Minister is a conventional one (i.e., it is not established under the Constitution or any written law.) The Deputy again enjoys a high measure of confidence within the Cabinet and the party, and is available to take over the administration in the event of the absence or disability of the Prime Minister.

The Assistant Ministers In the larger Ministries where the pressure of work is great, the Minister is assisted by an Assistant Minister who is not however a member of the Cabinet; the latter however has right of audience in the Senate as well as in the House of Representatives and is thus able to shoulder a measure of parliamentary work in the Upper House on his Minister's behalf. At present, there are five such Assistant Ministers within the portfolios of Culture, Youth and Sports, Justice, Agriculture and Co-operatives, Education, and Commerce and Industry.

Cabinet Committees It is not uncommon for the Cabinet to appoint committees of its members to deal with specific subjects. These may be standing committees or special committees. Such a committee conducts its business on lines approved by the Cabinet, and may either dispose of the matter or report back to the Cabinet as may be prescribed.

THE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

The Central Agencies The following pages set out in alphabetical order the role and functions of the main government departments. It is however convenient to deal first

H I S MAJESTY'S G O V E R N M E N T 109

The Prime Minister's Department is perhaps the most closely concerned with co-ordination in that it contains the Cabinet Secretariat which prepares and processes all Cabinet business and is thus in possession of the general policy of the Government. Another section of the Department is the Economic Planning Unit whose principal concern is the planning of the country's economic development in consultation with all other Ministries and branches of the Government. The Unit draws in turn on the material provided by the Department of Statistics, which also falls within the Prime Minister's portfolio but which is not an integral part of his department. In addition to these are a number of smaller divisions which are of a purely administrative character. The Permanent Secretary of the Prime Minister's Department is also the head of the Civil Service and as such is much concerned with the internal organisation of the government service as a whole.

The Treasury is headed by the Minister of Finance and, as the name implies, is primarily concerned with the revenues and expenditures of the Govern-ment. Departments are required to consult the Treasury in any matter which may affect directly or indirectly the nation's finances or financial stability. The main divisions of the Treasury are:

(a) the Supply Division, which is responsible for formulating revenue and expenditure policy and for drawing up the annual and supplementary budgets;

(b) the Finance Division, which is responsible for general questions of public financing, loans and investment policy, the Government's external financial relations, and matters relating to banking, currency and foreign exchange in conjunction with the Central Bank (Bank Negara Malaysia)',

(c) the Administrative Division, which is responsible for the issue of detailed instructions on financial procedure and accounting, general policy matters affecting the work and staff of the various departments of the Ministry of Finance and miscellaneous matters not falling within the other two divisions;

(d) the Economic Division, which is responsible for analyses of the eco-nomic background for, and implications of, Ministry policies, including analyses and projections of various aspects of Government and Public Sector Finance and their effects on the federation's economy.

In addition to these divisions, there are a number of separate branches in the Treasury which are specialist in function. The Accountant-General is responsible not only for the accounting of revenues and disbursements; he also organises the payment of pensions and the issue of Treasury Bills and Deposit Receipts. Until the middle of 1960 he maintained the Public Debt Office, but since then the Central Bank has acted as agent of the Govern-ment in the raising of local loans. Other branches of the Treasury use the


Organisation and Methods Division which advises Government departments on system, and to Valuation Division, which advises on rating, etc.

The Federal Establishment Office controls the disposition of the Adminis-trative Services and maintains the personal records of the great majority of the servants of the Crown. In addition, it advises the Government on all matters relating to the permanent civil service such as salary structure, conditions of service, eligibility for benefits and other kindred matters. As in the case of the Treasury, consultation with the Establishment Office is obligatory on departments when any staffing proposal arises. The Office falls within the Prime Minister's portfolio, but works in very close colla-boration with the Treasury.

The Main Departments of Government Aboriginal Affairs Department; This department falls within the portfolio

of the Ministry of Lands and Mines. It is responsible for the administration and welfare of the aboriginal population and for their social and economic advancement. For this purpose, the Department maintains over one hundred medical posts in the deep jungle, as well as two hospitals, and over sixty schools and various other facilities. The Commissioner for Aboriginal Affairs maintains a small Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur and there are offices in the States where aborigines are found. In recent years, Rural Development has come to play an increasingly important part in the work of the Department.

Accountant-General: He operates as a division of the Treasury, and his functions have been described above.

Agriculture Department consists of a federal headquarters under a Director responsible to the Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives. In general, however, agriculture as a subject is a State matter, and the State Agricultural Officers and their subordinates are answerable to the State Government. All the senior staff are nevertheless drawn from a federal cadre, the Director being the professional head of the service. Federal activities are largely advisory and include research, but technical advice tendered by the federal specialists is binding on the officers serving in the States. The Headquarters of the department consists of six main divisions—Field, Research, Agronomy, Publications, Horticulture and Training—the last is based at the College of Agriculture, Serdang.

Attorney-General: The Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General are the Law Officers of the Crown, the latter being the Principal Law Officer. The Attorney-General's office is established under the Constitution, and he is legal adviser to the Crown, the Cabinet and the Ministers. In the performance


with absolute discretion in the institution or discontinuance of criminal proceedings. A recent amendment to the Constitution provides that, on the retirement of the present holder, the Attorney-General may be a civil servant, a member of the Bar or a politician, but in any case he must be of not less than ten years' professional standing. Before this amendment, the appointment was restricted to the civil service and the holder enjoyed an entrenched status. The Solicitor-General is a civil servant and automatically acts as Public Prosecutor in the Attorney-General's absence or disability; In the past, he has been informally regarded for all practical purposes as Deputy Attorney-General and has acted for the latter in his absence.

Auditor-General: He holds office under the Constitution, and is completely independent of the executive. His function is to scrutinise the accounting of government funds (including those of State Governments and certain local authorities and public bodies) and to render a report to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or Ruler, as the case may be, of his findings. To safeguard his independence and impartiality, his emoluments and pension are guaranteed and are not subject to reduction by Parliament; and he cannot be dismissed except in the maimer prescribed for the dismissal of a Judge of the Supreme Court.

Broadcasting Department: The functions of this department are more particularly described at Chapter XIX. The Director of Radio is answerable to the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. The broadcast services feature news, entertainment and educational programmes and cultural items. A Commercial Service integrated with the National Service was introduced in January 1962.

Chemistry Department is headed by a Director who is administratively responsible to the Minister of Home Affairs but whose services and advice are available to all departments of the Government. For certain purposes, similar services are available to other public bodies and private firms on payment of a fee. The bulk of the Department's work is the preparation of analyses for the Customs Department and the health authorities; it also undertakes a considerable amount of forensic investigation on behalf of the police. The department has laboratories in Petaling Jaya (near Kuala Lumpur) and Penang.

Civil Aviation Department: Control of all aircraft travelling in the air space above Malaysia is vested in the Director of Civil Aviation who main-tains a Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur and branches at the Aerodromes in Penang, Ipoh, Kota Bharu, Kuantan, Alor Star, Malacca, Kuala Trengganu, Jesselton and Kuching. The Department is mainly responsible for maintaining safety of aircraft and passengers in the air and on ground facilities. A complex system of air traffic control minimises the risk of collision in the air and the wasteful "stacking-up" of planes wanting to


land or take-off. The Director is responsible for the registration and inspection of aircraft carrying the Malaysian Flag, and for the issue of certificates of air-worthiness. He is also the Licensing Authority for Pilots and Aero-nautical Engineers, and Chief Inspector of Accidents, with power to in-vestigate any incident involving aircraft in Malaysia, irrespective of that aircraft's country or registration. The Department maintains close liaison with its counterparts in Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak, and also with the Royal Malaysian Air Force and the Commonwealth Air Forces operating in the region.

Commissioner of Lands: The Federal Department dealing with Land Administration is that of the Commissioner of Lands, which forms part of the portfolio of the Ministry of Lands and Mines. Although the Com-missioner has few statutory powers and duties, and these are of minor importance, he is adviser to the Central Government on land matters and to a lesser extent, he acts as adviser to the State Government, when outside advice is required. He is also the Minister's principal agent in the work of ensuring a common policy and a common system of administration in so far as this can be ensured by advice and persuasion in the course of inspection and reporting on Land Offices. In addition, he is the Federal Lands Commis-sioner established and incorporated under the Federal Lands Commissioner Ordinance of 1957.

Commissioner of Local Government: Local Government is a State matter, but the Federal Government maintains in the portfolio of the Ministry of Local Government and Housing a small department headed by the Commissioner for Local Government. The role of this department is largely advisory. Under a recent amendment to the Constitution, there came into being in 1960 a National Council for Local Government with representatives from both Federal and State Governments; and the Commissioner's staff provides the secretariat for that Council. Although the Commissioner's powers are very limited indeed, the advice and assistance he is able to offer local authorities goes some way towards creating uniformity in what otherwise might be an unnecessarily diverse and divergent chain of systems.

Co-operative Development Department: It has been the policy of successive Governments over several decades to encourage the establishment of co-operative societies. A Commissioner heads the Department with a Head-quarters in Kuala Lumpur and branches at various centres. The principal function of the Department is to assist the formation of new societies and to register them under the Co-operative Societies Ordinance. It also advises and supervises their operations. The Department works within the Ministry


Customs and Excise Department: In that the main source of revenue of the federation is derived from import and export duties, the Royal Customs and Excise Department is one of the more important ones in the country. The Comptroller of Customs is responsible to the Minister of Finance, and his organisation covers the whole federation. The Department itself is divided into three main sections—the Revenue Branch (which collects customs and other dues), the Preventive Branch (which is concerned with smuggling, evasion, and in particular the illegal import of narcotics) and the Marine Branch, which operates off-shore patrols along the Malaysian coastline. Although the Department is federal, it also collects a certain amount of revenue for credit to the State accounts, notably excise on toddy.

Drainage and Irrigation Department: This Department originally formed a part of the Public Works Department, but became self-contained some thirty years ago. A country which combines steep central mountain ranges, a high rate of rainfall and an extensive agricultural and mining industry must necessarily be faced with some complex problems, not the least being erosion and silting. As a subject, drainage and irrigation is a State res-ponsibility, and each State Drainage and Irrigation Engineer is responsible primarily to his State Government. As in the case of Agriculture, the senior staff is drawn from a federal cadre, the professional head of which is the Director, who is responsible to the Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives. All major projects are designed at the head office in Kuala Lumpur, and the department maintains federally a hydraulic research laboratory for this purpose. The department works in very close liaison with the depart-ments of Agriculture and Mines. Similar liaison exists with the Land Offices, as there are few aspects of land utilisation and development in which the assistance of technical expertise is not essential.

Education Department: Education was formerly a State responsibility financed from allocations of federal funds, but under the 1957 Constitution responsibility was transferred to the Central Government. A full account of the education system is given at Chapter XX, but the scope of its activities is too wide to be even summarised here. The Minister of Education is res-ponsible to Parliament for all aspects of educational policy and control.

Fire Services: These are the responsibility of State Governments and the local authorities except in the Federal Capital. The Central Govern-ment maintains a fire training school at Kuala Lumpur. The Chief Inspector of Fire Services is the Head of the Inspectorate of Fire Services and advises the Central Government on fire service policy. The Minister of Local Government and Housing is responsible for the Inspectorate.

Fisheries Department: This is a federal organisation with its headquarters in Kuala Lumpur and branch offices in various parts of the country. The Division is headed by a Director who is reponsible to the Minister of


Agriculture and Co-operatives for the overall planning and development of the fishing industry in the country. Regulation of the industry is effected through various laws and systems of licensing. The Constitution of Malaysia separates for legislative purposes the fisheries of maritime and estuarine waters from turtles and the fisheries of riverine waters. The powers to legislate on maritime and estuarine fisheries are vested either wholly in the Federal Government, as in the States if Malaya, or concurrently between the Federal Government and the State Government concerned, e.g., the Sarawak and Sabah. Development of the fishing industry includes the formulation and implementation of appropriate research and training programmes. A fuller account of the industry and of the Division's participation in its affairs is given in Chapter XVI.

Forestry Department : This department functions in exactly the same manner as the Department of Agriculture, and comes under the aegis of the same Minister. Each State maintains its own department with its senior staff drawn from a federal cadre. The Chief Conservator in Kuala Lumpur is the professional head of the service and is responsible for co-ordination and research. There is a well-equipped federal research organisation at Kepong, a few miles from Kuala Lumpur. Although the subject of forestry is a State matter, technical advice given federally must be acted on by the officers attached for duty in the State. The Department issues a technical journal, the Malaysian Forester. Further details may be found in Chapter XV.

Game Department: This department comes both under State and Federal control, as the preservation and control of wild life is a matter on the Con-current List. Consultation in legislation between the federal and state authority is therefore necessary. The Chief Game Warden is adviser to the Federal department, and he is responsible for running the King George V National Park (Taman Negara). Each State has its own Game Department. Some are headed by State officers and others by officers from the federal cadre.

Geological Survey Department: This has its headquarters and laboratories at Ipoh, and is concerned with the investigation of the geological formation and mineral deposits of the country. It works in very close collaboration with the Department of Mines and its services are available to mining industry. It publishes technical reports and surveys from time to time. The Director is responsible to the Minister of Lands and Mines.

Government Printer: The Government Printer is responsible for the printing and publication of all Government publications although previously the actual work was sometimes let out on contract to Commercial Press but


He is also responsible for supplies of stationeries to all Federal Departments. The main Press is in Kuala Lumpur with branch presses in Johore Bahru, Alor Star, Kuala Trengganu and Ipoh. The organisation is Federal but its services are available to the States and to local authorities. All laws, instruments and other statutory documents are published in the Govern-ment Gazette, which appear fortnightly with supplements when necessary. These are later compiled into volumes. Parliamentary papers and Hansards are published after several Parliamentary sittings in both English and the National Language. The Government Printer is answerable to the Minister of Home Affairs.

Immigration Department: This operates under the authority of the Immi-gration Ordinance, 1959, and the Immigration Act, 1963, and comes under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Malaysian Headquarters and States of Malaya Headquarters are both housed in the same building in Jalan Tugu, Kuala Lumpur. There are branch offices in most State Capitals and Ports and several posts on the Thai/Malaysian frontier. The Department is responsible for the issue of travel documents and Malaysian Passports to Citizens and for the control of entry of aliens in accordance with the law and the policy of Government. It works in close liaison with the security agencies, the Customs and the Health Department.

Information Department: This is a federal organisation, but its services are available to the States and to other departments. It performs the twin functions of keeping the Government in touch with trends and opinions both at home and abroad, and of publicising the viewpoint of the Govern-ment of the day. As such, it is the Government's spokesman in day-to-day affairs. Besides maintaining a library of reference, it also maintains a small but efficient film unit which provides newsreels, documentaries and "shorts" of an educational nature for screening by the department's mobile teams and the commercial cinemas. The department also conducts courses in civics. The Director in Kuala Lumpur is responsible to the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Each State capital has an information office where any reasonable request for information may be made. Some districts are also served by district information officers.

Inland Revenue Department: This serves to collect income tax. The system of taxation is described at Chapter XIV and Appendix I. Although the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak maintain their own organisation, a pan-Malaysian Comptroller-General ensures that there is adequate co-ordination among the States. This is especially important in that many business and firms operate both in the States of Malaya and other component States of Malaysia. The department is also responsible for the registration of businesses other than limited liability companies and the


assessment and collection of estate and stamp duties in the main towns in which the department has branches.

Judicial Department: This falls within the Ministry of Justice, but only for administrative purposes. The Ministry has no part in the dispensing of justice, the judiciary being completely independent of the executive in its judicial functions. The organisation of the courts is described in Chapter VI.

Labour and Industrial Relations Department: This department in its present form came into existence at the end of 1957 as a result of the merger of the Labour Department and the Trade Union Adviser's Depart-ment. The Department which functions under two distinctive sections, each headed by a Commissioner, comes under the portfolio of the Minister of Labour. The Labour Section is charged with the responsibility of enforcing all Labour Legislation designed to safeguard the interest and welfare of the workers. The Industrial Relations Section, through its Specialist Officers, assists in the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes and in the building up of good industrial relations. More detail information regarding the functions of this Department may be found in Chapter IX.

Machinery Department: This department headed by the Chief Inspector of Machinery, is within the portfolio of the Minister of Labour. The function of the Department is to ensure the safety, health and welfare of persons employed in premises in which machinery is installed. This is effected by regular inspections of machinery, the investigation of industrial incidents and the certification of persons in charge of machinery. Offices are main-tained throughout the country.

Malaysian Meteorological Service: This Service headed by a Director with its headquarters in Singapore, comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Transport. It maintains a Main Meteorological Office at Singa-pore Airport, a Dependent Meteorological Office at Kuala Lumpur Airport and a network of meteorological observing stations in Malaya and Singapore. The department is also responsible for the collection and compilation of all climatological statistics, the daily broadcast of meteorological data obtained from the network of meteorological observing stations, the provision of aeronautical meteorological services for all aircraft operating within the Malaysian air space, the daily broadcast of weather forecasts for ships, and the issue of warnings of strong winds and dangerous sea conditions in the coastal waters of East Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak during the North East Monsoon season.

Marine Department and Marine Survey Department: Both are separate organisations under the Minister of Transport, but have complementary


Masters in Penang, Perak, Selangor, Malacca, Johore, Trengganu and other major ports in Sabah and Sarawak. The Director is responsible for imple-menting the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Ordinance, a law which is based on and in conformity with the various international conventions relating to marine and shipping. He is responsible for maintaining minor navigational aids, the dredging and upkeep of the minor ports, the registration and licensing of ships and the examination and certification of various grades of mariners. Lights and lighthouses are the responsibility of the Light Dues Board, a statutory authority of which the Director is ex-officio Chairman. The Marine Survey Department is responsible for the inspection of ships to ensure that they conform to international standards of construction and safety. This is a federal department with headquarters at Penang; but Singapore and the States of Malaya share a Survey-General of Ships who has his office at the former capital.

Medical Services: These services became fully federalised in 1958 under the new Constitution. Though they were until then a State responsibility financed from federal funds. The head of the Government Medical Service is the Director of Medical Services who functions under the control of the Minister of Health. Nearly all the hospitals in the States of Malaya are maintained and staffed by the department, which is also responsible for health services outside the Municipalities. Research is carried out at the Institute for Medical Research in Kuala Lumpur, an organisation which is administratively dependent on the Government and whose work is inter-nationally recognised and respected. The health of the nation, and the methods taken to promote it are described in Chapter XX.

Mines Department: This department, under the Chief Inspector of Mines, has its headquarters in Kuala Lumpur and comes under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Lands and Mines. In each of the main mining zones there is a branch office under a Senior Inspector. The principal function of the department is to tender advice to the State Governments as to the granting of prospecting rights and the leasing of mining land; but this function is purely advisory, the executive power being vested in the State Government concerned . In addition, the department supervises mining operations to ensure compliance with mining and other legislation and the expressed terms of any mining lease. The department maintains very close relationships with the Land Offices and the Department of Geological Survey. It co-operates with the Drainage and Irrigation Department in the control (or deviation) of rivers and streams for mining purposes, including the prevention of silting.


Youth and Sports. It is directly responsible for maintaining the National Museum, Kuala Lumpur, and the Perak Museum, Taiping. It also helps the State Museums in an advisory capacity and assists Learned Societies and Cultural bodies in the organising of cultural activities.

National Archives: With the advent of Malaysia, the former National Archives and Public Records Office became the National Archives of Malaysia within the Prime Minister's portfolio and with headquarters at Bangunan Persekutuan, Petaling Jaya.

The National Archives whose primary function is to preserve by various means all valuable public documents belonging to the national heritage, is the custodian of all federal and many State records. It has a Records Manage-ment Service which preserves, stores and services all public records, both non-current and semi-current, whose archival status has not yet been deter-mined. The Federal Establishment office is one of the larger departments making good use of this service.

The National Archives holds files, documents, printed materials, maps and plans dating back to the Portuguese days and some 4,000 historical as well as current photographs. There are also some micro-films of older documents which have been obtained from archival institutions abroad. Tape-recordings have also been made of verbal accounts by knowledgeable persons in various fields to supplement written records in the custody.

In conjunction with Malaysia Day, materials published in connection with the celebrations of the historic occasion have been documented. Private archives of important men of affairs and economic and business archives may also be deposited and the Department helps to keep and preserve valuable archives belonging to Rulers and members of royal families. It is also interested in records, data and information concerning historical monuments, buildings and sites in this country. It runs a Preservation and Repair Service which is vital to an archival institution and prepares the archives for consultation by government departments and researchers.

The National Archives maintains close and cordial relationship with international bodies and institutions. UNESCO and the International Council on Archives and several archival institutions abroad have been rendering this young Department much help and co-operation.

In its effort to preserve its holdings of the older and more fragile archives, the National Archives has requested the assistance of the UNESCO Mobile Micro-film unit to micro-film a large number of valuable documents, maps, newspapers and other printed materials when the Unit visits Kuala Lumpur sometime in 1965.


Under the Preservation of Books Ordinance, 1950, the National Archives is designated the office to receive all books, etc., printed in the States of Malaya. Related to this it is proposed to establish a National Bibliogra-phical Service in the course of next year.

Official Assignee: This is a statutory office under the Bankruptcy Ordi-nance, 1959, which prescribes the methods whereby an insolvant estate may be distributed to the creditors. By virtue of the Companies Ordinance, the Official Assignee is also Official Receiver, and may be appointed as liquidator to administer the affairs of a company under a winding-up order. Under parallel laws, he also administers the affairs of societies and trade unions whose certificates of registration have been cancelled or refused. His head office is in Kuala Lumpur, with regional offices in Penang, Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca and Johore Bahru.

Postal Services: These are a self-contained and self-accounting depart-ment within the portfolio of the Ministry of Works, Posts and Telecommuni-cations. A full description of the workings of this wholly federal department will be found in Chapter X.

Prisons Department: This department is under the control of a Commis-sioner responsible to the Minister of Home Affairs and, as the name suggests, is responsible for the custody and treatment of convicted offenders and persons under remand. It is a federal department and maintains prison establishments at various points in the country. The treatment of offenders generally is described in Chapter VI.

Public Trustee and Official Administrator: This is a combined office with different functions. The Public Trustee is a corporation sole who may hold in trust property belonging to minors, public or charitable institutions, and other interests incapable (through lack of legal status) of conducting their affairs without assistance. He administers testate and intestate estates, and may be appointed by a testator as an executor; he may be appointed by a Court in substitution for an executor or administrator. He himself is subject to the control and order of the Courts. Funds held by him are guaran-teed by the Government in the event of a breach of trust, and the actual trusts are administered at less than cost (as prescribed by law). The Official Administrator (who is the Public Trustee) administers estates of deceased persons when the beneficiaries are too ignorant or poor to do so themselves, or are unable to put up security when so required by the Court. The Head Office is in Kuala Lumpur, with branch offices in Penang, Ipoh, Kota Bharu, Malacca, and Johore Bahru.

Public Works: The Public Works Department may be described as a "hybrid" department in that it serves both federal and state authorities. The Director of Public Works is its professional and service head, and is responsible for the deployment of the professional and technical-grade


officers. In federal matters, such as federal roads and buildings, the Director is responsible to the Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications; he works through his representatives and subordinates who are distributed throughout the country. Each State has a State Engineer, and there are engineers (of varying seniority) in the districts. Insofar as these district and State engineers perform work paid for from federal funds, they are res-ponsible to the Director; but where an engineer undertakes work on the State account, he is answerable to the State Government. Much preliminary work, including design, is done by the headquarters technical branches on behalf of the State governments, and the federation maintains a pool of heavy or specialist machinery which can be made available to the States when required for any specific project. On paper, a division of responsibility of this nature suggests perpetual conflicts of interest; in practice, there is no conflict and this hybrid organisation is able to serve both federal and State Governments with economy in both manpower and public funds.

Railways: The Malayan Railway is wholly owned by the Central Govern-ment, but works on purely commercial lines and is self-accounting. The General Manager (who is appointed by the Crown) is a corporation sole with power to enter into contracts and the like; and he may sue and be sued. Because of its autonomy, the railway administration does not feature in the annual budget, although Parliament has the right to criticise its activities, for which the Minister of Transport is ministerially responsible.

Registrar of Companies: He operates under the Companies Ordinance and is responsible to the Minister of Commerce and Industry for policy guidance. His function is to scrutinise the Articles and Memoranda of new companies applying for registration and, if these are found in accordance with law, to register the companies. He likewise scrutinises the annual balance-sheets and proceedings of all companies registered with him to ensure compliance with the provisions of the Companies Ordinance.

Registrar of Societies: He is responsible for the registration of all societies under the Societies Ordinance, and he comes under the direction of the Minister of Home Affairs. Apart from actual registration, he ensures that societies, particularly Death Benefit Societies, conduct their affairs in accor-dance with the law and their own rules. He also examines annual return of information including accounts furnished to him by all societies. The object of registration is to have a record of all societies in the country and a know-ledge of their objects, so as to facilitate the maintenance of law and order in the federation as a whole.


Registration Department: This is a part of the Ministry of Home Affairs and is responsible for maintaining nation-wide records of births, deaths, marriages and adoptions, and for the issue of citizenship certificates and identity cards. The head office under the Commissioner of National Regis-tration is at Petaling Jaya, and branch offices are established in State capitals and the larger District capitals.

Road Transport Department: This department comes under the portfolio of the Minister of Transport and has its headquarters (under the Commissioner) at Petaling Jaya. There is a branch office under a Registrar and Inspector of Motor Vehicles in each State capital except Perlis, which is serviced from Kedah. The department registers, inspects and licenses all motor vehicles and regulates the supply of commercial transport (viz., buses, taxis and hauliers) by means of commercial vehicle licences. In this latter duty it is subject to the directions of the appropriate Licensing Board.

Statistics Department: This department comes within the Prime Minister's portfolio and is headed by the Chief Statistician. The main role of the department is the collection and analysis of statistics in which are reflected almost all aspects of the country's activities, be they trade, commerce, industry, employment, national economy and so on. It is also responsible for maintaining population figures. The department is inevitably in close touch with all major government and non-government organisations, and publishes a monthly bulletin in which trends of almost every description which are capable of analysis are described. An example of its work may be found at Appendix III being the Statistical Appendix specially prepared by the Chief Statistician for inclusion in this Year Book.

Survey Department: This department has its headquarters in Kuala Lumpur (under the Surveyor-General) and branch offices in each State capital under a Chief Surveyor. It is divided into two main branches— Revenue Survey and Topographical. Of the two, the bulk of the work is in the Revenue Survey Branch on whose meticulous accuracy the entire system of indefeasible ownership (the Torrens system) is based. The department comes within the portfolio of National and Rural Development.

Television Department: This department was inaugurated on 28th December, 1963, with programmes in four languages: the National Language, English, Mandarin and Tamil. Being a Government department falling within the portfolio of the Minister of Information and Broadcasting, the operation of the whole organisation is financed from public funds.

Town and Country Planning Department: Ultimately, the responsibility for town and country planning rests with the States and the local authorities (except in the case of Kuala Lumpur as Federal Capital), but none of these maintains a professionally staffed planning department. The Federal Govern-ment does, however; and the services of that department are readily available


to both the States and the local authorities. The Commissioner for Town and Country Planning (who is responsible to the Minister for Local Govern-ment and Housing) has his main office in Kuala Lumpur, but also maintains branch offices in Penang, Ipoh, Johore Bahru, Kuching and Jesselton. In its dealings with the local authorities, the department's role is purely advisory; in practice, these authorities rely exclusively on the planners for the design and layout of their towns, and for advice as to the type and siting of buildings which may be erected.

Veterinary Department: Veterinary and animal husbandry are concurrent subjects and the responsibilities are therefore shared by both Federal and State Governments. The senior officers, however, are drawn from a Federal cadre. The Director is responsible to the Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives. The federal activities are primarily concerned with education, disease control and research into animal diseases and livestock production. The Veterinary Research Institute at Ipoh is the main centre where research into diseases are carried out while work on production and training are in progress at the animal husbandry stations in Kluang and Paroi. Research in poultry is carried out at the Poultry Research and Breeding Station at Johore Bahru. The State Veterinary Departments are responsible for main-taining the health of animals in the various States and also for animal husbandry.

Welfare Services Department: This is a divided responsibility between Federal and State Governments, the former being responsible for such services as the Probation and Approved School Services, Services for Children, Handicapped Persons, Youths and the In-Service Training of Staff; the State Departments for General Welfare Services, including Public Assistance and Welfare measures relating to a variety of human problems.

The Federal Department of Welfare Services comes under the port-folio of the Minister of Welfare Services and is administered by a Director.

The State Departments are headed by State Welfare Officers who are responsible to their respective State Governments in matters within the competence of the State. Close liaison is maintained between the Federal and State Departments to ensure co-ordination; the administration of the Federal services in the States are delegated to the State Welfare Officers who exercise their delegated functions under the direct control of the Director.

Welfare Officers are on the Federal Establishment and are liable to serve the Federal Government and any State Government. The State Governments bear their emoluments when they serve on the State Establishment.

CHAPTER IV

GOVERNMENT IN THE STATES S T A T E C O N S T I T U T I O N

EACH of the States of Malaysia has its own Constitution granted (other than in the case of Malacca, Penang, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak) by its Ruler and guaranteed by the Federal Constitution. The Constitutions of the States of Malacca, Penang, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak were promul-gated to form part of the Malaysia Constitution, 1963. For convenience, these Constitutions are divided into two parts : one deals with the machinery of Government, the division of functions, the establishment of a parliament-ary system, the limitation of executive power and the like; the other part prescribes the royal succession and other attributes of sovereignty. There is very little difference indeed between the State Constitutions in the matter of government machinery—all follow substantially the same system originally introduced during the British Administration. However, to ensure complete uniformity in the essential functioning of a parliamentary democracy, all the States have amended their Constitutions specifically to enshrine certain matters set out in the Malaysia Agreement, 1963. Under this Agreement, special clauses were provided to grant a considerable degree of autonomy to the States of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

T H E R O Y A L S U C C E S S I O N Where the State Constitutions differ is in the matter of sovereignty and the Royal Succession. In most States, the Ruler succeeds by right of primo-geniture (viz., the eldest son of the deceased Ruler ascends the throne); in some, succession is open to any of the male issue of the Royal Family, provision being made for collateral succession in the absence of immediate lineal descent. In Perak, there are three Royal Families which succeed in rotation*. In Negeri Sembilan (which is in itself, as the name suggests, a confederation of nine principalities) the Ruler is elected from the male issue of the Royal Family. In every State of Malaya, however, there is a body of persons which functions more or less as a Privy Council ; the name of that body varies from Dewan Negara (Council of State) in Perak, Dewan di-Raja (Privy Council) in Selangor and Juma'ah Pangkuan Negeri (Supporters of the State) in Trengganu. Amongst the functions of these Dewans is the selection of the Ruler or Heir Apparent as the case may be, and the pro-clamation of succession. In Negeri Sembilan this function is performed by

* The Sultan, the Raja Muda and the Raja di-Hilir are the heads of the three families. If the Raja Muda dies, the Raja di-Hilir becomes Raja Muda and one of the same family of the late Raja Muda is selected as Raja di-Hilir.


the four Ruling Chiefs (or Undang2) of Sungei Ujong, Jelebu, Johol and Rembau, who are elected. These Privy Councils are also charged with the duty of deciding whether the Ruler has become unfit (whether by physical or mental infirmity or otherwise), to continue to reign. The composition of the Councils varies from State to State : generally speaking, a portion of the members sit by hereditary right and the rest are appointed by the Sultan.

Penang and Malacca These two States, formerly British Crown Colonies, have no Royal Family, and the legislative and executive power vests in the Governor. The Governors are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in his discretion, but after consultation with the Chief Minister of the State, and hold office for four years. No person who is not a citizen by operation of law can be appointed to this high post; and once an appointment has been made, the holder can only be removed from office by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong pursuant to an address approved by at least two-thirds of the total member-ship of the State Legislative Assembly. He can at any time resign his post. The Governors function in almost the same manner as the Rulers, and are above political controversy, except the Rulers are the Heads of the Muslim Religion in their respective State while the Governors are not.

Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak Each of these states is governed by two Constitutions : its own State Consti-tution and the Constitution of the federation of Malaysia, 1963, which affects all the States of the federation. Under the State Constitution, the Heads of the States of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak (respectively, the Yang di-Pertuan Negara, the Yang di-Pertua Negara and the Governor) are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong after consultation with the Prime Minister of Singapore and the Chief Ministers of Sabah and Sarawak. Their terms of appointment and functions are similar to those of the heads in the States of Penang and Malacca.

T H E S T A T E L E G I S L A T I V E A S S E M B L I E S The State Legislative Assemblies* in each State consist, unlike the Federal Parliament, of one wholly elected Chamber presided over by a Speaker who in turn is elected by the members from one of their number. Each Assembly has the right to order its own procedure, and the members enjoy parliamen-tary privilege. For all practical purposes, the Assemblies follow the same rules of procedure as is followed in the House of Representatives in the

G O V E R N M E N T IN THE STATES 1 2 5

unusual feature in the Assemblies: three Government officials, the State Secretary, the State Legal Adviser and the State Financial Officer have right of audience and may attend all meetings; but they have no vote.

THE STATE EXECUTIVES The Ruler or Governor of the State is the Executive, and he acts on the advice of the State Executive Council, which is a sort of Cabinet with collective responsibility to the legislature. The Chairman of the Executive Council is the Menteri Besar, or Chief Minister whose appointment, position and functions are parallel to those of the Prime Minister in the Federal Cabinet. "Portfolios" are not specified in the Constitutions, but in most States there is an increasing tendency to make members of the Council specifically responsible for the administration of certain groupings of government departments and subjects. As in the Legislative Assembly, the State Secretary, the State Legal Adviser and the State Financial Officer enjoy right of audience.

RELIGION AND THE PREROGATIVE OF MERCY AND HONOUR

Islam is the State Religion in each State, and the Ruler is the Head of the Religion except in the case of Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak, where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Religious Head. The prero-gative of mercy (the Ruler's right to diminish or commute a prison sentence in respect of a criminal offence) vests in the Ruler, who is however bound to accept the advice of the State Pardons Board, over which he presides. The composition of the Boards is uniform and is prescribed under the Federal Constitution; the members are the Attorney-General of the fede-ration (or his representative), the Menteri Besar or Chief Minister and three others appointed by the respective head of state. The latter cannot be members of the State Legislature or the House of Representatives. Appoint-ments to the Pardons Boards are for three years, and provision is made for re-appointment at the discretion of the Ruler. A member can resign at any time. The power of the Ruler, Governor, 01 Head of State, does not extend to varying the sentence of a court martial, which is reserved to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. As Head of Religion in Penang, Malacca, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercises the prerogative of mercy in these States in respect of offences committed against the laws of Islam.

The Ruler of the State is the fountain of honour, and each State has its own system of conferring distinction on those who merit it. In Johore and Kelantan there exist Orders of Chivalry of some antiquity, but the honours and awards in the other States are of comparatively recent creation.


S T A T E GOVERNMENT M A C H I N E R Y It has been seen that the Federal Constitution makes a very clear distinction between the functions and legislative powers which are a federal responsibility and those which are the responsibility of the State. Only the main ones are enumerated here, but a complete alphabetical list will be found elsewhere at Appendix I—the Alphabetical Analysis of the Federal Constitution. Broadly speaking, the State is responsible for the development of its natural resources, and thus controls mining, agriculture, forestry, game, drainage and irrigation and the like; local government and town and country planning is another, as are public works involving State (as opposed to Federal) projects and installations. Each of the departments responsible for these various activities maintains a headquarters in the State, and many of them have representatives or staffs spread throughout the State on a regional basis. It often happens that a department may serve both State and Federal Governments, and the Public Works Department is a good example of this. The senior professional staffs are recruited by the Federal Public Works Service and, for the purpose of deployment, come under the Director of Public Works. Once posted to the State, however, the officers are responsible for all State projects to the State Government which pays them; but at the same time they are responsible to their Federal Director for the accomplishment of federal projects borne on the Federal Estimates. Thus the same staff serves two masters, and if there is occasionally a very slight conflict of interest, the economy in finance and manpower more than offsets any small and temporary embarrassment.

Executive control is maintained by the State Secretariat, the State Secretary being regarded as the head of the government service in the State. The Secretariats are generally divided into divisions exercising control over staff, lands and mines, Councils, finance, local government and housing, but these divisions do net apply in all States. The main function of the Secretariat is to apply detail to the general instructions of the executive as formulated in the Executive Council, and to ensure co-ordination. Legal advice is drawn from the State Legal Adviser, who is a member of the Federal Legal Service; but in tendering advice on State matters he is completely independent of the Attorney-General and is responsible for his own opinions. This does not of course preclude him from consulting his professional colleagues in the Federal Chambers, but their advice is in no way binding on him. As Deputy Public Prosecutor, however, he is subject to the Attorney-General.

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payments made for specific services; municipal revenue (although this may, in the case of a financially autonomous local authority, be retained by that authority); water supplies; and sales of government property including land. When a State operates as a collecting agent on behalf of the Federal Government, an agency fee is generally payable to the State.

These revenues are never sufficient to maintain all the services preformed by the State authority, and the Federal Constitution therefore provides for the payment, by the Federal Government, of certain annual grants. The Central Government also makes a road grant in respect of roads not maintained directly by the Federal Public Works Department. The grant is computed pragmatically and is based on the actual average cost per mile throughout the federation. In 1959, the cost in the States of Malaya was established at $4,500 per mile. At least 10% of the export duty on tin must be paid by the Federal Government to the State in which the ore was mined. In addition, the Federal Government has the right to assign to a State Government any of its revenues at the discretion of Parliament.

The accounting of public monies is done on a uniform system in which the Federal Government has the ultimate discretion. All State Governments are required to follow the same financial procedure, and compliance is guaranteed by the fact that all accounts are audited by the Auditor-General of the federation, who presents his report to the Head of State for tabling in the appropriate Legislative Assembly.

Other aspects of finance, whether State or Federal, will be considered at Chapter XIV.

D I S T R I C T A D M I N I S T R A T I O N For administrative purposes, most of the States are divided into two or more administrative districts (in the case of Sarawak, it is divided into five divisions; each division is further divided into districts) each under a District Officer drawn from the Malaysian Civil Service or the appropriate State Civil Service. These officers are in a position of considerable influence. They are in most States directly responsible for the land office (sometimes referred to as the District Officer's "bread and butter") and are frequently also ex officio chairmen or presiding officers in the local authority. They preside over such statutory bodies as Rubber Licensing Boards. They are responsible for the general administration of the district in their charge and are required to report to the State Government any matter which (from whatever cause) may effect efficiency. This does not mean that they are in absolute command; State and Federal departments do not come under their control, but the local heads of these departments are expected to consult the District Officer in all matters of local import and, whenever possible, to try to meet his wishes. The District Officer thus becomes a local co-ordinator, a task which involves


considerable tact and personality, particularly when he may well be junior in the service to the heads of some of the departments.

In addition to their land and municipal duties, all District Officers are by virtue of their office Magistrates of the First Class. Their Assistants are generally Second Class Magistrates. In the more remote areas where there is no resident full-time Magistrate they sit regularly on the bench on days when the Circuit Magistrate is not available and either deal summarily with petty day-to-day crime or order remand and grant bail. Affidavits and statutory declarations may be sworn before them.

During the 12 years of the Emergency in the States of Malaya, the District Officers worked under considerable pressure. For certain purposes they were constituted the "appropriate" or "competent" authority under certain of the now revoked Emergency Regulations, and were thus invested with considerable power. In the early days of the Emergency, they were directly responsible for the resettlement in new villages of the scattered jungle-fringe rural population; they were also Chairmen of the District War Executive Committees comprising representatives of the Police, Military and other bodies, including unofficial. In all but a few districts in the north along the Thai border, these activities have ceased with the ending of the Emergency. Today, in addition to their land and municipal duties, they are charged with the responsibility of promoting the rural development schemes which feature so largely in the present government policy.

L A N D A D M I N I S T R A T I O N The term "land" in Malaysia is used to denote the system whereby ownership of immovable property is established, transfer of ownership is arranged and general control of the use of land itself is applied.

Under the Constitution, control over land vests in the States, but provision exists for a measure of co-ordination between both State and Federal authorities. For instance, Parliament has the right to legislate in relation to the "Torrens" system (which is discussed below). The Constitution also establishes a National Land Council under the chairmanship of a Minister, with one member appointed by each State and not more than ten members appointed by the Central Government. This Council is responsible for formulating a common policy to secure co-ordination, and any decision arrived at by it is binding on all governments. The deliberations of the Council cover (inter alia) the fields of land use, mining, forestry and agriculture.

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most of which were modelled on the Land Code of the Federated Malay States.

The Torrens System The federation follows a system of land tenure which has in its short lifetime been adopted by some 35 components of the Commonwealth and by a number of other nations. It was evolved in Australia, and derives its name from Sir Robert Torrens, who was Governor of South Australia some 100 years ago. The system he devised (in a number of Acts dating from 1858) aimed at and succeeded in combining the maximum security of tenure ("indefeasibility of title") with the minimum formality in esta-blishing or transferring rightful ownership. Basically, the system is founded on a meticulously accurate cadastral survey of land lots coupled with a mandatory registration of all land transactions; once ownership (as opposed to mere occupancy) has been registered, the registered owner is vested absolutely in all rights over his land, and his title can only be defeated on grounds of fraud. Following this framework, the law in Malaysia is that a transaction in land is null and void unless registered in accordance with the system. This has the immense advantage that the condition of land ownership can be established by examining the register in the appro-priate land office without the exasperating and costly necessity of search and examination of title as obtains in England and some other Common Law jurisdictions. Penang and Malacca still follow the system prescribed in the United Kingdom Land Registration Act of 1875. This system will however be abolished and replaced by the Torrens system in the near future.

Land Tenure In the federation, there is no such thing as "allodial" land—the ultimate property in all land vests in the Ruler of the State, and he disposes of it on the advice of the State Executive Council. This process is called "alienation", and unalienated land is referred to as "State land".

In general, land-owners acquire title either by a grant of land from the Governor or the Ruler of the State, or from rights created by the clearing and cultivation of land before the introduction of the Torrens system. Most land throughout the federation is held in perpetuity, but is subject to the payment of an annual sum of money known as quit-rent*; in addition he may be required to observe certain conditions which are either implied (viz., general and omnibus conditions expressed by law) or expressed in

* So called, because on payment of the annual sum the land-owner is "quit" of his obligation to the State. Failure to pay within a specified period can and generally does involve the auctioning of the land, any balance over and above the arrears due accruing to the defaulting land-owner. Breach of "implied" condition may nonetheless be a ground for his loss of title.


writing as additional conditions to his title. In parts of Malacca and Negeri Sembilan "customary rights"—which vest in tribes whose land is held matriarchally on a life interest of the registered occupier—are governed and registered under a special law.

The various legislation in the States also provides for the issue of leases for a term of years. The present policy of the Governments is to alienate land by lease rather than by perpetual grant, and this applies particularly in townships and where the holdings alienated are larger.

All States have the power to compulsorily acquire any land which may be needed for a public purpose, for housing, for mining and the like; but in every case a fair and reasonable compensation must be paid, namely the sum a willing seller would expect to receive from a willing buyer. This principle has long been accepted, but is now enshrined as one of the funda-mental rights written into the Constitution.

Except for land lying in Malay Reservations and in the greater part of Kelantan, there is no restriction on ownership. Land may be acquired, held and disposed of by citizens, non-citizens or persons or companies domiciled outside the federation provided they conform to certain prescribed provisions of law.

A large proportion of small-holders still occupy and cultivate their own land, but it is not uncommon for rubber and coconut cropping to be under-taken by outsiders, who harvest the produce in exchange for wages (or, more commonly, for a pre-agreed share of the crop).

Land Utilisation The enforcement of implied conditions to a title, such as the good culti-vation of a specified percentage of the area of the land lot, and special conditions expressed on the title, makes it possible for the State Governments to exercise control over its use. Furthermore, it is within the power of a State to declare areas to be Forest Reserves (which are more particularly described at Chapter XV), wild life or game preservation, open spaces and other special purposes. Policy relating to land utilisation is thus primarily a State concern, but is always subject to the overall policy scrutiny of the National Land Council, which has already been described. Positive control is achieved by the creation of reserves and by the imposition of protective restrictions to minimise, for instance, erosion by the cultivation of slopes; there is also the negative control which arises from the prohibition of occupation of land other than under an official grant, lease or permit.


of work. In each district there is a Land Office headed by a Collector of Land Revenue (who is in most cases one and the same person as the District Officer). He has certain statutory powers under the law, such as the right to inspect property, to call upon persons infringing conditions of title to shew cause, to order the felling of trees likely to cause damage to or on the roads, and the like. He also enjoys a delegated power to alienate small parcels of land (generally not exceeding ten acres) to small-holders. All applications for land are received by him and he is responsible for scrutinising and forwarding them (if they are outside his jurisdiction) to the State Government with his recommendations.

Apart from collecting the annual quit-rent and other dues related to land in the States of Malaya, the Collector is also responsible for maintaining what is called the Mukim* Register. This is the Torrens-type register referred to above, but applies only to small-holdings. The system is so simple that the services of a solicitor are seldom necessary. When a change occurs in the holding of a parcel of land (called a "lot") the registered proprietor has merely to present a memorandum setting out the nature of the proposed change, which may be a transfer of ownership, a charge (i.e., the pledge of the land as security for a loan) or a caveat (a prohibition of dealings in the land), and it is the duty of the Collector to register that mutation provided it is lawful. The register is open to inspection on payment of a small search fee, thus enabling a prospective purchaser to satisfy himself as to any encum-brance attached to the title. The certain accuracy of this information is the essence of the Torrens system in that both vendor and purchaser, by signing an acceptance on the same form, know exactly what is being bought and what is sold.

Titles to property in towns, and in every case to property exceeding ten acres, are maintained at State level by the Registrar of Titles. The Registrar's duty is purely that of registration, all preparatory work and inspection being done by the Collector concerned.

Survey It has been seen from the foregoing that there are two essentials in any successful attempt to confer indefeasible title over land, one being the accuracy of the Register. No less important is the actual survey of the land itself. This work is performed by the Survey Department, a federal organi-sation with its head office in Kuala Lumpur and branches in all the States (Kedah and Perlis forming one regional branch).

Before the last war, a common Survey department was established for the then Federated Malay States and the Straits Settlements. The Unfederated

* A Mukim (in Kelantan called a Daerah) is a sub-division of a District. The representa-tive of the District Officer in a Mukim is the Penghulu (Penggawa in Kelantan) who has certain statutory duties and powers under the land legislation.


States had their separate organisations, but as the senior staff was seconded from the joint F.M.S.-S.S. department—and as each State followed the practice and regulations prescribed by the parent service—the whole of the States of Malaya enjoyed a uniform system. After the war, the various State sections merged into an integrated federal department, the Surveyor-General now being responsible to the Minister of Rural Development.

When land is alienated, one of the first steps before registration is what is called "a requisition for survey" by the Collector of Land Revenue concerned. The limits of the lot to be alienated are pegged out by the Collector's staff, and the survey is then made by the Survey Department's technical staff. As this is done, the Chief Surveyor of the State compares the new land lot with his records to ensure that no two or more lots overlap; boundary stones are then placed on the ground itself and the lot is given a departmental survey number, known as the "lot number". The Collector is at that stage able to cause all relevant facts relating to the land to be entered into the appropriate register.

Although placed with considerable accuracy in terms of a fraction of an inch, boundary stones are merely a guide to the actual boundary and their presence confers no absolute right over the area they enclose (for example, a stone near the roadside in soft soil might move slightly if heavy traffic caused the road surface to subside). For that reason, it is often prudent to obtain a re-survey—particularly in valuable town land—before any costly development is undertaken. If a boundary stone disappears, it can easily be replaced. These re-surveys are possible because all the records and compu-tations are carefully preserved by the Survey Department, and are micro-filmed to safeguard against possible loss.

The Survey Department also includes a topographical division which makes the ordinary maps of the country. These can be purchased from the Map Sales Office in the Federal Department of Information Building, Kuala Lumpur. The greater part of the Department's output is however devoted to the survey of registrable land lots; and whilst this work is known as "revenue survey" because it helps to protect the land revenue due to the Government, its main function nevertheless is the protection of the land-owner by contributing to an indefeasible title over his property.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Origins The development of local government in Malaysia is mainly urban, the rural


the medium of popularly-elected councils with a large measure of freedom of action and financial independence. The pattern of development generally follows that of the United Kingdom, but without the latter's traditional and bewildering complexities, and with modifications to suit local conditions.

Local government in Malaysia is of comparatively recent origin. Municipal councils were first established in George Town, Penang, and the Town and Fort of Malacca about the middle of the last century. Before that time, in the Straits Settlements there were small municipal commissions, and the Straits Settlements Municipal Act of 1857 gave a legal framework to these commissions. Some form of election existed then but this was not continued when the new Municipal Ordinance of 1913 came into force. The commissions were thereafter appointed by the Governor of the Straits Settlements on the advice of the Resident Councillors, who were however careful to choose able men who reflected the views of their communities or interests, and who were popularly recognised as inevitable choices. This system persisted until the introduction of elections in 1950.

The rural areas of the Settlements of Penang and Malacca were admi-nistered by rural boards which derived their power from Municipal Ordinance of the Straits Settlements.

As the Malay States came under British protection from 1874 until the end of the century, local authorities known as the Sanitary Boards (later named Town Boards) were set up in urban areas and derived their legal authority from the various Town Boards Enactments.

Apart from the two Municipalities which enjoyed a fair measure of financial autonomy under the Municipal Ordinance, local authorities were in effect departments of the State Governments charged with the duty of carrying out administrative and executive functions to the extent permitted under the laws creating them. Their members were all appointed; and although great care was taken in their selection, they were not necessarily truly representative of the people whose views they were expected to pro-pound. The position remained static for a considerable period and it was only in March 1948 (after the Federation Agreement had been signed) that the Kuala Lumpur Town Board—which had started as a Sanitary Board in 1890—was elevated to the status of a Municipality adopting the provisions of the Straits Settlements Municipal Ordinance. Even then the Municipal Commissioners were all appointed by the Ruler.

It was not until after the Local Authorities Elections Ordinance of 1950 had been enacted that election of members to municipalities, town and rural boards took place; and not until after 1954, when the Town Boards Ordinance was amended, that some of the larger town councils and rural district councils became financially autonomous. Another significant post-war development was the establishment of the local councils, the need for


which grew up largely as a result of and out of the Emergency (1948-1960). A large proportion of the rural population had been resettled in "New Villages" and as these centres grew the need for the administration of local services became inevitable. But the step taken was a bold one in as much as the newly created local authority was a fully elected council with an elected chairman, and was financially autonomous from the beginning; the only limitation was the right of district officers to nominate members to represent minorities.

Local Government in Sabah is carried out in the main towns and districts of the country by Town Boards and District Councils, which are responsible for handling their own affairs and finances. The Town Boards Constitution provides for the vice-chairman of the Board to be the only Government officer, while all the other members including the chairman are unofficials.

Sarawak has the Kuching Municipal Council and 23 other District Councils covering the whole country. All local authorities are non-communal and fully elected by secret ballot on the basis of adult franchise. In addition to providing orthodox local government communal services, local authorities have important responsibilities in the fields of primary education and maternity and child health. They rely upon the rating principle for collection of revenue and receive capital and loan assistance from the State Govern-ment. In addition, these local government bodies constitute electoral colleges within the present "tier" system of State Government representation whereby election to the Council Negeri is achieved by way of District and Divisional Council membership.

City and Municipal Councils The Municipal Councils at present represent the most highly developed system of local government in Malaysia. They are financially autonomous statutory corporations whose membership is (except in Kuala Lumpur) wholly elected. They are more independent of services rendered by the Federal and State Governments than other local authorities. They employ directly the whole of their staff, senior and subordinate, administrative and technical. They are largely self-contained entities, operating within their own resources and within the wide range of powers conferred on them by legislation, but they are dependent on the Federal Government for loan funds. Their activities range over the whole field of municipal services-public health, public works, water services, cultural activities, town planning, public housing and the like; with the addition of public transport and

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implementation of policy, but require no assistance in the day-to-day running of their affairs.

George Town, Penang, was granted city status on 1st January, 1957, and the former Municipal Council became a city council. A city council how-ever is in law a municipal council, city status being a mark of honour which does not affect its legal status. The Penang City Council is administered by a council of 15 with a Mayor elected from among the Councillors; the Town and Fort of Malacca is administered by a council of 12 with a President similarly elected. The former Town Council of Ipoh became a Municipality on 30th May, 1962, and is administered by a Council of 18 with a President elected from among the Councillors.

Kuala Lumpur*, the Federal Capital, is on the other hand differently organised. Until 1st April, 1961, the local authority consisted of a Muni-cipal Council with an official President, 12 elected and six nominated members. Under the provisions of the Federal Capital Act of 1960 the partially elected council was abolished and the administration of the local authority now vests in a Commissioner who is an official appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Commissioner is assisted by an Advisory Board consisting of six senior government officers (mostly secretaries to Ministries) and five unofficial members appointed by His Majesty. It should be noted that the Commissioner is not obliged to accept the advice of the Board although he is under mandatory obligation to record his reasons if he rejects the advice tendered. The Commissioner is a body corporate and is answerable to the Minister of Local Government and Housing. In all other respects, however, the Federal Capital is run on lines identical with other local authorities, and the former Municipal staff have remained in the service of the Commission with the same rights and privileges they had hitherto enjoyed under the Municipality.

Town Boards and Town Councils Town boards were the distinctive creation of the former Malay States (as opposed to the former Settlements of Penang and Malacca), for the administration of municipal affairs of towns and villages within the territory of those States, and were essentially organs of the State Government specially created to deal with local affairs. A certain amount of local representation was supplied by unofficials nominated to the boards, but the ultimate power vested in the Government. All the medium-sized towns in the States of Malaya were administered by town boards until 1950; since then, an increasing number of them have achieved town council status.

When a Town Board is granted a constitution under the Local Authorities Elections Ordinance of 1950 and at least a majority of members are elected,

* See also "the federal capital" at the end of this chapter.


it is styled a town council. Up to July 1960 there were 37 town councils as against 36 town boards. At this stage, however, it remains in effect a department of the State Government, and does not become a financially independent body until it is granted financially autonomous status (viz., the power to retain its revenues and control the spending thereof), by the State Government. Financial autonomy can be conferred on town boards—the local authority does not necessarily have to become a town council with an elected majority before it receives financially autonomous status. Either change of status may precede the other. The trend of govern-ment policy, both Federal and State, is in time to convert all the authorities into financially autonomous town councils, and to expand the elected element until the membership of each council is wholly elected.

Town councils and town boards rely on Government for the provision of services to a far greater extent than municipal councils, largely because they do not have the financial resources of the latter. To begin with, a trained government administrative officer (usually the District Officer) is generally appointed president or chairman of the council or board, and the day-to-day administrative running of the council's or board's affairs rests in his hands. In the same way, the District Health Officer and District Engineer, both professionally qualified officers and servants of the Govern-ment, are appointed members of the council or board, and the technical supervision of the authority's affairs is in their custody. The authority also has at its disposal the widespread resources of the State Secretariat in the legal, financial and technical fields and draws on these for advice and assistance in meeting its varied problems. The unofficial members of the authority, however, have the major voice in the formulation of policy and the making of decisions, official assistance being largely confined to ensuring efficient implementation of the decisions so made. The activities of town councils and town boards obviously cannot range over so wide a field as that of the municipal councils, but the aim of both Central and State Govern-ments is to strengthen and diversify their financial resources so that they may in time assume wider responsibilities.

Rural District Councils Rural District Councils are to be found only in the States of Penang, Malacca, Sabah and Sarawak, and form part of the local government administration of these former Settlements in the Crown Colony of the Straits Settlements and British Borneo. They were formerly called rural boards, and were similar in constitution to town boards except that their areas of jurisdiction covered


have elected chairmen. Some are also financially autonomous whilst others have yet to acquire this status. Federal and State Government assistance rendered to rural district councils is similar to that given to town councils and town boards.

Local Councils Local Councils are the most recently created form of local authority in the States of Malaya. Generally speaking, they exist in the towns and villages but vary considerably in size (from 2,000 to 16,000 population); and there are several which are distinctly rustic in character. They are in many ways quite a well-developed, if rudimentary, form of local authority, having from the outset been fully elected with elected chairmen and financial autonomy. The District Officers of the administrative districts have advisory duties in relation to local councils, but have power to disallow the council's budget and by-laws. Local councils operate simple form of rating, but receive a considerable measure of grant-in-aid. They carry out simple local government functions, mainly in the fields of public health and development of com-munications and water supply, and rely almost entirely on government departments for technical services and assistance. There is no particular limitation on the range of their powers except that imposed by their financial resources. Many of the more enterprising and energetic local councils have developed a wide range of local services of great value.

The Electoral System The Local Authorities Elections Ordinance of 1950 was truly a turning point in the progress of local government in the States of Malaya, making as it did representative and responsible local government much more than a vague possibility. In the case of municipal councils, it was ordained that the total number of councillors (exclusive of the president) should be not less than six and not more than twenty-four, and that the number of elected councillors should exceed those nominated, also exclusive of the president. In the case of the town boards and the rural district boards, the Ordinance merely enabled the State authority to require that the whole, or a majority, of the members of a board should be elected instead of appointed or nominated; where such an order was made, the board concerned thence-forth became a town council or a rural district council as appropriate.

The first of these elections took place in the Penang Municipality towards the end of 1951. Three wards each returned three councillors, a further six being nominated. It was prescribed that one-third of both elected and nominated councillors should retire annually, and that fresh elections should be held and nominations made in December. This system was adopted throughout the States of Malaya and aimed at establishing a measure of


continuity. By 1957, the Penang Council was wholly elected. In 1960 a new system was introduced under the Local Government Elections Act whereby the life of a local authority other than a local council was fixed at three years, all members (whether elected or nominated) retiring simultaneously. Although the former system of a one-year rotational retirement achieved its purpose by ensuring a quick response to changing currents of opinion and by guaranteeing a nucleus of seasoned councillors at any given moment, it was found to be administratively cumbersome; furthermore there was always the danger that annual rotational elections would create uncertainty in those authorities where the balance between the parties was only marginal, and so militate against planning and administration. The three-year system was therefore introduced in the interest of stability. The first elections under this new system were held in the first half of 1961, and the next elections will accordingly be in 1964.

The qualifications for emplacement on the electoral roll varied until recently from place to place, principally for historical reasons. In Penang and Malacca, for instance, Federal citizens and the subjects of a Ruler of a Malay State were enfranchised, as were British subjects; in others (such as Kuala Lumpur and Klang) citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies, if born in the States of Malaya and Singapore, were also given the vote. To qualify for enrolment as a voter, there was stipulated a minimum age of twenty-one, ordinary residence in the States of Malaysia for at least three years, residence in the local authority for at least one out of the preceding two years or a property qualification of not less than $60 assessed annual value. The Local Government Elections Act of 1960 prescribed uniform qualifications throughout the old Federation of Malaya, a voter had to be a citizen ordinarily resident in the electoral area, but non-resident citizens were enfranchised if possessed of a property qualification based on the annual value of $60 or improved value of $500 of their property within the local authority limits. The 1960 Act does not however extend to the local councils, where the status quo has been maintained.

Until 1960 the organisation of elections in the municipalities, town councils and boards, and rural district councils was the responsibility of the State authorities. The 1960 Ordinance has transferred this duty to the Elections Commission which, being an independent body free from political or other bias, is in a better position dispassionately to supervise the compilation of electoral rolls and subsequent polling. The Election Commission has now assumed responsibility for this.


legislation for the sole purpose of ensuring uniformity of law and policy, and to the giving of advice, technical assistance, education, publicity and the like. The day-to-day working of local authorities in Malaysia is therefore within the competence of the State Governments, the Federal or Central Government being concerned only with basic policy relating to local govern-ment as a whole.

The Federal Constitution originally provided for a vague form of consul-tation between the Federal and State Governments with regard to legislation affecting local Government, but this form of consultation was never placed in a formal footing. There was in fact no obligation imposed on State Governments to accept the advice of the Federal authority. The amendment of the Constitution in 1960 accordingly provided for the establishment of a National Council for Local Government. The Council consists of a Minister as chairman with one representative from each of the States of Malaya and not more than ten representatives of the Federal Government. Its purpose is to formulate a national policy from time to time for the promotion, development and control of local government throughout Malaya (now Malaysia) and for the administration of any relevant laws; and both Federal and State Governments are bound to implement any policy so formulated. It is also a forum in which projected local authority legislation is examined, and it is the duty of the Council to give an opinion on any matter put to it by any of the Governments.

Local Government Finance Reference has been made to financial autonomy, which suggests that at least some local authorities enjoying this status are completely self-contained in meeting their recurrent commitments. This is very nearly true in the case of the municipalities, but a long way from the truth where the town councils are concerned. The latter receive a considerable "concealed" subsidy in the form of free services; for instance, most roads in town council areas are maintained by the Public Works Department at the expense of the highway authority—the State or Federal Government. Advice from the technical departments is given free, or at very most on repayment of out-of-pocket expenses incurred in travel or investigation of a problem. To the non-financially autonomous local authorities the State Government makes what is called a balancing grant at the beginning of each year to offset the estimated deficit; but this grant is given at the expense of the authority's freedom to dispose of its assets, and any proposal to expend savings during the year is subject to the State Government's approval. Local councils, paradoxically enough in view of their comparative infancy, receive an annual subvention to which rather fewer strings attached than to the balancing grants given to the non-financially autonomous town councils, but


in practice this apparent liberality makes little if any real difference—the accounts and estimates are examined when the subvention is fixed, and the District Officer has certain powers of disallowance.

The chief source of revenue in any local authority accrues from the general assessment rate, which are arrived at by estimating the annual or improved value of immovable property and by then imposing a per-centage "rate" on that value. This rate is designed to finance the general overheads of the authority's work. Services such as the removal of garbage and nightsoil are termed "non-remunerative" services and the amount raised from them in revenue should in theory do no more than balance the expenditure. In practice, some authorities shew a small profit under this item, some a small loss. The third source of revenue consists of licence fees in respect of dangerous, noxious or offensive trades, control of places of entertainment, eating houses, coffee shops and the like, and the licensing of non-motor vehicles. An examination of local authority balance sheets will also shew a receipt item from the Federal or State Governments (or from both) "in aid of rates". This is not a grant-in-aid but a lump payment in respect of property held by the Governments which, if it were privately owned, would be liable for payment of assessment. The sum paid out "in aid" is worked out by negotiation and in the event of disagreement the dispute is referred to a tribunal established under the Constitution consisting of the Chairman of the National Land Council and two members, one nominated by each party to the dispute.

L O W C O S T H O U S I N G

The Government realises the importance of ensuring that all citizens should be adequately housed. It has therefore adopted the property-owning democracy as a policy in the building of a democratic nation. So in 1956 the Government decided to initiate a low cost housing programme which would assist the lower income groups to own property.

It was then estimated that approximately 250,000 houses were required in order to re-house squatters and relieve gross over-crowding in towns, and due to the natural increase of population a further 30,000 houses ought to be built each year.

The Government decided that in order to be able to tackle the low cost housing programme it would be necessary to allocate responsibilities. Accordingly these responsibilities were incorporated in the Constitution as follows:


(b) The provision of the technical services of the Housing Trust, which is a Statutory Body, free of charge for low cost housing projects.

(ii) The State Governments would be responsible for housing in their States.

It was also decided that State Governments should be responsible for the provision of land at a nominal premium, and the provision of roads and watermains for any low cost housing projects. It will thus be seen that the Government is subsidising low cost housing by:

(a) The low rates of interest charged as compared to the higher rate at which the money has to be borrowed.

(b) The provision of technical services of the Housing Trust, free of charge.

(c) The provision by the State Governments of land, roads and watermains.

In the First Five-Year Development Plan (1956-60) the Government, through the Agency of the Housing Trust, and with the co-operation of the State Governments had constructed 995 timber houses, 164 brick houses and 332 flats. The total funds spent by the Government on low cost housing in the First Five-Year Plan amounted to $3,885,000.

The Government inaugurated the Second Five-Year Development Plan in 1961. Due to experience gained in the implementation of low cost housing schemes in the First Five-Year Plan, it was resolved that it would be beneficial to slightly change the overall policy. In pursuance of this policy it was decided to allow State Governments to take a greater share in the work involved, and to achieve this the $45,000,000 made available by the Govern-ment for the Second Five-Year Plan was loaned to the State Governments. The Second Five-Year Development Plan has now been in operation for four years and the wisdom of the revised policy is clearly shown in the results achieved, as follows:

Completed in 1961 Completed in 1962 Completed in 1963 Completed in 1964 408 timber houses 250 timber houses 1,923 timber houses 720 timber houses

10 brick houses 565 brick flats and 705 brick, flats and 1,771 brick, flats and shop houses shop houses shop houses

In addition, 17 schemes which were approved in 1964 consisting of 449 timber houses, 1,898 brick houses, fiats and shop houses costing a total sum of $11,704,654 are expected to be completed by the end of 1965. During this same year it is expected that schemes costing $1,000,000 would be constructed in the State of Sabah. The State Government of Sabah, however, will initiate low-cost housing schemes in the 1965-70 Development Plan.


It is likely that Borneo Housing Development Limited and Borneo Develop-ment Co-operative Limited will be used as Government's instruments in the development of low-cost housing schemes in Sabah. These are required most in Jesselton and Sandakan to improve the "slum" areas.

In Singapore, prior to 1960 the Singapore Improvement Trust was the recognised agent for the construction of public housing. In February 1960, this Improvement Trust was dissolved and the Housing and Development Boaid was created to provide public housing for the people in the island. Government's four-year development plan (1961-64) calls for the construction of 51,031 units at an estimated cost of $192 million. Under the Plan, 39,271 units are scheduled for completion by the end of 1964, leaving a balance of 11,760 units to be completed thereafter. The Housing and Development Board has already exceeded the targets laid down in the first three years of the Plan and, by the end of 1963, had completed a total of 31,317 units. It is expected that some 12,000 units will be completed by the end of 1964. More than 20 % of Singapore's population are now housed in flats belonging to the Housing and Development Board.

With the building programme well in its stride, the Housing and Develop-ment Board has been able to turn its attention to the problems of urban renewal and slum clearance. Two precints, one in the north of Singapore covering approximately 82 acres and another in the south covering approxi-mately 160 acres, are to be redeveloped under the Second Development Plan (1965-70). This Plan provides for the construction of some 66,000 units at an estimated cost of $333 million. The policy of the Government is to provide housing of sound construction and good design for the lower income groups at rents they can afford. All the Board's housing estates are provided with essential services, namely piped water supply, electricity, gas and modern sanitation. Sites are reserved within the Board's larger estates for schools, health clinics, police stations, markets, community centres and other amenities which will be constructed by the authorities concerned.

Rents for the Board's housing units are fixed by Government at $20.00, $40.00 and $60.00 per month for the one, two and three-room flats, respec-tively. These rents have been fixed well below the economic rents based on actual construction and management costs in order that public housing may be brought within the reach of the lower income groups whose needs are not catered for by private developers. An annual subsidy is paid by Government to the Housing and Development Board to meet deficits arising from the policy of charging uneconomic rents.

g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s t a t e s 143

whilst at Bedok the reclamation will cover some 1,200 acres. These two reclamation schemes are scheduled for completion by the end of 1969. In addition, the Housing and Development Board is also responsible for public development in Singapore. Some 5,000 squatter families have already been cleared by the Board to-date and under the Second Development Plan it is estimated that an additional 5,500 families will have to be cleared from sites earmarked for public development.

In February, 1964, Singapore's Minister for National Development announced a Home Ownership Scheme under which units constructed by the Housing and Development Board are sold on easy terms to eligible Singapore citizens. Selling prices are fixed well below the current market values—$4,900 for a two-room flat and $6,200 for a three-room flat. Already 815 units have been sold in Queenstown and more units will soon be made available.

T H E F I R E S E R V I C E S

Under the Constitution, the fire authorities are State Governments except for the Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur. These authorities provide fire cover for the entire country. The duties of these fire authorities include the maintaining of efficient fire brigades, securing effective training of their men, providing effective arrangements for receiving and dealing with fire calls, obtaining information required for fire fighting purposes and taking reasonable steps to prevent or mitigate damage to property in connection with fire fighting operations. The prevention and fighting of fire are organised on a state basis and prevention measures, such as fire breaks in lines of buildings, type of construction used in buildings and other kindred matters are taken by the Local Authorities in exercise of powers vested in them under the Municipal and Town Council Legislation. Likewise, control of places of entertainment and other premises is effected by licensing, the conditions under which the licence is issued being framed with the fire risk attached to the particular building in mind. The Fire Services are a matter for the State Governments and Municipal Authorities and the Fedeial Government has no direct voice or control in their affairs.

The Singapore Fire Brigade functions under the Chief Fire Officer, and in addition to providing fire fighting and prevention services, operates an accident ambulance service. The Brigade has a strength of approximately 600 and operates 30 fire-engines and 11 ambulances from five stations. The Dangerous Trades Section of the Brigade licenses premises used for dangerous trades. These premises are subject to regular inspection. The Fire Prevention Section is responsible for the scrutiny of all building plans. Other duties of this Department are to give advice on fire prevention measures to industry, members of the public and other bodies. Brigade Officers also carry out numerous inspections in connection with fire prevention on


behalf of other Government Departments. Places of entertainments are also subject to inspection by the Brigade before Certificates of Fitness are issued. The Brigade, under the auspices of the Colombo Plan, has for several years undertaken the training of fire officers from other countries, including Thailand, Pakistan, Sarawak and Sabah. The Singapore Fire Brigade is under the portfolio of the Ministry of Social Affairs, and the Chief Fire Officer through the Permanent Secretary is responsible to the Minister for Social Affairs for the efficiency of the Brigade.

The Inspectorate of Fire Services The Federal Government does however have in its establishment a Chief Inspector of Fire Services whose functions are advisory. In the first place, he advises the Federal Government in the matter of fixe prevention at its buildings and installations. Secondly, he is in a position to advise the Local Fire Authorities as to plant, equipment and technique; and lastly he runs the Central Fire Training School at Kuala Lumpur, where firemen from all parts of the federation may receive comprehensive training. This Training School is open not only to firemen employed by the Government or Local Authorities but also to those employed by industrial concerns. In short, the Federal Government's sole concern is to provide expert advice and to provide training facilities both to fire authorities and industrial concerns.

In the case of Sabah, the Commissioner of Police is charged with the prevention and fighting of fires under the Fire Prevention Ordinance. The Police assess and order the fire-fighting equipment required in each Local Authority. The possibility of transferring the responsibility for fire-fighting from the Police to Local Authorities is being considered.

Central Fire Training School The School was founded in 1958 to provide for the Government a centre where the technical and practical tuition of modern fire fighting, fire engineer-ing, fire prevention and precaution can be undertaken. The objective was to provide for the Government a Residential Central Fire Training School where officers and men of the Fire Services together with Government and Industrial employees could acquire first class instruction, knowledge and training in fire engineering and technology together with hazardous indus-tries. These facilities are of particular importance in view of the rapid industrialisation and the concomitant fire risk which must inevitably arise from it.

G O V E R N M E N T IN tHE STATES 145

varying land-use potential is yet to be developed. A major portion of the people live in small rural settlements with less than 2,000 inhabitants. In the States of Malaya, the 1957 census revealed that there are 36 towns with a population of more than 10,000 persons and of these 29 are on the western coastal plain. The three largest are Kuala Lumpur (316,000), Georgetown (235,000) and Ipoh (126,000). In the State of Sarawak, on the other hand, there are only two big towns (Kuching and Sibu) with a population of more than 30,000 each. Jesselton and Sandakan, the main town of Sabah, have populations of 22,000 and 30,000 respectively.

Origins Early attempts at town planning in Malaysia were largely undertaken by surveyors and administrators. It was not until 1921 that a small advisory professional department was established in the former Federated Malay States. After the Second World War, the Department was re-formed, and in 1955 and 1956 regional offices on a federal basis were created in Johore Baharu, Ipoh and Penang.

In Sarawak, it was not until 1960 that a small advisory town and country planning section was formed in the Land and Survey Department. The section was primarily concerned with rural development and later with helping to frame divisional plans for the 1964-1968 Sarawak Development Plan. The activities of the section have since been considerably widened and, with the recruitment of additional professional personnel, proper planning of the major towns has commenced.

Government Organisations for Town and Country Planning In the States of Malaya, the Department of Town and Country Planning was established in 1959 as a Federal-cum-State body within the portfolio of the Ministry of the Interior. Since May 1964, however, the Department has been transferred to the portfolio of the new Ministry of Local Govern-ment and Housing. The Department consists of the headquarters in Kuala Lumpur, with State departments for Johore (Johore Baharu), Perak (Ipoh), Selangor (Kuala Lumpur), Penang and Kedah/Perlis (Georgetown), Pahang (Kuantan), Negeri Sembilan/Malacca (Seremban) and Kelantan/Trengganu (Kota Baharu). A department is likely to be set up at Alor Star to cover Kedah and Perlis in 1964.

In addition to this advisory service to the Federal and State governments and local authorities, the Municipalities of Kuala Lumpur, Georgetown, Ipoh and Malacca also maintain small professional departments to deal with municipal town planning, working in close liaison with the Federal and State planning organisations.


In the State of Singapore, the Minister of National Development is responsible for town and country planning. The Planning Department, established in February 1960, is to administer the Planning Ordinance. Prior to this date, the town and country planning functions were carried out by the Singapore Improvement Trust under the Improvement Ordinance.

The Chief Planner, who is Head of the Department, is responsible for the administration of the Planning Ordinance, and is required to act in consultation with two committees appointed by the Minister, namely, the Master Plan Committee and the Development Control Committee.

The Master Plan was approved by Government in August 1958 after a public inquiry. The plan covers a twenty-year period up to 1972, and there is provision for its review every five years. Such a review is, at present, being made to take into account the very rapid increase in population which will result in additional land being required for housing, industry, schools and other community services. The plan may also be altered or amended at any time it is considered necessary, and every such proposed alteration or amendment must be advertised and a public inquiry or hearing held to consider objections or representations that may be made before the alteration or amendment is approved by the Minister.

The Master Plan Committee consists of seven officials, viz.: Chief Planner, Planning Department (Chairman); General-Manager, Public Utilities Board; Director of Public Works; Commissioner of Lands; Director of Primary Production; Chief Executive Officer, Housing and Development Board; Chief Surveyor and Planner, Economic Development Board.

This Committee meets monthly to consider proposals for the revision, additions or alterations to the Master Plan. The Committee also examines proposed sites of development projects of Government departments and Statutory bodies to ensure that there is co-ordination in the planned develop-ment of the State.

The Development Control Committee consists of five officials and one representative from each of the engineering and architectural professions, viz.:

Chief Planner, Planning Department (Chairman); Representative of the Singapore Institute of Architects ; Representative of the Malayan Society of Engineers; Director of Public Works; Secretary, Urban and Rural Services Committee; Chief Building Surveyor; Assistant Director of Medical Services.


This Committee meets fortnightly to deal with development applications from private developers. Any person who is aggrieved by the decision of the Competent Authority may appeal to the Minister.

In Sabah, town and country planning is within the portfolio of the Ministry of Local Government. The Central Town and Country Planning Board, constituted under the Town and Country Planning Ordinance, 1950, consists of five ex-officio members. A senior Government official is Chairman of the Board and a senior officer of the Lands and Survey Department acts as technical adviser and executive officer in his capacity as town planner. Local Authorities are responsible under the Ordinance for initiating and enforcing town plans.

Ten areas including the principal towns in the country have been planned and their development is controlled under the Town and Country Planning Ordinance. The smaller towns and townships not scheduled under the Ordinance are planned administratively, the approving authority being the Resident of the Residency in which the town or township is situated. The list of administrative towns is reviewed annually and when, in the opinion of the Central Board, the rate of development in any area is such that administrative control is considered inadequate, the Board may recom-mend that the area be scheduled under the Town and Country Planning Ordinance.

Functions and Powers The function of the advisory town and country planning department is to assist the Federal and State governments and local authorities in pre-paring overall schemes and detailed layouts for land-use, and in reporting upon proposals made by private developers. Members of the public seeking advice on land development may do so from the local authority or from the planning department at the request of the authority.

Statutory powers enable local authorities to prepare town plans for specified areas, providing for communications (streets, railways and air-port), use and density zoning, reserves for government purposes, parks, recreation grounds and other open spaces, building fines and street improvement lines.

Planning powers may be extended by law to land outside local authority limits, but until recent years this legislation has been utilized mainly to control frontages of main roads between towns. In some sectors (notably Kuala Lumpur and Klang districts) this control has lately been extended to rural areas, thus bringing the "country" under direction of land-use planning where expedient and appropriate.

In the sphere of rural development the Federal Land Development Authority opens up twelve development schemes a year each of 4,000 to 5,000


acres. The Department of Town and Country Planning assists in the selection of areas and carries out the detailed village design.

National Land-Use Planning The Government recognises the importance of sound land-use planning for the rural as well as the urban areas of the country. Consideration is being given to the co-ordinative role to be played by the Department of Town and Country Planning in the preparation of a national land utilization plan, which should prove to be of great assistance to the National Develop-ment Planning Committee. To this end, a Land Capability Classification Committee was set up, in 1963, in close liaison with the Department.

In Sabah, a long-range zone plan for Jesselton, the State Capital, has been approved by the Yang di-Pertua Negara. This plan provides for the control of private sub-divisions and building densities within the thirteen land-use zones covering about 20 square miles. Preparation of similar plans for Sandakan, Tawau and Labuan is in hand.

In Sarawak, the special position of Kuching, the State Capital, has been recognised and one planning officer is now engaged on the production of a development plan. Reports on shopping and car parking facilities, and on industrial development in the Pending peninsula, have been prepared.

Federal Capital and the Klang Valley In 1955 an adviser appointed under the United Nations Technical Assistance Administration programme visited Kuala Lumpur and reported upon plans for the development of Kuala Lumpur. Arising from his report further help was accepted from the United Nations and a planning adviser (Mr V. Antolic) completed a 2 1/2-year study of the Klang Valley and the Federal Capital, in June 1961. The official report from the United Nations has not yet been received, but a summary has been made of the draft report completed by the adviser, and this summary is still under consideration by the Government. The Kuala Lumpur and Klang Valley Regional Com-mittee has been set up to co-ordinate development and implement, wherever practicable, the United Nations adviser's proposals. Many of the proposals in the draft plans have already been accepted in principle. Buildings of national importance, such as the National Mosque and Parliament House (completed in 1963), have been sited in accordance with the plans for the future development of Kuala Lumpur as a worthy federal capital of Malaysia.

In 1963, two town planning advisers were assigned to the Department under the Colombo Plan Technical Co-operation Programme. One adviser

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out demographic and employment studies on a National and State basis as groundwork for the preparation of State Development Plans.

New Town Development Petaling Jaya, a satellite suburb to the South-west of Kuala Lumpur, being developed by a government corporation, is nearing completion. Excellent facilities are available for industry, with fully developed and serviced sites, offered on attractive terms. Industrialists have already taken advantage of these conditions, and many substantial factories have been built during the past few years. There are residential areas to accommodate some 60,000 people together with their ancillary needs.

The development of the University of Malaya has been begun in the Pantai Valley, a natural bowl between Petaling Jaya and Kuala Lumpur, in a beautiful setting of wooded hills with an artificial lake around which the main faculty buildings are grouped. Apart from the revised siting of the Great Hall and Administration Building, the buildings which have been completed are substantially as originally conceived, but with the pressure for increased facilities for University education, the future of the present site at Pantai Valley is currently under investigation, together with the possibility of new colleges in other parts of the country.

The Federal Capital Under the provisions of the Federal Capital Act of 1960 which came into force on 1st April, 1961, the Federal Capital is administered by a Commis-sioner appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Commissioner is answerable to the Minister of Local Government and Housing, who has powers to issue general instructions.

The Commissioner is assisted by an Advisory Board consisting of six officials, viz: Secretary to the Ministry of Local Government and Housing, Secretary to the Treasury, Permanent Secretary to the Minister of Education, Principal Establishment Officer, Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Health, Secretary to the Ministry of Works, Posts and Telecoms, and five unofficial members appointed by His Majesty. The function of the Advisory Board is to advise the Commissioner on matters of principle and policy.

The Commissioner and the Members of the Advisory Board of the Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur normally meet once monthly. Statutorily the Board shall hold at least six ordinary meetings each year.

Matters of detailed administration are dealt with by the Commissioner personally in consultation with Heads of Departments. The style of the Heads of Departments are:

Municipal Secretary, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur. Municipal Treasurer, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur.


Municipal Engineer, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur. Municipal Health Officer, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur. Municipal Architect, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur. Municipal Valuer, Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur.

Certain Sub-Committees are also appointed to deal with establishment matters, assessment objections and hearing of objections for public street works.

As a result of a complete revaluation of property within the Municipal Area of Kuala Lumpur, the total annual value now stands at $64,526,654.

The Commissioner is also responsible to the Minister of Local Government and Housing for Low Cost Housing Schemes within the Municipal Area of Kuala Lumpur. The Low Cost Housing Schemes completed are at Ulu Klang, Dato Keramat, Ayer Panas, Loke Yew Road, Suleiman Court, Sungei Besi Road, and Kampong Pandan. New projects are still in the course of construction. These comprise 396 additional units at Kampong Pandan (for Malays) and 240 additional units at Jalan Loke Yew (for all nationalities). Plans are under preparation for 2,800 units of low cost flats at Jalan Pekeliling at an estimated cost of $18 million.

A Swimming Pool at Jalan Weld, a Maternity and Child Health Clinic and a Fire Sub-Station at the junction of Jalan Maxwell and Jalan Ipoh have been completed. Construction of a wholesale market at this site is in progress.

The Commissioner has also set up a Public Relations Section under the Municipal Secretary's Department to act as a liaison between the administration on the one hand and the press and public on the other.

The New Sewerage Scheme which cost $15 million was further extended by a new scheme for the Jalan Birch Area costing slightly more than $1 million.

It is to be noted that the Commissioner is not obliged to accept the advice of the Board although he is under a mandatory obligation to record his reasons if he rejects the advice tendered. In all other respects, however, the Federal Capital is run on lines identical with other local authorities, and the former Municipal Staff have remained in the service of the Commis-sioner with the same rights and privileges they had hitherto enjoyed under the Municipality.

CHAPTER V

FOREIGN RELATIONS Establishment WITH INDEPENDENCE on August 31, 1957, as a sovereign and independent State, the Federation of Malaya began to conduct its own external affairs and hence the Ministry of External Affairs was established. In preparation for the role that the Federation of Malaya would have to assume in inter-national relations, a number of officers were already trained abroad in diplomatic practice prior to Independence, and they became the nucleus of the newly established External Affairs Service. Also, prior to independence, Malaya had set up Commissions initially in London and subsequently in New Delhi, Karachi and Canberra to look after trade, information and student matters. In September, 1957, the Federation was elected unanimously as a member of the United Nations Organisation and a Permanent Mission to the United Nations was set up in New York. On 16th September, 1963, Malaysia was born with the inclusion of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

D I P L O M A T I C M I S S I O N S A B R O A D Commonwealth countries exchange not Ambassadors but High Commis-sioners. Their functions however are exactly the same as those of Ambas-sadors heading missions in non-Commonwealth countries. This stresses the especial relationship which exists as between members of the Commonwealth "family" a relationship based on convention which is rather less formal than in other types of representation.

Malaysia is not yet in a position to establish necessary missions in all countries with which she is in friendly relation. Today, all in, 15 Embassies and High Commissions and two Consulates have been established. Additionally, there is an Assistant High Commissioner at Madras. 28 Commonwealth and foreign countries are represented in Malaysia, out of which eight are represented by way of the concurrent accreditation of Heads of Missions resident abroad.

T H E M I N I S T R Y O F E X T E R N A L A F F A I R S Except for a period in 1959 and 1960, the Prime Minister has been at the same time the Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry is responsible for the conduct of the external affairs of Malaysia and its duties include the concluding and implementation of treaties, agreements and conventions with other countries and liaison with international organisations. The


control and welfare of Muslim pilgrims in Saudi Arabia is conducted by this Ministry. Overseas students' welfare, a subject which falls within the portfolio of the Ministry of Education, is also a responsibility of the Malay-sian diplomatic and consular missions abroad where the Malaysian Students' Department have not been established. Though Immigration is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Home Affairs, yet the relevant immigration duties like dealing with the applications for entry to Malaysia, whether for permanent residence, employment or visits and the issue of passports are attended to by the Malaysian missions overseas.

Immigration Visas for entry to Malaysia of aliens (which expression does not include Commonwealth Citizens) arriving from a place outside Malaysia are required except the nationals of the following countries: Netherlands, Belgium, West Germany, Iceland, Italy, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Norway, San Marino, Sweden, Switzerland, Finland, France and the United States of America, entering for a period of up to three months for the purpose of visits. In the spirit of closer relationship and goodwill among the countries of the Association of Southeast Asia, namely Federation of Malaya, Thailand and the Philippines, an agreement was entered into by which nationals of the ASA countries are exempted from payment of visa fees while Government officials including diplomats are not required to apply for visas when entering each other's country.

External Affairs Service Entrance into Branch "A" of the External Affairs Service prerequires an honours degree at a recognised University, and the other qualifications are almost exactly the same as those required to enter the Malayan Civil Service. These officers are "diplomats" proper, and fill the majority of diplomatic posts abroad; some of the highest posts are however filled by non-career persons who have achieved distinction in one field or another of public life. Branches "B" and "C" of the service approximate to Divisions II and III of the public services and Branch "D" is made up of personnel recruited locally by the Missions abroad. All officers in the Service are subject to the jurisdiction of the Public Services Commission.

Welfare of Malaysian Citizens Abroad The welfare, rights and liberties and the general interests of citizens of Malaysia in a foreign country are protected by the Malaysian mission in

f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s 153

for the United Kingdom diplomatic or consular representative to act on behalf of the Government of Malaysia. This arrangement extends naturally only to states which have been recognised by the Government of Malaysia.

Pilgrimage Control The Pilgrimage Control Officer is responsible for the organisation and the administration of pilgrimage affairs in respect of pilgrims from the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei and British North Borneo. In the widest sense, the responsibility includes all matters relating to pilgrimage, ranging from the issue of Pilgrim Passes and the booking of ships to transport the pilgrims, to the disposal of the personal effects of any pilgrims who may die in the Hediaz. The Malaysian Embassy in Jeddah also facilitates the work of pilgrimage, and assists the pilgrim in any difficulty or problem he may encounter.

Ui -O

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CHAPTER VI

JUSTICE, LAW AND ORDER T H E L A W

THE GENERAL index to the statute law of the Federation will astonish the reader by the variety of its subject-matter, for he will find in it laws dealing with such diverse topics as aerodromes and aborigines; banking and buffaloes; companies and coconuts; finance and fisheries; statistics and squirrels; telecommunications and turtles; workmen's compensation and water hyacinths. A stranger to Malaysia would see in the pattern of legislation a picturesque cross-section of the country's life and the interests and pursuits of its inhabitants, and he would form a mental picture of vigorous commercial, financial, social and cultural activity and industrial and technical development existing side by side with the age-old agricultural pursuits and village occupations of simple rural communities.

A distinguished writer on English law, the late Dr W. Blake Odgers, K.C., described the relationship between the law, the State, and the community in the following words:

"A State may be roughly defined as a political community which governs itself. It governs itself by means of laws. It is essential to the welfare of the community that in every State there should exist an authoritative body of law, readily accessible, easily intelligible, and strictly and impartially enforced. This body of law should comprise all rules, whether customary or written, which have been laid down for the guidance of the community and to which its members, if they would avoid penal consequences or civil liability, must necessarily conform."

The Constitutional Law The "supreme law" of the Federation is the Federal Constitution itself. We have already at page 61 discussed its origins, and an alphabetical analysis will be found in Appendix I. For the purposes of this section of the Year Book, however, it is necessary to emphasise only three of its aspects: it is a written constitution (i.e., it is set out in codified legal form, and is subject to ordinary legal interpretation as to its meaning); secondly, it is what is called a rigid constitution, which means that any alteration to it must be done by means of a special procedure—ordinarily, by a parliamentary amendment approved by not less than two-thirds of the total membership of each House of Parliament; and thirdly, any law passed by Parliament which is repugnant to its provisions is void. But the Constitution does not seek to legislate for


all matters in a constantly changing society: it merely lays down the funda-mental principles on which sovereignty is exercised or delegated. In short, the Constitution keeps repeating "this you must do", or "this you must not do", or "that you may do if you consider it expedient in the public interest". In effect, it establishes a system of checks and balances which regulate the relationship between (and the powers of) the executive and the legislature respectively.

Criminal and Civil Law Either for historical reasons or as a matter of convenience, the law has been made the subject of many divisions and classifications, but the first great division is between criminal law and civil law. The criminal law declares which acts of individuals constitute crimes, and prescribes the penalty to which persons are liable if they are proved to have committed them. A crime is a wrong against the community. The act itself, such as murder or robbery, may affect primarily one member of the community, but it is of such a nature that the public must be protected against the consequences of its commission and so it is treated as a public wrong and punished accordingly. The civil law declares and protects the rights of the individual in relation to his fellow men and compensates persons who have suffered injury or damage by reason of some breach of duty or contractual obligation by another party.

Regulatory Law A very large part of the statute law of the Federation, as of all modern States, is concerned with the control and regulation of the activities of the community by registration and licensing. Thus, persons carrying on particular professions or trades may only do so when registered or licensed, under conditions designed for the protection of the community from danger, fraud or damage. Even certain species of monkey, trained to climb coconut trees and throw down the nuts, have for obvious reasons had to be subjected to the discipline of being registered.

Statute Law The laws of the Federation consist almost entirely of written laws; that is to say, they have been codified in the form of statutes called acts, ordinances or enactments, and of rules, regulations or by-laws made under the authority of the statutes. Codification suggests ease of reference, but this unfortunately is not yet the case here. For historical and constitutional reasons, and

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attendant body of subsidiary legislation (rules, regulations or by-laws). In the result, through no fault of its own or of any individual, the Federation is burdened with one of the most complex systems of statute law in the world. This position has been created by the fact that there are still in force today many of the pre-war Ordinances of the Straits Settlements, the Enactments of the individual States comprised in the four former Federated States, the Enactments of the five former Unfederated States, the Procla-mations of the British Military Administration, the Ordinances of the Malayan Union, the Ordinances of the Federation of Malaya, and the Enactments of the nine Malay States and the two Settlements of the Federation before Independence, in addition to current legislation consisting of the Enactments of the eleven States since Independence, and the Acts of the present Parliament. The requirement postulated by Dr Blake Odgers in the passage quoted above—of a body of law which is "readily accessible"— is lacking in the Federation, but the deficiency is steadily being made good by the parliamentary drafting staff.

Delegated Legislative Powers We have now seen that the Constitution only provides a framework within which Parliament and the Executive may or must perform their functions. It leaves it to Parliament to fill in the necessary details to regulate the daily life of the nation. By the same token, Parliament does not ordinarily attempt to regulate the smaller details, but delegates its authority, within prescribed limits, to the Executive. This regulation is done by way of subsidiary legislation, made generally by a Minister or (where appropriate) by a State Government or a statutory body such as a municipal corporation. These ministerial orders must however be kept within the limits prescribed by the legislature and, if they exceed these limits, they are ultra vires and thus void.

There are a number of checks to prevent or minimise an Order going beyond its authorised limits. The first of these is parliamentary scrutiny. It is always open to a member of the appropriate legislature to query the propriety or validity of a rule, regulation or order at any time: the legislature thus remains the final authority and guardian of the people's interest. In some cases, a ministerial order cannot take effect unless it has been tabled in the legislature and approved by affirmative resolution. In others, the order must be tabled; whereupon it is open to the legislature to discard it by negative resolution within a specified period either before or after it has come into force. Lastly, there is the judicial safeguard—if the Courts are satisfied that a ministerial order has exceeded the bounds approved by the legislature, it is open to them to make a declaration to that effect whereupon the Order ceases to be applicable.


Sources The existing written laws are derived from a number of sources. For the purposes of mercantile law, dealing with matters such as companies, bankruptcy, merchant shipping and most of the other complex functions of commerce in a modern state, and in matters of personal status, such as adoption and divorce, the Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom have generally been taken as the model for local legislation*. The Penal Code, the law of evidence, and, to a large extent, the Criminal Procedure Code have been adopted from India, The Civil Procedure Code, based on the Indian Code of Civil Procedure, was superseded in 1958 by Rules of the Supreme Court which follow very closely the Rules of the Supreme Court in England. The law of contract is taken from the Indian Contract Act, although in the States of Penang and Malacca the English law of contract is followed at present. The Specific Relief Ordinance, which amongst other provisions empowers the High Court in certain circumstances to order public officers to do or abstain from doing specific acts, is of Indian orgin. The law governing the compulsory acquisition of land for public purposes is largely borrowed from India, but the ownership, tenure and transfer of land is governed, except in Penang and Malacca, by land codes based on the Torrensf system of registration of title which is taken from Australia.

A great deal of the local legislation is, however, indigenous in the sense that it has had to be devised locally to deal with purely local conditions. In Negeri Sembilan and Malacca, for example, the customary land law of the Malays has been accorded legislative recognition, and every State has passed State Enactments dealing with matters of Muslim law and religion, the collection of religious dues and the punishment of Muslims who offend against the laws of Islam. Some of the titles already quoted from the general index indicate the variety of local topics for which special legislative provision has had to be made; in addition, such essentially Malayan activities as padi planting and the rubber planting and tin mining industries have necessarily been the subject of much legislation.

Precedent It has been stated already that most of the law in force in the Federation is written law; but a comprehensive survey of the laws must include reference to other laws which are applied in the absence of any appropriate local written law. The Criminal Procedure Code of the former Federated Malay States provides that as regards matters of criminal procedure for which no

JUSTICE, L A W A N D ORDER 165

special provision is made by the Code or by any other law, the law relating to criminal procedure for the time being in force in "the Colony" shall be applied so far as the same shall not conflict or be inconsistent with the Code and can be made auxiliary thereto. "The Colony" in this context means the former Straits Settlements and the reference is to the Criminal Procedure Code of the Straits Settlements which applies in Singapore and, subject to amendments which have been made since 1946, in Penang and Malacca. That Code contains a provision similar to section 5 of the F.M.S. Criminal Procedure Code, applying the law relating to criminal procedure in England where no special provision is made in the local Code and where there is no conflict or inconsistency and English criminal procedure can be made auxiliary to the provisions of the local Code: so that English criminal procedure applies in the Federation in matters as to which the local law is silent, provided that there is no conflict or inconsistency between it and the local law.

The Civil Law Ordinance, 1956, provides that save in so far as other provision has been made or may be made by the written law of the Federa-tion, the Court shall apply the common law of England and the rules of equity in force in England, so far as local circumstances permit and subject to such local qualifications as local circumstances may render necessary.

The Common Law and Equity The reference to the common law and the rules of equity requires some explanation. Common law means the customs prevailing generally through-out the realm of England which have been the subject of recognition, approval and enforcement by the Courts but which have not been enacted in the form of statute law. Equity, the primary and literal meaning of which is "fairness", is a system which evolved as an adjunct to the common law, mitigating some of its rigours and enforcing rights and affording remedies to persons who had no enforceable right or no available remedy at common law. It was administered by the Lord Chancellor, as Keeper of the King's conscience*, and there grew up two parallel jurisdictions, the common law jurisdiction of the King's Bench and the equity jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, until the passing of the Judicature Act, 1873, which established a Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court and the Court of Appeal and directed that the Supreme Court should administer both law and equity.

The Rules of the Supreme Court, 1957, which came into force on 1st April, 1958, provide in Order 72, rule 2, that where no provision is made by any written law or those Rules, "the present procedure and practice in England or in Malaya remain in force".

* Generally speaking, however, personal law excludes the Malays, whose religion is Islam ; and the law of Islam is applied. The Federal Parliament has no power to regulate Muslim religious observance or procedure.


The Court of Justice Act, 1964, which partly repeals the Courts Ordinance, 1948, confers upon the High Court in the Federation jurisdiction equivalent to that exercised by the Chancery and Queen's Bench Divisions of the High Court of Justice in England, and, subject to certain necessary technical limitations, the jurisdiction of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.

It follows that, while every possible effort of human ingenuity has been directed to covering every conceivable topic by appropriate legislation, in the last resort the Courts are entitled to apply the common law of England and the rules of equity and of criminal and civil procedure in force in England, but adapted as necessary to suit local circumstances. This, together with the fact that so much of our local legislation has been borrowed from England, has two advantages, one general and one special. The general advantage is that the common law principles of justice which have grown out of centuries of experience in their native soil in England, have been freely adopted and retained by an independent member of the Commonwealth; Malaya therefore shares with nearly all the countries of the Commonwealth (and indeed the United States of America) that system of law under which nearly one billion free people live and work. The special advantage is that an enormous wealth of judicial experience and authority on the interpretation of the Common law is in consequence available to the courts in this country so that, in seeking the solution to a legal question, they are not pioneering unexplored territory but following a well-trodden way which is clearly signposted with the reported opinions of some of the world's most distinguished legal intellects.

T H E L E G A L P R O F E S S I O N Lawyers in the Federation are termed "Advocates and Solicitors of the Supreme Court" and have exclusive right of audience in the courts, although this does not preclude a party to a suit from conducting his own case personally if he wishes. They also have the sole right to draw up certain types of legal instrument on behalf of members of the public. Entry into the profession is strictly controlled in terms of quality, and only those who have the requisite qualifications may be admitted. Generally speaking, the minimum qualification in the past has been a right to practise in Britain (viz. after call to the Bar, admission as a Solicitor or the possession of a practising certificate under the Colonial Solicitors Act of 1900 or the Solicitors Act of 1932 of the United Kingdom). With the first graduation from the University of Malaya in Singapore in 1961, the degree of Bachelor of Laws of the University was accepted as a recognised qualification. Before any candidate can be admitted to practice, however, he is required to serve

JUSTICE, LAW AND ORDER 167

All these requirements are specified in the Advocates and Solicitors Ordinance of 1947, which is a statute designed to protect the public and the legal practitioners alike: the former, by assuring a high standard of pro-fessional ability on the part of the latter; and the latter by prohibiting persons who are insufficiently qualified from practising the law in any shape or form. The legal profession in Malaysia is what is termed a fused profession in that there is no distinction between the functions of a Barrister-at-Law and a Solicitor—both undertake the same functions of general practice, although quite a number of them specialise in different branches of law.

The Bar Council is what might be termed the professional association of the legal profession but it also enjoys certain rights by law, the principal of which is the examination of candidates for admission to the Bar after they qualify as lawyers. The membership of the Council comprises representatives of the various State or Regional Bar Committees who exercise disciplinary powers over their members in the event of misconduct. The Committees however have no power to disqualify a lawyer from practising: this can be done only by order of the Supreme Court after considering the report of the appropriate Committee.

L E G A L A I D There is no free legal aid in the Federation except in criminal prosecutions when the offence is punishable by death. If a person accused of such an offence is unable to afford the cost of briefing an Advocate and Solicitor, the Court will assign a member of the profession to conduct the defence, and a fixed sum is payable by the Crown in respect of that defence. In lesser criminal trials the accused receives no free legal aid as such, but the Criminal Procedure Code imposes on magistrates the duty of explaining to an accused person the points he will be expected to rebut in making his defence.

T H E J U D I C I A R Y A N D T H E C O U R T S

The Federal Court and the High Court The Constitution of Malaysia which is the supreme law of the country provides that the judicial power of the Federation shall be vested in three High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction and status, that is, the High Court in Malaya, the High Court in Borneo, and the High Court in Singapore, and in such Subordinate Courts as may be provided by Federal law. Above these three High Courts, there also exists a Federal Court with its principal registry in the capital, Kuala Lumpur, having exclusive jurisdiction to deter-mine appeals from decisions of any High Court. The Federal Court also has exclusive original jurisdiction to determine whether a law made by Parliament or by the legislature of a state is invalid or not; also jurisdiction


to determine disputes between States or between the Federation and any State. It has also a consultative or advisory jurisdiction on any question referred to it by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as to the effect of any pro-vision of the Constitution.

The High Courts exercise control over Subordinate Courts through appellate revisionary and general supervisory jurisdiction.

The Constitution also provides that each High Court shall consist of a Chief Justice and a number of other judges. Each Chief Justice is thus the Head of the Judiciary of his State and (apart from Religious Courts) all other courts come under his administrative control. The supreme head of the Judiciary is the Lord President of the Federal Court. His Court consists of himself together with the three Chief Justices of the High Courts and of two other Judges known as Federal Judges. Where the Lord President feels that the interests of justice so require, a Judge of a High Court other than its Chief Justice may sit in the Federal Court.

All capital cases are tried in the High Court in the exercise of its original Jurisdiction and every such trial is held by a jury. Trial by jury has been for many years a feature of administration of justice in the States of Malacca, Penang and Singapore where it was imported as part of the English Common Law. Trial by jury was adopted in the other States of Malaya since Indepen-dence. Prior to the introduction of trial by jury in the other States within Malaya the assessor system had been adopted early in the century. Under this system two assessors sitting with the Judge take the place of the jury. Trial in the High Court with the aid of assessors still exists in the High Courts of the Borneo States.

The chief executive of the Judicial Department of Malaysia is the Chief Registrar, Malaysia, who is under the direct supervision and control of the Lord President of the Federal Court. The executive of each of the High Court is known as the Registrar of the High Court who is responsible to his own Chief Justice. The Chief Registrar exercises overall control of the Registrars of the High Courts. In relation to matters of purely administrative nature, the Judicial Department comes within the portfolio of the Minister of Justice. The Religious Courts are established under the law of Islam and are governed by State, not Federal, arrangements.

The Subordinate Courts—States of Malaya Apart from Religious Courts, the Subordinate Courts consist of Sessions Courts and Magistrates' Courts situated in the principal centres of population and suitable centres in the rural areas. Sessions Courts have criminal juris-

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of a more restricted nature. A vast majority of cases are dealt with in the Sessions and Magistrates' Courts.

A Sessions Court is presided over by a President. He sits alone, without jury or assessors, and has jurisdiction to try any offence for which the maximum penalty is seven years' imprisonment (although in certain circum-stances, he may try any offence other than an offence punishable with death or imprisonment for life). He can hear civil cases involving sums up to two thousand dollars.

There are two classes of Magistrates, namely First Class and Second Class. The First Class Magistrates may be divided into two categories; the first is composed of certain persons who are appointed ex-officio, such as District Officers, and the second of persons appointed under the Courts Ordinance who will normally be responsible for a number of Courts within a certain area and are known as Circuit Magistrates. A First Class Magistrate has power to try all offences for which the maximum penalty does not exceed three years' imprisonment and certain other classified offences, but he may sentence the offender to one years' imprisonment or a fine up to two thousand dollars or both. His civil jurisdiction is limited to cases involving no more than one thousand dollars.

Most Second Class Magistrates are appointed by Office, the majority of them being Assistant District Officers. In practice, they hear few cases and confine their activities to dealing with persons arrested or on remand when a First Class Magistrate is not available.

Magistrates also hold an inquiry or inquest where a person appears to have died a violent or unnatural death, or a sudden death of which the cause is unknown, or where the death has taken place in certain other cir-cumstances. In Penang and Malacca, the coroner sits with a jury.

The President of a Sessions Court also hears cases brought before the Juvenile Court. He is assisted by two advisers one of whom is a woman. Their duty is to advise the Court affecting the punishment of any child or young person. All Juvenile Court cases are heard in camera.

In addition to the foregoing courts, there are also local courts called Pengulus' Courts, exercising a limited and local jurisdiction.

Singapore The Subordinate Courts consist of District Courts and Magistrates' Courts. The District Court is presided over by a District Judge who has jurisdiction to try cases where the amount in dispute does not exceed one thousand dollars. The District Judge has powers generally to impose sentences of imprisonment extending to three years and in certain special circumstances extending to seven years and to impose fines up to the sum of five thousand dollars.


Magistrates' Courts are presided over by Magistrates with powers generally to impose sentences of imprisonment extending to a year and to impose fines up to two thousand dollars. The Magistrates' Courts have no civil jurisdiction and all civil cases are heard by a District Judge in the Civil District Court. The Juvenile Court is housed separately from the other criminal courts and tries offenders below the age of sixteen and it may send them to approved schools, approved houses and places of safety but not to prison. All proceedings in the Juvenile Court are held in camera. A Magistrate Maintenance Court hears maintenance cases in which the parties are not of the Muslim faith. The Coroner in the Coroner's Court hears cases where reports have been made to him of deaths which appeared to have occurred in a violent, unnatural or unknown manner. In every case of death of any person detained in the prison or lock-up or of any person who suffers capital punishment the Coroner shall be required to hold an inquest together with a jury. In all other cases of death it is at the discretion of the Coroner whether to hold an inquest with a jury or any inquiry in open Court without a jury.

The Religious Court set up under the Muslims Ordinance and known as the Shariah Court hears cases where the parties are of the Muslim faith, one of the principal functions being to hear and determine applications for divorce.

Borneo States The Subordinate Courts in the Borneo States are the Courts of the Magistrates of the First Class, the Magistrates of the Second Class and the Magistrates of the Third Class.

Magistrates who have professional qualifications are appointed as Stipendiary Magistrates, with enhanced jurisdiction in certain criminal and civil matters. The other Magistrates are drawn from the administration. They are gazetted as Magistrates and most of them are either District Officers or Assistant District Officers and are, however, seldom called upon to exercise magisterial function.

In addition to these Courts, there are Native Courts which are quite distinct from Magistrates' Courts. The Native Court has jurisdiction to try cases arising from a breach of native law and custom in which all the parties are natives. Appeals from the Native Courts lie to the District Officer who also has the power of revision and from the District Officer to the Native Court of Appeal which is composed of a Judge of the High Court as President, the Resident of the Division and one Native Chief.


the Federal Court. Where an appeal from the decision of a Subordinate Court in a criminal matter has been heard and determined by the High Court, a further appeal to the Federal Court lies only by way of reference on a certificate from the Judge who heard the appeal or from the Public Prosecutor that the determination of such an appeal involves a point which it is desirable in the public interest to have determined by the Federal Court.

Appeals from the Federal Court lie to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Such appeals are then referred, by arrangement with the British Govern-ment to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council sitting in London, in accordance with the usual procedure regulating appeals to the highest judicial tribunal in the Commonwealth, and on receiving from Her Britannic Majesty's Government the report or recommendation of the Judicial Committee, His Majesty will make such order as is necessary to give effect to the report or recommendation. It should be noted that the advice of the Judicial Committee is tendered direct to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and is not of course subject to governmental scrutiny here or in London.

Appointments The Lord President, the Chief Justices of the High Courts and all other Judges of the Federal Court and of the High Courts are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister, after consulting the Conference of Rulers. A person is qualified for appointment as a Judge of the Federal Court and of the High Court if he is a Federal citizen and has been an advocate of any of the High or Federal Courts, or a member of the judicial or legal service of the Federation or of a State, for a period of not less than ten years. He will hold office until he attains the age of sixty-five years, unless he resigns or is removed from his office. In fact all the present Judges of the Federal and High Courts are persons who have qualified as lawyers in the United Kingdom although as time goes by it is likely that their offices will be filled by lawyers who are qualified locally.

Presidents of Sessions Courts and District Judges are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and all other Magistrates are appointed by the Rulers, Governors or Heads of States in which they officiate, in both cases, on the recommendation of the Chief Justice.

Prerogative of Mercy The power to remit, suspend or commute sentences for offences (other than offerees which have been tried by Court-Martial) is, under the Constitution, vested in the Ruler or Head/Governor of the State in which the offence was committed. This power must, however, be exercised on the advice of the State Pardons Board, which consists of the Attorney-General of Malaysia (or his representative), the Menteri Besar or Chief Minister of the State,


and up to three other members appointed by the Ruler or Head/Governor concerned.

Since the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the Federation, however, similar powers in relation to offences tried by Courts-Martial are exercised by him.

Muslim Religious Courts Whilst Islam is the official religion of the Federation, religious affairs are the responsibility of the State Governments. Various courts are established under the Law of Islam, and these enforce religious observance and regulate the domestic affairs of Muslims, in particular with reference to matrimonial cases. The Religious Courts are, however, quite distinct from the judicial system of the Federation and do not come within the administrative control of the Chief Justice of the State or States.

Independence of the Judiciary The Judiciary is independent of any control by the Executive. The inde-pendence of the Judges is secured by the fact that their salaries are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the Federation, and so are beyond the scope of debate upon the annual estimates. The power to interpret the Constitution is vested exclusively in the Federal Court and the Privy Council.

The conduct of a Judge of the Federal Court or of a High Court may not be discussed in either House of Parliament except on a substantive motion of which notice has been given by not less than one-quarter of the total number of members of that House. Their conduct cannot be discussed at all in any State Legislative Assembly.

TREATMENT OF ADULT OFFENDERS

Origins and Development In the States of Malaya, before the Second World War, each State or Settle-ment was directly responsible for the administration of the prisons within that State or Settlement. There were seven different and separate sets of prison legislation governing the administration of the prisons in the Federated and Unfederated Malay States and the Settlements. The then policy in all prisons was basically punitive; by making the life of prisoners hard and unpleasant, it was hoped that prison sentences would operate as a deterrent to crime.


in keeping with modern trends of penal administration, the deterrent theory of punishment was replaced by the reformative theory, and a complete re-organisation of the Prisons Department on new lines took place. Extensive changes in the treatment and training of prisoners were introduced and (to re-educate the staff for their new role and responsibilities) a Prisons Officers Training Depot was opened in 1952 at Taiping. The standard of qualifications for recruits for entry into the service was also raised.

In 1953 the pre-war legislation was replaced by a Federation Prisons Ordinance and Rules based upon the modern conception of the treatment and training of prisoners. The principles embodied in the new legislation are based on Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners prepared by the United Nations Organisation. The legislation also enabled uniform methods of treatment to be applied throughout the country. There-after, considerable advance was made in classification, educational and industrial training, the extension of trust and responsibility, and special training schemes for certain categories of prisoners including pre-release training and parole leave was introduced.

In the same year the Criminal Justice Bill was passed which, inter alia, provided for the abolition of corporal punishment with the cat-of-nine-tails and the abolition of the former categories of penal servitude, rigorous and simple imprisonment in sentences passed by the Courts. By this measure and the new legislation it is now the prison authorities and not the courts which determine the conditions under which a sentence of imprisonment is served. It thus became possible to apply the most suitable form of training to each individual prisoner in accordance with his history, record and capabilities.

The purpose of the treatment and training of prisoners, as declared in the Rules, can aptly be summarised in the statement "the purpose of treatment and training of convicted prisoners shall be to establish in them the will to lead a good and useful life on discharge and to fit them to do so".

The Singapore Prisons have a history dated back to more than a century ago, in fact right back to the pioneer days of Sir Stamford Raffles when a prison was built on a site near the present Coleman Street. The first proper Prison was however built in 1848 on Pearl's Hill and it still exists in 1963, being used as a Prison block for condemned prisoners inside Local Prison. The expansion of this nucleus to cover what is known as Local Prison at Pearl's Hill today, began on 30th January, 1879. In view of the growing need for additional accommodation for offenders, new Prisons were constructed one after another and from time to time, beginning with Changi Prison in 1936 and culminating in the Medium Security Prison in 1962/3.

In 1963, the Prisons Department, Singapore, was administered by the Director of Prisons whose Headquarters Office has been moved from Pearl's


Bank to Upper Pickering Street in the heart of Chinatown. The Department runs the following institutions:

(i) the maximum security Local Prison, Pearl's Hill, off Outram Road, which normally holds all prisoners of the Star and Ordinary Class whose sentences are under 12 months and also contains the Young Prisoners Wing, the Remand Prison and the Female Prison;

(ii) the maximum security Changi Prison situated at 11 1/2 m.s. Changi Road, which holds all prisoners whose sentences are more than 12 months and also contains the Corrective and Preventive Wings;

(iii) the Open Prison at Woodlands, in the barracks of the Royal Malaysian Navy, where selected long-term prisoners from Changi Prison go in their last few months of sentence;

(iv) the Medium Security Prison at Changi Camp, Moon Crescent, which is a semi-open establishment for adult first and trainable offenders;

(v) the Reformative Training Centre (open Borstal) at Ulu Bed ok for delinquents between the ages of 16 and 21 years;

(vi) (until August) the Opium Treatment Centre on St. John's Island, 5 miles off the Singapore Water-front; and

(vii) the Pulau Senang Settlement for Criminal Law Detainees, 12 miles south of Singapore. This Settlement unfortunately suffered a setback on 12th July, 1963 when a serious riot of the detainees took place, re-sulting in the murder of its Superintendent, Mr D. S. Dutton, and 3 Attendants and destruction of Government property. The Settle-ment however was not completely closed after the riot, as a main-tenance party of short-term prisoners has been stationed on that Settlement to look after the property and domestic animals on the Settlement.

The above establishments provide for 2,270 prisoners under normal conditions, for 200 inmates in the Opium Treatment Centre and for 400 Criminal Law Detainees at the Pulau Senang Settlement.

During 1963, the staff of the Prisons Department under the Director, consisted of a Deputy Director, 5 Superintendents, 1 Assistant Superinten-dent, an Industrial Manager, 9 Chief Rehabilitation Officers, 75 Principal Rehabilitation Officers and Rehabilitation Officers, 256 Warders of all grades and 64 Attendants, in addition to industrial instructors, clerks, commonusers and others. The female Prison Staff consisted of a Matron, an Assistant Matron and 14 Wardresses.

The earliest available record of Sarawak Prison can be found in the Sarawak


Very little changes have taken place in the prison administration in the past 80 years. The Prison System then, no doubt, was modelled, as it is now, from English Prisons.

The present prison building which is used as Headquarters and Central Prison was built in 1882 as a hospital. It was converted into prison in 1928. As the prison population increased, more prisons were built namely in Simanggang, Sibu, Miri and Limbang.

In Sabah, in the first instance, the prisons were small lock-ups attached to the various police stations, and were part of the Police Department. Later, two prisons were built at Jesselton and Sandakan and all prisoners serving sentences of over six months were sent to these prisons, and a separate Prison Service was formed, but the Police still maintained control.

In 1953 two new prisons were built at Jesselton and Sandakan with facilities for trade training. In 1956 a senior prison officer was recruited to take charge of the Jesselton prison, and in 1959 a new Prison's Ordinance and Regulations was brought into operation based on the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Offenders prepared by the United Nations Organisation. In the same year the term "rigorous and simple imprisonment" was abolished.


that prisoners are not sent to prison for punishment. They are committed to prison for correction and rehabilitation.

All prisoners are employed in productive and instructive occupations so that they can earn a decent living after discharge. They are paid with weekly earning according to their grades.

No prisoners have been punished with corporal punishment after World War II, though it is within the right of the prison officer to do so. Besides, there is no such thing as hard labour. Even the term "rigorous" as in-corporated in the warrant of commitment has been abolished.

The Prison Department in Sabah consists of two prisons and eight lock-ups, with no specialised institutions of any sort. Difficulties in communications and the small numbers of youthful offenders involved, in fact, would have rendered it economically unsound to establish such institutions. In spite of the absence of these institutions, it can be truthfully said that the prisons at Jesselton and Sandakan are quite adequate in fulfilling the "Guiding Princi-ples for Prisoners under Sentence" as laid down by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crimes and the Treatment of Offenders. This will also apply to the Tawau and Keningau prisons when they are completed in 1965.

The redesignation of the lock-ups to police lock-ups and the transfer of all prisoners with over one month's imprisonment to one of the four prisons commanded by a Prison Officer will complete the achievement of this objective.

Compulsory Attendance Centres In 1958 two Compulsory Attendance Centres were established—one at Kuala Lumpur Prison and the other at Penang Prison. The object of these centres is to avoid sending to prison first offenders and others who might be sentenced to imprisonment for periods up to three months. This represents a step taken to reduce recidivism among short sentence offenders and to preserve first offenders convicted of minor offences from the stigma of a prison sentence. Unfortunately statistics for the past years showed very poor figures oi attendance at the two centres and it was necessary to close down the Centre in Penang on 1st May, 1962.


At all times strict segregation is enforced in respect of the sexes, young offen-ders from adults, unconvicted from convicted, and civil from criminal prisoners.

Convicted prisoners serving sentences of imprisonment are divided into the following classes:

Young Prisoners Class—those not exceeding 20 years of age; Star Class—first offenders and other prisoners who have no vicious habits or tendencies; Ordinary Class—persons considered unsuitable for the Star Class, and persistent offenders.

All Star Class prisoners sentenced to a period of four years or more are transferred to Central Training Prison. Regional Training Prisons receive all other classes of prisoners irrespective of sentence but Star Class and Ordinary Class prisoners are strictly segregated as far as conditions allow. Local prisons receive all classes of prisoners but retain only those sentenced to less than six months imprisonment.

The Central Prison for Women receives all women prisoners convicted of offences under the Penal Code and sentenced to a term of over 12 months imprisonment.

The Special Prison at Seremban receives prisoners sentenced to terms exceeding 12 months in respect of serious offences against the Emergency and also those awaiting banishment.

Offenders in Singapore are classified as under:

(I) Convicted Prisoners: (i) Young Prisoners (ii) Star Class—first offenders and certain selected prisoners of

ordinary Class who are considered suitable for training (iii) Ordinary Class—recidivist prisoners (iv) Reformative Trainees (v) Corrective Trainees

(vi) Preventive Trainees (vii) Others, including illegal immigrants, debtors and persons in

civil process. (II) Unconvicted Prisoners:

(i) Remand Prisoners (ii) Banishees and Deportees

(iii) Political Detainees (iv) Criminal Law Detainees.

In Sarawak Prisoners are classified as: (a) Young Prisoners Class—Convicted prisoners under the age of 17 years (b) Star Class—First offenders and well-behaved prisoners who have no

vicious tendencies and habits


(c) Ordinary Class—Recidivists prisoners (d) Unconvicted Class—All debtors, persons on remand or awaiting trial,

vagrants, or persons detained for safe custody or for want of surety, who have not been convicted

(e) Detainees—Political prisoners detained under the Preservation of Public Security (Detention) Regulations, 1962.

In Sabah there are nine classifications which provide for the segregation of: (a) first offenders or persons whose previous history is such that it is

considered appropriate to be included (b) recidivists and others who may be first offenders but whose records

are unsuitable for (a) (c) young prisoners between the age of sixteen and twenty-one (d) prisoners on remand and awaiting trial (e) juvenile males below the age of sixteen (f) juvenile females below the age of sixteen (g) female prisoners (h) detainees (i) debtors.

Prison Population In Sarawak, 1,908 men and 94 women were committed in 1963. These figures also included detainees. The figures for 1962 were 947 men and 25 women, and for 1961, 631 men and 18 women, respectively.

In Singapore, a total of 4,507 persons were received into the various


There was an increase in the number of persons in custody in 1963 and the daily average prison population was 2,460 in 1963 as against 2,369 in 1962:

Local Changi M.S.P. R.T.C. O.T.C.

(1) Daily Average Male Adult Population 480 973 148 — 65

(2) Daily Average Female Popula-tion 21 — — — 3

(3) Daily Average Young Person Population 14 — — 200 —

(4) Daily Average Male Vagrant Population 130 — — — —

(5) Daily Average Female Vagrant Population 17 — — — —

(6) Highest Number of Prisoners held on Any One Day .. 851 1,174 228 221 105

on on on on on 18-7-63 25-10-63 12-12-63 30-8-63 18-2-63

The above figures do not include the Open Prison at Woodlands, the daily average population of which was 29 and the Pulau Senang Settlement which until 12th July, 1964, had a daily average population of 380.

In Sabah, there were 272 prisoners and 153 detainees in prison on 1st January, 1963, as compared with 242 prisoners and 162 detainees on 31st December, 1963.

The daily average locked-up population rose to 338.71 representing an increase of nine per cent. The increase can be attributed solely to the numbers of detainees admitted in consequence of Indonesian Confrontation.

The comparative daily average figures of prisoners and detainees for 1959 to 1963 are as follows:


Borstals In the States of Malaya, young offenders below the age of 21 years are sent according to sex either to the Henry Gurney School for Boys at Telok Mas and Malacca or the Henry Gurney School for Girls in Batu Gajah. The object of Borstal training is to prevent incipient criminals from swelling the criminal class. The system of training is based on progressive trust requiring increasing personal decision, responsibility and control. The House system is operated and responsibility for discipline and welfare activities is largely in the hands of the inmates. Industrial training of all kinds is in force and each inmate must attend educational classes for a minimum period of eight hours per week.

Remission Remission is awarded at the commencement of a sentence and forfeiture for misconduct is deducted in days. Prisoners with sentences in excess of one month are eligible for a period of remission equal to one-third of their sentences. All women prisoners sentenced to a period exceeding one month receives one-third of their sentence as remission.

Industrial Training and Cottage Crafts Prisoners in the States of Malaya were employed on domestic work and in a large variety of trades*. Each year (as additional machinery is installed) schemes of selection and training are extended. Prisoners who have reached a standard of proficiency are awarded Proficiency Certificates on passing a test. Civilian trade instructors are employed in workshops to supervise the training of prisoners and prisoners are paid daily wages according to their skill and industry.

Evening classes in Handicrafts and Hobbies are in operation in all large prisons. One-half of the profits from articles sold goes to the credit of the prisoner concerned and is handed to him on release.

In Singapore industrial training of prisoners was brought up to high pitch as never seen before and the standard of industrial output has received so much confidence and acceptance from Government Departments, commercial organisations and private individuals, that the prison industries could hardly cope with the continuous flows of orders and demands which


kept pouring in daily from all sources. In realising the dual purposes of prison industries (i) to provide a very vital rehabilitative process for prisoners, and (ii) to make a valuable contribution to the national output, all efforts had been made to expand and improve the sundry existing prison industries, to introduce new industries which would be quickly taken up by the prisoners and would stand them in good stead after their release and to open more workshops to cater for the increasing muster of working prisoners. Convicted prisoners who are bound by regulations to work, have had the following range of industries to choose from, so that they could be well equipped with a skilled trade after their release to enable them to be employed in one way or another:

Carpentry and woodwork

Tailoring

Cane and rattan work

Plastic cane work

Printing

Laundrying

Bookbinding

Farming

Animal husbandry

Building industry

Shoe-making

Mattress making

Cement and concrete work

Tinsmithing

Metal work

Spraying and servicing of cars and buses

Timber-seasoning, etc.

New industries to be introduced include fish-farming, weaving and chain-link fence industries.

In all, there were 20 workshops in the various Prisons. Four of these were for the laundrying industry which incidentally is the biggest in South-East Asia with the completion in 1963 of the 3/4 million-dollar new laundry in Changi Prison. The daily average working prisoners numbered about 1,200. The extension of piece rates which began in 1961, was further continued and it became possible for dexterous prisoners working on such skilled trades as furniture manufacture, French-polishing and bus-spraying to earn fairly considerable sums of money. To keep earnings to a proper proportion, it was decided to restrict the maximum sum of $15 per week. It was not uncommon for long-term prisoners to leave the Changi Prison on discharge with sums of over $1,000 in their possession, to help them to get on their two feet once out of the Prison; facilities were available for them to bank their earnings when in the prison.

The Industrial Manager's staff consisted of 2 Assistant Industrial Managers (which it was not yet possible to fill), 18 Industrial Instructors and several


clerks, drivers, etc. The amount of $190,205 spent on expansion of Prison Industries was only a portion of the total amount of $1,432,650 which had been approved for the purpose on a 4-Year Plan since 1961.

Unconvicted prisoners such as political detainees, remand prisoners and criminal law detainees were not required to work by law. However, so many of the Criminal Law Detainees have applied for permission to work and to learn a useful trade, that it was not possible to cope with their requests and more workshops had to be opened to help them rehabilitate through industrial means. Criminal Law Detainees who have been allowed to be attached to Prison Industries, were paid earnings on the same rate as con-victed prisoners.

The accomplishments of prison industries could not be assessed by productive turnover alone, or by the degree of expansion; these were mainly vehicles for the rehabilitation of prisoners. But positive benefits from the efforts of prison staff and inmates have become manifest in at least one feature of prison employment. The prisoner today, because of the incentives now available in prison industries, shows a keen desire to work and it is this response that marks the beginning of his road to rehabilitation.

In Sarawak, industrial training for prisoners in the Central Prison, Kuching, includes Carpentering (furniture, house and boatbuilding), Tinsmithing, Tailoring, Vegetable-planting, Blatt-making, Laundry, Basket-making and Chair-reseating.

In the Central Prison, Sibu, prisoners were assigned to do construction work. The following is a list of the main items completed in 1963:

(a) Building Army Camp, armoury and store for Gurkhas; (b) Building the Prison Carpentry Workshop; (c) Building the temporary Mess Room for Army; (d) Converting the Constabulary Store adjacent to Prison into a Transit

Camp for detainees. In the Central Prison, Limbang, they were assigned to repair houses of

their fellow prisoners. Prisoners in Sabah are employed in the following trades—Carpentry,

Tailoring, Rattan work, Shoe-repairing, Saddlery, Tinsmithing, Black smith, Printing, Gardening, Farming and Rubber-tapping. Trade Instructors are employed in the workshops to supervise the training of prisoners. All prisoners are paid weekly earnings according to their skill and industry.

J U S T I C E , L A W A N D ORDER 183

At present there is no co-ordination on a National basis and each State controls its own organization of funds and Visiting Panels, and assists discharged prisoners regardless of their State Nationality according to the merits of individual cases. The Prison Welfare Officers have achieved notable success in finding employment for discharged prisoners and in promoting their welfare whilst they are in Prison.

In Sarawak, according to the Prisoners' Aid Society Annual Report of 1963, a total of about $700.00 was spent on discharged prisoners and $3,552.19 on their dependants.

At Jesselton, there is a Discharged Prisoners' Aid Society under the auspices of the Rotary Club. The majority of the prisoners are small-holders who, on discharge, return to their farms and rarely require aid. Aliens are almost invariably repatriated.

Owing to the shortage of labour in Sabah, ex-prisoners find no difficulty in gaining employment in spite of their convictions. In some cases, tools or animals are provided to assist them in rehabilitation.

In Singapore, recognising the principle that after-care is essential for offenders following a period of detention, the Prisons Department has enlisted the assistance of probation officers of the Social Welfare Department in the supervising of certain categories of offenders released on licence before the expiry of their sentence, namely reformative trainees, corrective trainees and preventive trainees. In these jobs, these Welfare Officers are assisted by Prison Officers whenever possible. Five Prison Officers have been sent in 1963 to study at the University of Singapore for the Diploma in Social Science, with the view of becoming qualified After-Care Officers on their return to the Department.

During the year, 132 reformative trainees were released on parole licence supervised by After-Care Officers who also supervised 6 corrective trainees and 2 preventive trainees.

The Singapore After-Care Association, which, though a non-Government body, has always worked very intimately with the Department, had a very eventful and progressive year in 1963. Its industrial sections and its hostel have always been most popular with ex-prisoners who could work at its carpentry and rattan workshops, stay in its hostel and be offered financial help in deserving cases. Though it has not been an easy task to find em-ployment for persons discharged from prisons, the Association has managed to find suitable employment for more than 80 prisoners in 1963, and experiments of this nature have been most exciting and vital.

Education and Recreation In Malaya, the average period for prisoners spent outside cells is 15 hours a day and most of them are kept fully occupied until nightfall.


Every effort is made to reduce the monotony of prison life and prisoners are kept fully occupied, both mentally and physically, in useful and instructive activities such as educational classes in the National Language and in English, group discussions, debates, dramatic societies, concerts, cinema shows and games.

In the educational classes, prisoners are prepared for the Cambridge Certificate Examination and the Lower Certificate of Education Examination by qualified teachers paid from Government funds.

A library is available in each prison and no restriction is placed on the number of books that can be obtained by a prisoner.

In Sarawak, Muslim prisoners and detainees are permitted to attend lectures on Muslim Religion. Young prisoners attend classes daily and they are taught to read and write. Others attend evening classes three times a week. A part-time teacher is engaged to teach the detainees at the Detention Centre, Sungai Gersek, Kuching.

Apart from that, prisoners are given time for games and recreation. Some of them make their own guitars, violins and ukuleles during their spare time. Some of these instruments are as good as those sold in town.

Radio-listening is permitted daily, and regular cinema shows are enter-tained by the Information Office.

In Sabah, literary and simple classes are run twice a week. The literary class is compulsory.

Volley-ball, table-tennis, football and badminton are played every evening. In fact, the prison at Jesselton has a mixed team of staff and prisoners in the local football league.

Cinema shows are held every three weeks, and concerts are also arranged from time to time. Specially selected prisoners are allowed to go for swimming on Sunday afternoons. They also cultivate their own vegetable plots outside the prison. The average period spent outside the cells is 10 hours a day.

In Singapore with the Prisons system heavily and intensively concentrating on the effective rehabilitation of offenders in the various Prisons, education of prisoners has been expanded to cover all those, irrespective of classifica-tion of imprisonment, who wanted to learn the 3 Rs or to improve themselves literally. For the adult prisoners, a variety of evening classes had been provided for by the Lembaga Gerakan Pelajaran Dewasa in different languages. Classes on the national language had always been popular with the prisoners and 87 prisoners passed the Language Examinations conducted by the Lembaga Gerakan Pelajaran Dewasa in 1963. Two prisoners sat for the

j u s t i c e , l a w a n d o r d e r 185

In the Reformative Training Centre, education has been compulsory for all its 200 inmates and the educational programme remained an integral part of training formal classes from Primary to Secondary level and additional classes in civics and science (both elementary and advanced level). These classes were conducted by 4 full-time qualified teachers seconded from the Ministry of Education and they shared with the inmates in their commendable initiative and enthusiasm in the diverse classroom and extra-mural activities of the Centre. The science laboratory of the Centre was the pride of the teacher-in-charge and his boys and was comparable to any laboratory in any average secondary school outside. Three Borstal inmates sat for the Senior Cambridge Examination in 1963.

Recreation of all types and manners for prisoners was not lacking in 1963. Association football, sepak raga, basket-ball, badminton, table tennis and volley ball were popular games played at all penal establishments. The prisoners took part in many outside tournaments in basket-ball and football, organised by the various Community Centres and the Football Clubs. Radio, Rediffusion and/or Television facilities were available for prisoners at all establishments. Each establishment had weekly film shows for prisoners and possessed its own cinema projectors. Stage-shows performed by visiting troupes from outside were held in the prisons for the benefit of prisoners whenever possible.

All prisoners were able and encouraged to practise and observe their respective religions and the Department gave every facility to the various religious organisations concerned to visit all penal establishments.

Training The Prisons Training Depot in Malaysia provides courses for Recruits Training, Refresher Training and Cadets Training. The value of these courses has been proved by the general raising of standards of discipline, efficiency, and interest; this in turn assures a steady flow of young officers who have won promotion to higher rank through their ability and knowledge of Penology as opposed to purely Academic qualification.

T R E A T M E N T O F Y O U T H F U L O F F E N D E R S

Probation This service was set up under the Department of Social Welfare to deal with the problems of juvenile delinquency which were prevalent directly after the war arising from economic hardship and the dislocation of normal family life. Supervision of juvenile offenders is achieved by virtue of the Juvenile Courts Ordinance. Under this Ordinance, juvenile offenders are tried in Juvenile Courts with the President of a Sessions Court as Chairman assisted


by two advisers. The emphasis in dealing with offenders is more on treat-ment and less on punishment. To enable the Court to decide upon the treatment in a specific case a Probation Officer is required to submit a report on the offender giving a full case history of his home, family, economic and social circumstances. When a juvenile is placed on probation the Probation Officer is there to befriend, assist and advise. Supervision is done through a system of reports and visits. There are 70 Social Welfare Officers gazetted as Probation Officers covering the country.

In Sabah, there is no Probation Service. All prisoners sentenced to over two years are sent to the Central Prison, Jesselton, and those on the East Coast with a sentence of over six months and not more than two years, to Sandakan.

In Sarawak, a daily average of 13 selected first offenders are segregated at the Pending Farm. Here they attend literary and music classes, apart from sessions in games.

Remand Homes) Hostels Not all cases can be best dealt with by probation. Where it is in the interests of the Juvenile that he should be sent away from his natural home for a short period he may be placed on probation with a condition of residence. In this case he can be sent to a probation hostel for not more than one year. Every attempt is made to see that life in the hostel is as close as possible to that of a natural home. Outside schooling or employment is encouraged while leisure activities conducive to good character-training are an important feature. The hostel is also used as a place of remand in cases where a juvenile offender does not have anybody suitable to stand bail for him. There are now six remand homes/hostels for boys and one for girls, each having a maximum accommodation for 25 juveniles. An additional new remand home and hostel for boys is being completed under the Second Five-Year Develop-ment Plan.

Juvenile Welfare Committees The importance of voluntary effort in probation work has led to the formation of Juvenile Welfare Committees whose members are composed of public-spirited members of the community. These Committees help Probation Officers in every way possible, principally in obtaining suitable employmen-for probationers. In conjunction with Probation Officers the Committee is rest ponsible for the welfare of juveniles placed in Remand Homes and Hostels.


committal to an approved school may be ordered. The period of committal is automatically three years but the offender is eligible for earlier release if response to training justifies it. In practice the juvenile is only committed to an approved school as a last resort, after exploring all other possibilities of dealing with him. Various trade training facilities such as tailoring, carpentry and agriculture, formal classes of general education and leisure time activities both individual and group including various sports, a wide range of hobbies and cultural pursuits in accordance with the background of the three main racial groups of the country, are to be found in these schools. The schools are open institutions which implies that character and social training is pursued in an atmosphere of reasonable freedom. The principle "the offender is an individual" is evident by the emphasis upon staff (house-masters) who are particularly responsible for the personal care and training of a small group of youngsters.

After-care Juveniles released from the Approved Schools are assisted and supervised by Probation Officers in their rehabilitation. Suitable employment is found for them while those able to continue in school are assisted financially. The period of after-care lasts from one to three years after release.

The Treatment of Adult and Youthful Offenders in Singapore While there has always been a marked distinction in the way of approach between the treatment of adult and that of youthful offenders, both however went along towards the same goal, i.e., the effective and complete rehabilitation of the offenders. While the emphasis on youthful offenders was rehabilitation through education, the emphasis on adult offenders was rehabilitation through learning an industrial skill. However, both these actions did cross each other in either case, since the youthful offenders, besides being taught the 3 Rs., also went through a series of vocational training while the more elderly offenders in learning a useful trade, were given all opportunity and facilities to better themselves in the pursuit of knowledge.

A start was made in 1963 to distribute adult prisoners as under: (a) at the Local Prison, all prisoners sentenced to less than 6 months

imprisonment; (b) at Changi Prison, prisoners of the recidivist class serving 6 months

imprisonment and over, and first offenders serving sentences of 6 months imprisonment or more, being considered unsuitable for open prison conditions;

(c) at the Medium Security Prison, all first offenders considered suitable and trainable for open or semi-open conditions; and


(d) at the Woodlands Open Prison, all selected recidivists in their last few months of sentence and considered suitable for completely open conditions.

In the case of female prisoners, a small open prison known as Harmony Hostel was established outside the Female Prison, at Pearl's Bank, for those female prisoners considered suitable for open conditions. So far 14 female prisoners had been accommodated therein. These female prisoners were employed on gardening, needle-work and domestic tasks and they showed every sign of appreciation of their new surroundings and benefitting from this modern treatment. They were allowed to proceed to the public cinemas in Singapore when suitable films were shown, and also to attend Government exhibitions and other events of general interest.

The youthful offenders in the Reformative Training Centre were given special treatment in that their accommodation was completely of a dormitory type irrespective of the seriousness of their offences and their stages of imprisonment. They were encouraged to learn to live communally, especially since most of them had a background of secret societies. Theirs was a com-pletely open condition, with a considerable leeway of freedom especially when they worked outside the Centre in their farms and in other building jobs, without any security measure taken.

Home Leave introduced for both adult and youthful offenders a few years ago, was continuously granted and extended to female prisoners in 1963. Five days of home leave was normally granted at one time to any suitable offender, and it was the intention to increase home leave as an integral part of a prisoner's training in 1964.

Summary of Penal System

The Singapore Penal System has been improved by 1963 to become one of the best and most advanced in this part of the world, with the result that it has drawn the attention and visits of a good number of world-renown penologists and criminologists during 1963. With emphasis heavily laid on the complete rehabilitation of prisoners through means of education, in-dustrial training and a host of other measures, prisoners after being released from Singapore Prisons, have been taught to stand on their own and to become once more valuable assets to the community. The success in this bold scheme of rehabilitation of prisoners could be readily gauged from the fact that the number of cases of recidivism in Singapore has been drasti-cally reduced from 28 % five years ago to a new low of 12% in 1963 and it

Origins—States of Malaya The Royal Federation of Malaya Police was made up of a number of formerly separate forces, each with its own traditions and history. The history of the force dates back to the year 1806 when the first Police Force was formed in Penang and placed under the command of a Superintendent of Police. In 1824, a separate Police Force was formed in Malacca.

After 1867, Police Forces were gradually raised in the remaining States beginning with those of Perak (called the Perak Armed Police), Negeri Sembilan and Sungei Ujong (now part of Negeri Sembilan) in 1847, Selangor in 1875 and Pahangin 1888. These forces were amalgamated as the Federated Malay States Police in 1896, whilst at various dates between 1896 and 1920 States forces were raised in the Unfederated States of Johore, Kedah, Perlis, Trengganu and Kelantan, the last being known as the Kelantan Military Police.

The Police Force in Malaya has always had a para-military role. During the Second World War, the Fedeiated Malay States Police had military status and served in the campaign against the Japanese. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, a federal police force covering the whole Peninsula was organised for the first time into the Malayan Union Police, renamed the Federation of Malaya Police in 1948 under the command of a Commissioner of Police in Kuala Lumpur.

The declaration of a state of Emergency in the Federation of Malaya in June 1948 to combat the outbreak of an armed communist insurrection posed many exacting problems seldom, if ever, encountered by a police force anywhere. The Force, which immediately preceding the Emergency numbered under 10,000 men of all ranks, organised and equipped for peace-time


Constables. Despite initial drawbacks, the Royal Federation of Malaya Police took a leading role in operations against the Communist Terrorists scoring numerous important successes, in all accounting for more than half of the terrorists eliminated, at a cost in killed and wounded greater than that of all the other Security Forces combined.

The Emergency lasted for twelve years. As the situation improved, the strength of the Regular Police and Special Constabulary was gradually reduced. In recognition of the loyal and devoted services rendered by members of the Force to the country, His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong conferred a signal honour upon it by granting "Royal" status in July 1958. Further, in 1961, His Majesty presented a Royal Standard to the Force in recognition of its unique services during the Emer-gency.

The birth of Malaysia on 16th September, 1963, opened a new page in the history of the Royal Federation of Malaya Police. On that day the Police Forces of the Federation of Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak, were integrated into a single unified Service, known as the Royal Malaysia Police, under the command of a newly-appointed Inspector-General. The Royal Malaysia Police came into being as a voluntary combination of four brothers-in-arms, each with its own proud traditions and history.

Singapore Component The history of the Singapore Police dates back to the year 1819 when a law enforcement body, comprising two Sergeants, 17 constables, a writer and a jailor, was formed with Mr S. J. Bernard as the Head of Police.

By 1841 the Force increased in strength to one Superintendent of Police, who acted as a Magistrate, three European constables, 14 officers and 110 policemen, and four years later Mr Thomas Dunman was appointed Deputy Magistrate in the rank of Superintendent of Police.

It was not until June, 1857, however, that the Singapore Police Force actually came of age. In that year the Governor-in-Council in Calcutta decided to create the post of Commissioner of Police for the whole Colony. Ten years later, in 1867, the Settlements of Penang and Malacca joined with Singapore to form the Straits Settlement Police which came under the jurisdiction of an Inspector-General stationed in Singapore. This arrange-ment prevailed until the liberation of Singapore in 1945.

The detective segment of the Force became a separate branch in 1884 and concentrated much of its efforts in the early days on the menace of Secret Societies.

At the recommendation of the Police Enquiry Commission, a Police Training School was set up at Malacca in the year 1906 and this helped to turn out better policemen for the Colony.


The idea of a training school in Singapore was approved in 1919 and the first training Depot was set up temporarily at Robinson Road in 1924, in which year work was started on the present training school at Thomson Road. By 1932 the Singapore Training School was being used by all three Police Forces in the Straits Settlements. The beginning of the efficient modern police constable of today can be said to be traced to that date.

The year 1924 saw the introduction of a Special Branch into the Force but its dealings were then confined to passports and aliens. In 1925 the Special Branch was re-organised following the exposure of an attempt by the Communist Party to enter into the life of the Colony. Today this branch concentrates mainly on political activities and the uncovering of subversive elements.

Over the years came the introduction of the following branches of the Force; Marine Branch in 1916, the Traffic Branch in 1926, Communications Branch in 1936, Volunteer Police in 1941 and Women Police in 1949.

During the Japanese occupation (1942-1945), large numbers of Asian officers and men were forced by the Japanese Administration to re-engage in the Japanese sponsored police. This Force was used by the Japanese as an instrument of oppression, with the result that at the time of the Liberation many of the police were found to be corrupt, demoralised and unpopular with the public. With the first liberation forces in 1945 came a small party of Straits Settlement police officers who had not been interned and who set rapidly to work to re-establish the Singapore Police. Responsibility for the Settlements of Malacca and Penang at that time was taken over from the Straits Settlements by the Federal Police Force of the Peninsula.

The Singapore Police Force was part of the British Military Administration from the Liberation of Singapore until the resumption of Civil Government in 1946 when a Commissioner was appointed who was made directly responsible for the administration and command of the Singapore Police Force.

The year 1959 witnessed a historical change in the constitutional develop-ment of Singapore. In that year Singapore was granted internal self-govern-ment and under the new Constitution the Force came to be known as Police Negara, Singapura.

Sarawak Constabulary Component In Sarawak, before the arrival of Sir James Brooke there was no effective law enforcement agency. Between the arrival of Sir James Brooke and 1880 when a recognisable police force began to emerge, the law enforcement agency was the Rajah himself and his small band of officers whose original, vigorous

J U S T I C E , L A W A N D ORDER 193

the country, and it was from these men that the Sarawak Police and the Sarawak Rangers were formed. These two forces were amalgamated in 1932 to form the Sarawak Constabulary.

In 1862 a force of 120 men was raised in Kuching under Major W. H. Rodway, and in 1872 this force was granted the title of "The Sarawak Rangers". Recruiting was not confined to Sarawak and drafts of Indians and Javanese were brought into the country on several occasions.

The Rangers' Depot was established in Kuching and small detachments were kept at various outstations. These were withdrawn as the country became quieter until, in 1931, the only remaining outposts were at Limbang and Kapit.

Rangers detachments took part in all the major expeditions during this period but the force never saw active service as a complete unit—the constant shortage of officers would, in any case, have prevented this.

In 1932 the strength of the Sarawak Constabulary, including the amalga-mated Sarawak Rangers, was provisionally fixed at 859. In the same year village constables were appointed to perform police duties in minor stations. They were not a part of the regular Constabulary and were engaged by officers of the administrative service under whose sole charge they performed their duties.

The system of the village constables was not a success and in 1938 they were disbanded. The strength of the Constabulary was then increased to 1,000 to enable the duties formerly performed by village constables to be taken over.

Under the terms of a "Constabulary Order" in force in 1940, the Consta-bulary was required to take lawful measures for the military defence of the country and the suppression of armed insurrections in addition to normal civil police duties. Training therefore included, and still does, instruction in the use of arms.

In 1940 the Constabulary was divided into two units, Force "A" and Force "B". Force "A", consisting of 900 all ranks, was responsible for civil police duties and provided armed guards and escorts in the principal stations throughout the State. Force "B" consisted of 100 all ranks, made up of three platoons of Dayaks, and was employed on para-military duties in much the same way as the Police Field Force is today.

On Cession Day, 1st July, 1946, the strength of the Constabulary was 1,079. The devastation caused by enemy occupation of Sarawak had left its mark on the Constabulary and the first eight years after Cession brought


The next eight years from 1954 saw a considerable improvement. Secondary school boys began to make the police a career, and in 1960 it became possible to insist on a minimum educational standard of primary VI in English or Malay for recruits.

Sabah Component The Sabah Component of the Royal Malaysia Police was first raised as the North Borneo Armed Constabulary in 1882 comprised mostly of Sikhs and Punjabi Muslims. It was an armed force and in fact was more of an army unit than a police force, being armed with heavy and light machine guns. It originally undertook purely military tasks against various small rebellions. Over the years the Force gradually became less para-military in nature and by the time of the outbreak of the Japanese War it was fully employed on police tasks.

Before the outbreak of the Japanese War the Force was composed of six European Officers, three Indian and two local-born Inspectors and 650 Rank and File. The Force continued to function during the Japanese Occupation and rendered valuable service to prisoners-of-war, assisting many to escape. As the war advanced, many members of the Force absconded and joined the guerillas led by Australian paratroopers in fighting against the Japanese.

Following the reoccupation, the Force was reformed and the overall strength increased to 1,006 officers and men. A Marine Branch was also formed in 1950. In the same year, the title of the Force was changed to North Borneo Police.

During the outbreak of the Emergency in Malaya, Field Force platoons were sent to serve in Malaya in 1949 and 1950 and in Sarawak in 1953. Field Force platoons from Sabah were also sent into Brunei as the first reinforcement during the Brunei rebellion, holding the airport so as to allow Gurkha troops to be flown in. With the advent of Malaysia the Force became a component of the Royal Malaysia Police.

Organisation and Command On Malaysia Day, 16th September, 1963, the Police Forces of the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak were unified into a single Service under the Command of an Inspector-General and the new Service was called the Royal Malaysia Police. The Inspector-General is responsible to the Minis-ter of Home Affairs for the control and direction of the Service and formulates


marine police, finance and supply, the Criminal Investigation Department, and the Special Branch. Commissioners of the four Components are res-ponsible to the Inspector-General for day-to-day command and administra-tion. An organisation chart of the Royal Malaysia Police Headquarters, also giving the organisation of the States of Malaya Component (the former Royal Federation of Malaya Police), is shown on page 201. The three smaller components of Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah are similarly organised.

The unification of four, separate police forces with differing histories, traditions, conditions of service, laws and procedures in a newly-formed country presents considerable problems of command and organisation. In addition, this process has had to be carried out in the face of the increased security threat posed by the Indonesian confrontation policy since the formation of Malaysia. The Service is, however, moving towards standar-disation and uniformity as rapidly as possible by adopting the most useful and practical aspects of organisation and procedure from the systems which liave obtained within the Components.

Recruitment Direct entry into the Service is effected at three levels:

(1) As a Recruit Police Constable—the minimum educational qualification is completion of the sixth year of primary education.

(2) As a Probationary Police Inspector—a candidate must possess the Overseas School Certificate or the Malaysia Certificate of Education.

(3) Probationary Assistant Superintendent of Police for which appoint-ment the normal qualification is a pass degree from a recognised university or the Bar Final Examination.

All three methods of entry provide an avenue of promotion to the highest ranks in the Service.

Training The Service possess modern and comprehensive training facilities. Recruits of all grades receive their initial training at the Police Depot, Kuala Lumpur. Rank and File personnel undergo refresher training and promotion courses at the Advanced Training School in Singapore (this school is shortly to be completely rebuilt to deal with an intake of up to 1,500 trainees at a time). The higher training of gazetted officers and inspectors in all forms of police work is carried out at the Police College, Kuala Kubu Bharu. In addition, there is a separate training school for Special Branch personnel, and para-


Frequent training of personnel in public order duties is undertaken in various centres.

A high proportion of the gazetted officers and some inspectors of the Service have received higher training overseas, particularly at the Police College, Ryton-on-Dunsmore (now at Bramshill, England) at the Scottish Police College, Tulliallan, Scotland and at the Metropolitan Police Training School, London. In addition, a number of officers of the technical branches of the service, i.e., Signals, Transport, Marine and Armaments, have been trained overseas in Great Britain, Belgium, West Germany and Burma. Selected officers also attend courses at the Imperial Defence College, London, at the Joint Services Staff College, Latimer, England, at the F.B.I. National Academy, Washington, U.S.A., and at the State Police College, Victoria, Australia. Other officers attend occasional overseas conferences and seminars.

Within Malaysia, personnel attend courses organised by other Government Departments or bodies as follows:

Junior Command and Staff Course at the Armed Forces School of Instruction, Port Dickson.

The Fire Training School, Kuala Lumpur.

The Royal Customs' Training School, Malacca.

The Government Officers' Staff Training Centre, Kuala Lumpur.

The Outward Bound School, Lumut.

Medical Orderlies' training for Field Force duties at the Aborigines'

Hospital, Gombak.

Marine Radar at the Polytechnic, Singapore.

Practical Marine training in Singapore and Penang dockyards.

Forensic Science at the Department of Chemistry, Petaling Jaya. Students from countries inside and outside the Commonwealth are trained

in various types of police duty in all of the Service training establishments, Countries which have sent personnel for training include:


Training courses for government officers of the Postal Services, Road Transport, Labour and Industrial Relations, Forest, Customs, Income Tax, and Game Departments are regularly held at the Police College.

Criminal Investigation Department

In each Component the CID is directed by a senior officer, ranging in rank from Senior Assistant Commissioner to Superintendent, who is responsible to his Commissioner in all matters relating to crime, laws and the criminal activities of individuals and organised gangs, particularly secret societies. The main tasks of the department are investigation into reported crime, enquiries into unreported crime of a serious nature, including corruption, commercial crime and vice, which comes to the notice of the police other than by way of a formal report. The prosecution of offenders in Magistrates and Sessions Courts is normally undertaken by the Police. In addition to the investigating and prosecuting officers, who operate under the control of local executive commanders subject to overall CID direct-ion, the department contains separate branches dealing with Special Crime (i.e. Corruption), Secret Societies, Commercial Crime and the Railways.

In the Royal Malaysia Police Headquarters there is a Senior Staff Officer of Assistant Commissioner rank who is responsible for advising the Inspector-General on all CID matters of Federal interest and for advice on laws and necessary amendments thereto in order to produce uniformity within the four Components. This officer is directly in charge of the Central Criminal Records Office and Fingerprint Registry and their subsidiaries at Component level. He also advises the Inspector-General on matters concerning Interpol and normally is a representative of the Royal Malaysia Police at Interpol conferences.

Special Branch The Special Branch of the Royal Malaysia Police under the control of a Director, who is a Deputy Commissioner of Police, is responsible for the collection, collation, assessment and dissemination of all aspects of security intelligence in Malaysia. After suppression of armed communist terrorism in Malaya in the 1948-60 Emergency, the primary task of the Special Branch has been in dealing with the threat posed to the country by communist subversion coupled, in more recent times, with the security problems brought


Police Field Force The police forces of Malaya, Sarawak and Sabah have always had a para-military role and this has been emphasised since the formation of Malaysia by the formation of several new Police Field Force units. This force is organised, trained and equipped on military lines and is primarily employed in offensive jungle operations. Its secondary role is as a Federal reserve in the event of an outbreak of riots and civil commotion as well as reinforcing local police formations in the carrying out of preventive action against criminals. Police Field Force units are stationed in the States of Malaya and the Borneo Region for operations against communist and Indonesian-based terrorists. There is also a large holding company which is organised to provide garrisons for several jungle forts situated in the north central spine of the Main Range which provide protection for aborigines.

Public Order Companies Public Order Companies, which are similar to Police Field Force Companies but smaller in size, are maintained in some of the smaller towns of Malaya. These units are trained primarily to deal with public disorders and to reinforce local police formations in the carrying out of special duties, and in their secondary role they are organised and equipped to carry out para-military operations against armed terrorists.

Federal Reserve Units

In addition to the normal establishment of the Uniform Branch of the Police for general duties, specialised and mobile units known as Federal Reserve Units are maintained in the Federal Capital, Singapore and other major towns. These units are highly trained in all methods relating to the physical aspects of public disorder; in controlling large crowds when important functions and gatherings take place; in affording protection to important personages when required; in conducting emergency operations in the event of national or local disasters such as serious floods, fires, rail, road and aero-plane accidents, and they also reinforce local police formations in order to combat increased incidence of crime. In addition, there is a Gurkha Con-tingent based in the Singapore Component which forms a reserve for internal security and public order purposes.


command. The role of the Scouts is defensive and they will be employed only so long as the threat to security remains.

Marine Branch The Marine Branch is responsible for policing harbours, estuaries and territorial waters. The branch operates a fleet of launches, and a large number of hulls and outboard engines to deal with riverine and harbour policing. In the main, all aspects of marine training and maintenance are carried out by the Police themselves. The branch works in close liaison with the Royal Malaysian Navy, Royal Customs Department, Marine Depart-ment and Immigration Department.

The Marine Branch is in the process of carrying out a large expansion programme for inshore patrol and seagoing launches in order to deal with the threats posed by constant Indonesian infiltration by sea, and piracy, particularly in Borneo waters.

Signals Branch The Signals Branch is equipped with up to date Single Side Band equipment. High-frequency networks and modern multi-channel equipment are used on motor vehicles and launches.

In Singapore the scheme to convert radio network from Very High Frequency working to Ultra High Frequency working has been implemented and the first phase is almost completed. The full scheme will not be finished until 1966.

A number of new H.F. installations have been installed in police stations in the Borneo area using modern Single Side Band equipment. There has also been an increase in the number of vehicles fitted with V.H.F. A preliminary survey has been carried out with a view to introducing V.H.F. throughout the Borneo area.

Teleprinter links have been in use throughout the year between Kuala Lumpur-Singapore, Kuala Lumpur-Jesselton and Kuala Lumpur-Kuching. In the middle of the year, teleprinter links were established between Jesselton-Sandakan and Jesselton-Tawau. Additional teleprinter links are planned for Sarawak.


In keeping with the policy of modernisation of the vehicular fleet, new mobile patrol cars have been introduced for urban patrol duties in the large towns and 331 new vehicles were purchased during the year to supplement the existing strength and to replace obsolete vehicles. With the exception of the Sarawak and Sabah Components, where the PWD is entrusted with the routine maintenance and repair of vehicles, all maintenance and repairs of police vehicles are carried out by the Transport Branches in the States of Malaya Component.

Traffic Branch This branch of the Service plays the important role of ensuring safety on the roads for all categories of road users through traffic control and enforce-ment of Road Traffic Rules and Regulations. In addition to pointsmen, mobile patrols are maintained in towns, whilst a large part of the rural area of Malaya is covered by highway patrols comprising units of fast saloons and motor-cycles using radio and radar equipment. The Traffic Branch also provide prestige escorts for important personages, particularly for official and civic functions.

Bands The Service maintains Bands of varying size, which apart from boosting morale and esprit de corps among police personnel, provide public enter-tainment throughout the country, thereby cementing the relationship between policemen and the people. They also play a large part in the ceremonial functions of Government. All bands enjoy a high tradition of musical and ceremonial efficiency. The Central Band in particular has made several visits to neighbouring countries and to Europe during which it has acquired an international reputation which is probably unsurpassed by any police band in the world.

Women Police There is a Contingent of Women Police in each of the three Components of the Royal Malaysia Police. Their main function is to deal with crime and related problems concerning women and young children. In addition, they play a part in the communications net-work and in some cases they assist with the administration.

Auxiliaries

CHAPTER VII

DEFENCE AND THE ARMED FORCES

RESPONSIBILITY FOR DEFENCE BEFORE INDEPENDENCE was achieved in 1957, the Federation of Malaya was primarily responsible only for its own internal security. Great Britain, as protecting power, was responsible for guaranteeing the country's protection from external aggression and maintained forces in Malaya for that purpose. As it happened in the event, both responsibilities overlapped to an extent. The campaign of violence organised by the Malayan Communist Party (and which is described in Chapter X X I I ) was more than the Malayan security forces could be expected to control; Great Britain, on the other hand, could hardly be expected to protect the country from external aggression when a situation amounting to a minor civil war was being waged on Malayan soil. In consequence, there was a large element of merger in Emergency operations, in which the Federation's own armed forces played its full part in conjunction with troops from Britain and other parts of the Commonwealth.

On Independence Day, the Federation became constitutionally and ultimately responsible for its own defence from external aggression. This was the logical outcome of the new nation's sovereign status and independent responsibility. Even so, it was recognised from the outset that the Federation Forces would be unable to meet on their own any major attack from abroad, and shortly before Independence a defence agreement was entered into with the United Kingdom. After Independence, this agreement was ratified by the legislature without a division being called. The main provisions of this treaty are that the United Kingdom will afford all reasonable military assistance to the Federation if so called upon by the latter; to permit of this, Britain would be allowed to maintain troops and installations on Malayan soil at an agreed strength (which might be varied from time to time by mutual consent) to enable the United Kingdom to meet its many inter-national obligations. It may here be noted that Britain is a member of the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation. The Federation of Malaya is not; it depends in the lone term on the United Nations to prevent a situation


COMMAND STRUCTURE

The Supreme Commander His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the Supreme Commander of the Federation Armed Forces, a position he holds by virtue of the Constitution. All acts performed by the armed forces are done in his name and under his authority; his officers hold his commission*; the Sovereign exercises his prerogative of mercy in respect of military offences triable by court-martial. Nevertheless, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercises his powers, as a cons-titutional Monarch, on the advice of the Cabinet or Parliament as is appropriate. The size and composition of the various arms, and the amount of public moneys which may be expended on them, is determined by Parliament and sanctioned by statute. The overall direction and the employment of the forces is a matter for the Cabinet (of which the Minister of Defence is a member) whose advice is tendered to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Day-to-day administration is a matter for the Armed Forces Council, a body established under the Constitution. This Council has wide discretion in the exercise of its powers, but is subject always to the general policies annunciated by the Cabinet or Parliament. In short, the armed forces are servants of both the Crown and the people, the Crown exercising command on the advice of the Cabinet and the people maintaining control ultimately through their elected representatives in Parliament.

Structure of the Armed Forces As in many other countries, the armed forces consist of three distinct services—the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. Each maintains a regular (or full-time) cadre which is supplemented with reservists, the latter being a reserve of officers and men who have served their time with the colours but who, after being demobilised, are liable to recall in times of national stress. In addition, the three services support part-time organisations

D E F E N C E A N D A R M E D FORCES 205 comprising civilians who are prepared to volunteer a part of their leisure for military training, either as "territorials" or as volunteer reservists. These reservists are available for call-up in times of need, and contribute a substan-tial force in support of the national defence system.

Where the Federation differs from many other nations is in its command staff structure. Although each service has its own staff and administrative organisation, overriding control is vested in a joint staff, which is in fact the Ministry of Defence itself. In this manner, the Service Commanders are in executive control of their services and at the same time are officials of the Ministry: All work in close mutual collaboration with the civil servants in the Ministry of Defence, the latter being concerned principally with governmental policy and financial control. By this means a measure of informal consultation is possible, but the real value of having the service chiefs within the Ministry lies in the fact that they are all members of the Armed Forces Council. Collectively, they decide on matters of day-to-day administration, and individually they implement the decisions reached within their own sphere of responsibility.

Until the latter part of 1960, the Ministry of Defence was also responsible for internal security and the Police Force fell within its control. Today, the Ministry of Internal Security has taken over these functions. The Armed Forces Council As has been noted above, the Armed Forces Council has a wide discretion in administrative matters, subject only to parliamentary or Cabinet directive, and it derives its existence f rom the Constitution. Article 137 states that "there shall be an Armed Forces Council, which shall be responsible under the general authority of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for the Command, discipline and administration of, and all other matters relating to, the armed forces, other than matters relating to their operational use". The Council consists of the Minister of Defence (Chairman), the Chief of the Armed Forces Staff, the Representative of Their Highnesses the Rulers, the Secretary for Defence (who is also Secretary to the Council), the Chief of the General Staff, the Chief of the Naval Staff, the Chief of the Air Staff, the Chief of the Personnel Staff, the Chief of the Logistics Staff and one Additional Civilian Member. Meetings are held at approximately monthly intervals and oftener, if necessary, but there is no statutory prescription obliging this. In addition to its co-ordinative function, the Council is the principal disciplinary authority of the forces and exercises powers parallel to those


of the General Staff, the Chief of the Naval Staff, the Chief of the Air Staff and the Chief of the Personnel Staff, and the Chief of the Logistics Staff.

The duties of members of the Council (except for the Representative of Their Highnesses the Rulers and the Civilian Member) are specified by Charter. The Council as a whole may however delegate any of its powers or duties to any one of its members. This member may deal individually with any matter which does not require reference to the Council. Each member of the Council has a small expert staff to undertake the detailed work arising from his responsibilities.

THE ARMY Although there were for many years a number of volunteer military units attached to the British forces in Malaya, it was only in 1932 that a self-contained Malayan force came into being with the formation of an "experi-mental" infantry company at Port Dickson in Negeri Sembilan. Today, there are ten infantry battalion, two reconnaissance regiments, two artillery regiments and various supporting arms of the service. A few brief historical notes may be of interest.

The Malay Regiment In March of 1932, twenty-five young Malays were selected as recruits for the experimental company just referred to, and they formed the nucleus of the Malay Regiment (today, the Royal Malay Regiment) which forms the great bulk of the infantry. These recruits were carefully chosen with a view to their becoming the officers of the potential new regiment and, after their initial training had been completed, a further intake of 125 men brought the company up to full strength. By the end of 1934, the War Office had satisfied itself after exhaustive inspection that the experiment had proved a success, and it was decided to bring the unit up to battalion strength. Sixteen British Officers and eight British Warrant Officers were seconded from their parent units to perform this task: the Malay Regiment was now in formal existence and the first Malay officers were granted their Commis-sions. All the costs were borne by the Government of the former Federated Malay States.

No further expansion was contemplated immediately, but when the war broke out in 1939 it was considered prudent to form additional companies which, in time, could form the nucleus of the 2nd Battalion. After numerous vicissitudes, the latter battalion was eventually assembled independently,

D E F E N C E A N D A R M E D FORCES 207

fall of Singapore unhappily brought about the temporary disbandment of the Regiment, the survivors of which were first taken prisoner and later sent back to their homes by the Japanese. Many were later murdered by the Japanese for collaborating with Force 136, the organisation created by the British to organise and supply the guerrilla movement.

Towards the end of 1945 on the liberation of Malaya a number of British Officers were instructed to recall the surviving officers and men to the Colours. In early 1946 the 1st Battalion was re-formed, the resuscitation of the 2nd Battalion being complete by July in 1947.

The outbreak of the Emergency in 1948 dictated a further expansion, and the 2nd Battalion became operational in 1949. Between then and 1954 four more battalions were brought into being, bringing the total to seven. All have played an honourable part in defeating the armed terrorism which lasted in Malaya for twelve years and which is described in Chapter XXII.

In early 1963 the formation of the eighth battalion of the Royal Malay Regiment was begun and the battalion was ready for operations later in the year.

The Singapore Infantry Regiment The Regiment was formed on 12th March, 1957, as a multi-racial Battalion of Singapore-born soldiers.

Initially dependent on British officers and senior NCOs, by 1960 a small cadre of Asian officers was being formed with the assistance of the Federation Military College and short service commissioning. Today there are only eight British personnel left.

Colours were presented to the young Regiment in July 1960, by Tun Yusof bin Ishak.

In 1962, it was decided to form a second Battalion. The first Battalion produced an initial cadre of officers and NCOs to help to start the second Battalion. A year later, the British Company Sergeant Majors who had seen Companies through their early stages began to go without replacement, and promotions to Sergeant Major had to be made from young SIR NCOs with only six years service or less. They responded with great keenness and enthusiasm and today the Battalion, though unusually young, is business-like and purposeful.


In 1952, the Rulers met in conference and agreed to the formation of a new infantry regiment open to all races, and this became the Federation Regiment. Racial distribution for recruitment purposes was fifty per cent Chinese, twenty-five per cent Malays, and the remainder other races. Despite the differences in custom as between the races, the men settled down well together, and friction non-existent.

About this time, General (now Field-Marshal) Sir Gerald Templer gave instructions that a light armoured force should be created to support the infantry, and as a result one squadron was raised at Seremban on 15th November, 1952. It was planned that this unit should be multi-racial, and initially the officers and men were drawn from other army units. Thus came into existence the Federation Armoured Car Regiment which played an important role between 1953 and 1958 in enforcing, by road patrols, the various emergency restrictions necessitated by Communist terrorism. In 1957, the Squadron was increased to full regimental size, and took part in the Independence of Malaya celebrations. Since then, it has been honoured by being made responsible for providing the Sovereign's Escort both ceremonially and tactically. In 1960, the Federation Regiment and the Federation Armoured Car Regiment were amalgamated into a corps containing two regiments and was re-named the Federation Reconnaissance Corps.

Artillery The Federation Artillery was raised on 15th August, 1957, by the formation of 1st Field Battery, Federation Artillery, at KAJANG, SELANGOR, from volunteers then serving in 1st Singapore Regiment, Royal Artillery.

The first ceremonial task of 1st Field Battery was the firing of Salutes in KUALA LUMPUR during the Merdeka Celebrations on 31st August, 1957. The first live shell was fired at 2200 hours, 8th October, 1957, during operations at SRI MENANTI, KUALA PILAH. During the ensuing years, the Battery took part in many actions.

1st Regiment, Federation Artillery, was raised on 1st January, 1962, absorbing the original Battery.

The 2nd Regiment was formed on May 31, 1964.

Engineers The Federation Engineers first formed in April 1953 as 76 Federal Field Squadron which later became 1st Engineer Squadron, Federation Engineers. 2nd Engineer and 3rd Engineer Squadrons were formed from British Army


Squadrons are engaged on engineering projects throughout Malaysia, almost half their existing effort being in rural development work in the Borneo Territories. Similar development projects are in hand in Malaya, besides normal Military Engineering tasks.

Signals The Federation Signal Corps was formed in November 1952 when, with the rapid growth of the Federation Army, it became necessary to form a separate Corps of Signals. Since that date the Corps has expanded rapidly. There is also Federation Signals Territorial Army.

The equipment in present use is modern, and advanced communication techniques are used. Messages are sent by radio, teleprinter, telephone and dispatch rider. The longest direct operational link that has been operated so far by the Corps was from Kuala Lumpur to the Belgian Congo in 1960.

The Services Supporting the Army is a large complex of logistical units of which the main ones are the Federation Supply and Transport Service, the Federation Ordnance Corps and the Federation Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Between them they are responsible for the supply, transportation and heavy repair of all commodities, equipment and stores which the Army requires. In addition to these three services the Army is backed up by the General Service Corps which provides intelligence, clerical, medical, educational, pay and record facilities for the whole Armed Forces.

Malayan Special Force in the Congo At the invitation of the United Nations, Malaya sent a Special Force to the Republic of Congo (the former Belgian Congo) in October 1960 for service with the United Nations. The Special Force originally consisted of a Force Headquarters, three infantry companies of the Royal Malay Regiment and one reconnaissance squadron of the Federation Reconnaissance Corps. With ancillary troops, the Force had a total strength of 613 all ranks.

At the further invitation of the United Nations in January 1961, the Malayan Special Force was increased to a small Brigade Headquarters, an infantry battalion and a reconnaissance regiment by April 1961. Together with ancillary troops, the Force came to 1,413 all ranks.

Towards the end of 1962, due to commitments in Malaya, the Force was reduced by one-third and then consisted of an infantry battalion, a recon-naissance squadron and small detachments of the Signals and the Federation


THE ROYAL MALAYSIAN NAVY At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, a Malay Section of the British Royal Navy was established in Singapore and formed a nucleus of trained Reserve ratings. The Section was 1,400 strong by February 1942 and saw active service in Ceylon, India and East Africa. The Royal Navy (Malay Section) was entirely maintained by the United Kingdom Government, but for economic reasons it was disbanded in 1947.

However, in 1948 the Singapore Legislative Council authorised the formation of a Malayan Naval Force as a colonial defence contribution for South-East Asia. In August 1952 in recognition of its loyalty and services, Her Britannic Majesty Queen Elizabeth II bestowed the title "ROYAL" upon the Malayan Naval Force which then became the Royal Malayan Navy.

The Royal Malayan Navy was transferred to the Federation of Malaya on 12th July, 1958, but the Malayan Government did not assume financial responsibility until 1st January, 1959. On Malaysia Day, the Navy assumed the new title of the Royal Malaysian Navy.

A Naval Staff Division was established in 1959 in the integrated Ministry of Defence in Kuala Lumpur. Command is exercised by the Chief of the Naval Staff from this Division. The main Naval Base is at KD MALAYA situated on Singapore Island near the RN Dockyard and the main base in East Malaysia is at KD SRI LABUAN on Labuan Island. These establish-ments are responsible for the operation and administration of the ships and KD MALAYA carries out the training of personnel.

The general peace-time tasks of the Royal Malaysian Navy include protecting coastal shipping and fishery fleets, rendering assistance in any form of marine disaster and in anti-piracy patrols.

Ships include a frigate, Coastal Minesweepers, Inshore Minesweepers and Fast Patrol craft.

There is also a sizeable Naval Volunteer Reserve with Headquarters in Penang, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore.

THE ROYAL MALAYSIAN AIR FORCE The Royal Malayan Air Force was formed after Independence on 2nd June, 1958, and, since the formation of Malaysia in September 1963, it has become known as the Royal Malaysian Air Force. Many of its original Malayan personnel had hitherto served with the British Royal Air Force (Malaya),


the air-landing or air-dropping of supplies, air movement of troops, maritime reconnaissance, communications and aeromedical evacuation of sick or wounded uniformed personnel and civilians. Most of the aircraft of the Royal Malaysian Air Force are designed to operate from short airstrips which are scattered throughout Malaysia and, in addition, it has some aircraft for fast freight and troop transport and communication between the main centres of population.

The Royal Malaysian Air Force also operates its own Flying Training School at Alor Star and full facilities for the training of technical and other tradesmen are provided by a School of Technical Training based at Kinrara.

The Royal Malaysian Air Force maintains a Volunteer Reserve which is based at Kuala Lumpur. Apart from the Training of pilots by arrangement with the Kuala Lumpur Flying Club, the Royal Malaysian Air Force Volunteer Reserve is established for airfield defence duties.

T H E F E D E R A T I O N M I L I T A R Y C O L L E G E The Federation Military College was first established in 1953 at Port Dickson and in 1961 the new College buildings were opened at Sungei Besi by His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

The aim of the College is to prepare young Malaysians to take their places as Officers in the Armed Forces and as leaders in the professional, commercial and industrial life of the country.

To carry out this composite aim, the College has two Wings: The CADET WING where young Malaysians are trained to become

Officers in the Armed Forces and the BOYS WING which is a civilian boarding school with a military back-ground of leadership training.

Cadets for regular commissions in the Malaysian Armed Forces join the Cadet Wing when they are over 17 years and 6 months and under 21 years of age on the first January of the year of entry. Potential Officers join the Cadet Wing from Secondary schools throughout Malaysia including the Boys Wing and undergo a two-year course in the College before commissioning in the Malaysian Army. The Royal Malaysian Navy Cadets carry out two terms training in the College before joining the Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth for further training of up to three years. Cadets for commissioning in the Royal Malaysian Air Force carry out varying periods of training up to two years in the College, depending on which branch of the Air Force


on application and attend a live months' course in the College. At present two of these courses are being held in the College every year starting in February and September.

In the Boys Wing there are over 300 Malaysians who are being educated either for entry to a University as a prelude to a civilian profession; or for entry to the Cadet Wing for training as officers in the Armed Forces; or for entry to other civilian educational training establishments or to commence actual civilian employment on com-pleting their education in the Boys Wing. The standard of education attained is outstanding in Malaysia and in November 1963, out of 113 candidates from the Boys Wing who sat for the Cambridge Oversea School Certificate, 112 passed with 54 gaining Division I, 47 Division II and 11 Division III. Of the 101 Boys who left the College in December 1963, 31 were offered cadetships as Potential Army, Navy and Air Force Officers, 35 entered Universities and the remainder have taken up occupations in the public service, industry and commerce.

Candidates for entry to the Boys Wing are selected from boys attending Secondary schools throughout Malaysia who are fit to enter Form Four and who are under 17 years of age on 1st January of the year of entry. Preference however is given to boys under 16 years of age on entry.

A special selection and testing procedure is carried out in the College by a Board of Officers appointed by the Ministry of Defence including a representative from the Ministry of Education.

The College is a military establishment with the Minister for Defence responsible ultimately for College policy. He is advised by a Board of Governors as well as by his Ministry. The College is commanded by a Military Commandant who has a staff of military officers to carry out military training and most of the College administration. He has a civilian Director of Studies and a civilian teaching staff responsible for academic education in the Cadet Wing and overall education in the Boys Wing.

The military officers are carefully selected for the special work to be done at the College and normally, each serves for three years. The civilian teaching staff is a more permanent part of the staff for, although education officers come from, and continue to belong to the Ministry of Education, they are not posted for any limited period. The teaching staff has a high proportion of Honours graduates, and each member of the staff is a selected specialist. Four expatriate military education

CHAPTER VIII

THE NATIONAL ECONOMY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

I N C O M E A N D P O P U L A T I O N THE ECONOMY of Malaysia consists of four main parts which differ generally in character, in level of income and in rate of growth. The states of Malaya have a number of modern urban areas and also a variety of types and degrees of development in rural region. The average level of per capita income in Malaya is higher than anywhere else in Southeast Asia, except Singapore. Singapore, a modern metropolitan centre, has the highest average income per capita in Southeast Asia, in fact in all Asia outside of Japan. Sabah and Sarawak are less developed: the relatively few towns and the limited regions of modern development are separated by large areas of virgin jungle or sparsely populated areas of which only small parts are cultivated, in many cases by primitive methods.

Production in Malaysia is concentrated in relatively few activities. In Malaya, agriculture is the greatest source of income, followed by mining, forestry, fishing, a variety of service industries, and a small but growing manufacturing sector. In Singapore, a free port and the world's fifth largest seaport, commerce and related functions lead, but rapid progress is taking place in manufacturing and a few agricultural activities are highly productive. Sabah's traditional main source of income has been agriculture, followed by fishing and other primary activities, but timbering has experienced a major boom during recent years. Sarawak continues to rely mainly on agriculture.

POPULATION AND GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, 1964


Population growth has been rapid, but there are signs that the rate of increase is beginning to slow down. In Singapore, the birth rate is steadily declining while the death rate is already so low that very little further decline is occurring; consequently the rate of natural increase is falling year by year. In Malaya, birth and death rates are both dropping slightly, and there is as yet little reduction in the rate of natural increase. In Sabah and Sarawak, neither health services nor statistics are as well developed as in Western Malaysia and on the basis of such information as there is, the rate of natural increase tends to be lower than the national average. Immigration, parti-cularly into Sabah and Sarawak, slowed down, especially as migration from Indonesia is now stopped. But there is some continuing flow from elsewhere, especially of Filipinos into Sabah.

Because of Malaysia's rapid population growth, about half of the gains in national productivity and income in recent years have gone to care for the increase in population. The other half has been available for raising per capita incomes and standards of living.

R A T E S O F B I R T H , D E A T H A N D N A T U R A L I N C R E A S E (PER THOUSAND TOTAL POPULATION)*

NATIONAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT 215

R A T E S O F B I R T H , D E A T H A N D N A T U R A L I N C R E A S E — ( c o n t . ) (PER THOUSAND TOTAL POPULATION)*

* Calculated on the basis of the estimated end-of-year population for Sabah and Sarawak; on mid-year population for Singapore and Malaya.

f Data given relate to the year of registration rather than occurrence. Figures given probably understate both births and deaths. The net effect of this under-statement on natural increase is indeterminate. Inadequate means of communication and the highly dispersed nature of the population in some areas appear to be two of the main contributing factors towards under-statement.

Source: Department of Statistics, Annual Bulletin of Statistics, Malaysia, 1964, page 2.

Private enterprise accounts for most of the nation's economic activity, but the public sector has also undergone a rapid expansion during recent years. Small units still dominate most types of activity numerically, but large estates, mines and other units, now including more and more factories, contribute a large portion of total production and income.

FACTORS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Malaysia leads the world in producing tin and natural rubber and these two products are the country's leading sources of income. Many factors account for this leadership and for the country's high average standards of production and income. Some of these factors are natural endowments, some man-made; some are indigenous, some imported from abroad; some are traditional, some modern; some are private, some Governmental. Malaysia's pros-perity and favourable prospects reflect a happy combination of elements in a multi-racial society, where, by creative adaptation to environment and circumstances, each group has done better in co-operation with others


prospecting in the Peninsula to find new deposits. With modern efficient methods and prices maintained at a sufficiently attractive level, low grade deposits are being worked and there may be some increase in output in the immediate future. Other known mineral resources of economic importance include iron ore, bauxite and small quantities of many other products. Coal is not being mined at present, but there may be prospects of doing so in Sarawak. Petroleum has not yet been discoverd in quantity anywhere in Malaysia, although a minor flow is still being obtained from old wells in Sarawak and extensive explorations are being conducted, especially in coastal waters.

Agricultural resources are specialised. Nowhere in Malaysia is there land comparable to the rich volcanic soils of Java, but by adaptation to the productive potential that does exist, Malaysian and foreign enterprises have developed highly productive agriculture. Rubber is the main pillar of Malaysian economy, especially in Malaya where two-thirds of cultivated land is under rubber, of which a little less than half are on estates of over 100 acres. Rubber is also important in Sarawak and Sabah, both on estates and on smallholdings. Oil palm is a promising crop and cultivation of this crop is expanding rapidly. Coconut is of some importance and large areas of coconut holdings are being rehabilitated. Small quantities of cocoa are being grown in Malaya and Sabah. Other tree crops include banana, papaya, durian, rambutan, some citrus and other fruits, as well as betel nut, tapioca and various minor crops.

Rice is the main food crop, although Malaysia has no rice land comparable to that in the river deltas of Thailand and other neighbouring countries of the Asian mainland. Malaysia is not self-sufficient in rice, but new irrigation works, especially in Malaya, are making possible for more double-cropping and increased production.

Pineapples are another important food crop and canned pineapple is a growing export item. Other crops include pepper, which is important in Sarawak, sago, various vegetables, tea, maize, groundnuts, soya beans, sugar, tobacco and abaca.

Livestock production has progressed well but there are considerable potentials for further development in the livestock industry.

Fishing is a traditional occupation that is modernising and growing, but still has far to go. In the past, small sail boats were used to fish near the shore. Larger power-driven boats have gradually become more numerous, and now Malaysians are beginning to tap the riches of the vast deep-sea

N A T I O N A L E C O N O M Y A N D D E V E L O P M E N T 217

growing so fast and a range of more advanced processing industries remains to be built on the basis of the country's rich forests. The forest service is gradually improving the yield and stock of timber by eliminating the less desirable kinds of trees, mainly through poison girdling.

Human resources in Malaysia are rich and varied. The different skills, habits and interests of these varied population groups have provided Malaysia with many kinds of talent and supported the growth of a more varied economic life.

Capital resources have played a large role in the development of Malaysia's economy. Private foreign capital has taken the lead in large scale mining, agriculture, trading, transportation and manufacturing. Gradually, however, more local capital has become available. It has gone into mining, construction, estate agriculture, forestry, fishing, commerce and finance, and recently into manufacturing as well. Since Malaya obtained independence in 1957, Government has begun to finance more economic activity than before, notably through the Malaysian Industrial Development Finance Ltd, the Economic Development Board in Singapore, and the federal Land Develop-ment Authority. Foreign public capital has also recently become significant. World Bank loans have financed electric power and a widening range of other projects. British, Canadian, Australian, Japanese, American, German and other public funds are also flowing into Malaysia for development projects.

Government and public services are a crucial element in Malaysia's economic prosperity and growth. Its heritage of law, order and good government has given Malaysia an excellent start in economic development. Public facilities and services are of an extraordinarily high order.

Development plans in all parts of Malaysia has brought an expanded range of public services and facilities. Everywhere roads and schools have been built, along with other public facilities and much progress has been made in providing rural health services and rural electrification. In Singapore, the public housing programme which has provided modern low-cost housing for naerly a fifth of the total population has been acclaimed as a remarkable achievement.

In Sabah and Sarawak, government services are less advanced. Major emphasis is being given to education, roads and transportation. Other public services are expanding rapidly in both States.

Economic problems have also loomed large. Among the problems are those associated with a rapid population growth and rising demands for


in larger numbers than ever before. They are now coming on to the labour market, often with too little education and skill to be readily employed. Unemployment, especially in the towns, is a serious and growing problem in Malaya and Singapore.

There is a strong and rising demand for manufactured goods. The country's capacity to provide the people with goods and services depends on domestic productive facilities and the capacity to finance imports. Most modern factory products must be imported because it will take time for Malaysia's small manufacturing sector to acquire the techniques, skills, organisations and capital necessary to compete with producers in more advanced countries. Meanwhile, the country's limited capacity to finance expenditures abroad must cover several kinds of increase. Traditional imports like cloth and food are growing with population and incomes, as are expenditures on interna-tional shipping and on the use of foreign capital. Petroleum has become the nation's leading import and its consumption is rising steeply. Machinery is imported in growing volume for factories and for maintaining the expanding modern sector of Malaysia's economy. Goods like television and air-condi-tioners are also in great demand in recent years.

Decline in rubber prices in recent years has thus occurred at a time when the balance of international payments would have been under strain in any case. In 1964, of about one million tons exported, every one cent decline in price reduces $22.4 million from the nation's export earnings. The long-run prospect is for the price of natural rubber to be both lower and steadier than in the past. The average export price received for all rubber sold in Singapore and Malaya in 1964 was 68.6 cents a pound, which was less than two-thirds of the 1960 price of 106.6 cents. Expectations are that by 1970 the price may fall to about 55 cents a pound. Even at this low price, natural rubber should still be able to compete effectively with synthetic.

Taxes on rubber vary with price, and lower prices have had a sharp adverse effect on revenue from rubber taxes. In 1964, the export duty on rubber yielded the Federal Government $69 million, much less than the $174 million collected in 1955 or the $196 million collected in 1960.

Meanwhile, other trends and policies have sharply raised the level of public expenditure. For the Federal Government, ordinary expenditure related to Malaya rose by 22 per cent from 1955 to 1960 and by another 8.1 per cent by 1964. The figures were $683 million in 1955, $831 million in 1960 and $1,502 million in 1964. Development expenditure rose even faster, by nearly half between 1955 and 1960 and then three-fold between that year

n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t 219

$98 million in 1960, but by 1964 it had given way to a deficit of $281 million. This means that recourse will have to be made to obtain a greater volume of external finances to meet the country's urgent development and defence needs.

DEVELOPMENT PLANS Each of Malaysia's four component parts has undertaken planned develop-ment in recent years. The plans differ in scale and character, but all represent efforts to accelerate development through public investment while leaving most productive activity in private hands. Government investment has been directed mainly at infrastructure—roads, schools, ports and other public facilities and services. But direct government activity is also providing electric power and railway service, as well as telecommunications and postal services. In Singapore, the government is investing in housing and industrial ventures. In Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak, government development expen-diture has also been channelled to assist rubber planting and replanting and for land development and, especially in Malaya, for many forms of assistance to the private sector, especially to small farmers and small industries.

Malaya At the time of independence in 1957, Malaya was in the midst of its First Five-Year Development Plan, 1956-60. Public investment during that period rose sharply as compared with earlier years, despite the Emergency and the recession of 1957-58, reaching a little over $1,000 million. The Second Five-Year Plan is much more ambitious again, and calls for public investment at nearly three times the rate of the first Plan. Originally set at $2,150 million, the target was raised sharply reaching $2,953 by the end of 1964, including planned facilities for defence and security. Actual public expenditure in 1961-64 reached a total of $2,049 million.

From an average of about $200 million a year during the First Five-Year Plan, actual public investment in Malaya has risen to over $500 million a year on the average in 1961-64. These sums are going into a wide range of public facilities, for defence as well as administration and development, roads, drainage and irrigation, industry, education, health and security. Rubber replanting is taking somewhat less expenditure now than during the First Five-Year Plan.

Development results have been as dramatic as the increase in public


During the same period the number of children in primary schools rose 18 per cent. Secondary schools, especially in rural areas, had in the past far smaller enrolments and these are rising sharply. In 1961-64 secondary schools enrolment rose by 82 per cent in urban areas and by 137 per cent in rural areas. This increase is continuing under the new policy of providing nine years of free primary and lower secondary education.

At the same time, public investment and public services have been expanding rapidly, and private investment and production have also risen. From a total of about $2,000 million in 1956-60, private investment in Malaya has expanded until it is expected to reach about $2,900 million in 1961-65. These investments are going into manufacturing, construction and road transport equipment in much larger volume than before and also into the more traditional activities, agriculture, mining and commerce.

PUBLIC INVESTMENT IN MALAYA (S MILLION)


One of the many decorated arches in Kuala Lumpur to mark the birth of Malaysia

A decorated float In procession on Malaysia Day

mm

Tradit ional war dance by a Sarawak dancer

A Sabah beauty queen wearing her tradit ional costume and " S i u n g "

Sabah workers grading manila hemp

Skilled workers of a plastic factory at their daily chores


eliminate, at least in part, the existing unemployment. The main emphasis under the Plan was accordingly laid on economic development with a view to creating conditions favourable for industrial growth by the two-fold method of (i) Government functioning as the spearhead for industrialisation by direct participation in industry and providing the necessary assistance; and (ii) building a solid base of the infrastructure for industrialisation by the development of essential services like power, water, gas, port, transport and communications. Consistent with this major objective of economic develop-ment, the aim in social development was limited largely to one of maintaining the level of social services rather than expanding the range by introducing any new services. The schemes under public administration are only the development programmes for some administrative departments.

The sum of $871 million was allocated initially for Plan projects. This implies average expenditure of $218 million a year, which represents a sharp increase over the $92 million average during the six years 1955-60. Projects added since the start of the Plan raise the total investment target even further, to $1,055 million, or an average of $264 million a year for the four-year period. It appears now unlikely that the investment target would be achieved although the volume of investment is raising rapidly from $136 million in 1961 to $154 million in 1962 and $190 million in 1963.


Approximately, two-thirds of public investment are for developing industry and housing. Singapore's housing programme began with the establishment of the Housing and Development Board in 1960. With standard plans, mainly for high-rise blocks of flats, and with successful contracting procedures that have reduced construction to routines, a total of 29,645 units were constructed by the end of 1963.

Industrial development is urgent in Singapore, as entrepot trade and other traditional activities have become progressively less adequate sources of income and employment opportunities for Singapore's rapidly growing population. Indonesia's "confrontation" of Malaysia has provided a check to trade, to rubber processing and to related activities normally involving Indonesia. The Economic Development Board, established in 1961 as an autonomous body, processes applications for certification of pioneer industries, provides loans and equity capital for industrial firms as well as technical and other services for industry, and promotes investment in Singapore through publicity within Malaysia and abroad. A major feature of public assistance to industry in Singapore is the establishment of industrial estates, of which the largest is at Jurong.

Private development in Singapore has responded well to the opportunities available, including those resulting from public activities. New industrial plants are opening in rapid succession, producing a wide range of products. Despite Indonesian "confrontation", cargo discharged and loaded in the Port of Singapore rose by 45 per cent in the first three years of the Plan.

Gross fixed investment, public and private, in the full Plan period, 1961-64, is estimated to have amounted to 13 per cent of gross domestic product. This is well below the figure of 20 per cent in Malaya, but represents an increase over the period 1956-60. The traditional types of economic activity in Singa-pore require less fixed investment than, say, rubber growing, which involves not only much expensive preparation and planting but also years of waiting before investments yield any return.

In sum, Singapore's accelerating development programme, combined with the clear downward trend in birth rates, promises a healthy and expanding economy in the years ahead, as well as social services that continue to set a standard for South-east Asia.

Sabah The State of Sabah completed a six-year development plan in 1964. In its initial form the plan provided for total expenditure of $71 million, including

N A T I O N A L ECONOMY A N D DEVELOPMENT 227

A revised six-year plan approved in 1963 raised the total allocation to $156 million. Of this sum, roads received the largest share, just over a quarter. Public building was next, with 16 per cent, followed by education with 12 per cent. Ports, other transportation and communication works, medical facili-ties, water supplies and various aids to agriculture accounted for most of the remaining allocation.

In 1964 Sabah adopted a new Development Plan for 1965-1970, which will be revised as necessary in the process of absorption into the First Malaysia Plan for 1966-1970. This is a more comprehensive and ambitious effort at mobilizing the State's human, financial and natural resources to the attain-ment of both long range and immediate goals. The specific objectives of the plan are:

(1) To open up new land and settle thereon 12,000 families now lacking adequate farmland; to develop official methods of cultivation by these settlers and by Sabah's farmers generally, and so increase the productivity of the State.

(2) To expand primary education so that by 1970 it will be available to all but a very few children of appropriate age, to make secondary education available to those who are adequately prepared, and to provide technical training courses as rapidly as they can be built up.

(3) To develop communications— (a) by the construction and improvement of roads to link the main

centres of population, to provide means whereby the producer can carry out his produce and whereby people can obtain supplies and services, and to provide access to new farming areas and to improve the flow of traffic to and within the main towns;

(b) by telecommunications, so that in the interests of the economy and of society an increasing number of the public can speak to one another and the outside world by telephone, and in the interests of administration and security in the State where distances are large and the population scattered;

(c) by air so that services with larger aircraft, both between the main centres and the outside world, can be expanded;

(d) at the ports so that an increasing volume of trade can be handled.

(4) To provide necessary economic and social services at a gradually


(b) the expansion of sewerage services on a conservative basis in the urban areas in the interests of public health ;

(c) the extension of information, education and entertainment through sound broadcasting to as many people in the State as possible;

(id) the. substantial widening of preventive and curative health and medical services, and the expansion of the main hospitals to deal with the growing number of patients requiring treatment as a result of the spread of communications and the develop-ment of medical facilities.

(5) Tc take immediate measures to fill shortages in the supply of labour, in construction capacity, and in key personnel for both public and private sectors.

N A T I O N A L ECONOMY A N D DEVELOPMENT 229

NOTES—Minor inconsistencies result f r o m round ing . * N o t shown separa te ly . Source: State of Sabah, Malaysia, Sabah Development Plan 1965-70 pp. 81 and 85.

Communications take the largest part of Sabah's planned expenditure. Progressively more regional development is taking place on the West Coast and in the Interior Residency as road development supplements the short railway. Telecommunications, radio, air and sea connections are also improving in this region, as they are throughout the State. But the Tawau, Lahad Datu and Sandakan areas are not connected overland with each other or with the West Coast area, and such links will come into being only gradually.

Agriculture and other economic services also require major efforts. The new plan allocates large sums for the first time to land development, in the hope of moving shifting cultivators to settled farming, providing enough land to small farmers now without adequate acreage, developing virgin land and increasing production and incomes. Public utilities and education also receive major attention, and health is to receive far more attention than in the past.

Sabah needs modern facilities and services of many kinds. These needs have


Still there has not been enough capacity to absorb all the recent building and development expenditure without inflation. Shortages, especially of skilled labour, combined with land speculation and strong demand for space have raised the cost of construction and the level of rents in several parts of the State. Efforts are being made to resolve Sabah's man-power problems such as by inducing a greater flow of labour from other parts of Malaysia and giving greater emphasis to education, particularly vocational and technical education.

Sarawak The state embarked on a new Five-Year Development Plan in 1964. This is the most comprehensive of a series of development plans undertaken in Sarawak during the postwar period. Preceding plans had been little more than programmes of public investment within the framework of departmental policies as they evolved. The new plan for 1964-68 has the following broad objectives:

(1) To improve the farmer's livelihood and make the country-side a pleasant place to live in;

(2) To provide employment for the country's population of working age; (3) To raise the per capita output of the economy and to protect

per capita living standards against the adverse effects of a probable decline in rubber prices;

(4) To widen the variety of Sarawak production, emphasising the development of other suitable agricultural products in addition to rubber and also giving encouragement to industrial expansion;

(5) Finally, while stressing the importance of development which will meet production and employment requirements, to provide educa-tional opportunities for the rapidly growing school-age population, to extend public health services over a wider coverage of the rural as well as urban population, and to provide rural utilities more adequately.

Subject to changes that may become necessary when this State Development Plan is incorporated into the First Malaysia Plan, a number of targets have been adopted. These apply not only to financial outlays but also to physical investment and increases in production, income and employment. Total income is projected to increase by about four per cent a year, not only through this plan period, 1964-68 but through the fifteen years, 1961-716. With

NATIONAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT 231


The financial provision in the new plan, assuming funds will be available, is more than twice as large as in the preceding plan. Continued emphasis is given to road building and rubber planting but investment in agriculture is a much larger part of the present plan than in the previous one. Other important objects of public investment are education, health and electricity.

Estimates of gross domestic product in Sarawak indicate a rise from $405 million in 1961 to $500 million in 1964, an average increase of over 7 per cent. Gross fixed investment appears to have risen even faster, from $75 million to $105 million in the same period. This latter figure represents 21 per cent of gross domestic product. Such a rate of investment is compa-rable to Malaya's and higher than Singapore's.

As a whole, Malaysia enjoys satisfactory progress despite Indonesian ccnfrontation. There still remains much for the States to learn from each other in the field of economic and social development, to make the best use of their rich and varied resources. The process of integrated development for the country is gradually being worked out towards the preparation of an integrated First Malaysia Plan to be launched in 1966.

CHAPTER IX

EMPLOYMENT L A B O U R , I N D U S T R I A L R E L A T I O N S A N D T R A D E U N I O N S

SOME FIGURES are reproduced at the end of this chapter to give a broad picture of employment in the States of Malaya.

It will be seen that approximately two-thirds of all persons working for their living derive their livelihood from developing and exploiting the natural resources of the country; half of these are employed in the planting industries or the industries associated with the processing of agricultural produce. This illustrates the predominantly agricultural economy of the nation. Nearly ten per cent of the working population is employed in governmental or quasi-governmental pursuits. In considering these ratios, it should always be remembered that almost sixty per cent of the population is under the age of twenty-one years, the school population comprising about one-fifth of the whole population. Another one-fifth is under the age of seven years. Only some 16,000 "young persons" under sixteen years are in paid employment, but this figure does not of course include the children of smallholders and small businessmen, who not infrequently help their parents in their leisure moments. It can therefore be appreciated that unemployment is not a serious problem, at any rate for the present; but the rapidly expanding population will certainly cause employment problems in the future. The principal problem today is perhaps under-employment rather than unemployment proper.

Protection of Labour Generally speaking, it is true to say that employment is governed on a contractual basis as between master and servant. For many years, never-theless, legislation has existed to ensure that unfair exploitation would be kept at least to the minimum. Originally, this legislation concentrated almost exclusively on the planting and mining industries, commercial and other pursuits being left to regulate themselves on their own, but subject always to the very broad principles enshrined in the various Enactments and Ordinances. As a final resort in the event of an injustice recourse could always be made to the courts, which were at liberty to apply common-law principles where a civil wrong appeared to have occurred, or to the special


Codes of the Federated Malay States and the Straits Settlements during the early nineteen-twenties. These laws (and the subsidiary legislation made under them) remained fairly general in their scope, but some very definite provision was made for the inspection of industrial undertakings by officers of the Labour Department and the then Chinese Protectorate, for the proper payment of wages and for the rendering of proper returns and statistics to the Government by employers. Parallel legislation was also to be found in the various Enactments regulating local authorities, which were empowered by a system of licensing to regulate the conduct of various industries and commercial undertakings within their jurisdictions. This type of control survives to the present day, and is undertaken in consultation with the health and labour authorities. It may be noted that Medical Officers of Health not infrequently are ex-officio members of local authorities.

It was really only after the 1939-45 war that a radical overhaul of labour and working legislation was made. From 1947 onwards, new legislation of a more specialised nature was introduced, starting with the Children and Young Persons Ordinance and the Wages Council Ordinance in that year; other Ordinances were Industrial Courts (1948), Trades Disputes (1949), Weekly Holidays (1950), Employees Provident Fund (1951), Workmen's Compensation (1952) (repealing an older law) and Employment Information (1953). Many of these Ordinances however contained much material consolidated from existing laws. The former Labour Codes were partially repealed in 1955 and replaced with a common Federal Ordinance, the Employment Ordinance of that year, thus bringing the bulk of social legislation relating to labour into a common form applicable throughout Malaysia. These Ordinances will be examined separately later on.

THE MINISTRY OF LABOUR

Origins Governmental control over most aspects of labour is vested in the Federal Government (although, as has been noted, certain powers remain vested in the local authorities). A unified Federal Labour Department under a Commissioner came into existence under the Malayan Union in 1946, and the federal arrangement was carried forward in the Federation of Malaya Agreement of 1948. In 1951 a "Member" for Industrial and Social Relations was appointed to the Executive Council with ministerial authority over the Labour Department; after the 1955 general elections, a Minister of Labour

E M P L O Y M E N T 235

until May 1964 when a separate Minister was appointed to head a new Ministry of Welfare Services.

Structure Subject to the general policy direction of the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare, the affairs of the Ministry are handled by the Secretary to the Ministry who acts as a co-ordinator. Specialist divisions (such as the Inspectorate of Machinery) are headed by specialist heads of department; but the Department of Labour and Industrial Relations has two Commissioners who function as dual head of the Department. The reason for this duumvirate is largely historical: until towards the end of 1957, there were two distinct departments, the Labour Department (under a Commissioner) and the Trade Union Adviser's Department. The latter was set up in 1946 to encourage the formation of responsible labour organisations on established lines, but by 1957 the Unions were so well established that the need for a separate organisation had ceased to exist. The two departments were accordingly amalgamated, the heads of departments becoming co-equally the professional advisers and executives in respect of their different functions. With inter-changeable staffs the two sections however remain distinct, and their roles may briefly be described in the subsequent paragraphs.

The Industrial Relations Section It is the policy of the Government to encourage any system whereby employers and employees are free to deal with their own problems in their own way through joint negotiation and consultation. In other words, the constant aim is the establishment of an industrial democracy based on internal self-government within the industry—a more efficient and economical system than the application of compulsory measures enforced by legislation. Thus, organisations of both employers and employees are left free to negotiate and enter into collective agreement on any matter which they consider relevant, Government playing no part in determining the scope or result of the bargaining. The only restriction placed on the parties concerned is that they cannot agree to a measure which is contrary to the law. Within that obvious limitation, they enjoy freedom of action.

The following summarises the function of the Industrial Relations section: (1) To collect information on wages, movements and the like and consider


(4) To lend good offices if required in the settlement of disputes; (5) To administer the Industrial Courts Ordinance (1948), the Wages

Councils Ordinance (1947) and the Trade Disputes Ordinance (1949).

The Labour and Enforcement Section This is the larger of the two sections in the Department of Labour and Industrial Relations; and its scope is very wide, embracing as it does functions which are advisory, executive and judicial and quasi-judicial.

In its advisory capacity, it is responsible for maintaining close touch with all types of management and the labour employed by them, and by maintaining accurate records and statistics it is in a position to advise not only the Minister in matters of policy but also both employers and employees in matters relating to the law and procedure. In its executive function, it has wide powers of inspection, regulation and enforcement. In its judicial function, its officers are armed with authority to enquire into and decide disputes as to unpaid wages, notice, maternity benefits and other matters (but in all cases provision exists for an appeal to the High Court against an order so made). In their quasi-judicial capacity the officers of the Section inquire into claims for compensation under the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance, or bring an unsettled claim before an Arbitrator. Should the Arbitrator think fit, he may submit any question of law for the decision of a Judge of the High Court. This Section is also responsible for the main-tenance and development of the Employment Exchange Service, Youth Employment Service and also partly responsible for the resettlement into civilian life of ex-Servicemen.

Departmental Organisation The Department of Labour and Industrial Relations is divided into two sections: one dealing with matters pertaining to labour and enforcement of protective laws and the other with industrial relations. Each of these sections is headed by a Commissioner and the two Commissioners function to-gether as dual heads of the Department.

The Headquarters of the Department are situated in Kuala Lumpur, the Federal capital of the country, and there were at the end of the year 27 Labour Offices and three Regional Industrial Relations Offices spread throughout the country.

The Commissioner for Labour is responsible for the enforcement of


relations. He has, in addition, certain specialist officers located in three Regional Industrial Relations Offices in dealing with major industrial relations matters. Each of the Regional Industrial Relations Officers has a number of Industrial Relations Officers to assist him. These men are attached to the various Regional Industrial Relations Offices as well as to certain Labour Offices in each region.

National Joint Labour Advisory Council The National Joint Labour Advisory Council (which replaced the previous Federal Labour Advisory Board) was established in 1957 as a top-level liaison and consultative body between the government and industry. The Council which consists of 19 employers' representatives and 19 employees' representatives of the major industries in the country meets under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The principal function of the Council is to advise the Minister on:

(a) all questions affecting labour and the promotion of industrial peace; (,b) matters in which employers and workers have a common interest; (c) ways and means to stimulate regular consideration by both manage-

ment and workers on all matters affecting the progress and well-being of industry.

In addition to a Standing Committee, the Council has the following sub-committees :

(1) Industrial Relations Sub-Committee—to advise generally on industrial relations methods and procedure and, in particular, to advise how labour management relations in industry can be improved; and

(2) International Labour Organisation Sub-Committee—to examine the various I.L.O. Conventions, and advise the Minister of Labour on their ratification.

Since its inception the Council has functioned very successfully and satisfactorily. The atmosphere throughout the meetings of both the full Council and its various sub-committees has been most cordial: The spirit of goodwill combined with evidence of a genuine desire by the parties concerned have made a success of joint consultation on matters of national importance in connection with labour.

Classification of Labour Before proceeding to consider the detailed aspects of labour legislation, it


persons contractually employed to supervise or oversee other labourers. Except for certain parts of the Employment Ordinance, the term "labourer" does not include domestic servants or merchant seamen (the latter being subject to the Merchant Shipping Ordinance of 1952); nor does it include workers whose duties are confined solely to clerical, executive or inspectoral work. A labourer can be skilled or unskilled, an artisan or an apprentice.

It will be seen from this that "the white-collar worker" in offices, factories, estates, mines and other commercial undertakings is not covered by the Employment Ordinance to any great extent, unlike his manual or mani-pulative colleagues. There is no form of "Clerks Charter" in existence at present, although certain proposals have been made by the Malayan Trades Union Council that a Charter might well be drawn up. (It is understood that the MTUC is engaged in drafting one for the consideration of the Government). But even though the Employment Ordinance offers very little protection to the clerical worker, the existence of strong clerical unions and—in the final event—the intervention of the Courts has ensured that the terms and conditions of employment are not inadequate and that a contractual liability will be met, despite the absence of statute law. This is a case where the Common Law has been tried and not found wanting.

Leaving aside the "white-collar worker", it is now possible to examine more closely the legislative and social structure of employment in Malaysia.

T H E W O R K E R

Of all the various legislation today in force, by far the most important piece is the Employment Ordinance, which was enacted in 1955 but which only came into force in 1957 (apart from the provisions relating to children and young persons, who are already covered by the Ordinance of 1947). This Ordinance is, as it were, the centre-piece of social legislation regulating labour, the other Ordinances being useful and necessary embellishment to it.

Contracts of Service A labourer obtaining employment from an employer for a proposed duration of more than one month must be given a written contract setting out the terms of his employment, its duration and the conditions under which it may be terminated; the maximum duration of any normal contract is however limited to one month. In the ordinary course of events, a shorter-term contract terminates at the time specified or on the completion of the work contracted for; either side may however give notice to the other, the


the party aggrieved to terminate his contract without notice being given. A special provision applies to agricultural undertakings; where the contract relates wages to the number of days worked throughout a month, the employer is bound to provide the worker with employment for not less than twenty-four days or wages in lieu. This does not apply if the worker refuses to undertake work suitable to his capacity. Lastly, no contract may restrict the right of a worker to join a registered trade union or other type of associa-tion; this was of necessity inserted when the Ordinance was drafted, but since then the "right of association" has been entrenched in the Constitution.

Wages Unless a contract of service specifies a lesser period, wages are payable monthly in arrears not later than the seventh day of the succeeding month. If the wage period is shorter, wages are paid at the time specified in the contract. At the end of a contract which has expired or been determined by notice in the ordinary way, wages due must be paid within four days from the last day of work, or within five days if the contract is breached by either side. Minimum rates for overtime were prescribed by law during 1961, but have not yet been implemented.

Wages are payable in legal tender (viz., the currency of the country), but the law permits certain deductions to be made by the employer. These may be made at the instance of the employee, for example the deduction of union or co-operative society fees. The employer for his part may deduct overpayments from previous months or recover advances of wages paid in anticipation of service rendered (the amount which can be advanced is limited to that earned during the previous month); but the gross sum deducted in respect of any one month may not exceed fifty per cent of the wages actually earned during that month.

It is not uncommon for undertakings such as estates and factories to allow the establishment of provisions shops at which a measure of credit is extended to the employee by the shopkeeper. When properly operated, these shops are a boon to the worker, particularly if he is in a remote area. The management may be authorised by the Commissioner for Labour to deduct, at the request of the worker, sums due to the provisions shop provided the total deduction does not exceed fifty per cent of the wages earned during the month. These shops may not sell alcoholic liquor or toddy except for full payment in cash.


industrial undertakings (but this does not now apply to conductrcsses on buses, who may work between 10 p.m. and 1 a.m.). It is also an offence to permit them to start work unless they had a consecutive period of eleven hours free from work immediately before.

It is open to Parliament by resolution to vary the circumstances under which a woman may be employed and to define the conditions under which employment may be so entered.

Maternity protection is another feature of the Employment Ordinance. A pregnant female labourer is entitled to abstain from all work for thirty days before, and thirty days after, her confinement. She does not ordinarily receive a wage during this period, but is entitled to the payment, by her employer, of a daily allowance of $2.20 per day which was determined by the Government in 1957. The law makes provision if the employee changes employment during her pregnancy for both employers to contribute to this allowance. If she abstains from work for more than thirty days before her confinement, she can only claim the thirty-day allowance, which is payable within seven days from the date on which the employer is notified of the confinement. Similarly, the allowance accruing from the post-confine-ment period is payable within seven days thereafter. It is not however open to the female employee to "average-out" the total period pre- and post-confinement; if she abstains voluntarily from work for ten days before confinement, she cannot draw the post-confinement allowance for fifty days—she is restricted to the maximum period of thirty-plus-ten days in all only. This is not a harsh measure as the confinement allowances are in-variably less than the standard working wage. These limits are however flexible; a medical practitioner's certificate that her confinement has rendered her unable to work may extend both periods up to a statutory maximum of 3 months set by the Government. If she dies at any time during her pre- and post-confinement period, the allowances due may be paid to a nominee designated by her or, alternatively, to her next-of-kin.

Lastly, there are two points to be noted in connection with maternity protection and benefits. Firstly, the onus of notifying the employer that his employee is pregnant rests on the latter and failure so to notify may result in a reduction in the benefits which would otherwise be due. Secondly, if she is dismissed from employment for any reason whatsoever with wages in lieu of notice, her employer is still regarded as responsible for her if her confinement took place within four months of the date of her dismissal. It goes without saying that a contract with a female worker would be null


and if (knowing or believing that) she fails to notify her employer, then she is not eligible for any of the maternity benefits which have been described. In practice, this has seldom happened.

Employment of Children As the law at present stands, considerable restriction is imposed on the employment of children of varying ages. A child under eight cannot be employed in any capacity whatsoever, and children between that age and twelve can only assist their family or community group in light agricultural or horticultural work, or in light domestic work in their homes. Generally speaking, the earliest age at which a child can obtain gainful employment is twelve years, but if the employment is in a factory, warehouse or workshop the minimum age is fourteen. The same applies to employment in the port and shipping industries. The existing legislation is to be found in the Children and Young Persons Ordinance of 1947, but the sections relating to employ-ment in this statute are to be replaced shortly by a separate Act governing the employment of children and young persons.

In the field of commercial entertainment, children under twelve may not be employed (although this does not apply to charitable performances organised by schools, youth clubs and the like which are not staged for personal gain); and children between twelve and seventeen years may only be employed if a licence has been obtained from the Commissioner for Labour. Before issuing a licence, the Commissioner must satisfy himself as to three things: firstly, that the child is physically fit to perform; secondly, that adequate measures are taken to safeguard the child's health; and thirdly, that suitable arrangements exist to secure the happiness and kind treatment of the child. There are certain conditions under which the Commissioner may withhold a licence: one of the principal conditions of which is that the child will not effectively be under the control of at least one parent or guardian. The Commissioner's discretion in issuing a licence is wide, but is subject to an appeal to the Minister of Labour.

Working Conditions No one law sets out all the conditions under which workers may operate. In many cases, ordinary health measures are imposed by the local authority in exercise of its powers to licence industrial or commercial undertakings. A factory, an eating-house or a theatre would be subject to certain conditions of construction, safety and ventilation prescribed in the building by-laws


ensure that the prescribed safety and health rules were in fact observed. Certain industries have their own specialised rules, generally made by the appropriate Minister by way of subsidiary legislation: an example of this if the road transport industry, where the Road Traffic Ordinance of 1958 lays down certain principles which are elaborated, say, in the Construction and Use Rules of 1959, which in turn specify the minimum structural standards and the safety devices which must be maintained in all motor vehicles. Another example may be cited where machinery is installed: the Machinery Ordinance of 1953 confers wide powers on the Government Inspectors of Machinery to order safety devices to be installed and main-tained, and to ensure that this is done by periodical inspections. Similar safeguards exist under the mining laws and rules, which aim at eliminating avoidable accidents (such as landslides). Although many more examples could be cited, the foregoing illustrate the principle involved. The law can only foresee what is foreseeable, and the onus to promote healthy and safe working conditions lies squarely not only on the management but on the worker. It is for the management to ensure that the safety devices are adequate and that the worker is trained to benefit from them; but it is also for the worker to acquaint himself with the safety rules prescribed by the management and thereafter to observe them.

Quite apart from these specialist inspections, the officers of the Depart-ment of Labour and Industrial Relations have wide powers under those few parts of the Labour Codes which have not been repealed*. The Labour Codes permit them to control living accommodation available to workers in the planting and other gazetted industries. They must approve all new site and building plans, and if the constructional result is not in accordance with the specifications they may (on the advice of the Medical Officer of Health) order modifications or even demolition. Most estates lie outside the local authority areas, and the officers of the Department in effect discharge the supervisory and approbative functions of a local authority. It is not incumbent on an estate manager to provide living accommodation, but if he does the accommodation must conform to minimum standards including water supply, sanitary arrangements, refuse disposal and anti-malarial works. Once this accommodation has been erected with official approval and meets the prescribed specifications, the Department has no authority to order demolition or modification unless the health authorities certify that it has become a danger to life, limb or the health of its occupants or others.


power existed to order their demolition as they had already been an approved type of building; but since the war the various managements have co-operated willingly with the Department of Labour and Industrial Relations to secure their gradual replacement by a better type of housing, and today very few of the old "back-to-back" lines still exist.

Hours of Work and Holidays

The Employment Ordinance provides that no labourer may be compelled to work for more than six days in any week or for an aggregate of more than forty-eight hours over the same period. The same applies to shift-labourers, but they may be required to undergo a fifty-six hour week, and during the following two or three weeks a proportionate reduction of work is mandatory to bring the average down to forty-eight hours.

Until 1951, when the Weekly Holidays Ordinance came into force, there was no specified weekly holiday for workers in commerce and certain types of industry. Although the larger shops, factories and commercial offices normally closed for the week-end, many others did not. The Weekly Holidays Ordinance required every business with certain exceptions to remain closed on Fridays or Sundays*, and in addition to close on five specified days a year in addition to the weekly holiday as determined by the proprietor or manager. The exempted businesses referred to are principally those engaged in rendering services, such as petrol pumps, repair garages, newspaper shops, shops selling milk and other perishable goods and bookstalls at international airports and certain railway stations. Even so, the employees of these exempted businesses are entitled to their three day a week and five holidays a year despite the fact that the shop is open all the year round. Enforcement is comparatively simple in that every business must have prominently displayed a notice indicating the closing day and specifying the five additional holidays.

Employment Injury This is covered under the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance, 1952, under which compensation is payable by employers to workmen as defined in it (or their dependants in fatal cases), if they are injured or die as a result of accidents arising out of and in the course of employment.

Employers are required to give written notice to the Commissioner of the occurrence of any accident on their premises and which result in the death, or immediate disablement, total or partial, of any workman, within ten days of the occurrence of the accident. The penalty for failing or omitting to


give notice to the Commissioner as required by this Ordinance is a fine not exceeding $500 for the first offence and not exceeding $1,000 for any subsequent offence.

The compensation amounts payable are, in the case of death from injury $7,200 or 36 months' earnings, whichever is less, and in the case of permanent total disablement $9,600 or 48 months' earnings, whichever is less. In the case of permanent partial disablement resulting from injury compensation payable will vary in proportion to the permanent loss of earning capacity caused by the injury and, in the case of temporary disablement, whether total or partial, an amount equal to one-third of the workman's monthly earnings or $65, whichever is less, shall be paid at half-monthly intervals during the disablement or during a period of five years whichever period is shorter.

All accident reports are investigated by officers of the Department and, after securing agreement with the employers and workmen, the latter (or their dependants) are assisted in obtaining compensation due to them. Such agreements are registered in the Department and they are then en-forceable as Court Orders.

If the parties concerned fail to reach agreement in any case after enquiry has been held by a Commissioner, the disputed points are referred to an Arbitrator for his decision. An Arbitrator is the President of the Sessions Court. The Arbitrator's decision is final. An appeal against his decision shall lie to the High Court only if it involves a question of law.

By Legal Notifications Nos. 266 and 267 of 1959 all employers in the lumbering industry are compelled to insure their workmen or make a deposit of $5,000 each with the Commissioner for Labour. The penalty laid down is a fine not exceeding $100 for every day during which such contravention continues.

SOCIAL SECURITY There are existing in this country at the moment various measures of social security, such as the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance, the Employees Provident Fund Ordinance, the Pensions Schemes in the Government Service and the provision of medical benefits under the Labour Code. The Government is at present studying an International Labour ORGANISATION

Report on the Feasibility of Introducing Comprehensive Social Security Measures to cover the various contingencies that face workers today. This Report was received following a survey of the position by an expert in 1959. A Committee comprising Government, Employers' and Workers' re-

EMPLOYMENT 245

I N D U S T R I A L T R A I N I N G

Origins The following interesting comment appears in the Report of the International Bank Mission which visited Malaya in 1954:

"In the past, very little attention has been paid in Malaya to the training of an industrial labour force because skilled workers have normally come as immigrants from China. Such training as there is consists mainly of the passing on of skills from one worker to another, typically a part of the Chinese 'family' system, and of internal training schemes introduced by a few of the large firms which have been some-what discouraged by the difficulty of retaining workers once they have been trained. There is no standard system of apprenticeship leading to regulated or easily recognisable trade qualifications We must emphasise that one of the greatest obstacles to the general development of an efficient scale of factory operations is the absence or inadequacy of publicly recognised trade qualifications for skilled industrial workers."

This comment led to an investigation between 1955 and 1957 which was conducted with the assistance of the International Labour Organisation by an expert from Australia, and as a result a Central Apprenticeship Board was established as part of the Ministry of Labour in late 1956.

The Central Apprenticeship Board This Board consists of a Chairman who is an official of the Ministry of Labour and ten members. Two—a nominee of the Ministry of Education and the Chief Inspector of Machinery—are officials; two members each represent respectively private employers' organisations and government (or quasi-government) bodies employing apprentices, and the remaining four are nominated by workers' organisations in Government and private industry. The function of the board is to advise the Minister of Labour as to which trades should be "declared" apprenticeship trades and the manner in which an apprenticeship scheme should be operated. The Board also maintains a register of apprentices, exercises a general supervision over their training and apprenticeship contracts, and issues final certificates of pro-ficiency at the end of training.

In addition, there is a Central Trade Committee at national level for each trade or group of trades, which advises on the minimum age and educational


consist of an equal number of representatives of management and workers in the trades concerned.

Young persons between the ages of sixteen and twenty may apply for registration as potential apprentices if they have attained the necessary educational standards (in the electrical and engineering industries, a primary school leaving certificate is necessary). Once registered, the Board notifies employers who wish to recruit apprentices; but until a contract of apprentice-ship has been executed, the youth does not fall within the apprenticeship scheme. On securing employment, he is required to undergo not less than eight hours training per week (four being in his employer's time) at an authorised trade school. When he has passed the necessary examinations and tests, he receives a Certificate of Proficiency from the Board.

No direct financial assistance is given to apprentices, but the Government pays the cost of instruction at the trade schools. The trades at present "declared" are the Engineering Trades (fitting both mechanical and diesel, turning, machining, and motor machanics); Electrical Trades (fitting, armature-winding, radio mechanics, refrigeration and air-conditioning); Building Trades (bricklaying, carpentry and joinery and plumbing); and Printing Trades (hand and machine composition, letterpress printing, and bookbinding). Facilities for training apprentices in all these trades exist in Selangor: Penang and Perak can offer similar facilities except for printing, radio mechanics and refrigeration. Kelantan and Johore can offer facilities for the building trades only, but instruction in plumbing is not available at the former.

EMPLOYMENT SERVICES

Employment Exchanges The Ministry of Labour maintains twenty-two Employment Exchanges which are situated in the large centres of this territory. In addition, there are also part time Exchanges under the control of some of the main Exchanges and are operated weekly, fortnightly or monthly depending on the needs of the area concerned. Working from South to North the main permanent Exchanges are at Johore Bahru, Kluang, Muar, Malacca, Seremban, Port Swettenham, Petaling Jaya, Kuala Lumpur, Rawang, Kuantan, Tapah, Teluk Anson, Ipoh, Taiping, Butterworth, Penang, Kulim, Sungei Patani, Alor Star, Kota Bharu and Kuala Trengganu. There is at the Kuala Lumpur


are required to register themselves at these Exchanges where they are classified under specific occupations so that the process of matching these workers with employers' orders can be executed smoothly and efficiently. Every care is taken to ensure that the employment offered can be properly filled by a person with the right qualifications and experience. The use of the Employment Exchanges undoubtedly increases year by year and is likely to go on increasing as more and more workers and employers develop a sense of appreciation of the services rendered by it towards the develop-ment of the country. The service is free and is open to all classes of workers of either sex, regardless of whether they are employed or unemployed. The graph on the next page, shows the position of placings for the year 1962 and 1963.

During the year, Employment Exchanges throughout the country have assisted employers in Sabah to recruit local workers.

Local Advisory Committees There are also Local Advisory Committees which have been established at 16 Employment Exchanges. The Members of these committees assist in publicising the Service, thereby contributing to the improvement on the number of placings in each Exchange. These committees meet from time to time and discuss various aspects of the work of the Exchange with which each committee is concerned and their observations and recommendations contained in the minutes of the meetings are brought to the attention of the Minister for whatever action he may deem to be necessary.

Each committee consists of three panels, namely, the Employers' Panel, the Workers' Panel and the Independent Panel. Members are appointed by the Minister from nominations representing Employers' and Workers' Organisations for the Employers' and Workers' Panels, respectively, and for the Independent Panel from nominations of persons of standing in the local community. The term of office of each member is for a period of two years. A member can however be renominated on the expiry of his term of office.

Armed Forces Resettlement Panels and Placement Service To assist ex-servicemen who are citizens of this country (whether from the Federation or the Commonwealth Armies) to obtain employment in civilian life, two panels have been established, one for the Federation Armed Forces and the other for the Commonwealth Forces. Approxi-


employers, and many ex-servicemen have been absorbed into civilian life by this means. In certain specified trades and callings, Government Depart-ments are required to recruit a quota of ex-servicemen if the latter are available and suitably qualified. Since November 1959 when priority was first accorded to ex-servicemen, 5,842 of them have been placed in employ-ment by the Employment Exchange.

It is the policy of Government to assist ex-servicemen by requesting all Federal Government Departments to employ them in certain categories of employment. Under a government directive, Employment Exchanges will send to all employers, for selection, workers according to the following

The main object of this Service which started in 1959, is to provide Vocational Guidance to school-leavers by:

(i) Suggesting types of employment which will provide the best oppor-tunities for the development of their capabilities and interests;

(ii) Helping them to find employment suited to their educational quali-fications, aptitude, interest, and personality; and

(iii) Providing advice to boys and girls who have just started work. A pilot project was carried out in the secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur.

Some of the functions undertaken so far are: (i) Career talks to students in upper secondary classes (Forms IV to V)

to stimulate interest in careers. (ii) Industrial visits to introduce the school-leavers to the world of work. (iii) Preparation of pamphlets to educate students, parents and guardians


school-leavers who are interested to know about jobs, training facilities and prospects.

This Service has expanded its activities to Penang and Ipoh during 1964. It is now in the process of establishing Career Libraries in these two towns to assist students with information on careers, training facilities and employ-ment opportunities available in the country.

P R O V I D E N T F U N D S A N D P E N S I O N S

Origins The Government has always maintained a scheme of pensions for its servants, although most daily-rated labourers receive not a pension but a lump-sum gratuity at the end of their service. Today, all statutory authorities and very many commercial undertakings operate either a pensions scheme, or a provident or superannuation fund for their servants based on contributions from both employer and employee; these vary considerably in scope, and there is no need to analyse them here. Before 1951, however, there was no machinery to compel either employer or employee to make provision for the old age of the latter, and for that reason legislation was introduced to create an employees provident fund.

The Employees Provident Fund This fund was established by statute in 1951 and was designed to create at least some measure of old-age security for persons not otherwise sufficiently covered by a superannuation scheme, or other such fund. It is controlled by a Trustee Board of eighteen, all appointed on an unsalaried basis by the Minister of Finance; six of the members are appointed from the public service, and six each from representatives of the employers (not being persons holding office of emolument in the public service) and employees respectively. The unofficials are appointed for three years, but the Minister has discretion to revoke an appointment at any time. The fund is a self-contained statutory corporation with full powers to control its internal administration (including powers of delegation) and is required to perform any duties imposed by law or by the Minister. All contributions are paid into the fund, and the income can only be invested in trustee securities or loaned to approved companies; at least seventy per cent must be invested in Government securities, and


to the Fund to meet such deficiency subject to the condition that repayment of the sum so advanced shall be made by the Fund as soon as practicable.

Contributors and Contributions to the E.P.F. At the moment any person whose wages amount to $500 (instead of the previous maximum of $400) or less per mensem is required to contribute to the Fund at a specified rate, his employer contributing similar sum. The Employees Provident Fund scheme is now fully extended to cover persons employed in all establishments notwithstanding the number of employees in service, provided that in the case of domestic service, the employers are only obliged to contribute whenever their domestic servants elect to contribute to the Employees Provident Fund. The Federal Govern-ment is now contemplating the extension of the scheme to the Borneo States. The rate of contribution is specified in the Ordinance, but a sample may be cited: if the employee's salary is $70 per month, employer and employee each contribute $4; if it is $130 a month, $7 from each; if it is $240 a month, $12 from each; or $500 a month, $25 from each (which is the maximum under the existing scheme). Contributions by both employer and employee are credited to the latter's account, and at the end of the accounting year each account is credited with interest at the rate declared by the Board for the year.

Withdrawals from the E.P.F. The accumulated contributions plus interest can only be withdrawn from the fund when the Board is satisfied that the employee has died, has reached the age of fifty-five, is medically incapacitated from obtaining further employ-ment, or is about to leave Malaya with no intention of returning. The only circumstance (apart from an over-payment) in which the employer can recoup any part of the sum due to the employee is if the latter has been found guilty of criminal breach of trust (i.e. theft, misappropriation or embezzlement) of his employer's property; in such a case, a Court order would be necessary before the Board could pay any part of the money in the account to the employer. The Board, at the request of the Minister of Finance, has examined with the aid of an actuary, the possibility of making payment of annuities in place of lump sums on withdrawal.

Progress of the E.P.F. Table I below contains the main statistical information in regard to the Employees Provident Fund. It can be seen from this table how the Fund


the terms of the scheme would be more advantageous to the employee. This applies equally to funds which may be created in the future. The law makes provision for the transfer of contributions (plus interest) between the various schemes or the Provident Fund itself when an employee changes his employ-ment. There are a number of formalities and safeguards before this can be done which are too lengthy to be described in this Year Book, but details are obtainable from the Employees Provident Fund, Petaling Jaya, Selangor.

Teachers Provident Fund This Fund was established in 1961 and became operative with effect from 1st January, 1962, for teachers on the Unified Teaching Service. The Fund is controlled by a Board of Directors composed of five representatives from the teachers, two from the Board of Managers/Governors and one from the Treasury, the Federation Establishment Office, the Ministry of Education and the Employees Provident Fund. The Chairman of the Board is the Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. Members of the Board representing the Teachers and the Board of Managers/Governors are appointed by the Minister of Education and serve at his pleasure. The other members are appointed by the Ministries and the Fund concerned.

All contributions to the Fund are paid into the Employees Provident Fund who are responsible for keeping the accounts and who are paid an agency fee per account per annum. The Funds are invested in gilt-edged securities to comply with the Public Trustee Ordinance. The administration of the Fund is carried out by a Secretary attached to the Finance Division of the Ministry of Education. The rate of interest so far declared has been comparable to that paid by the Employees Provident Fund. The recommenda-tion of an Actuary is required if the rate of interest to be declared exceeds 3 % per annum as prescribed in the rules.

Contributors who are members of the Unified Teaching Service and who have had less than ten years full time teaching service are eligible to con-tribute at 15% of their total renumeration and those who have more than ten years full time teaching service are eligible to contribute at 20%. Con-tributors to the Teachers' Provident Fund will also have to contribute to the Employees Provident Fund simultaneously. The sum payable to the Teachers Provident Fund consists of the notional or hypothetical T.P.F. contribution less what is actually paid to the Employees Provident Fund.

The conditions governing withdrawal are that a male teacher who has reached 50 years of age can either elect to withdraw his contributions in full


medically boarded out. Contributors who withdraw on leaving the country with no intention of returning are only eligible for their share of contribution.

Widows and Orphans The arrangements for widows and orphans under the various superannuation schemes approved in Malaysia vary; generally, a lump sum plus interest on contributions is paid to the estate of a deceased contributor, and the estate is distributed according to the intentions of the deceased as governed by law or religious custom. In the case of government servants whose religion imposes a monogamous marital status, there exists a special compulsory arrangement to cover a widow or orphan because a pension expires with the pensioner. During his service and thereafter until the age of sixty-five, the government servant contributes four per cent of his pensionable emoluments which is credited to the general revenues of the country; on his death, the Government pays monthly to the widow or orphan a sum which is specified by law and which depends on the amount and duration of contributions and the age of the contributor and his wife when contributions commence. These amounts are expressed in tables which have been actuarially compiled. A bachelor is entitled to withdraw on retirement the whole of his con-tributions with compound interest calculated at per cent.


short, a trade or industrial dispute is a disagreement between the management on the one hand and the workers on the other, and it is immaterial whether either side acts severally or through an association or trade union.

It can be accepted, as a part of the twentieth-century way of life, that it is open to both employer and employee to stop work partially or wholly if an unreconcilable dispute occurs. Of recent years, a system of joint consultation within a given industry or undertaking has done much to reduce avoidable friction and resultant strike or lock-out action, and the introduction of Wages Councils and Industrial Courts has gone a long way towards estabhshing industrial peace and democracy. Nevertheless, strike action is still a justifiable weapon in certain circumstances—particularly when all attempts at reconciliation have proved fruitless. The right to strike is however limited in a number of cases which might for convenience be examined before considering conciliation machinery.

The Right to Strike The Trade Disputes Ordinance of 1949 imposes certain restrictions on strikes likely to affect adversely the public interest. The restrictions relate principally to public utility services such as railways, posts, telecommuni-cations, electricity, water, fire and passenger transport services, and all public health services providing for the care of the sick or the maintenance of a public conservancy or sanitation system. A lightning strike involving these services would undoubtedly affect the public as a whole and perhaps even the economy of the country, even though the public was not directly or indirectly responsible for the cause of the strike. For this reason, the law requires that fair notice of a strike by employees (or a lock-out by the management) should be given by means of what is called a strike notice or a lock-out notice. Unless such a notice has been given, strike or lock-out action is illegal and can result in severe sanctions being imposed by the authorities. The notice itself is restricted; a strike or lock-out cannot commence until fourteen clear days have expired since it was given; and if after giving this notice more than six weeks elapses without action being taken, then a fresh strike notice must be given and a further fourteen days elapse before the strike or lock-out can take place; and so on again. The purpose of this rule is to prevent employers and employees from issuing a notice of indefinite duration. Nor can strike or lock-out action take place whilst conciliation proceedings under the Industrial Court Ordinance are in progress or within seven days of the conclusion of such conciliation


take action under the Industrial Courts Ordinance, which will be discussed shortly.

A point to be noted in connection with strikes and lock-outs is this: if the side initiating the action acts illegally, the other side need not give any notice but may retaliate at once. Thus, persons going on strike within fourteen days or later than six weeks after giving notice could be locked out there and then by the management, and vice versa.

Picketing The Trade Disputes Ordinance contains two other important provisions applicable to all disputes. Firstly, it outlaws any form of violence or intimi-dation, whether direct or implied; and secondly, it legalises peaceful picketing. Peaceful picketing merely means that one side or the other may place pickets near the place where a person concerned in a dispute lives or works; and the picketers may peacefully obtain or impart information, and they may try peacefully to persuade that person to work or refrain from working. But there must be no intimidation, and the person affected by picketing cannot be obstructed from entering or leaving the place picketed; lastly, nothing may be said or done which is likely to cause a breach of the peace. In fine, the keynote of picketing is "peaceful persuasion".

Industrial Courts An Industrial Court can best be described as an independent body of men who lend their good offices to the resolution of industrial disputes. A standing Industrial Court is established by law under the provisions of the Industrial Courts Ordinance of 1948, and consists of a President and a number of members, all of whom are appointed by the Minister of Labour. Some of the members are independent persons of public standing, others may be connected in one way or the other with either the management or the workers; but all are selected on account of their personal integrity and the respect they command in their own spheres of activity. The membership thus constitutes what amounts to a panel, and when the Court is convened the President is responsible for deciding who will sit on it. The Court may call in the aid of one or more assessors who are normally experts in the business in which the dispute has arisen. The President may himself preside, or may appoint one of the members to perform this duty.

As soon as a dispute reaches the stage when strike or lock-out notices are served, or when it appears that some similar event is likely, any of the parties to the dispute is entitled to make a report to the Commissioner for Industrial Relations. The Commissioner is then obliged to take cognisance of the dispute, and his first duty is to take what steps he can to effect a reconciliation and promote a settlement of the dispute. If this fails and an


impasse is reached, the Commissioner may do one of three things, but only with the concurrence of the parties to the dispute: he may refer the matter to the Industrial Court for settlement; or he may himself appoint one or more arbitrators; or he may refer the matter to a board of Arbitration presided over by a person nominated by the Minister of Labour. The Board of Arbitration has as members persons nominated by each side to the dispute being equal in number. To facilitate the nomination of these persons, the Minister constitutes panels from time to time of persons who are suitable and from these panels the disputants may select their nominee or nominees. Whatever procedure is agreed to between the Commissioner and the parties, an award at the end of the hearing is not legally binding on the parties, but in most cases which go as far as a hearing the parties generally bind themselves in advance to accept the award of the arbitration or the Industrial Court. Where the Industrial Court fails to reach a solution to a dispute, the question is decided by the President or Chairman acting as an umpire. It is not open to the Court to make an award which is contrary to other legislation governing wages, terms of employment, working hours and the like.

Another function of the Industrial Court is to advise the Minister, on reference to the Court by him, on any matter which may be put to it regarding disputes generally or specifically. If in the industry or undertaking in question there exists machinery for joint negotiation or consultation, however, the Minister must first obtain the agreement of both sides before the matter can be referred to the Court for an opinion.

Courts of Inquiry It sometimes happens that a dispute occurs, or is likely to occur, which may have a widespread effect over other industries or which through its pro-longation adversely affect the national economy. It is always open to the Minister of Labour to appoint a Court of Inquiry under the Industrial Courts Ordinance. This is rather different from an industrial court, which lends its good offices in a specific dispute and attempts to work out a reason-able formula acceptable to all parties. The court of inquiry merely ascertains facts and reports back to the Minister its recommendations in general terms. Hearings may be either in public or in camera, and the Court has power to compel attendance and require certain information to be given; it can also administer oaths and affirmations. When the Minister has considered the report he causes it to be laid before the House of Representatives and (as may be appropriate) before the Legislative Assembly of any State. At


Wages Councils Where any undertaking has established a system of joint consultation within its framework, the regulation of wages and parallel benefits is left to the undertaking coacerned. It sometimes happens however that no machinery exists or, if it does, it is inadequate. When this happens, it is open to the Minister to appoint a Wages Council which has power to formulate what are called Wages Regulation Proposals. These cover recommendations for minimum wages and the like. The Council itself does not enforce any of its proposals: this is done by the Minister (if he agrees with the recommendations made) by order under the powers vested in him by the Wages Council Ordi-nance of 1947. It should be noted that a Wages Council cannot be established if other adequate conciliation machinery already exists—a dispute in these circumstances would be referred to the Industrial Court which has been described above.

Industrial Relations Generally It has already been seen earlier in this chapter that, so far as the Government is concerned, relations between management and staff are best regulated internally with the very minimum of Governmental interference. The Commissioner for Industrial Relations in the Ministry of Labour is much more concerned with assisting in the creation of machinery for joint negotia-tion and consultation than in the settlement of disputes, although it is his duty to help in any way possible in settling a dispute. Many industrial undertakings now have this machinery, and both management and workers appreciate the mutual benefits conferred by a system which promotes industrial democracy. The steady growth of responsible trade unionism in Malaya has played a substantial part in this, as the following figures will reveal:


T R A D E U N I O N S Origins Trade Unionism is of comparatively recent development in Malaya, the first legislation having been enacted for the former Federated Malay States in 1940. In 1946, this legislation was extended to the whole of the Federation, and was repealed and replaced by a new Ordinance in 1959.

To encourage the formation of responsible trade unionism, a Trade Union Adviser was appointed in 1946 almost immediately after the British Military Administration had handed over control to a civilian government. The idea quickly caught on, and development was rapid: unfortunately, before the beginning of the Emergency in 1948, a number of unions had been infiltrated by the Malayan Communist Party (whose policy to that year had been the undermining of the country's economy through promoting industrial unrest—the very thing responsible trade unionism strives to avoid) and confidence in the movement was seriously shaken. It is, however, only fair to say that the majority of the unionists were not deceived by the pretensions of the Communist Party; but many others were disillusioned when the Communists resorted to armed violence. The fact remains that the commu-nists had established quite a widespread "cell" system, and even when no cell existed in a particular industry or undertaking, neither the workers nor the public could be aware that that was the case. Union members were thus haunted with the fear of reprisals if they failed to conform with the party line or promote the party's main objective. It would be no exaggeration to say that it was only the steadfastness and loyalty of the majority which prevented the minority from utterly discrediting the whole movement. After the declaration of a state of emergency, the main object of both organised labour and the Government was to restore confidence—no mean task if the tensions of 1948 to 1953 are remembered.

To illustrate the growth of trade unionism, the following figures are of interest (numbers in brackets indicate the number of unions):


Legislation The Trade Unions Ordinance of 1959 does not, as is often thought, regulate industrial disputes. These are covered by other legislation, notably the Employment, the Industrial Courts, the Trade Disputes and the Wages Councils Ordinances, which have already been discussed above. The Trade Unions Ordinance is more of the nature of a charter establishing the formation and registration of a union, its internal administration, its rights and responsibilities, the conduct of its officers and the custody and accounting of union funds.

The Registrar of Trade Unions is a government officer and has offices in various centres. The law affords him a measure of protection in the exercise of his functions—no suit lies against him for anything he does in good faith, but he is still liable if negligent. He is responsible to the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare, who has certain reserved powers and who may in certain circumstances sit as the appellate authority over the Registrar's decisions.

Registration All trade unions must be registered and it is illegal for a union to operate if it does not apply for registration within one month of its formation unless an extension of time has been granted by the Registrar of Trade Unions. An application for registration must specify the names, occupations and other particulars of the applicants, the name and location of the head office and full particulars of the union officials, all of whom must be federal citizens and, other than the full-time paid secretary, the full-time paid treasurer and the trustees, have been engaged for at least three years in the industry to which the union relates. If an official has been a member of the executive of a trade union whose registration has been cancelled for improper or unlawful expenditure of funds, he is disqualified from becoming an officer, likewise if he has been convicted of certain offences (notably embezzlement, extortion and intimidation). In making the application, the rules or constitution of the union must be submitted to the Registrar, and these rules must conform to certain minimum standards which are set out in detail in a Schedule to the Ordinance. If the Registrar is not satisfied with the rules, or if he considers them to be contrary to law, he may reject the application, but an appeal lies to the Minister. If he is satisfied that the Union should be registered, it is his duty to enter the Union in the register maintained for that purpose and issue a certificate of registration.


such a fund. Returns of membership must be made once every year to the Registrar, and any change in the Union rules must be approved by him. If the Registrar is of the opinion that any of the requirements of the law have not been met, he may either permit the union to rectify its error (which may be comparatively minor or caused by pure inadvertancy) or he may serve notice calling on it to shew cause why its registration should not be cancelled. After two months have elapsed (and after considering any representations the union may make) he may cancel the registration if he thinks it necessary, and state his grounds for doing so. It is open to the Minister to order a Union to desist from performing any act whilst consideration is being given to the question of cancelling its registration or otherwise. Finally, a union aggrieved by the cancellation of its registration can appeal to the Minister, whose decision is final unless an appeal is made within thirty days to the High Court.

Trade Union Training The Ministry of Labour used to maintain a Trade Union Training Section based in Kuala Lumpur consisting of a Chief Training Officer and three other officers. These officers travelled throughout the country and were available to give such advice as might be needed by unions. In this respect, the Section undertook a part of the work formerly done by the Trade Union Adviser: but it was not concerned with actual disputes or other industrial relations matters.

The functions of the Section might briefly be described as assisting the unions to establish their organisations on a basis of responsible industrial democracy; to assist in drawing up union rules of procedure on lines agreed with the Registrar of Trade Unions; to assist in the preparation of appli-cations for registration of unions; to advise on the proper methods of accounting of funds; to prepare instructional pamphlets—this was invariably done in consultation with the Registrar; and generally to inculcate among members of trade unions, a respect for the laws of the country, the rules of the unions and the good name of the trade union organisation.

As from 1st January, 1962, the Section ceased to exist as a separate unit of the Ministry and its officers were absorbed into the Department of Labour and Industrial Relations. The functions of the former Trade Union Section are to some extent now being performed by the Officers of the Industrial Relations Section of the Department.

EMPLOYMENT 261

1949) whose members are registered trade unions which have voluntarily affiliated themselves to it. The Congress is in effect a forum in which the eighty-four affiliated unions are able to work out common policy affecting labour generally. It is completely non-political and has always stressed its abstention from politics. It is however in a strong position to represent, particularly to the government, any matter which requires common action to be taken, particularly if legislation is required. In its collective capacity, the Congress is represented on the Employees Provident Fund Board, the National Joint Labour Advisory Council and the Central Apprenticeship Board.

The Congress plays no direct part in solving individual trade or industrial disputes, that being the individual responsibility of its affiliate members. On the other hand, it not infrequently considers specific problems which may have a bearing on any matter affecting industrial relations as a whole. In this it performs a particularly valuable service in promoting industrial democracy. It also runs training courses and seminars from time to time for trade union leaders and officials.

The MTUC is in turn affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, whose headquarters is in Brussels, but it also maintains close liaison with other free trade unions throughout the world. It is thus in a position to make comparative analyses of conditions obtaining outside Malaya, and apply the lessons learned to industrial conditions in the country.

E M P L O Y E R S ' O R G A N I S A T I O N S The employers in the major industries and establishments have their own organisations to promote their common interests. The principal ones relate to the planting industry (Malayan Planting Industries Employers' Asso-ciation) and the mining industry (Malayan Mining Employers' Association), both of which are registered as trade unions. While these two and a few more of the employers' organisations which are registered as trade unions act as agents for their members in negotiating wage and salary agreements with the appropriate trade unions, there are a number of other associations of employers which deal solely with their members' trading questions. The Pan-Malayan Road Transport Operators Association which covers bus and taxi operators and hauliers is one of the organisations falling into the latter category of employers' bodies. A new association—The Federation of Malaya Employers' Consultative Association—was formed in 1959 to


Planting Industries Employers' Association, the Malayan Mining Employers' Association and the Federation of Malaya Employers' Consultative Associa-tion. Its main objects are to provide means whereby the collective views of employers on questions of general interest to them may be put forward and to provide a forum for the discussion of matters of mutual interest.

TABLE SHOWING ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT IN CERTAIN SELECTED INDUSTRIES AS AT 31ST JULY, 1962, 1963 AND 1964

EMPLOYMENT 263

T A B L E S H E W I N G E S T I M A T E D E M P L O Y M E N T

B Y I N D U S T R Y

(BASED ON THE 1957 CENSUS)

CHAPTER X

T R A N S P O R T AND COMMUNICATIONS

MALAYSIA can lay claim to the best system of communications in the Far East, if not in Asia.

The pattern of the federation's transport routes and communications results from the configuration of the country and its disproportionate wealth of mountain and jungle. The chief transport arteries run along the alluvial plain lying to the west of the central north-south mountain range. East of the main range transport facilities are relatively undeveloped, but the picture is changing under the stimulus of the Government's rural development policy.

Responsibility for the co-ordination of transport rests with the Minister of Transport, who exercises policy control by virtue of the powers conferred on him by the various Acts under which the transport and port organisa-tions operate. The General Manager of the Malayan Railway Adminis-tration is advised, in railway matters, by a Railway Board.

The Port Swettenham Authority is an independent statutory body, established under the Port Authorities Act, 1963. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Deputy Chairman and the members of the Board are appointed by the Minister of Transport. All these appointments are gazetted appointments. Appointments to the Management of the Authority are made by the Board through the help of its Service Committee. The Board is the policy-making body of the Authority and it has a close relationship with the Ministry of Transport. The Management/Board consults the Port Consultative Committee when-ever it alters or amends the general charges prevailing in the port. The members of the Committee are drawn from the various commercial circles in the country and appointed by the Minister of Transport.

In the past, Port Swettenham was operated and administered by the Malayan Administration with the advice of the Port Swettenham Board. The establishment of the Authority, however, has led to the separation of the port from the Administration and thus the abolition of the then Board. It has also given rise to the emergence of a new status to an old place which, in the main, employs the Administration's personnels to operate the port.


render to the Authority such assistance as the Authority may require. In this connection the Administration personnels employed by the Authority are given the option of either to remain with the Administration or the Authority within the period mentioned. The new port, now come under the Authority's administration, comprises four deep water berths at the North Klang Straits. It was officially opened by His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on 27th December, 1963, and came into operation then after.

The Penang Port Commission, a statutory body, exercises general responsibility in the port of Penang. Road transport is in private hands but its operation is regulated and controlled by licence, with the objective of eliminating wasteful duplication and preserving order and stability in the industry and on the roads. Domestic air services are operated by a public company, and changes in its fares and scheduled services are subject to the Minister of Transport's consent. International air services serving the federation are regulated by agreements with the Governments concerned. Coastal shipping serving the federation is based principally on Singapore but some operate from Penang: petrol and oil, in particular, are supplied to coastal depots by tanker vessels, and other vessels carry general cargo, but generally speaking competition from land transport limits its develop-ment. River transport is not of more than local significance owing to the navigational difficulties of the federation's rivers.

The postal and telecommunications services complete the system of communications in the federation. These services are operated as a government monopoly, and the two departments work on a self-sufficient and self-accounting basis. Political and statutory control is exercised by the Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications, to whom all questions of policy referred.

The principal transport problem in the federation at the present time, as in other countries, is the satisfactory solution of the problem of competition between road and rail. The promulgation of a complete new body of road traffic legislation, which is now in operation, has constituted an important step during the last two years. The problem of road safety is receiving attention.

As regards roads a distinction is made between Federal roads and State roads. Federal roads are scheduled and consist, generally speaking, of the main trunk roads and roads serving ports. Funds are provided to the Public Works Authorities for the maintenance of trunk roads and road grants to

T R A N S P O R T A N D C O M M U N I C A T I O N S 267

These routes are maintained by the Federal Government as are all other important roads and alternative main routes; while the internal and minor routes are maintained by State Governments. The majority of Federal roads in this country are constructed in the early part of the century and even though there have been improvements before 1965, these roads cater for a period when the volume of the traffic was exceedingly small and speeds and loads were low. Since 1957, traffic has increased by about 200% and now totals 342,391 or 5.14 vehicles per mile of road. With this remarkable increase which is likely to continue, it is very essential that the main roads must be improved so that they are safe and can carry the increased volume and loads. Undoubtedly, roads are the main form of transportation in this country and their traffic-carrying capacity and efficiency must expand in line with the overall economic progress and development of the country. Indeed in most spheres, roads spearhead other developmental activities in this country.

The main emphasis of the 2nd Five-Year Development Programme (1961-1965) carried out was on road improvement rather than on new road construction. Improvement to the main roads consist of widening the carriageway to 22 feet, raising the road level to eliminate flooding and replacing of weak and temporary bridges with permanent concrete structures. In many places, alignment of the road has been improved by deviation. In the process of replacing temporary bridges, the new ones are usually sited on a more advantageous position and new approaches constructed to improve the overall alignment of the stretch of road; while in other cases existing roads are improved by strengthening and widening.

Except in hill passes, the minimum speed of the improved sections of road on Federal routes is 60 m.p.h. The completion of the Slim River and Trolak deviations eliminated some 18 miles of tortuous sections north of Kuala Lumpur. The new Federal Highway between Kuala Lumpur and Klang has now been completed. This highway will provide a speedy dual-carriageway link between the Federal capital and the new wharf at Port Swettenham.

Rural development roads normally consist of short feeder roads connecting newly developed areas with existing routes, but in some cases they form a network for future connection to form through routes. The carriageway of these roads is being built to a minimum width of 14 feet, but the cons-truction is such that as traffic increases, the carriageway can be widened


Traffic can be expected to grow faster on these roads than in the case of roads designed to serve rice irrigation schemes.

The rural sector of the economy will benefit from the road programme which aims to improve the standard of existing network of Federal roads. The present technical condition of the major routes require restrictions to be imposed on loads carried by vehicles transporting agricultural and mineral produce.

The object of this aspect of the road programme was to relax these restrictions in stages and gradually approximate standards as are obtained in the more developed countries could be achieved. The new Weight Restriction Order soon to be gazetted will permit a maximum gross weight of 18 tons on the main Federal roads.

P O R T S A N D S H I P P I N G

Shipping Shipping activities are regulated by the Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1952, and subsidiary legislation made thereunder. The Ordinance provides for the registration of Malaysian ships, and for this purpose, that Section of the Ordinance dealing with this subject has been extended to Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Malaysian ships must be wholly owned by citizens or by bodies corporate having the principal place of business in Malaysia. Registers of Malaysian Ships (which wear the Malaysian Red Ensign) are maintained in Penang, Singapore, Kuching and Labuan. The Ordinance also contains detailed prescriptions regarding seamen, safety at sea, load lines, shipping Courts, pilotage, Ports and many other matters. The States of Malaya is a party to the International Conventions for the Safety of Life at Sea and respecting Load Lines.

The enforcement of the provisions of the Ordinances and of the Con-ventions is carried out by Malaysia's Marine and Marine Survey Depart-ments. A new Ordinance will be written in due course to cover all the territories contained within Malaysia. Certificates of Competency—trading limits and manning Scale, etc., are of course now read as one within the territories comprising Malaysia.

Ports The principal ports of the States of Malaya are Penang and Port Swettenham. The Port Authority in Penang is the Penang Port Commission an inde-

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS 269

water wharf and principal lighterage installations are on the Island, and it also operates Prai Wharf, formerly owned by the Malayan Railway, on the mainland, where lighters and smaller vessels are handled. The Com-mission also operates a fresh water service for supplying ships in the harbour and provides the passenger and vehicular ferry service, which was modernised in 1959, between the Island and the mainland. At present about 10 million passengers and one million vehicles are carried by the ferry service and these figures are steadily rising.

The Commission's project to construct deep water wharves on the main land at Bagan Luar has been incorporated in the Second Five-Year Development Plan. Detailed designs have been prepared and reclamation work is scheduled to commence as soon as loan funds are available.

Port Swettenham is operated by the Port Swettenham Authority. The Port is situated some 27 miles from the Federal Capital of Kuala Lumpur and is connected therewith by rail and by a road which will eventually provide a dual carriage-way throughout. A two-level bridge 989 feet in length including the bridge viaducts over the Klang River, near Port Swettenham, was recently completed and having regard to the federation's expanding economy and to the proximity of the port to the Federal Capital, the importance of this access route is increasing rapidly. The construction of four new deep water berths, each of 580 feet long and 200 feet wide, at the North Klang Straits on the west coast of Mainland Malaysia about 5 miles by sea and about miles by land to the north-west of the present port is now completed. This project costing about $40 million, was started in March 1960 and was completed in 1964. The capacity of the present port has been increased by the addition of two main deep water berths and a coastal wharf where the smaller ocean ships and coastal ships can berth as well as lighter-handling points, shore installation, transit and storage godowns and bulk liquid cargo establishments, to handle the ever-increasing tonnages at the port.

Malacca is a small lighterage port, served by certain ocean-going vessels and a port authority has been established there to improve its operation and promote its development.

Large tonnages of iron-ore from the adjacent mine are exported from Dungun, in the State of Trengganu.

There is also a considerable number of minor ports around Malaya's 1,200-mile coastline serving local trade craft and fishing vessels, at which


Kuala Trengganu and Tumpat/Kota Bharu. Iron-ore is being exported in increasing quantities from several of the minor ports.

In Sabah the principal ports are: Sandakan, Labuan, Jesselton and Tawau. Sandakan is the centre of the timber industry in that area. It handled about 3.2 million gross tons of shipping in 1964, with cargo totalling 1.2 million tons. The Government wharf is 740 feet long by 40 feet wide with a least depth alongside of 21 feet. There is also a Shell Installation Jetty, having a least depth of 27 feet alongside and which can accommodate one 3,000-ton vessel.

Labuan is the principal transhipment port for the Brunei Bay area, extending to Kuala Baram. It has been afforded "free-port" status since 1956. Timber and copra are the main exports. In 1964, this port handled over 2 million gross tons of shipping and 0.38 million tons of cargo. The Government Wharf is L-shaped, 400 feet long by 40 feet wide, with dolphins 100 feet from each end. Least depth alongside is 26 feet on the outer berth and 18 feet on the inner berth. The Shell Installation Jetty is 175 feet long; distance between dolphins is 700 feet. It has a least depth of 31 feet.

Jesselton, the capital of Sabah, is situated on the West Coast. Main exports are rubber and timber. In 1964, 1.3 million gross tons of shipping were handled with cargo totalling 0.2 million tons. The Government Wharf is 647 feet long by 40 feet wide with a least depth alongside the outer berth of 25 feet and 21 feet at the inner berth.

The port of Tawau is situated on the South-east Coast and borders on Indonesia. Main exports are timber, copra and hemp. In 1964, it handled 1.1 million gross tons of shipping with cargo totalling 0.32 million tons. The Government Wharf is 650 feet long by 40 feet wide with mooring dolphins 100 feet on each end. Dredging work has been carried out to remove silting at the wharf and a least depth of 20 feet is maintained.

There is also a number of minor ports around the area. This includes the ports of Kudat, on the North Coast between Sandakan and Jesselton, Lahad Datu, Semporna and many timber-loading harbours on the East Coast.

At all ports the port authority is the Port Officer appointed under the provisions of the Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1960.

Marine Department The Marine Department, States of Malaya, with Headquarters now situated in Port Swettenham, is responsible for the enforcement of the requirements of the Merchant Ordinance, 1952, and for the implementation of the


its harbour masters and port officers, and operates a fleet of launches both harbour and sea-going.

In Sabah, besides the responsibilities mentioned above, the Marine Department is also responsible for the management and operation of the Marine Workshop and Slipway, the management and control of coastal lighting and navigational aids.

Lights and Lighthouses In accordance with the Federation Light Dues Ordinance, 1953, light dues are collected from vessels calling at Malayan ports at the rate of 10 cents per nett registered ton for one round voyage. These dues are paid to the credit of the Light Dues Board of which the Director of Marine is the Chairman. The Board is responsible for the management of navigational aids around the waters of the States of Malaya. A chain of electrically-operated Lighthouses is maintained along the Straits of Malacca and numerous lights, buoys, beacons and leading marks are positioned in the approaches to both the major and minor ports. In 1962, the Fort Cornwallis and Pulau Rimau Lighthouses in Penang were converted into electrically-operated lights, new light buoys were established at Port Dickson, and new lights were erected at Rompin, Pulau Acheh and Pulau Chebeh in the East Coast. In 1964, work was in operation on the construction of a new lighthouse for one Fathom Bank, whilst a new light was established at Tanjong Stapa in South Johore.

Buoys and light dues were collected from vessels calling at Sabah ports at the rate of 13 cents per N.R.T. per port with a maximum of 10 calls per calendar year, or at an annual rate of $1.15 per N.R.T. per port or an aggregate fee per year for all ports of $7.00 per N.R.T. In Sabah, there are five watched lighthouses in addition to 55 other lights made up of beacons, buoys and leading lights and numerous daymark beacons and buoys marking entrances and approaches to harbours.

Dredging The Marine Department is responsible for the dredging of the approaches to ports. It's dredging equipment consists of three grab dredgers, and a further dredger of the suction type is being planned. A hydrographic survey


these areas. The Malayan Meteorological Service maintains 16 selected ships based in Singapore. These ships which are supplied with meteorological equipment send regular weather reports to the weather forecasting centres at Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Ships based in other countries which call at Malayan ports also send weather reports to the Meteorological Service. An average of over 10,000 weather reports are collected annually from ships in local waters. Warnings of strong winds, rough seas, and high tides during the North-East Monsoon season are broadcast over Radio Malaysia for coastal shipping in the South China Sea.

Pilotage Pilotage services in the States of Malaya are provided in the ports of Penang and Port Swettenham by private associations, which have com-menced the training of Malayan apprentice pilots. Pilot Boards appointed by the Minister of Transport under the Merchant Shipping Ordinance control matters relating to pilots and pilotage.

In Sabah, government pilotage services are provided at the ports of Labuan, Jesselton, Sandakan and Tawau, the Director of Marine being the Pilotage Authority for the State.

Marine Welfare In the ports of Penang, Port Swettenham and Malacca, fees (ranging from S60 to $200 according to the size of the vessel) are prescribed under the Merchant Shipping Ordinance for the working of cargo on Sundays (exclu-ding ship's stores, bunker fuel, mails, livestock, goods of perishable nature, etc.) exceeding 20 tons. These fees are paid into local funds which are administered by Merchantile Marine Fund Committees appointed by the Minister for the relief and provision of amenities and educational facilities for seamen of all races. Well-appointed Mariners Clubs are established at Penang and Port Swettenham. It is proposed in the near future that a Marine Merchantile Fund will be formed to cover all ports in the States of Malaya.


Administration With the advent of Malaysia, the Marine Departments in Sabah and Sarawak also came into the framework of a Malaysian Marine Department, and as such answers to the Ministry of Transport in Kuala Lumpur. Each Director of Marine operates his own day to day affairs, whilst Director of Marine, States of Malaya, sits as Chairman of a Director of Marine's Committee which is responsible to the Minister for the efficient running of a unified Department.

Survey of Shipping The Marine Survey Department is responsible for the Safety of life at sea from the aspects of the issue of passenger, safety, load-line and life-saving appliances certificates, survey of vessels, machinery and equipment, tests during construction, tonnage measurement, assignment of loadlines and so forth, and for the examination of engine-room staff. The Department consists of a small organisation in Penang, and the expansion of Port Swettenham is likely to require a similar establishment there in the future.

T H E R O A D S Y S T E M The States of Malaya have an extensive system of roads built and designed to international standards. The principal trunk roads comprise:

Route I from Johore Bahru in the south, through Segamat (Johore), Seremban, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Butterworth (Province Wellesley) and Alor Star to Kangar in the North.

Route II from Port Swettenham (Selangor) in the west to Kuantan in the east.

Route III which is the coastal road between Kuantan and Kota Bharu.


The majority of the road bridges are reinforced concrete or steel bridges designed by the Public Works Department to full British Ministry of Transport standards.

ROAD TRANSPORT Origins Before 1938, the control of motor vehicles, such as it existed, was governed in the four Federated Malay States by the Police in Perak and Selangor, the Chief Sanitary Inspector in Negeri Sembilan, and by six District Officers in Pahang; this function was not carried out, save in a perfunctory manner, in the Unfederated Malay States.

The motor vehicles in use—in particular for passenger services and haulage of goods—were generally in a dilapidated condition. Public passenger vehicles were of the small 7 to 9-seater type; the home-made bodies, which were known as "mosquitoes", consisted of a narrow wooden trough with seats and had a wooden canopy. Spare parts and puncture repairing outfits* were seldom carried and breakdowns and delays were frequent.

In the operation of passenger services, little attempt was made to adhere to time-tables, and, as a result of this and the cut-throat competition which was a consequence of the virtual absence of any limitation on the number of such vehicles licensed, the services were erratic and unreliable. As a further consequence of inadequate control, the maximum fares which were laid down in some parts of the country were not generally observed and the fares charged more commonly depended upon the whim of the operator.

Apart from the four Federated Malay States mentioned above there were eleven separate administrations empowered to impose motor vehicle licence fees, and many different methods of application and scales of licence fees were in force until 1938, when the new Road Traffic Enactment of 1937 came into force in the former F.M.S. Considerable progress was then made in the standardization of the registration and licensing, construction, weight, equipment, lighting, maintenance and use of vehicles, the licensing of drivers including "learners", the law regarding offences by drivers, and the general control of all road users. Under the provisions of this Enactment, a Road Transport Board was set up to control goods and public service vehicles, and co-ordinate road transport with other forms of transport. This however applied to the F.M.S. only.


Board and the various registration and licensing authorities throughout the country should be taken over by a department under a Commissioner for Road Transport, and when Malaya was liberated in September 1945, a Road Transport Department was formed under the British Military Administration; on 1st April, 1946, this became a department of the civil government (the department at present consists of a headquarters with a Commissioner for Road Transport, two Deputy Commissioners, adminis-trative and technical staff, and ten registration areas, of which the four more important are controlled by Senior Registrars and Inspectors of Motor Vehicles and the remainder by Registrars and Inspectors of Motor Vehicles). At the same time the B.M.A. Road Transport Proclamation came into force; this was based on the Road Traffic Enactment of 1937, with necessary revisions and additions to meet current conditions. For the first time it was possible to co-ordinate the public transport system through-out the peninsula.

In the following years, progress was made in the drafting of new Road Traffic Legislation to replace the Road Transport Proclamation of 1945 and its subsidiary regulations. Owing to the Emergency, however, it was not until the middle of 1959 that the bulk of it and the Rules made there-under came into force; the part relating to the regulation of commercial transport became effective on 1st January, 1960.

The existing road traffic legislation contains many necessary revisions and additions to the law which it replaced; it also includes additional Rules providing for a Highway Code (copies of which are available to the public), a more comprehensive control of road users and the fitting of taxi-meters on taxis.

Malay Participation in the Industry In the meanwhile, a Select Committee of the Legislative Council was appointed in March 1954, to consider the possibility of increasing Malay participation in the road transport industry; the report of this Select Com-mittee was published at the beginning of 1955 as a White Paper and the Legislative Council shortly afterwards resolved that the recommendations of the Committee should be implemented as soon as possible. The report contained a large number of recommendations designed to redress the


the number of road service licences for the operation of buses granted to Malays was 26 and there were 66 transport companies in which Malays held shares during the same period.

Licensing of Commercial Transport Of particular interest in the provisions of the Road Traffic (Amendment) Act 1964, is the setting up, with effect from 1st April, 1964, of one Road Trans-port Licensing Board to replace the functions of the previous 10 Regional Licensing Boards and 1 Central Licensing Board. This new Road Transport Licensing Board comprising 8 members and under the Chairmanship of the Commissioner for Road Transport deals with all commercial licensing matters. Any person who is aggrieved by the decision of this Board may appeal to the Honourable Minister of Transport against that decision. This Board does not itself operate any transport, but supervises and regulates (by licence) the operation of all goods and public transport vehicles with the object of ensuring that a stable, efficient, safe and economical system for the carriage of merchandise and passengers is available throughout the country, and that full co-ordination exists between the different forms of transport in the country.

International Licences Rules governing the international circulation of motor vehicles and drivers are included in the new Ordinance; these were a revised form of the law previously existing, modified where possible to assist in the promotion of the tourist industry by easing the requirements connected therewith as far as motor vehicles and drivers are concerned.

Functions of the Road Transport Department The Road Transport Department is responsible for the registration and licensing of all motor vehicles, the testing and licensing of motor vehicle drivers, including drivers of public service vehicles and drivers of goods vehicles having a maximum permissible laden weight exceeding 40 cwt; the licensing of bus conductors and the collection of all revenue derived from all such activities. In addition it is responsible for the mechanical inspection of all commercial vehicles at regular intervals and of vehicles where particular circumstances, such as accidents, render this necessary. Furthermore, being the administrative machinery used by the Road Transport Licensing Board, it is also responsible for the control of commercial transport.


they wish to acquire a competent driving licence. Before the licence can be issued, these tests are carried out by Driving Testers attached to the offices of the Registrars and Inspectors of Motor Vehicles; during January to July, 1964, 58,650 persons were tested throughout the country, as a result of which 42,676 passed the tests and obtained competent driving licences, and 15,974 failed. Mechanical inspections of motor vehicles are carried out by Vehicle Examiners, who are also attached to the offices of the Registrars and Inspectors of Motor Vehicles; all commercial vehicles are subjected to an initial mechanical inspection before being licensed for use, and there-after they are inspected at regular intervals, the principle being to limit these intervals to six months. During January to July, 1964, 4,446 initial and 23,303 routine inspections were carried out throughout the country. In addition, 3,373 vehicles, which had been involved in accidents, were inspected at the request of the Police and inspections were carried out on 2,541 vehicles to check their roadworthiness.

Type and Density of Vehicular Traffic The total number of motor vehicles registered in the States of Malaya on 31st July, 1964, was 320,758 comprising 3,476 omnibuses, 5,066 Taxis 42 hire and drive vehicles, 37,037 commercial load-carrying vehicles, 133,020 private cars, 129,191 motor cycles, 12,926 road rollers, tractors and trailers, etc. The foregoing figures include 11,529 Government-owned vehicles of various types.

In recent years there has been a marked trend in favour of diesel power, particularly as regards commercial vehicles; in the past seven years the percentage of diesel-engined commercial vehicles has risen from 11 1/2% to nearly 51%.

Taxation Revenue from road and other kindred licence fees continue to grow, the total for 1963 being about $81 million as compared with $69 million for 1962.

Hauliers The load-carrying capacities of the commercial vehicles operated by the haulage industry vary from 3 cwt to 20 tons, but the backbone of the industry comprises vehicles with load capacities between 3 and 8 tons. These vehicles


Passenger Transport There are 700 omnibus routes in the States of Malaya, and during 1962 omnibuses travelled some 119 million miles over these routes and carried about 328 million passengers.

The most common types of bus used for public services are the 24-32 and 32-44 seater, although smaller vehicles are operated where they are found to be more economical in use or where the nature of the road prevents the use of bigger vehicles; in addition to the normal stage bus services, express services operate between Kuala Lumpur and Malacca, Singapore, Butterworth and Kuantan, Malacca and Singapore, Johore Bahru and Mersing, Johore Bahru and Singapore, Kuala Trengganu and Kuantan and Kota Bharu and Mitchell Pier and Kulim, and a certain number of "Charter" buses, "Excursion" buses and "School" buses are operated to meet particular requirements.

Stage buses serve all the roads in the States of Malaya where services are required; certain services, which are not remunerative, are, of necessity, being operated in the public interest; only in cases of new road development is any considerable expansion of existing facilities likely.

All Hackney Carriages at present operating are being re-licensed as Taxi Cabs (which are to serve urban areas and are fitted with taximeters) and Hire Cars (which are to serve rural areas). So far a total of 1,537 Taxi Cabs have been fitted with taximeters and they are distributed as follows:


R E G I S T R Y O F V E H I C L E S , S I N G A P O R E

Introduction

With the advent of Malaysia, the Registry of Vehicles, Singapore, became a Pan-Malayan Department under the portfolio of the Minister of Transport, Malaysia. It was considered desirable, with the establishment of Malaysia, that this Department's functions should ultimately come into line with those of the States of Malaya. However, for the time being, this Department has been allowed to carry out its functions under the existing laws in Singapore, and any changes, if necessary, would be effected gradually.

Post War Development and Legislation

The Singapore Registry of Vehicles resumed its functions after the Japanese Occupation under the British Military Administration Road Transport Proclamation 1945. Early in 1949 the Road Traffic Ordinance, 1941, became law and for the first time in the history of the Colony, motor vehicles were governed by comprehensive Construction and Use Rules. Co-incidently, with this Ordinance, Part XIII of the Municipal Ordinance was revived and registration, licensing and control of public omnibuses, taxis and trishas and their drivers, conductors and riders reverted to the Municipal Commissioners. During 1950 new Hackney Carriage Bylaws were enacted. Included in these were comprehensive Taximeter Regulations. In 1953, the City Council implemented decision of January 1949 that taxis in Singa-pore should be fitted with taximeters. The staggered system of issuing licences for motor vehicles and tricycles as recommended by the Organisation and Methods Department was implemented during 1957. The Road Traffic Ordinance No. 26 of 1961 was brought into force on 29th November, 1963. With the establishment of Malaysia, draft modification Orders were drawn up to transfer powers hitherto vested in the State Minister to the Minister of Transport, Malaysia. This exercise has not yet been finalised.

Functions of the Registry of Vehicles

The Registry of Vehicles is responsible for the collection of all taxes and licence fees in connection with the registration and licensing of all vehicles, both mechanical and non-mechanical, the testing and licensing of motor


International licence There is no provision in the Singapore Motor Vehicles (International Circulation) Rules, 1948, for a holder of a foreign driving licence to drive in Singapore without converting his licence into a Singapore licence. Steps have been taken to revise the Motor Vehicles (International Circulation) Rules, 1948, to make it possible for a visitor to Singapore to drive a motor vehicle against a valid domestic driving licence held by the visitor.

Testing and Inspection The control of the Licensing Branch at Maxwell Road was transferred to the Registrar of Vehicles on January, 1962. Due to lack of space, the testing and issuing of provisional licences still remained at Maxwell Road but the section dealing with renewals was transferred to Middle Road. During 1964, 50,001 persons were tested, of which 20,084 passed and obtained driving licences and 29,917 failed.

The mechanical inspections of motor vehicles are carried out by Mecha-nical Inspectors. All goods vehicles are inspected on registration and thereafter are subject to regular yearly inspection. During 1964, 59,914 inspections were carried out by the Department. This figure included the number of vehicles that were inspected as a result of complaints from members of the public and reports by the Police.

Type and density of Vehicular Traffic The total number of motor vehicles registered in the State as at the end of 1964 was 171,496 comprising:


208 vehicles of various types were Government-owned.

Omnibus Services Licensing Authority The Omnibus Services Licensing Authority was established in April 1956 under the Omnibus Services Licensing Authority Ordinance, 1956, and the Registrar of Vehicles was appointed Secretary of the Authority by the Governor-in-Council at the same time.

Omnibus Services Licensing Authority With the establishment of Malaysia, it was thought desirable that the Omnibus Services Licensing Authority should adopt the same procedure in carrying out its functions as that adopted by the Central Licensing Board in the federation of Malaysia. Steps have been taken to implement this proposal.

Taxation Revenue from road and other licence fees continued to increase. It increased from $24,484,074.51 in 1962 to $29,784,921.38 in 1963. Revenue collected in 1964 amounted to $32,586,572.25.

T H E R A I L W A Y S Y S T E M


were developed the various State Railways which were amalgamated in the year 1901 to form the Federated Malay States Railways. By 1903 the main through line from Prai to Seremban had been completed. It was extended to Gemas by 1906 and to Johore Bahru by 1909. The Singapore Government Railway which was opened in 1903 was purchased by the Federated Malay States Railways in 1913.

By the year 1918 rail communication from Padang Besar on the Thailand border to Singapore was completed, with the exception of the crossing of the Johore Strait between Johore Bahru and Singapore. A causeway, 3,442 feet in length, was built over this gap in 1923. By that year all the branch lines on the west coast of Malaya had been opened, and work on the con-struction of the east coast line to connect Gemas with Kelantan was commenced, and the line was completed in the year 1931.

The Railway System The main line, 488 miles long, follows the west coast and extends from Singapore in the south to Prai (on the mainland opposite Penang) in the north. The railway is to be extended from Prai to Butterworth by a crossing of the Prai River on a swing bridge, and a station will be constructed at Butterworth adjacent to the terminal of the Penang Port Commission's ferry services which operate between the mainland and the Island. From Bukit Mertajam, near Prai, the line continues northwards to the Thailand frontier at Padang Besar where connection is made with the State Railway of Thailand. Through International Express passenger train services run between Prai and Bangkok, connecting Malaya and Thailand. These trains, composed of modern rolling stock, including sleeping and restaurant cars, run twice weekly. Lines branch from the main line to serve Port Swettenham and the Railway operated ports at Port Dickson, Teluk Anson and Port Weld. The east coast line runs northwards from Gemas through Negeri Sembilan, Pahang and Kelantan and terminates at Tumpat near Kota Bharu. The length of the line is 327 miles and it provides an alternative route to Thailand from Singapore. A 13 mile branch line from Pasir Mas, 16 miles south of Tumpat, connects with the State Railway of Thailand at the frontier station of Sungei Golok. With the construction of a road bridge across the Kelantan River between Pasir Pekan and Kota Bharu, the Capital of the State of Kelantan, now passenger and goods stations with related facilities are being built at Wakaf Bahru to serve as a new rail head.


of Transport in matters of policy. The day-to-day management of the Railway devolves upon the General Manager, who is appointed by His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the recommendation of the Railway Service Commission. The General Manager is advised by a Railway Board on which there is both official and unofficial representation. The Railway Board advises the General Manager on railway tariffs, estimates of revenue and expenditure, extraordinary expenditure on special or emergency works, substantial changes in the organization of the railway, expansion and development schemes and new works, and on major questions of policy in connection with the working or management of the Railway. In addition, the General Manager may consult the Board upon any matter concerning the administration and the working of the railway. The General Manager cannot act in opposition to the advice of the Railway Board without the authority of the Minister of Transport.

The immovable property of the Railway is vested in the Federal Lands Commissioner who is incorporated in the States of Malaya and in Singapore, and the movable property in the Minister of Finance.

The constitution and laws governing the operation, control and manage-ment of the Railway are contained in the Railway Ordinance, 1948, and its subsidiary legislation.

Finances The Malayan Railway is run on commercial lines, and its equity is vested in the Government. It is subject in the final analysis to Parliament. Its estimates are submitted to the Minister of Transport for approval and its yearly accounts are laid before Parliament, which thus has the opportunity of debating them. The accounts are audited by the Auditor-General. The Railway has no power to borrow money and must and can only look to the Government for funds for projects which cannot be financed from its revenue. Subject to this the Railway Administration is financially autonomous and self-accounting. The Capital Account stands at $332 million.

Until 1956 the Railway paid its way. During 1957 and 1958 there were considerable deficits occasioned by the trade recession, which was intensified by severe competition from road haulage against a background of dimini-shing traffics available to transport generally. The 1959 out-turn, however, showed a negligible deficit, after all renewals and loan interest charges, etc., had been met. With an improvement in the world-wide trade recession, and the complete restoration of public confidence in rail travel as a result


cutting down of Japanese purchase of ore from areas normally carried by the Malayan Railway and partly due to the complete stoppage of all services (except for a skeleton service) brought about by industrial action by its employees. The severe competition from road hauliers continues to persist.

Permanent Way The total route mileage of the Malayan Railway is 1,028 miles, consisting mostly of single track. The ruling gradient is 1 in 100 with the exception of the Padang Rengas-Bukit Berapit pass section near Taiping, where the ruling gradient is 1 in 80. The track is of metre-gauge laid with flat-bottomed rails which are spiked direct to sleepers made from local hardwood and creosoted under pressure in the Administration's creosoting plant in Gemas. The main track is laid with 80 lb (per yard) section rails, and branch lines and sidings with 60 lb section rails.

With a butt welding plant in Sentul the track has been relaid with butt welding rails in lengths of 480 feet. Thermit welding of the track is also in progress where relaying is done.

Sentul Works: Locomotives At Sentul, three miles from Kuala Lumpur, are located the main Railway Workshops where approximately 2,458 men are employed. The works are equipped to undertake heavy repairs to locomotives, and to build coaches and wagons. Under a modernisation scheme 26 English Electric 1,500 h.p. diesel electric locomotives and 12 diesel railcars manufactured by the Commonwealth Engineering Company of Australia, had been put into service. Six railcars have been donated by the Australian Government under the Colombo Plan and another railcar is to be donated by the Japanese Government. Twelve trailer cars to operate with the railcars are built in Sentul Works. Main line steam locomotives are oil-fired. Fifteen diesel shunting locomotives manufactured by Kisha Seizo Kaisha of Japan have been put into service and tenders have been invited for more diesel railcars.

Rolling Stock The passenger coaches, 382 in number, owned by the Malayan Railway are of a high standard, and include first and second class sleepers, buffet cars and day coaches of all classes of modern design, decoration and


freight services. Complete units of wagons and coaches are now being built at Sentul Works and in 1962, 70 wagons and 2 coaches were built in addition to conversion of rolling stock from one type to another.

Traffic During 1962, the Railway carried more than 7.2 million passengers and moved nearly 35 million tons of goods, 47% of which was general mer-chandise. Third class passengers accounted for the largest number of train journeys and contributed nearly 60% of the passenger revenue. Standard passenger fares are 14.7 cents per mile first class, 7.05 cents second class and 4.7 cents third class. The fares between Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, for example, work out at $36.20 first, $17.40 second and $11.60 third.

Facilities The Railway aims continuously to increase the comfort facilities provided for all passengers, and particularly the third class; all third class carriages will be equipped with fans, fitted with foam rubber cushion seats, and provided with "Sleepers" in the near future. With the introduction of dieselisation the Railway hopes to attract additional passenger and goods traffic as quicker and more efficient services are operated. Running times between stations have been improved, and this has resulted in a considerable reduction in the journey times of passenger and freight trains.

The Express freight services operating between Singapore and Kuala Lumpur and Penang and Kuala Lumpur and certain of the main towns provide next-day delivery facilities. These freight services are under constant review in order to meet the changing needs of traders. In conjunction with Express freight services, facilities are available for the collection and delivery of goods by Road Motor Transport from and to traders' premises; these facilities are available at all principal stations and where traders' premises are situated outside municipal or town limits, services can be provided at charges on a mileage basis. In addition to the conveyance of goods, the Railway also provides facilities for customs clearance, godown accommo-dation, land for industrial development and private sidings, for which there is an increasing demand with the progress of the country's industrialization and diversification of industries.

First and second class sleeping accommodation is available on night Express Passenger trains between principal stations on the main line and the East Coast Line, and reservations may be made up to thirty days in advance. The charges for sleepers are $10 (air-conditioned) and $5 first

286 MALAYS IA YEAR BOOK

to passengers of all classes on most day and night trains. A through Inter-national Express runs between Prai and Bangkok and through coach service known as the ASA Coach is attached between Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok to this International Express. This ASA Coach service was launched in 1962 and is proving to be popular.

AVIATION AND CIVIL AIR TRANSPORT

STATES OF MALAYA In the late 1930's aerodromes were established at Batu Pahat, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Sungei Patani, Butterworth, Taiping, Penang and Sitiawan and the first internal passenger carrying services were introduced in 1936 by Wearne's Air Services operating De Havilland DH 86 and later DH 89A aircraft from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Taiping and Penang.

Imperial Airways (now BOAC) and KLM appear to have been the first international airlines to land in Malaya around 1932. An Imperial Airways "Atalanta" did in fact land at Kuala Lumpur in 1933 but because of its weight sank into the ground, fortunately sustaining no damage or casualties.

At the end of the Second World War the aeroplane was firmly established as a means of transport in Malaya. A separate Government Department was established in 1946 on a pan-Malayan basis to control the development of civil aviation in Malaya, Singapore and British Borneo Territories and continued to exist until 1955 when separate departments were formed in each of the three territories.

On 1st May, 1947, Malayan Airways Limited formed in 1937 as a private company with an authorised capital of 5 million dollars and an issued capital of 2.5 million dollars, commenced services with two Airspeed Consul aircraft operating between Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh and Penang. As aerodromes were released by the military authorities they were improved and made suitable for Douglas DC 3 aircraft with which Malayan Airways Limited replaced the Airspeed Consul aircraft. By 1950, Malayan Airways was operating 11 Douglas DC 3 aircraft, providing regular services between Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Taiping, Penang and Kota Bharu. The Company became a public Company on 6th February, 1958 with BOAC and Qantas as its major shareholders and with the Governments of the States of Malaya, Singapore and Borneo Territories holding shares. Viscount turbo propeller aircraft were introduced on services between Singapore


Company was recognised by the award of the Cumberbatch Trophy. On 1st April, 1961, the air services in Malaya were revised to take account of the changing demand but fares and rates have remained unchanged since 1st December, 1959.

At the height of the Emergency in 1951, Government purchased five De Havilland Beaver aircraft to provide services to smaller townships not served by Malayan Airways Limited. Twelve landing grounds were cons-tructed and in all the aircraft were able to operate to 43 Aerodromes and landing grounds in the country. The Beaver aircraft operated as the Fede-ration Air Service until May 1961 when they were sold.

The first major civil engineering work after World War II was the construction at Malacca of a new aerodrome, with a runway 4,500 feet in length, a modern terminal building and quarters for staff, which was opened for civil operations in 1952. In 1955 a new terminal building was completed at Kota Bharu, by which time work had commenced on the reconstruction of a new terminal building at Kuala Lumpur Airport. The terminal building at Kuala Lumpur and its associated parking apron were designed to acco-modate international as well as domestic air services and the building contains air conditioned accommodation where transit passengers on international flights may wait during their stay at the airport. The terminal building was opened in August 1956 and at the same time the Airport was designated an international sanitary* airport. The development allowed international airlines to include Kuala Lumpur on their routes and provided air travellers with direct services to many parts of the world.

Penang which had long been an international airport used by DC 3 aircraft of some regional airlines was the next to be improved. During 1956 and 1957, the runway was rebuilt and the terminal building was greatly enlarged by the addition of two wings, one for the accommodation of transit passengers on international flights.

A recession in trade in 1958 led to the curtailment of development during 1959 and 1960 but in 1961 the terminal building at Ipoh was enlarged, accommodation for ground services was provided at Kuala Trengganu to allow Douglas DC 3 aircraft to call there and work was commenced on a landing ground at Pulau Langkawi.

Meteorological Services for air navigation are provided by a dependent Meteorological Office at Kuala Lumpur with a main Meteorological Office


Weather information from neighbouring countries, ships and aircraft are also collected and analysed at these offices. Weather forecasts, briefing, documentation and other reports are supplied in accordance with inter-national procedures to all aircraft taking off from aerodromes in Malaya or operating within the Singapore Flight Information Region.

A continuous meteorological watch on weather conditions is maintained over Malaya and the adjacent seas and routine aerodrome forecasts and reports are broadcast at half hourly intervals throughout 24 hours of the day. Warnings of adverse weather likely to affect the operation of aircraft within the Flight Information Region are sent to other meteorological centres when necessary.

In 1957 plans for the further development of Kuala Lumpur International Airport were first prepared, involving the strengthening of the present runway of 6,200 feet and its extension to a total length of 9,200 feet. In 1960 after reviewing the proposals it was decided not to proceed with this development but to construct an entirely new airport on a site some 14 miles to the west of Kuala Lumpur. This new airport has been planned to meet the requirements of the large jet aircraft now operating on the world air routes and it is expected that it will be ready for use by the third quarter of 1965. The runway when completed will be 11,400 feet long by 150 feet wide and the terminal building so constructed that it is envisaged it will be capable of handling aircraft movements as well as passengers up to 1980. Ground space is available for further extensions, if required, in the future.

In February 1962 MAL announced plans to replace their Dakotas with Fokker Friendship aircraft in mid-1963 on its services to Penang, Ipoh, Kota Bharu, Alor Star and Malacca. Major reconstruction work was carried out to extend and strengthen the runways at these aerodromes to meet the requirements of this type of aircraft.

The extension to the runway at Penang was completed in May bringing the total available length to 6,000 feet, and following a proving flight made by a Malaysian Airways Limited Comet aircraft on 12th May. Regular Comet services operated into Penang from Bangkok and Singapore from 1st November, 1964.

On 1st February Malaysian Airways Limited commenced operating twice weekly scheduled services into Pulau Langkawi, using a Twin Cessna. As from June 1964 the Cessna aircraft service to Pulau Langkawi was


Concurrently with the programme of civil engineering works, air traffic control, telecommunications and fire and rescue services have been streng-thened and built up. Air traffic control units are established at Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Ipoh, Alor Star, Kota Bharu, Kuantan, Kuala Trengganu and Malacca. Malaya contributes towards the cost of a Joint Air Traffic Control Centre established at Singapore Airport, which provides air traffic control to aircraft flying over large areas to the east, west and south of Malaya.

All air traffic control units were initially equipped with HF radio telegraphy for communication with aircraft and with other aerodromes. By 1950 radio telegraphy was replaced by radio telephony and by 1957 VHF radio telephony became the principal means of communications with aircraft. Teleprinter circuits provide communication between the various aerodromes. A network of 16 radio navigation beacons has been installed at aerodromes and along the principal air routes. Air traffic control, telecommunications and the fire and rescue services have been developed in accordance with the requirements and recommendations of the International Civil Aviation Organisation.

Kuala Lumpur is served by international air services operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation, Cathay Pacific Airways Limited, Thai Airways and Air Ceylon. These airlines provide services to Thailand, Hong Kong, India, Ceylon, the Middle East and Europe. Direct flights may now be made to over 30 cities of the world. Traffic rights granted by Malaya to the international airlines are regulated by temporary operating permits or by air service agreements between the Governments concerned.

As a result of the political situation created by Indonesia towards Malaya, all flights operated by Malaysian Airways Limited and Garuda Indonesian Airways Limited between the two countries were suspended in September 1963.

The Government is a signatory of the Chicago Convention on Interna-tional Civil Aviation of 1944 and the Air Navigation Ordinance of 1952, Orders and Regulations made thereunder give, inter alia, effect to the provisions of the Convention.

SINGAPORE

The growth and development of Civil Aviation in Singapore seen in the past years continued through 1963. The extension of the jet aircraft parking apron to accommodate another five thus making a total of fifteen of the largest turbojet aircraft at a time was completed and opened for use in


In the operational field of civil aviation activities, installation work on the Airport Surveillance Radar facility commenced in August 1963 and is expected to be in service by mid-1964. Likewise air/ground/air and point to point radio communication requirements essential to civil aviation functions were improved upon to provide for more efficient and greater coverage and together with the new radar facility would contribute to greater air traffic safety in this region of increasing aircraft activities.

Of significant importance in the administration of civil aviation activities in Singapore was the transfer of control of the Department of Civil Aviation from the Ministry of the Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore to the Federal Ministry of Transport on the birth of Malaysia in September 1963. Albeit the machinery of administration within the department as previously set out continued to be exercised and the efficiency of civil aviation functions in Singapore were maintained throughout the year under review.

Aircraft Movements Aircraft movements through Singapore Airport continued to rise. The total number of movements recorded for the year was 44,822 which showed an increase of approximately per cent over the previous year's figures. Likewise the total number of passengers carried on these flights showed similar percentage increase, though there was a slight decrease to the total freight and mail figures as compared to 1962. Comparative figures in respect of aircraft movements, passenger, freight and mail recorded at Singapore Airport for the past three years were as follows:


Pan American World Airways KLM-Royal Dutch Airlines Thai International Cathay Pacific Airways Garuda Indonesian Airways Alitalia-Italian Airlines British United Airways Royal Air Cambodge

In the domestic air services between Singapore and the other States of Malaysia, an outstanding advancement in modern air travel within Malaysia was achieved on the introduction of the Turboprop Fokker Friendship types of aircraft by Malaysian Airways on the domestic routes. By the end of 1963 almost all the domestic services operated by DC3 were replaced by the new Friendship aircraft except services to and from airports on the east coast of Malaya which continued due to limited ground facilities.

Likewise in the regional air services operated by Malaysian Airways, the Company's services to Bangkok, Hong Kong and Djakarta (suspended in September 1963) showed great improvement and patronised by an increasing number of air travellers with the replacement of the slower turboprop Britannia aircraft by high speed turbojet Comet IV aircraft towards the end of 1962.

Throughout 1963 Singapore Airport was also the base of operation for all RAF Transport Command aircraft comprising the Britannia and Comet types. This was only a temporary arrangement whilst Changi Air-field, the normal base for military air transports, was undergoing extensive runway works.

Operational Services The department's operational services functioned satisfactorily throughout 1963 in accordance with the standards and practices laid down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation.

The normal high standards of air traffic services were provided to all aircraft flying within the Singapore Flight Information Region. To enhance the control of present day jet aircraft flying along international air routes between Singapore/Bangkok and Singapore/Saigon, the common inter-national Flight Information Region Boundary at 08°N was adjusted to


In the provision of air traffic services to all enroute aircraft throughout the year, the Search and Rescue Services were alerted on 75 occasions when the safety of aircraft flying within the Singapore Flight Information Region under the charge of the Regional Air Traffic Control Centre were in doubt. Fortunately no mishaps resulted on all the occasions. Likewise at the Airport itself, the crash and rescue organisations had to be alerted on 81 occasions for emergency aircraft landings caused mainly by engine and mechanical failures of the aircraft system. No crashes resulted from these abnormal landing operations though on a few occasions, aircraft had to be assisted to the parking areas after having landed safely.

The only fatal aircraft accident which occurred in 1963 was a Chipmunk aircraft belonging to the Royal Singapore Flying Club. It crash landed in an open area within the Airport grounds whilst engaged on flying training. Both the pilot and the pupil were killed.

Aircrew Licensing 71 student pilot's licences were issued in 1963 as compared with 56 licences issued in 1962. This reflected the growing interest shown of flying in Singapore. The increase will undoubtedly be more marked if costs could be appreciably reduced. Licence renewals in all categories totalled 192. 127 United Kingdom aircrew licences were renewed in Singapore and 39 licences were validated for use in Singapore.

Aircraft Registration During the year, six aircraft were deleted from the register and two aircraft were added. With the formation of Malaysia, the Department of Civil Aviation in Singapore assumed responsibility for the registration of all aircraft within the Malaysia Region. With the United Kingdom Air Regis-tration Board established in Singapore to look after aircraft worthiness aspects, such arrangement was therefore considered a wise move. To facilitate the licensing aspects of aircraft, aircrew and various other civil aviation activities on a Malaysian basis, a unified Malaysian Civil Aviation Legislation, modelled on current practices had been drafted for adoption.

Training Refresher training of the department's operational staff to familiarise them with the latest techniques and developments in the art of air traffic


To assist in the training of the air traffic control staff in radar operations, a Senior Air Traffic Control Officer successfully completed an extensive Radar Course in the United Kingdom. Together with a Radar Instructor seconded from the U.K. Ministry of Aviation, these two officers would provide the department's Air Traffic Controllers with the basic radar training before the Surveillance Radar facility at Singapore is brought into operation by mid-1964.

Planning Though 1963 saw the realization of the department's major development projects in various fields of civil aviation functions, much more remained to be completed. As civil aviation develops towards the supersonic era, modification to current projects were necessary in the light of rapid ex-pansions both in the aircraft manufacturing and air transportation industries. Further studies were made into the provision of modern navigational aids for the international air route junction at Mersing; the installation of Visual Approach Slope Indicators a modern form of visual landing aids and possibly an Instrument Landing System. Future expansion requirements of the Airport to meet the probable introduction of supersonic air travel in this Region by the next decade were also examined and development proposals had been submitted for consideration and inclusion in the development plans.

Conferences and Meeting The department participated in the International Civil Aviation Organisation Limited RAC/COM Meeting held at Bangkok in September/October 1963. The Airport General Manager who was the alternate leader of the Malaysian delegation was nominated as the Conference Vice-Chairman of the RAC Committee.

The Director of Civil Aviation attended the Third Informal Meeting of Directors of Civil Aviation in the South East Asia and Pacific Regions held at Melbourne, Australia, in November, 1963. He also attended a meeting of Directors of Civil Aviation at Saigon in July 1963 pertaining to the implementation of aeronautical facilities recommended by ICAO for the region.

BORNEO TERRITORIES Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei, which together with the adjacent portion of the South China Sea extending approximately 150 miles from the coastline


In general, the Borneo States present ideal conditions for the development of Air Transport as a primary method of commercial and public commu-nications. For this reason aerodromes have been developed both in the coastal plains and in the mountainous interior regions, and the Governments have themselves participated as shareholders of the airline companies (Malayan Airways Limited and Borneo Airways Limited) operating within the States.

Because of their situation and geographical features, these States are heavily dependent on air services for internal and external Communications with Brunei, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong and the Philippines. Internal air services are operated by Borneo Airways Limited with a fleet of two Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer and three DC 3 aircraft. They serve to link up all main centres of population and commerce. The growth of air travel was further emphasised in 1963 by the introduction of Charter Services by Malaysia Air Charter Company Limited operating two single engine Cessna aircraft.

External services to Singapore and Kuala Lumpur are operated daily by Malaysian Airways using Fokker Friendship aircraft. Cathay Pacific Airways operates a once weekly direct service from Jesselton to Hong Kong and another weekly service to Hong Kong via Manila with Electra aircraft.

Malaysian Airways introduced Comet aircraft on the Kuching/Singapore route and plans were made for the introduction of Comet flights Jesselton/ Singapore in April 1964 when the extension of Jesselton Airport runway to 6300 feet was scheduled to be completed.

Air Traffic Control Services provided are Flight Information Service to aircraft within the Borneo Flight Information Region; Aerodrome Air Traffic Control Units at Jesselton, Labuan, Sandakan, Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu with Control Zones at Jesselton, Kuching and Labuan/Brunei. Aerodrome Flight Information Service is provided at the following aero-dromes used by public transport aircraft where the number of movements does not as yet require full Aerodrome Control: Tawau, Lahad Datu, Kudat, Ranau, Keningau, Lawas, Marudi, Lutong, Simanggang, Mukah.

THE POST OFFICE Malaysia was formed on 16th September, 1963, and it comprises the States of Malaya (namely, Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Penang, Perak, Perlis, Selangor and Trengganu), the State of Singapore and the Borneo States (namely, Sabah and Sarawak). The Postal

T R A N S P O R T A N D COMMUNICATIONS 295

of Posts and Telecommunications, Sabah, Jesselton. All these Postal Services Departments are in the portfolio of the Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. For more than fifty years there have existed special inter-territorial postal arrangements between the postal administrations of the Commonwealth in Southeast Asia, but one of the first formal agreements was the establishment in 1934 of the Postal Union comprising the Colony of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States of Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. Following the Japanese occupation the Unfederated Malay States were admitted to the Union and the agreement was revised and reissued in 1949 as the Postal Union of Malaya Agreement which is now regarded as impliedly revoked by the Malaysia Act, 1963. The joint Administrative and Accounting Headquarters in the States of Malaya and Singapore are under the control of the Postmaster-General, States of Malaya and Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, while in the States of Sabah and Sarawak are under the control of the Regional Director, Posts and Telecommunications, Sabah, Jesselton. Separate accounts are maintained for both the States of Malaya and Singa-pore and the States of Sabah and Sarawak.

The Federation of Malaya by means of constitutional processes changed its name to Malaysia and admitted the three new States of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Malaysia is a member of the Universal Postal Union, an international organisation founded in 1874 by the postal administrations of countries throughout the world. The Union is recognised by the United Nations as a specialised agency whose aim is to secure the improvement of postal services and to promote in this sphere the development of international collaboration. As on 1st September, 1964, 125 countries were members of the Universal Postal Union. Malaysia formally adheres to the Convention which is the legal basis of the Union.

The Convention fixed the constitutional structure of the Union and regulates the handling of letter mail passing from one territory to another. Other types of mail are governed by special Agreements which are binding only on the countries which have acceded to them. The Detailed Executive Regulations, complementary to the Convention and Agreements, are regarded as administrative agreements between the Postal Administrations.

The Central Accounting Organization of the Postal Services Department in Kuala Lumpur together with the States of Malaya and Singapore Head-quarters of the Post Office Savings Bank at Petaling Jaya, the Broadcasting and Television Licences records section and the States of Malaya and


who are responsible to the Postmaster-General for the day-to-day main-tenance of all postal services, the preparation of development plans and the implementation of the States of Malaya and Singapore postal policy. For administrative convenience the States of Malaya is divided into seven territorial zones.

Post Offices By the end of 1963 there were 221 static Post Offices in the States of

Malaya and 37 in the State of Singapore providing the full range of Post Office services (notably sale of stamps; acceptance of registered and parcel mail; sale and encashment of Money Orders and Postal Orders, and Savings Bank facilities). Many agency services were operated on behalf of Govern-ment and quasi-Government Departments. These agency services include, among others, the payment of pensions; the payment of Dependants' Allowances on behalf of the Malaysia Armed Forces; the payment of Social Welfare Allowances and warrants issued by the Rubber Industries Replanting Board; the sale of Broadcast Listeners' Licences and Television Licences; the collection of payments for electricity and water services; the collections and payments for Central Provident Fund; acceptance of contributions for the National Land Finance Co-operative Society Limited; the sale of dog badges, Highway Code booklets and a number of facilities provided for the Employees' Provident Fund.

In addition, Mobile Post Offices have, during recent years, been introduced in the States of Malaya and Singapore to meet the needs of the rural popu-lation. These specially designed vehicles which run to a strict schedule are parked at authorised stopping points at advertised times. During 1963 more than $6-jr million worth of business was transacted at Mobile Post Offices; over 6,000 Savings Bank accounts were opened and the value of the money orders issued totalled $1,134,561. At the close of 1963 forty-eight Mobile Post Offices were in service and further vehicles were on order to increase the number of visits on existing routes and to cover new areas.

Postal Agencies In villages and small townships where the traffic potential is unlikely to justify the establishment of a fulltime Post Office the needs of the inhabitants are met by Postal Agencies providing services mainly restricted to postal


originally manned by a private agent, but in August 1963 a new departmental motor boat was purchased and the agency converted into a Postman Agency. These Riverine Postal Agencies serve the riparian villages of a section of the Pahang River with a population in excess of 22,000 and cover a distance of approximately 332 miles a week.

Cash Turnover The cash turnover at Post Offices and Postal Agencies in the States of Malaya and Singapore totalled $904 million in 1963 an increase of $39 million over 1962.

Delivery Services In all the larger towns in the States of Malaya, a twice daily house-to-house delivery service is standard but in the Singapore Town area, three deliveries a day are made. In the smaller towns a once daily delivery service is provided. In the remoter rural areas the frequency of delivery depends on the volume of traffic and the degree of accessibility of the village or community; in most cases a once daily or thrice weekly service is provided but there are some areas where it is not possible to provide a house-to-house delivery under existing conditions and mail has to be collected from the nearest Post Office or Postal Agency. To assist the postmen and to accelerate delivery, motor cycles and power-assisted cycles are being introduced in increasing numbers.

Mail Services As might be expected in a rapidly developing country there has been a considerable increase in the number of postal articles handled. Statistics reveal that the total number of postal articles handled in the States of Malaya in 1963 was 8.7% greater than in 1962, and in 1962 was 5.7% greater than in 1961. The number of items handled in the States of Malaya for the three years was 289 million in 1963, 266 million in 1962 and 252 million in 1961. The number of postal articles handled in Singapore in 1963 was 5.5% greater than in 1962, and in 1962 was 1.1% greater than in 1961. The actual number of articles handled in Singapore for the three years in question was 143.5 million, 136 million and 134.5 million respectively.

The articles posted in Sabah in 1963 was about 3.99 million items and in Sarawak about 5.93 million items.


on the day following the day of posting but in a very few areas (where public transport operates infrequently) a two-day transit period is inevitable. The internal air services which link the larger towns are used for conveying first-class correspondence without surcharge whenever delivery can be accelerated. The same principles apply to the conveyance of air mail corres-pondence received from overseas. In addition, a surcharge internal air parcel service is provided.

There are eight offices of exchange in the States of Malaya and one in Singapore which handle surface mail to and from overseas countries. The chief in-ports for incoming overseas surface mail are Singapore and Penang but a substantial proportion of incoming and outgoing mail is routed via Singapore.

The principal offices of exchange for handling air mail to and from overseas countries are Singapore and Kuala Lumpur. However, with the increasing use being made of Kuala Lumpur Airport by international air lines, Kuala Lumpur is expected to become the major office of exchange for handling overseas air mail to and from the States of Malaya. A surcharged air parcel service is also operated with countries which have agreed to participate in the scheme.

Postage Stamps It is improbable if any country in the world has a greater variety of postage stamps than Malaya, the present issue being 125, and with the formation of Malaysia, the total number of postage stamps has increased to 171.

The present Malayan definitives comprise of the pictorial series issued in 1957 of 15 denominations, four of which are common to the eleven States of Malaya and the remaining eleven preserve the individuality of the State which they are sold.

For the State of Singapore, there are 15 denominations which comprise of three pictorial series depicting Malayan fishes, orchids and birds issued in 1962 and 1963.

There are 16 denominations for the State of Sabah representing the various aspects of the State and so do the 15 denominations for the State of Sarawak.

With the attainment of Malaysia, all these stamps are valid for postal tender throughout the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak.

Since the attainment of Malaysia in September, 1963, commemorative postage stamps have been issued to mark events of outstanding national


Philatelic Bulletins have also been issued to publicise the issue of the commemorative stamps and are issued free-of-charge to philatelists. For the first time, First Day Cover albums were produced and sold throughout Malaysia.

Special philatelic service is provided at all Post Offices in the States of Malaya and Singapore for the date-stamping and return over the counter of self-addressed First Day Covers used in conjunction with commemorative postage stamps.

Philatelic Bureaux have been established in Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Penang in order to serve the needs of collectors.

Postal Information At Appendix IV will be found full details of both domestic and foreign Postal facilities.

BORNEO REGION

Introduction Before the advent of Malaysia, Posts and Telecommunications were under the charge of the Posts and Telegraphs Department, North Borneo, administered by a Director with Headquarters in Jesselton, and the Posts and Telegraphs Department, Sarawak, administered by a Postmaster General with Headquarters in Kuching.

With effect from Malaysia Day, a new Regional Department of Posts and Telecommunications was formed to include the two former separate Departments in Sabah and Sarawak. The new Department is administered by a Regional Director with Headquarters in Jesselton and a Deputy Regional Director stationed in Kuching. The Regional Director is res-ponsible, through the Permanent Secretary, to the Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications in Kuala Lumpur.

Historical Postal services in Sabah were first established in 1883 under the auspices of the British Borneo (Chartered) Company, with the first issue of North Borneo postage stamps. Revenue from the sale of stamps was at first very small, amounting to only $3,354.00 in 1887, and $14,853.00 ten years later. It is interesting to compare these figures with the total amount of $1,552,843.00 derived from the sale of Sabah postage and revenue stamps


Administration, with equipment supplied by the Australian Army Post Office.

In post war years, the Postal Services Branch has been actively engaged in re-building the service to the limit of the funds available. Old Post Offices have been replaced by new buildings, and Postal Agencies have been estab-lished in many of the smaller towns. A Mobile Post Office service has also been introduced to meet the postal needs of communities in rural areas.

The internal airlines linking the main towns in the country with, in most cases, a daily service have enabled the Post Office to establish a regular and frequent internal air mail service, carrying first class correspondence pre-paid at ordinary inland rate, without surcharge.

External air mail services comprise a daily service each way with Singapore, and a twice-weekly service with Hong Kong.

In Sarawak, postal services became properly established in 1869 with the opening of a Post Office at Kuching and the issuing of the first postage stamp of three cents denomination having as its portrait of the first Rajah, Sir James Brooke.

The Post Office at Kuching was situated at first in the District Court building, and later in another building. The present General Post Office building was occupied in October 1931.

Up to the year 1917 the only means of communication between Sarawak and Overseas was by sea. Mails were exchanged once weekly between Kuching and Singapore, transported by the vessels "Kuching" and "Rajah Sarawak".

Steady progress had been made in the field of postal communications between the two World Wars, but civil postal services ceased completely in December 1941 when Sarawak was occupied by Japanese Forces. The services were not fully restored until April 1946 when the civil Adminis-tration took over from the Military Forces.

Since the end of the Second World War, further progress has been made. New Post Office buildings have been erected and many Postal Agencies have been established. The frequency of mail services, particularly air mail services, has been increased and new services have been arranged at every opportunity. Delivery services have been introduced in the main centres.


A Mobile Post Office service was introduced in 1962 on the West Coast. The vehicle is based in Jesselton and operates strictly in accordance to schedule. Urban and rural services are provided on alternate days of the week. The terminal points of the rural services at present are Tamparuli, a small town situated 21 miles north-east of Jesselton, and Penampang, a township located 8 miles to the south-east. The Mobile Post Office service has been popular since its inception, and the volume of business transacted is satisfactory.

There are altogether 42 Post Offices in Sarawak, but a number of these do not provide full postal facilities. The General Post Office is at Kuching. Other principal post offices are stationed at Simanggang, Sibu, Sarikei, Miri, Muka, Bintulu, Marudi and Lawas.

Postal Agencies In Sabah Postal Agencies have been provided in several small townships and villages where the business potential does not justify the establishment of a Post Office. There are three categories of Postal Agencies in operation, namely: (a) Official Agencies; (b) Full Scale Private Agencies, and (c) Restricted Private Agencies. Official Agencies are located at District Offices, and are managed by administrative clerks. The classes of business transacted are the same as for a departmental Post Office, except that money order business is not handled. The administrative clerks prepare accounts daily in the same way as regular postmasters.

Full Scale Private Agencies undertake all classes of business except money and postal orders and they do not handle insured or Cash-on-Delivery articles.

Restricted Private Postal Agencies deal only in the sale of postage stamps, acceptance and delivery of unregistered letters and articles, despatch and receipt of mails.

At present there are 6 Official Agencies, 3 Full Scale Private Agencies and 5 Restricted Private Agencies in operation besides a number of Stamp Vendors handling sale of postage stamps and, in certain cases, dealing with ordinary letter post articles. Several District Offices also engage in postal work to a lesser degree than those Official Postal Agencies.

In Sarawak there are 15 Postal Agencies dealing only in the sale of stamps, acceptance and delivery of unregistered postal articles, and despatch and receipt of mails.


letter-boxes and it is interesting to note that private boxes have retained their popularity with the public in the two towns provided with a postmen delivery service. Delivery of correspondence is also effected by means of private locked mail bags.

Mail Services In Sabah, the number of pre-paid postal articles handled has increased steadily year by year, reaching a total of 9,456,692 in 1963, an increase of 16.4% over the number dealt with in 1962.

The bulk of first class internal correspondence is transported by Borneo Airways Ltd, and letters, etc. addressed to the main towns are available for collection by addressees, or are delivered by Postmen where this service operates, on the day following the day of posting. A substantial quantity of mail is conveyed by the Sabah Railways, operating on the West Coast from Jesselton to Melalap through Papar, Beaufort and Tenom, and a number of smaller townships. Private road transport, operating under contract by the Department, handles mails mainly to places not served by air or rail or places receiving mails by other means. A mail service operated by departmental vehicles from Jesselton serves Tuaran and Penampang on a daily schedule. There is a weekly marine service operated by the Straits Steamship Co. Ltd, which links the ports and transports a large quantity of second class mails and parcels.

Surface mails to and from overseas countries are handled by four exchange offices at Jesselton, Sandakan, Labuan and Tawau. Airmails are handled at Jesselton international airport, once daily serving Singapore, Brunei and Sarawak, and twice weekly serving Singapore and Hong Kong by Malaysian Airways. There is also a twice weekly service with Hong Kong in each direction operated by Cathay Pacific Airways. Air parcels are despatched to certain overseas countries through transmission from Singapore.

In Sarawak, surface sea mails are received and despatched weekly at Kuching, Sibu, Miri and Sarikei. The volume of mail is considerable, notwithstanding the fact that a large and increasing amount of corres-pondence is carried by air.

There is a daily air service between Kuching and Singapore, in each direction, and a twice weekly service by jet aircraft to Singapore and Hong Kong.


The total volume of correspondence is considerable. The General Post Office at Kuching deals with over 13 million letters, 80 thousand parcels, and about 500 tons of second class mail every year.

Savings Bank A Post Office Savings Bank is established in Sarawak, with Headquarters at Kuching. There are approximately 9,700 depositors, with deposits amounting to over million dollars, nearly all of which is invested in securities outside Sarawak. Facilities exist for the transfer of Savings Bank accounts between Sarawak, Malaya, the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries.

In Sabah although there is a Post Office Savings Ordinance in existence, no Savings Bank has so far been opened.

T E L E C O M M U N I C A T I O N S

STATES OF MALAYA AND SINGAPORE

Early Development The first recorded instance of telecommunications in Malaya dates from 1874 when the first British Resident was appointed in Perak. The only means of communication at that time was by boat, elephant or runner. A more reliable and faster means of communication to assist the Resident's work and that of the small Police and Military forces was needed. There is no doubt that all the systems known at the time from semaphore to the electric telegraph had been considered. Consequently, it was recorded that a telegraph line was opened in Perak in 1876 between the Resident's offices in Taiping and Kuala Kangsar. Another one was erected from Kuala Lumpur to Malacca in 1886 and from Malacca there were links with Singapore and abroad. Telephones followed in 1891, only 12 years after the establishment of the first telephone exchange in the United Kingdom. Kuala Lumpur's first telephones—probably the first installed in Malaya— connected the town's suburban Police stations and the hospital. The advan-tages of telephone communication were soon appreciated and in 1892 the Police Headquarters had a telephone switchboard for six lines, and the Post Office another four lines to Government Offices. In 1895 there were 21 telephones in Kuala Lumpur, but plans to build an exchange were deferred


system was then gradually extended linking most of the tin mining towns of Selangor and Perak.

The years between the Wars As the number of telephone subscribers increased the necessity of providing an automatic exchange was envisaged and in 1929 arrangements were made to replace the Kuala Lumpur exchange with an automatic one. The exchange was put into service in 1930 and the building for this automatic exchange is the present telephone exchange building at Weld Road in Kuala Lumpur. The "carrier" system of telephony between Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh was also introduced in 1930 and this system was later extended to Singapore and other States. By 1933 there were 20 telephone exchanges in existence in Selangor, all of which were connected to the Malayan Telephone System.

Overseas radio communication services also developed with circuits to Bandoeng and Manila, whereby all the exchanges in the Malayan Trunk system could communicate with all exchanges in Java and the majority of the Philippine Islands. Soon after, arrangements were made to extend the Radio Telephone Service between Malaya and Great Britain and other European countries via Java. By mid-1934 a public radio telephone service was available between Malaya and North America (U.S.A., Canada and Mexico).

During the Japanese occupation, standards of maintenance of telephone and telegraph services all over Malaya fell very low. Hundreds of iron poles and thousands of miles of copper wire had been dismantled and recovered by the Japanese as they were not required for the skeleton telecommunications service they provided, but which could be more usefully employed in their war effort elsewhere. Large numbers of telephone instru-ments and Private Branch Exchange switchboards were among the many things sent out of the country by the Japanese. Thus a complete overhaul was essential, amounting almost to reconstruction of the main overhead line plant.

Mention should be made, at this stage, of the rapid and efficient manner in which most of the pre-war telecommunication services were re-established during the British Military Administration period, in spite of tremendous difficulties, due, partly, to the "scorched earth" policy adopted during the 1941 Malayan compaign and partly to the subsequent sabotage and neglect during the period of the Japanese occupation.

T R A N S P O R T A N D COMMUNICATIONS 305

and Telecommunications. The Department is also Pan-Malayan and the Director-General of Telecommunications is responsible for telecommu-nications in both the States of Malaya and Singapore. It is self-accounting.

The Telecommunications system in Malaya although small in size compared with western countries probably provides the most modern service in South-East Asia and, in technique and transmission standards, is as up-to-date as any European country. For every thousand head of population fourteen have telephones. This is high for an Asian country.

Objectives The Department of Telecommunications aims at the following broad objectives:

(a) to meet the public demand for telephone service at established telephone exchanges;

(b) to complete the conversion of all existing manual exchanges to automatic;

(c) to provide facilities for subscriber trunk dialling between the larger telephone exchanges;

(d) to provide telephone service in areas not at present served, with particular reference to the rural areas;

(e) to provide automatic switching facilities for the inland teleprinter services;

(f) to expand training facilities;

(g) to extend and improve the inland trunk and junction network;

(h) to develop the external radiocommunication services.

Inland Telephone Service Within the States of Malaya, at the end of December 1963, 98,471 telephones were served by 300 exchanges of which 267 are of the automatic type.

The biggest automatic exchange is the Kuala Lumpur exchange which is of 13,200 line capacity. The other big automatic exchanges are in Penang of 9,000 line capacity, Ipoh of 6,000 line capacity, Malacca of 2,800 line capacity, Seremban of 2,200 line capacity and Johore Bahru of 2,200 line capacity.


to subscribers connected to the following exchanges, Penang, Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Malacca and Singapore.

Trunks and Junctions Linking the exchanges is a trunk and junction network covering the country and extending to Singapore. These trunk and junction circuits are provided by land line carrier systems and multi-channel very high frequency (VHF) and microwave radio systems.

The densely forested and mountainous nature of the Malayan country-side is a feature which has a profound effect on the development of the trunk and junction network. Whereas in the past the major towns of the States of Malaya were linked by overhead copper wire routes which were subject to frequent breakdowns due to falling trees and branches, they are now being linked by multi-channel VHF radio and by even more modern multi-channel microwave radio.

Nearly all the main towns are connected by high capacity microwave systems. Each of these is capable of carrying several hundred high quality telephone channels and is provided with a complete standby. The power supply to these stations is of the "no break" type and is also duplicated. These systems provide adequate capacity to allow for the rapidly increasing volume of trunk call traffic. The following towns are already interconnected by microwave: Singapore, Johore Bahru, Kluang, Malacca, Seremban, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Penang, Sungei Patani, Alor Star. Other VHF radio links extend across the country from west to east. A 48-channel system exists from Kuala Lumpur to Kuantan, a similar system from Ipoh to Kota Bahru and a smaller system from Kluang to Mersing. Ever increasing use is being made of VHF multichannel junction radio. The hilltop steel masts carrying aerial arrays for these radio systems are now a common feature of the Malayan landscape. Other trunk circuits are provided by 12-channel and 3-channel land line carrier systems.

The whole trunk network is designed to conform to the requirements of the International Telecommunications Union, the international body which lays down the standards for international telecommunications. A feature of Malayan Telecommunications is the very high calling rate from subscribers and hence the very large trunk and junction network required for a comparatively small number of telephones.


of the world. This service is available through Singapore to the following countries :

Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bermuda, Brazil, Brunei, Burma, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cyprus, Czecho-slovakia, Denmark, Eire, Faroes Islands, Fiji Islands, Finland, Formosa (Taipeh), France, Germany (Federation Republic of), Ghana, Gibraltar, Guatemala, Hawaii, Honduras, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, India, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordon, Kenya, Korea (South), Lebanon, Lower California, Luxembourg, Macao, Mexico, Morocco, Nepal, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Nyasaland, Pakistan, Panama, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Rhodesia, Rumania, Sabah (North Borneo), Sahara, Sarawak, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanganyika, Tangier, Thailand (Bangkok Area), Tunisia, Uganda, United Arab Republic (Egypt), United Kingdom, United States of America, U.S.S.R., Vatican City State, Venezuela, Vietnam (South), West Irian, Yugoslavia, Zanzibar. In addition to the above there is also a service to Haadyai (Thailand)

via Penang. This service has maintained its popularity with the commercial community

for business calls and with the rest of the public for social calls.

Overseas Telegraph Service Overseas Telegraph Service is provided by the Telecommunications Department with Bangkok, Puket, Sarawak, Brunei and Christmas Island. Communication with Bangkok and Sarawak is by Radio-Teletype and with Puket, Christmas Island and Brunei by Radio-Telegraphy. Telegrams to all other overseas countries are transmitted to Messrs Cable and Wireless Ltd, in Singapore where they are transmitted either over submarine telegraph cable or short-wave radio to their destinations.

Inland Telegraph Service The Public Telegraph Offices in all the larger towns are operated by the Department. There are 22 Departmental Telegraph Offices in the States of Malaya.

In the smaller centres the telegraph offices are operated by the Postal Services Department or in some cases, by the Railway Administration. Altogether there are 369 public telegraph offices in Malaya.


The teleprinter network is supplemented by telephoned telegrams to and from the outlying telegraph offices, where the volume of traffic does not justify the use of a teleprinter and permanent line. The telephoned telegrams are handled at special operating suites located at the switching centres.

The facility whereby telephone subscribers dictate a telegram over the telephone to the telegraph office for retransmission instead of writing it down and handing it in at an acceptance office continued to be extensively used.

Telex subscribers increased the use of their teleprinters to send telegrams to addressees who are not telex subscribers. These telegrams are retransmitted over the public telegraph system from the telegraph office.

Telegrams filed at Railway Telegraph Offices or Post Offices are first telephoned to the nearest Departmental telegraph office. The message is then transmitted to the Departmental telegraph office nearest to the addressee, over switched circuits without the need of retransmission. At this point the telegram will be delivered by messenger using a bicycle or motor-cycle if the addressee is within the local delivery area. If the addressee so desires, delivery is effected by telephone and the copy is then delivered by post. In the more remote rural areas, it may be necessary to effect delivery by postman.

Telegram Deposit Account For the convenience of commercial houses and other regular users of the Telecommunications services, deposit accounts were maintained by the Department, the deposit being equivalent to the charges on telegrams, ship/shore Radio-Telephone calls, Overseas Radio-Telephone calls, or International Telex Calls over a period of one month. Large depositors were supplied with fortnightly statement of accounts while others received their statements monthly.

Abbreviated Telegraphic Addresses A register of abbreviated telegraphic addresses is maintained by the Telegram delivery section. A Telegraph Directory is also published.

The Inland and Overseas Telex Service The Telex Service is a public teleprinter service to enable a quick means of communication to be established in printed form between the offices of commercial houses, news agencies, airline offices and other organisations


are rented out to subscribers and Government Departments. A Telex Directory is published.

Subscribers in the States of Malaya and Singapore can be connected to any subscriber in the following countries:

Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bahrain, Belgium, Bermuda, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Eire, Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Formosa, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hawaii (Honolulu), Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Korea (South), Lebanon, Luxemburg, Malta, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Nyasaland, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Por-tugal, Puerto Rico, Rhodesia (Southern), Sarawak, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanganyika, Thailand, Uganda, United Kingdom and United States. Continuous service is available with most countries in Europe, U.S.A.

and Canada while scheduled hours of service apply to others. With the introduction of international working the Singapore Telex

Centre has become the main switching point of the Pan-Malayan telex system. Messrs Cable and Wireless provide and maintain the radio paths and

the error correcting equipment whilst the Telecommunication Department control the switching, and the provision and maintenance of subscribers' equipment.

Civil Radio Service Radiocommunication networks are required by several Departments and other organisations in order that they may perform their functions with efficiency and economy. In such cases the Telecommunications Department undertakes to give technical advice on the selection and purchase of equip-ment, and in due course installs and maintains the equipment. Installation often necessitates a preliminary field survey to determine the best site, type of equipment and height of antennae required.

Most networks have a general broadcast station through which messages are relayed between the control station and the outstations in the network. Transmitting and receiving are usually carried out on different frequencies.

The Telecommunications Department plans and maintains V.H.F. Radiocommunication for others. The Police, Fire Services, Drainage and Irrigation and the Central Electricity Board are a few examples. The Department also maintains the Broadcasting Department transmitters at Kuantan, Kuala Trengganu, Kota Bharu and Ipoh.


by the Department. These stations provide communication to and from ships using both medium and high frequency channels. In addition to the acceptance and delivery of public radiotelegrams of all categories, these stations with the exception of Kuantan maintain a 24-hour watch for the interception of distress, safety and urgency signals from ships at sea. Meteorological reports, medical aid and navigational messages are received and broadcast by the Singapore Station.

Short Range Ship-to-Shore Telephone Service

A V.H.F. radiotelephone service in accordance with the Hague Convention is also maintained at Port Swettenham and Penang. This service permits any ship equipped with the appropriate equipment to be connected into the Public Telephone Network of the States of Malaya and Singapore. A similar service is also provided in Singapore.

Civil Aviation

The Telecommunications Department installs and maintains all communi-cations pertaining to Civil Aviation on behalf of the Director of Civil Aviation consisting of communications with aircraft in flight, forward relay links operating stations to communicate with aircraft from Kuala Lumpur airport, aeronavigational aids and communication within the aeronautical fixed telecommunications network.

The Department also provide telecoms facilities for the Air Traffic Control, Meteorological Department and Airline Operating Agencies.

Registration of Frequencies

Allocation and registration of all radio frequencies and the control of their transmission are the responsibility of the Telecommunications Department. A special Frequency Assignment Committee sits monthly under the chairmanship of the Director-General of Telecommunications or his representative to co-ordinate frequencies for the States of Malaya, Singapore, and the Borneo Territories before notifying them to the International Telecommunication Union in Geneva for registration.


Frequency Monitoring Station

A frequency monitoring station is maintained at Cochrane Road, Kuala Lumpur. The station monitors the frequencies of transmissions which are reported or which are suspected of interfering with other transmissions.

Radiophone Service

A Radiophone service providing telephone service in motor vehicles was commissioned in Kuala Lumpur early in 1963. The coverage is approximately the whole of South and West Selangor. A similar service is in operation in Singapore.

Rural Public Radiotelephone

For those who are situated in remote areas from where connection by ordinary land lines is not possible or economical, the Telecommunications Department provides subscribers with radio links giving them telephone connection to the public telephone network. There are a number of such links serving various estates and mines in the States of Malaya.

Licensing In accordance with the Radiocommunication Regulations, the Telecom-munications Department is the authority for the issue of all licences concerned with the use of radio except broadcast listening licences. Among these are amateur station licences, ship and aircraft station licences, private business licences and experimental licences.

Certificate for Ships Operators The Telecommunications Department is also responsible for the setting of examinations for ships radiotelegraph and radiotelephone operators and also for the issue of Certificates of Proficiency in Radiotelegraphy and Radiotelephony to Ships Operators.

Meteorological Services The maintenance of radio equipment and operation for the collection and the interchange of meteorological information with other centres in the region including Australia, Tangier, San Francisco, Manila, Ceylon, New


Training Telecommunications Department has long realised the importance of vocational training for its staff and since 1948, a systematic scheme of training has been conducted by the Department at its training centre, "Gracelyn" in Kuala Lumpur.

It is no exaggeration to say that the high-grade telecommunications service that Malaya enjoys today is largely due to the efforts of the "Gracelyn" training centre, but at the same time the Department has been aware of the limitations of the present accommodation and facilities.

Thus, in 1961, it was agreed that a new Telecommunications training centre would be set up in Jalan Gurney, Kuala Lumpur, under a United Nations Special Fund. The centre will replace the existing training centre at "Gracelyn" and will be a residential establishment providing specialised vocational training for engineering and operational personnel of the Tele-communications Department. At the outset it will have a maximum capacity of about 150 men and 25 women trainees who will come from all parts of Malaysia and, by special arrangement, from friendly neighbouring countries.

A team of 6 experts provided for by U.N. has been engaged on the planning and preparatory work since 1962. They will serve in Malaya for 5 years, devising the pattern of training and coaching their Malaysian counterparts. Building for the new centre will be completed soon and trainees are expected to move to this new centre sometimes towards the end of 1965.

In the new training centre great emphasis will be placed towards extensive practical work on equipment arranged to simulate that found in the normal working environment. The centre will be organised as 9 "Wings", each dealing with a specialised field of activity within telecommunications.

Television Towards the end of 1963, the Government approved the plan to introduce television to Malaya. This Department was assigned the task of planning, implementing and operating the network of transmitter stations and the microwave network required to relay the TV signal to the Main Stations. The whole TV project may be divided into four phases of implementation:


organs of the International Telecommunications Union) recommendations, the main characteristics being as follows:

(i) 625 lines (ii) 50 c/s field frequency

(iii) Visual Carrier, negative amplitude modulation (iv) Aural Carrier, frequency modulation (v) 7 Mc/s channel bandwidth

(vi) 5.5 Mc/s intercarrier between the visual and aural carriers (vii) Vestigial Sideband Transmission

and the designation of the channels and their frequency ranges being as follows:

Band I—Channels M2 to M4 47 Mc/s—68 Mc/s Band III—Channels M5 to M10 174 Mc/s—216 Mc/s.

The planning and implementation of Phases I and II of the project was the responsibility of TV Department, assisted by a firm of Consultants. The operation of these transmitter stations and the planning, implementation and operation of Phases III and IV remain the responsibility of this Depart-ment.

Thus, while Phase I was being implemented, a Test Survey was carried out to determine the location and channelling plan of the various stations in order to give service to most of the populated areas in the country. Because, each station is required to be on 2-channel operation ultimately, the choice of channels was rather restricted. Co-channel operation, i.e., on the same channel, was resorted to and offsets of 10 Kc/s were employed to minimise co-channel interference.

The stations may be classified into the Main Stations, generally of high power, served by the microwave system, and the Minor Stations (or Re-broadcast Stations) of low power which receive off-air the programmes from the Main Stations and rebroadcast on another frequency to the local areas.

As a matter of expediency and economy, it was decided to locate the main transmitter stations on the already developed Telecommunications Hill Stations, these being where the microwave stations are and generally also the highest points around the respective areas. This, however, created problems of interference by the high-powered TV transmitters to other services on the same site.


The pilot station in Kuala Lumpur (Bukit Sungei Besi) operating on channel M10, under Phase I of the project, was officially inaugurated on 28th December, 1963 and stayed in operation until the permanent station, under Phase II of the project, became operational on 15th May, 1964, on Channel M5. Meanwhile, the stations at Gunong Kledang and Gunong Tampin were simultaneously put on air officially on 20th April, 1964, both operating on Channel M6. Operation of the Gunong Jerai (Kedah Peak) Station followed on 1st October, 1964, on Channel M5.

Further particulars of the Stations already in operation and those due for operation are tabulated below:


Department, under a Superintendent, and the Posts, Customs and Shipping Department, under a Postmaster-General. The Department of Posts and Telegraphs came into existence on 1st January, 1932, and has recently been changed to Posts and Telecommunications Department with the formation of Malaysia on 31st August, 1963.

The first recorded wireless communication was the installation of a circuit in 1917 between Singapore and Kuching to link with the Eastern Telegraph Company cables at Singapore. The Kuching Station was rated at 8kw input working on 1800 metres using spark transmitters and a crystal and "cats whisker" for receiving. The valve was unheard of in those days.

Further development of W/T circuits followed in Sibu, Miri, Bintulu and Sadong, small magneto exchanges appeared in Kuching and the other Divisional H.Q. All these installations were destroyed during the Japanese Occupation, but they were later restored with the assistance of the liberating forces.

Little development was made until the early 1950's when it was realised that the old magneto telephone systems and the low power W/T transmitters/ receivers left by the forces were totally inadequate. They were later replaced by new automatic exchanges, VHF radio junction links, U/G distribution systems, etc. Development thus taken place has provided the present day system.

The first telecommunication systems recorded in Sabah were two sub-marine telegraph cables which were laid in 1894 by the Eastern Extension, Australasia and China Telegraph Company. At that time they were laid as Singapore-Labuan and Labuan-Hongkong cables, but in 1948 both were taken out of Labuan and re-routed into Jesselton. The Jesselton-Hong-kong cable was diverted into Manila in 1955 to provide a landing point in the Philippines. These two cables are still in existence and are daily carrying telegraph traffic to and from Sabah by the Cable and Wireless Ltd.

Between 1894 and 1897 the first cross-country telegraph line was constructed from Mempakul on the West Coast to Sandakan on the East Coast. The first message to London was passed over this line in April 1897.

In the early years of the century a magneto telephone service was in-troduced into the country at Kudat, Jesselton and Sandakan. In 1910 the first radio equipment arrived, and in 1914 Sandakan was able to commu-nicate by wireless telegraphy with Jesselton and later Kudat, Tawau and Lahad Datu.

316 MALAYS IA YEAR BOOK

All telecommunication installations were destroyed during the Occupation after which temporary radio communication was restored with the assistance of the Australian army personnel.

North Borneo became a Colony on 15th July, 1946, but it was not until some years later that new equipment gradually became available to replace the aging military equipment.

Limitations on finance have prevented the development of a system compatible with that of Malaya; nevertheless Sabah has today a system of high utility value.

Inland Telephone Service In Sarawak at the end of 1963, 6,451 telephones were in use on 55 exchanges. They were a mixture of automatic, C.B. manual and magneto types. The present development is the systematic conversion to a completely automatic network and the introduction of subscriber trunk dialling.

The largest exchange with 2,100 lines is in Kuching and a new 10,000-line exchange is at present under construction, which will be equipped with 4 wire trunk switching and metering facilities to allow the introduction of S.T.D. The next largest exchange is Sibu, with 1,200 lines, and is shortly due for conversion to 3,200 lines. Miri has a 400-line exchange designed for an ultimate capacity of 2,000, and two new 2,000-line exchanges are under construction, one at Simanggang and the other at Sarikei.

Rural Automatic Exchanges are installed or are about to be installed at Bau, Serian, Kuching, Betong, Binatang, Sungei Merah, Kanowit, Song, Kapit, Bintulu, Marudi and Limbang.

Within Sabah at the end of December 1963, 5,052 automatic telephones were in use on 21 exchanges but not all are designed for the service they are required to perform.

The largest exchange is in Jesselton with 1,500 lines followed by Sandakan, with 1,000 capacity and Tawau, with 480 capacity.

An extension of 500 lines is nearing completion in Jesselton and a new exchange is shortly to be installed at Sandakan with a capacity of 2,000 lines.

All calls between the major exchanges are handled by operators with manual boards at Jesselton, Sandakan, Tawau, Labuan, Beaufort and Tenom.


The junction routes linking all the minor exchanges to the central exchanges at Kuching, Simanggang, Sibu and Miri use 9-channel and single-channel systems. Many of the routes are poor but continual improvement is taking place; it is the policy that wherever an exchange is converted from manual to automatic operation, the junction routes are also brought up to standard with the local exchange distribution system, which is all cabled underground.

The exchanges throughout Sabah are linked by small capacity VHF equipment, underground and overhead cables and open wire lines. The main routes to the larger towns are dependent on the VHF repeater station at Kambarangan (7,500 ft on Mount Kinabalu) which has systems linking direct with Sandakan, Tawau, Labuan and Limbang in Sarawak.

Generally, the routes throughout Sabah require improvement, in both performance and capacity, and it will be necessary to determine finally other methods of communication to replace the very long VHF paths from Kambarangan and the overhead routes which are always subject to damage by falling trees and branches.

Overseas Telephone Service Sarawak has one link to Singapore operated by the Department in Kuching. It is an HF ISB system utilising 3 speech circuits and a 6-channel F.M. Y.F.T. telegraph circuit, which is in operation 24 hours daily. A similar system is operated in Jesselton, but it is sub-equipped for one speech circuit only.

All external communications in Sabah are at present handled by the Cable and Wireless Ltd. The hours of service for calls to Malaya, Singapore and the rest of the world are from 7.30 a.m. to 10.30 p.m. local time.

Inland Telegraph Services There are 12 telegraph offices in Sarawak, 7 working on teleprinters. Smaller Post Offices utilise telephone trunk service for passing telegrams orally to the nearest telegraph office.

The Department runs a Phonogram Service throughout the State whereby any subscriber on automatic exchange can send a telegram by dialling "90".

A telex service is now in operation in Kuching, and V.F.T. equipment is expected shortly to extend it to Simanggang, Sibu and Miri.

There are 12 telegraph offices in Sabah, 3 working on teleprinters and 9 using Wireless Telegraphy. There is no telex service yet available in S'bah.


medium and high frequencies both on R/T and W/T. The Miri Station operates on medium frequencies only from 0800-2100 hours daily.

A VHF service on 80.4 mc/s is operated throughout the coast for small local coastal shipping with all except one station having access to the telephone network. This allows a launch within 20 miles of the Sarawak Coast to communicate day and night with the shore. The service is popular to an extent in that the network is overloaded in some places, notably in Miri, where it is used for port operations.

In Sabah the Department operates small coast stations at Jesselton and Sandakan for communication with ships at sea. The Jesselton Station uses medium frequencies. At Sandakan both medium and high frequencies are used. The services are not considered adequate and it is planned to eventually extend the Jesselton services to give improved coverage.

A limited VHF coastal service is provided for coastal shipping on 80.4 mc/s. It is planned to introduced the Hague Plan VHF scheme in a limited form at Labuan, Jesselton, Sandakan and Tawau for port operations.

Civil Aviation and Police The Department installs and maintains all communications pertaining to Police and Civil Aviation throughout the Borneo Region. Due to the present emergency, much additional work has been undertaken for the Police which with the present staff available is causing the Department some concern.

Services to Rural Areas The Department operates a Radio Call Service with base stations set up in Simanggang, Sibu and Miri, whereby access to the public telephone network may be obtained. Rural subscribers may purchase their own radio equipment and work to the Department's base stations. The service is on H.F. and uses S.S.B. techniques, with two frequencies, one for operating to the P. & T. base station and the other for communicating amongst rural subscribers. The service is growing in popularity, particularly in the Sibu area, where it may become necessary to incorporate more channels in times to come.


The SEACOM cable which is expected to begin operation by the end of 1964, will provide the highest standard of communication to Mainland Malaysia. If development proceeds as expected, it is hoped that all exchanges in the State will have access to this cable by the end of the development period.

In Sarawak the 1963-68 Development Plan prepared before Malaysia was severely reduced due to financial limitation imposed at that time.

The need for improved trunk routes from Kuching to Sibu, Simanggang and Miri is becoming apparent, and it is considered necessary to link Jesselton with all the major centres of Sarawak by the SEACOM cable due to be commissioned on 1st January, 1965.

During the five-year development period it is expected that a new exchange of 10,000 lines at Kuching will be brought into service together with an extension to the Sibu exchange. Minor improvements to the junction routes will be implemented using 9-channel equipment.

CHAPTER XI

PUBLIC UTILITIES THE TERM "public utility" is a wide one and is difficult to define. In practice, it is an essential general service which the public "can turn on like a tap" to secure its common-user needs. To pursue this simile, a public piped-water supply is a public utility because all urban dwellers need it not only to quench their thirst, do their cooking and wash their clothes, but also because well or river water in urban areas is generally polluted, and the public demands that its health be protected. This is often best done by a single organisation.

Water supply is however only one of the many public utilities in a developed community. Others which spring to mind are the public transport system; the postal and telecommunications services; and—particularly today—the power and light systems which supply energy to consumers both domestic and industrial. Sewage and garbage disposal is yet another.

These supplies can be provided by governments, by local authorities, by statutory corporations, by commercial companies or by individuals. Generally speaking, however, individuals play a comparatively small part, as few would have the necessary capital to provide a service on the scale required by the public.

There are nevertheless a number of factors which apply to all these under-takings, whether governmental or otherwise. As they supply a service which could (by a stretch of imagination) just be self-supplied by the consumer himself they must be self-supporting and if possible shew a slight profit. If they are run governmentally, they are subject to the rules and regulations imposed by the Government. If they are statutory corporations, their charter prescribes what they may and what may not do. If they are under-takings by a commercial nature, they are generally subject to licensing by a government or local authority, and the conditions of the licence will ensure that their activities are geared to the public interest and that the charges are not oppressive. The road transport industry is an example of the latter—all bus, haulage and taxi operators are licensed by the Federal Government, and the terms and conditions under which they may serve the public are clearly specified.


is carried on internally by the Malaysian Airways Limited which maintains close liaison with Borneo Airways Limited. The latter, based at Labuan, also operates internal air services in Sarawak with DC3 and Twin Pioneer aircraft. Malaysian Airways continues to provide external communications in Sarawak and Sabah operating regional services with Viscount and DC3 aircraft.

The Malayan Railway is a commercial corporation established under the Railway Ordinance, 1948. For the purpose of continuity and in order to make the Railway Authority a legal entity, the person for the time being discharging the duties of the General Manager and his successors in office are incorporated under the Railway Ordinance as a sole corporation by the name of the Malayan Railway Administration. The Railway is in the portfolio of the Minister of Transport, who may direct the General Manager on any matter. The equity in the Railway is vested solely in the Federal Government. In Sabah, the State-owned and operated metre gauge railway, with its headquarters at Jesselton, has a route mileage of 96 miles and serves much of the West Coast and part of the interior. A branch line, 20 miles in length, which ran from Beaufort down to the Coast at Weston, a small port on Brunei Bay, which is connected by coastal shipping with Labuan, was demolished in 1963 when a parallel road was built to serve the area instead. There is no rail transport in Sarawak.

In Malaysia, road transport is (with the exception of the urban transport system in George Town, Penang) wholly in the hands of private enterprise, and is operated by both companies and individuals; but all these under-takings are licensed under Federal Law, and the Minister of Transport has, through the Road Transport Licensing Board appointed by him, a fair measure of control over routes, frequency of services and charges. The same applies to a lesser extent to shipping. In Sarawak, the Land Transport Department is responsible for the documentation in respect of the control of commercial transport, acting as agents for the five Divisional Transport Authority. In Sabah all road transport and traffic is governed by provisions of the Road Vehicles Ordinance, 1963, which bear close resemblance with provisions in force in the other States of Malaysia.

In Malaysia, as in almost all other countries, the postal system is run exclusively by the Government and the Post Office is a part of the civil service machine. Telecommunications are also a part of the public service

P U B L I C UTILITIES 323

W A T E R S U P P L Y

With the exception of the George Town and Malacca water supplies which are operated and controlled by their respective City and Municipal Authority and the Kuching and Sibu areas where Water Boards have been formed, all other water supplies in the States of Malaysia are maintained and operated by the Public Works Department.

Under the Constitution, water supply is a State matter and the financing of all projects is thus the responsibility of individual State Government. State Governments can, however, obtain loans from the Central Govern-ment where they are unable to finance projects by themselves.

The Public Works Department in the States of Malaya is responsible for the technical aspect of the maintenance and operation of existing supplies and for the construction of new works, but the financial arrangements are the responsibility of each individual State Government. The Headquarters organisation of the Public Works Department in Kuala Lumpur has a Water Supply Branch whose function is to advise State Authorities on all water supply matters, on request, and to design new schemes. The Water Supply Branch also correlates available information relating to rainfall, flow records of rivers, treatment problems, new design techniques, etc., and generally acts as a co-ordinating and advisory office to all State Authorities.

Existing Supplies In the States of Malaya, there are 170 water supplies including those which have so far been completed to specifically serve Federal Land Development Schemes and those which are controlled and operated by the City Council of George Town, Penang, and the Municipal Council of Malacca. The total rated capacity of all supplies is just under 180 million gallons per day. At present a daily average of 126 million gallons of water is produced serving about 3.75 million people. In many of the more recently constructed or extended supplies there are excess capacities to meet the growing demands for many years to come; but in some older supplies, especially those in rapidly expanding towns like Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Sungei Patani and Kota Bharu, the rated capacities are being fully utilised. All the major supplies have been constructed to a high standard and produce final water of high


The average daily water supply in the main towns of Sarawak is above 4,200,000 gallons in 1963, while in Sabah, the average daily supply is about 3,500,000 gallons.

A few supplies obtain raw water from wells, but for the majority of them the sources are surface waters. At a number of treatment plants, water is derived from upland jungle-covered catchments, and only disinfection with chlorine is required; but in other cases, full treatment by chemical coagula-tion, sedimentation, filtration, conditioning and chlorination is necessary.

The quality of the water supplied for consumption is regularly checked by taking samples from strategically sited standard sampling points and having the samples examined in accordance with standard methods by the Department of Chemistry. A high quality is maintained on the whole.

Development of Water Supplies Under the Five-Year Development Plan for 1961-1965, the Central Govern-ment alone provides some $140 million either as direct Federal expenditure or as loans to State Governments to improve and extend inadequate existing supplies and to develop new supplies. Emphasis is laid on the supply of wholesome treated water to rural areas and the following examples of progress on the larger schemes may be noted. The Perlis, Yen, Butterworth, Penang, Pulau Jerajak, Taiping, Kuala Kangsar and Ipoh supplies have been extended, while extension works are still in progress in Alor Star, Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Port Dickson and Malacca. New supplies in Kajang, Sabak Bernam, Krian, Lower Perak and many rural areas and Federal Land Development Schemes have been completed, while the new Dindings Regional Supply, the Temerloh-Mentakab Supply and the Damansara Scheme for Klang are under construction. In the investigation, planning, and design stage are schemes to extend the Kota Bharu and Sungei Patani supplies and to provide new supplies to Ulu Selangor.

In the Borneo Region, good progress has been maintained with mains renewals and development programmes. In Sarawak, with new mains laid and renewed by the Kuching and Sibu Water Boards, it is anticipated that the Boards will be in a position to consider requirements outside the present statutory boundaries. This proposed scheme will meet the requirement for normal future development of Kuching and Sibu and their surrounding areas within the next 10 years. New works and treatment plants have been

PUBLIC UTILITIES 325

reservoir to the North Road area. While these are measures to improve the existing supply, investigations of the Garinono Catchment and the Segaliud River were undertaken. New design and construction plans are in hand to extend water supplies to Papar, Kudat, Lahad Datu, Labuan, Tamparulli and Ranau.

Charging for Water All private and business supplies are metered and charged on the quantity of water consumed. The policy of metering supplies has been accepted by all States and the number of unmetered supplies has been steadily reduced year by year. In the larger supplies controlled by the Public Works Depart-ment, Self-Accounting Systems are operated, but in the smaller supplies, Town Councils or Rural District Offices assist in the collection of payments. Charges for water supply vary from State to State. The application of water rate is gradually being superseded by a more realistic water charge.

SERVICES MUNICIPALLY RENDERED The role of the local authorities has already been reviewed in Chapter IV. Quite apart from the ordinary administration of urban areas, these local authorities are under a statutory obligation to keep the streets clean, to collect and dispose of refuse both industrial and domestic, and to perform a similar service in respect of nightsoil.

Street-sweeping is a common-user service which is financed from the rates; so, little more need be said. Garbage collection, on the other hand, is a service performed by the local authority centrally on behalf of individual householders and as such must be paid for by the latter. The same applies to sewage: for many generations the urban areas of Malaya relied almost entirely on the small cubicle equipped with a latrine bucket at the back of the premises, and these required emptying at least everyday. In consequence, the local authorities impose a service charge of so much per bucket per month for undertaking the collection and entrenching of nightsoil, and this varies from locality to locality. Today, most if not all new premises are equipped with a private sewage disposal system or septic tank; but these still require a measure of servicing by the local authority although the service rendered is not daily, but generally half-yearly. Where this happens, a service fee is charged, and maintenance is thereafter provided by the local authority concerned. Apart from street-cleaning, these charges are what is called

3 2 6 MALAYSIA YEAR BOOK

Tawau, Labuan and Kudat, the sewage is discharged into the sea while in other smaller schemes at Beaufort, Tenom and Kota Belud, it is discharged into rivers. All these sewerage schemes are operated on behalf of the respective Local Authorities by the Public Works Department under agreements providing for the recovery of the cost involved. However, it was agreed that the Government would bear any costs in excess of the product of a seven per cent rate in any of the authority.

The revenue collected should in theory balance the cost of supply. In some local authority areas, the cost is very slightly subsidized by the authority; in others, a profit is shewn. In principle, however, the revenue and cost should be self-balancing and, on average, there is reason to believe that it is.

ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

Historical The first public supply of electricity in the territory which now comprises the States of Malaya commenced operation in Penang in 1904, and this was followed in 1905 by an electricity installation in Kuala Lumpur intended primarily for supplying Government quarters and a limited number of arc lamps for street lighting. Electricity in Kuala Lumpur was generated in a small hydro-electric station sited on the Gombak River, 12 miles from the town, consisting of two 400 kW Pelton wheel driven alternators. About 1919 this supply was augmented by the construction of a station at Gombak Lane, in the centre of Kuala Lumpur with mixed steam and diesel-driven generating plant totalling 1,450 Kilowatts. By 1926 Prai Power Station on the mainland facing Penang, had been put into commission with an installed capacity of 9,500 Kilowatts, and a steam power station at Bungsar, Kuala Lumpur, was under construction with two 4,000 Kilowatts steam turbines. In the meantime public electricity supplies had been inaugurated in Ipoh, Johore Bahru, Seremban and Malacca, utilising diesel-generator sets.

The late 1920's really marked the start of the era of electricity in Malaya and, under the auspices of the Federated Malay States Electrical Department, the Unfederated States Electrical Departments, the Perak River Hydro-Electric Power Company, the Municipality of Penang and of private Com-panies in Malacca and in Kedah, electricity supplies had been installed in

P U B L I C U T I L I T I E S 327

The Central Electricity Board In 1949, legislation was enacted to amend and consolidate the law relating to electricity throughout Malaya. This was the Electricity Ordinance, 1949, and it marks a departure from previous practice and theory. A central authority was established as a statutory body and took over, to begin with, the assets of the former electricity departments founded by the State Govern-ments. It was charged with a number of responsibilities—the management and working of installations under its control; the expansion of supply; the furtherance of the national economy by the planned and intelligent use of electrical energy; and the maintenance of electrical supplies at reasonable rates. In addition to generating energy at its own power stations, the Board is also the licensing and inspecting authority for all other installations whether the latter generate current for their own use or for sale to the public. The Board accordingly has power to make various regulations and enforce them, but the Minister of Commerce and Industry has the power to give directions of a general nature which may be necessary in the public interest.

At the time of the formation of the Central Electricity Board, electricity was supplied from various sources to 137 towns and villages. Today, this number has increased to 650. The Board now operates three steam, seven hydro-electric and 53 diesel generating stations and has more than 290,000 consumers. The other principal public suppliers are the Perak River Hydro-Electric Power Company Ltd, the Kinta Electrical Distribution Company Limited, and the City Council of George Town. These, together with about 100 single stations operated under public licence, operate three steam, two hydro and 117 diesel stations.

Rural Electrification The Board, in playing its part in the Government's vast programme for improving the living standards of the rural population under the Five-Year Rural Electrification Plan to be implemented over the period 1st September, 1961 to 31st August, 1966, has since provided electricity supplies to 249 villages for the first time. Of the supplies completed, 24 were derived from rural diesel stations providing electricity during the hours of darkness only to villages remote from the Board's distribution networks whilst the remain-ing supplies were derived from extensions of its existing distribution systems.


Electricity Board; whilst the Chenderoh Power Station of 27 MW capacity belongs to the Perak River Hydro-Electric Co. Ltd. In addition, the Central Electricity Board operates a number of small hydro-electric stations.

The second stage of the development of hydro-electric power in the Cameron Highlands area, known as the Batang Padang Scheme, is now under construction and will have an ultimate capacity of 150 MW. This scheme is due to be completed by early 1968. Detailed investigation of three potential sites on the Upper Perak river is in progress. The estimated potential capacity of these sites is about 250 MW.

The Board's Hydro-Electric Division recently completed the construction of two small hydro-electric stations in the Upper Telom area of the Cameron Highlands and a start will shortly be made on the construction of two medium-sized schemes in the Bentong area of Pahang.

The Central Electricity Board currently operates three steam power stations: the 80 MW Connaught Bridge Power Station at Klang and the 30 MW Malacca Power Station at Tanjong Kling both feed into the Central Network; whilst the new Sultan Ismail Power Station at Johore Bahru, which will not be connected to the central system for some time to come, feeds the Johore Bahru area, previously supplied by the Singapore City Council. Work is in hand on the extension of Malacca Power Station to increase its capacity to 40 MW, and construction is proceeding on the 60 MW first phase of an ultimate 270 MW steam power station at Prai which will be linked with the Penang System and eventually connected to the central system. Preliminary work is already in hand to construct a thermal power station at Port Dickson to be commissioned in 1969 with an initial capacity cf 120 MW and an ultimate capacity of 480 MW.

The Perak River Hydro-Electric Co. Ltd, in addition to its Chenderoh Hydro-Electric Station, operates the 24 MW Batu Gajah Power Station and the 94 MW Malim Nawar Power Station: the installed capacity of the latter having been recently increased by the installation of 2 x 20 MW sets and supporting boiler capacity. The City Council of George Town, Penang, operates a steam power station of 40 MW capacity at Glugor.

Transmission and Distribution The Central Electricity Board operates a transmission network consisting of approximately 460 miles of 66 kV and 132 kV overhead lines extending from Batu Pahat in the south to Cameron Highlands in the north. This transmission network interconnects the Board's thermal power stations at


construction and to interconnect with the Perak River Hydro Company Limited's 66 kV transmission network.

The Board also operates approximately 1,600 miles of H.V. distribution lines and underground cables of various voltages.

The Perak River Hydro Company Limited operates a 66 kV transmission network linking their hydro power station at Chenderoh with their thermal power station at Malim Nawar. This Company, in association with the Kinta Electrical Distribution Company Ltd, also operates a 22 kV distri-bution system in Central and South Perak which supplies the town of Ipoh and the towns and villages in the tin-mining regions of Perak.

Small towns and villages which cannot be supplied from the existing H.V. networks are supplied from diesel stations of which a total of 149 are operating throughout Malaya, to give public supplies to over 100,000 consumers.

About 54.2 per cent of the total units generated at present is produced in steam stations, 13.6 per cent in diesel stations, and 33.2 per cent in hydro stations.

The proportion of units used by different classes of consumers varies. The annual output of energy was originally dominated by the demands of the tin-mining industry; in 1953, the sales to tin-miners were 68 per cent of the total as compared with 8 per cent for commerce and industry. In 1964 27 per cent was sold for tin-mining and 50 per cent for commerce and industry.

Tariffs Standard tariffs are offered by the Central Electricity Board to domestic, commercial and industrial consumers with normal requirements. For loads with unusual characteristics, special rates are negotiated. The other major supply authorities offer rates which are similar to those offered by the Central Electricity Board.

Supply of Electricity Supplies for any normal industrial project can be made available almost immediately in any of the major towns, Kuala Lumpur, Klang, Malacca, Johore Bahru, Penang and Ipoh. In other areas there may be some delay before demands of the order of 1,000 kW can be supplied, though smaller


issues at 31st August, 1964, amounted to approximately $72 million, of which $69 million is held by Government and $3 million by the Government of the State of Pahang.

Annual capital expenditure is now running at the rate of about $75 million but is soon expected to rise to about $100 million yearly to meet the growing demand for power. The Board aims to finance between 40% and 50% of its capital programme from its internal resources and the balance from loans from various local and foreign sources. At 31st August, 1964, loans outstanding amounted to $250 million, of which $94 million had been received from Government, $86 million from the International Bank for Reconstruc-tion and Development, $56 million from the Commonwealth Development Corporation, $10 million from the Employees Provident Fund Board and $4 million from the Commonwealth Development Finance Company Limited.

During 1963-64 the Board sold 919 million units at an average price of 9.19 cents per unit and had a total income from sales of $84 million, these sales representing more than one-half of the total electricity used in the States of Malaya. Its net revenue for the year amounted to about $6 million, all of it being used in the financing of its capital programme.

Electricity Supply in Sabah and Sarawak In the Borneo Region, electricity is provided by the Sabah Electricity Board and the Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation. The former provides electricity in all the main towns except in Beaufort, Kota Belud, Menggatal and Semporna, where it is the responsibility of private licenses. The latter provides public electricity at all the major centres of Sarawak.

In Sabah, the distribution and transmission systems are standardised at 22,000, 11,000, 6,600 and 400/230 volts A.C. 50 cycles, while in Sarawak the distribution systems operate at 11,000, 6,600 and 400 volts. In most of the major centres in Sarawak, continuous electricity supplies are provided, except in Bau, Serian and Kanowit where the supply is limited to a certain number of hours per day.

The Sabah Electricity Board under its rural electricification scheme has already given supplies to Kampong Lungab and Putatan. By the end of 1964, Sipitang, Weston, Mesapol, and Ranau, will have electricity supply. The electricity is supplied by means of small unattended power stations. Though the supply is only sufficient for lighting and the use of small appliance, these benefits have been warmly welcomed by the residents of these areas.


electricity. Existing transformer stations have been increased in size and many additional transformers have been installed. In the large towns there is a gradual change over to the use of underground cables, the laying of which has been carried out with minimum disruption to the traffic.

In Sarawak, the maximum demand on all the stations of the Corporation has risen considerably. This represents a considerable achievement when the electricity supply position today is compared with that of the postwar years. Statistical records show a five-fold increase in output over the last decade, while the number of consumers has increased four-fold. With the change over of the stations to alternating current, it has involved the cor-poration in a considerable construction programme—the extension of the Sibu Power Station and the construction of the new power station at the Tanah Puteh area being the two major items.

Under the Colombo Plan, Australia provided the services of an experienced engineer to advise on the collection and recording of necessary data to allow development as and when required of hydro-electric potential. The question of rural electrification in Sarawak presents major problems in economics due to comparative lack of communications, low population density, low load and consumption potential. This trend will continue for some years to come.

CHAPTER XII

TRADE AND INDUSTRY

APART FROM some of the principal public utilities, notably the Post Office, the Telecommunications Department and the Malayan Railway, the Govern-ment does not operate any industry, whether major or minor. The Govern-ment does however supply certain services such as water supplies, roads, drainage and irrigation and the like where these facilities must necessarily be co-ordinated in the public interest.

For the most part, the economy of the country rests with private enterprise which is restricted only when a particular activity is likely to affect public health, order or morality, or when the national security is at stake. This follows the fundamental liberties enshrined in Part II of the Constitution— notably the right of the individual to choose his own profession or calling which is inherent in freedom from slavery or forced labour, and the parallel right of two or more persons to form a trading or industrial association or company.

In consequence, governmental control is exercised in three essential ways: the control of companies and business by way of registration, to ensure that the objects and practices of the companies are not anti-social; by licensing undertakings to ensure that health, working conditions and safety of life and limb are not jeopardised; and finally, by a measure of import and export control over both goods and money to protect the national economy.

With the exception of licensing (which, generally speaking, is a function of State Governments and local authorities) these controls are applied federally, and are the responsibility of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry whose organisation and functions may briefly be touched on.

T H E M I N I S T R Y O F C O M M E R C E A N D I N D U S T R Y

Origins Until 1956, economic co-ordination at federal level was the general respon-sibility of the Treasury, which maintained a number of specialist branches. As a result of the Constitutional Conference in London early that year, it


The Minister is assisted by an Assistant Minister. At the official level, the Secretary for Commerce and Industry co-ordinates the work and activities of the various divisions and sections of the Ministry. These include the Export Commodities Division, the Trade Division, the Industrial Develop-ment Division, the Tourist Promotion Section, the Malay Secretariat and the Registry of Companies. In addition, the Minister is charged with the responsibilities over power and fuel. These may conveniently be examined separately, although there is a not inconsiderable overlapping of function which is inevitable in so complex a field.

The Export Commodities Division

As the name implies, the Export Commodities Division (headed by a Controller) is concerned with the production and marketing aspects of the primary commodities on the export of which the Malayan economy is so dependent. These are predominantly agricultural (rubber, pineapple, palm oil, timber, copra and the like) and mineral (tin and iron-ore). There are of course other export commodities, but these are comparatively small in scale— albeit important in a country which is trying to diversify its economy.

Officials of the Export Commodities Division are members of a number of statutory committees and boards, and also attend international conference and seminars connected with the industries concerned. The principal com-mittees and boards are those relating to the replanting of rubber and the improvement generally of the industry. Equally important are the parallel organisations which regulate the tin and the pineapple industry.

The Trade Division

This Division undertakes all economic and other work not undertaken by the Export Commodities and the Industrial Development Divisions, and is headed by a Controller. Its principal functions (apart from advising the Minister on matters within its purview) are the promotion of international trade (the Trade Commissioners attached to overseas diplomatic missions are officers of this Ministry); Import and Export control; settlement, by way of good offices, of disputes between local traders and foreign firms; liaison with local chambers of commerce and other trade organisations; commercial intelligence, involving statistical analyses of trade trends; ports and shipping

T R A D E A N D I N D U S T R Y 335

great extent been delegated to the various Chambers of Commerce* through-out the country.

The Trade Division has one more responsibility of considerable long-term importance: it maintains through its Supplies Section the nation's stockpile of rice and acts as purchasing agent therefor (whether direct from the growers, from rice mills or by way of government-to-government contract) to implement the Government's guaranteed minimum price for locally grown padi. The purpose of this stockpile is not only strategic, but also administrative—a failure of the padi-crop in Malaya could easily result in a shortage of the staple foodstuff, and by releasing supplies as and when necessary it is possible for the price to the public to remain unaffected by eliminating the danger of a black market which inevitably attends any serious shortage in the shops.

These are the main responsibilities of the Trade Division. There are many others which space does not permit to enumerate. The Division is in fact the "maid of all work" in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and plays an important role not only in the Government's relationship with trading matters but also, by way of co-ordination, in the relationship between traders, both domestic and overseas.

Industrial Development Division This Division, is the newest Division within the Ministry of Commerce and Industry and was formed following the adoption by the Government of the recommendations mentioned in the Interim Report of the Industrial Develop-ment Working Party, 1957. The Government's objective since then has been to promote secondary industries in order to diversify the economy and to attract both local and foreign investors into the manufacturing industries.

Industrial Development The following summarizes the incentives the Government provides to attract industries:

(i) Provision of income tax relief from 2 to 5 years under the Pioneer Industries (Relief from Income Tax) Ordinance, 1958.

(ii) Allowances of free transfer of capital and earnings within the Sterling Area and with minimum of control to or from areas outside the Sterling Area.

(iii) Guarantee of protection to foreign investments against expro-priation.


(iv) Provision of tariff protection to deserving local industries; granting of import duty exemption for machinery and in some cases for raw materials for industrial development.

(v) Provision of protection against dumping by foreign exporters. (vi) Development of industrial estates providing cheap and readily

available serviced sites. (vii) Development of other basic services to industry, such as roads,

ports, power and communication facilities. (viii) Provision of loan facilities for industry through the specially estab-

lished Malayan Industrial Development Finance Ltd. (ix) Introduction of productivity training for management and super-

visory personnel in local industry. (x) Development of industrial research facilities through the setting up

of a Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

PIONEER INDUSTRIES The Pioneer Industries (Relief from Income Tax) Ordinance introduced in 1958, provides income tax exemption for a period of 2 to 5 years depending on the amount of fixed capital invested. A company investing less than $100,000 receives tax relief for 2 years, for an additional year if its capital investment is $100,000 and under $250,000 and a further 2 years if its capital investment is $250,000 and above.

Application for Pioneer Status Applications for pioneer status fall under either Section 3 or Section 4 of the Ordinance. Section 3 provides for representations to be made to the Minister of Commerce and Industry by any individual or company to have an industry and its products gazetted pioneer if it is deemed that the industry has not been carried on on a commercial scale suitable to the economic require-ments of the nation and there is scope for its development. Subject to the resolution of objections to the industry and its products being if gazetted from any one raised (for the purpose of allowing objections to be lodged with the Ministry and "intention" to gazette the industry pioneer is first published in the Government Gazette), this Ministry will gazette them as pioneer industry and pioneer products. The Minister will then consider under Section 4 of the Ordinance, applications for pioneer status to be granted to companies to undertake the products gazetted.

Manufacturing asbestos cement sheets

A plastic factory

T i n - c o n t a i n e r s m a n u f a c t u r i n g

Inside a cement factory


employment in the pioneer companies that have commenced production. It is estimated that when the pioneer companies are in full production, they will employ a total of 13,587 persons. The products manufactured by these pioneer companies include chemical and pharmaceutical products; paints; petroleum and coal products; glass products; textile and textile products; dairy products; canned and preserved food; non-metallic mineral products; basic metal products; electrical machinery apparatus appliances; supplies and controlling equipment; bicycles; motion pictures; gramophone records; metal furniture; plywood and veneers; tyres and tubes; beverage and plastic products. It is envisaged that the following industries will shortly be esta-blished: iron and steel, pulp and paper, locally assembled motor vehicles and fertilizers. The establishment of these industries will help Malaysia to achieve an early self-sustaining industrial growth.

The Establishment of FIDA In order that more effective promotion of investment in industry may be undertaken, the Government is at present taking steps to form a statutory body, the Federal Industrial Development Authority, whose main functions will consist in investigations into and reporting on industrial possibilities, promoting the development of new industries and evaluating projects proposed under the Pioneer Industries Ordinance.

Progress in Singapore and the Borneo States The progress made in Singapore by the Economic Development Board which was established in 1959 to implement Government's industrial pro-gramme is quite notable. Since the establishment of the Board, 119 companies with a total paid-up capital of $225,498,000 have been granted pioneer status to manufacture household goods, textile, cement, steel, flour and so on. Many of the companies are being financially assisted by means of low interest loans by the Board which is vested with a fund of $100 million by the Singapore Government and has the power to participate in equity in industry as well as to make loans on short or long term basis. The Board has also made much progress in developing a 3,000 acre site for industry at Jurong. The site has direct access to harbour facilities. Industries established include at present steel manufacture for metal recovered from ship-breaking, flour milling and manufacture of made-up garments.

There are now 27 pioneer companies in the Borneo States. In the interest of balanced industrial development the Central Government encourages the establishment of pioneer and non-pioneer enterprises in these states. These states possess the potential for industrial development. It is a matter of time before industrialists, both local and foreign, respond to the industrial opportunities there.


Guarantees in Respect of Foreign Investment In complement to the Pioneer Industries Ordinance, as a financial induce-ment, the Government adopts a liberal attitude to the remittance of capital out of the country. It is only in remitting capital to countries outside the Sterling Area that permission, which is only nominal, is required from the Controller of Foreign Exchange. The Government has also given an under-taking to guarantee the security of foreign investment in the federation. It has formalised this general undertaking with the U.S.A. and West Germany through concluding with them investment guarantee agreements. Besides this the Government has also signed a double taxation agreement with the United Kingdom and Japan.

P R O T E C T I O N O F I N D U S T R I E S Occasions arise when local industries require tariff concessions in the form of new or increased import duty or a remission of duty on raw materials. In the past such matters were dealt with by the Tariff Advisory Committee. This Committee has been superseded by the Tariff Advisory Board which has been established to give the Central Government advice in connection with the creation of a common market in Malaysia and the imposition and alteration of protective and other customs duties.

Industrial Sites One of the basic facilities that must exist to attract industries is the availa-bility of readily serviced industrial sites. It is important that prospective industrialists should be able to obtain industrial land with the minimum of delay. The success of Petaling Jaya, a satellite town of the Federal Capital Kuala Lumpur, demonstrates what can be achieved in industrialisation by the provision of well-serviced industrial sites.

The Central Government encourages State Authorities to set up and develop industrial sites to attract industries. Under the Second Five-Year Plan of Malaya a Trust Fund of $7.5 million has been allocated for the Development of industrial sites, from which State Government can borrow. There are five industrial sites in Malaya: one in Selangor, two in Johore, one in Perak and one in Butterworth with a total acreage of 1,488,189 sq. ft. Five more sites will be set up: one in Selangor (695 acres), three in Perak (775 acres) and the other in Negeri Sembilan (310 acres). Most pioneer companies have been established in Petaling Jaya.


Under the Plan $830 million has been set aside for power and water supplies, roads, telecommunications, port facilities and other social capital projects.

Industrial Loan Facilities In 1960 the Malayan Industrial Development Finance Ltd was set up under the sponsorship of the Government as a source of finance for industrialists. The principal shareholders of the company were leading banking and other institutions in the Federation. At present the Company has entered into an agreement with the World Bank under which it will increase its company up to $250 million.

Research Facilities The Government has accepted in principle the establishment of a Depart-ment of Scientific and Industrial Research. It is envisaged that the Depart-ment will comprise of (1) an Institute of Industrial Technology which amongst its other function, investigate into the potential uses for local raw materials, (2) a Standards Institution which will specify and publish standards for locally manufactured goods, (3) a National Testing Laboratory to test locally manufactured products, (4) the existing Productivity Centre, (5) a Library which will serve as a centre for the dissemination of infor-mation on science and technology and (6) a Workshop to serve the entire complex of organisations making up the D.S.I.R.

L E G I S L A T I O N

The Registry of Companies The Law relating to companies which applies in the States of Malaya is contained in the Straits Settlement Companies Ordinance No. 49 of 1940, which is based on the English Companies Act, 1929, as modified and applied to the territories now comprising the States of Malaya by the Malayan Union Companies Ordinance No. 13 of 1946.

The Companies (Winding-Up) Rules, 1946 which came into force on 9th October, 1946 was published in the Malayan Union Gazette dated 11th October, 1946 under Notification No. 2578, and subsidiary legislation relating to forms and modes of certification of forms and documents to be filed with the Registrar of Companies was published in Government Gazette dated 31st January, 1948 under Gazette Notification No. 1331.

The Companies' Registry was physically separated from the several depart-


The Registry is now situated at Court Hill, Kuala Lumpur, where the documents of all companies registered under the provisions of the Companies Ordinances, 1940 to 1946 are kept. A Committee has been constituted by Government to advise on the forms and contents of a new legislation to replace these Ordinances.

The Registrar of Companies is responsible to the Minister of Commerce and Industry.

At the end of 1963, there were on the register 3,806 local companies and 1,210 external companies, i.e. companies which were incorporated outside the States of Malaya and have established a place of business in the Federation.

Import and Export The legislation referred to above is the first type of control mentioned at the beginning of this Chapter. The third—control over imports and exports of goods—is contained in the Customs Ordinance, 1952. The controlling authority is the Trade Division of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in Federal House, Kuala Lumpur, with a branch office at the Railway Building, Penang. Inquiries as to restrictions on imports and exports may be addressed to either of these offices. It should, however, be noted that the Ministry has delegated its powers to issue or countersign "certificates of origin" of goods to be exported to various chambers of commerce in the Federation.

Anti-Dumping and Subsidies Legislation The Customs (Dumping and Subsidies) Ordinance, 1959, is another im-portant measure adopted by the Government to protect industry against unfair competition. This legislation provides for the imposition of anti-dumping and countervailing duties—in addition to normal import duties— on dumped or subsidised goods, if their import is likely to endanger an established industry or retard the establishment of industry in the States of Malaya.

Applications for the imposition of dumping duties should be submitted to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Full details of the alleged dumping together with all available evidence should be given. Enquiries are conducted by the Trade Division of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in conjunction with the Comptroller of Customs, States of Malaya.


Until December, 1962, registration of Trade Marks for the Malayan territory was carried out on a pan-Malayan set-up with the main office in Singapore where the Singapore Registrar of Trade Marks was concurrently Registrar for the then Federation of Malaya. As from 1st December, 1962, a separate registry was established in Kuala Lumpur with the appointment of a new Registrar, the office being located at the Sessions Court Buildings at Court Hill. This brought facilities for registration, search and enquiries closer to the Malayan public. The Singapore Trade Marks registry, situated at Fort Canning Road, also deals with registration of trade marks for Sabah by pre-Malaysia arrangements. The Sarawak Trade Marks office is situated in the Supreme Court Buildings, Kuching.

For the present, each territory administers its own Trade Marks Ordinance, and until a single trade mark legislation covering the whole of Malaysia with a central registration system is introduced, separate registrations will have to be obtained for each of the four territories. In practice, big commercial enterprises, foreign and local, file their applications simultaneously to these territories to obtain Malaysia-wide protection, whilst most of the smaller traders are content to register their trade marks in only one or two of the territories in which they market their goods.

There appears to be a growing "trade-mark consciousness" of late among local petty traders which is reflected by a noticeable increase in applications in respect of local foodstuffs such as coffee, tea, sauces, spices, edible oils and preserves. A similar increase has been seen in applications received from local industries, especially in the clothings, paint, cement, cosmetics, flour and tobacco classes, while the majority of applications received from overseas centre on the pharmaceutical, chemical, machinery, textile and tobacco goods.

Patent rights are protected in this country by the process of registration of patents which have had prior registrations in the United Kingdom, such registrations remaining valid in this country for the duration they remain valid in the United Kingdom. Applications, to be made separately for the different territories, are received from all the major Western countries and also Japan and Australia. There have been very few patents, a more handful, which are registered in the names of local citizens.

Other Legislation Certain other types of enterprise have specialised legislation. Many of these laws were enacted before the war by the various States which now form Malaysia, and there is little uniformity at present; but it is likely that they will be all replaced in the not too distant future by federal legislation which


BALANCE OF TRADE Reliable estimates of the Federation's Balance of Payments do not exist. The figures given in the following table are the best that are available. Estimates of some of the invisible items were made by taking a proportion of the corresponding pan-Malayan figures. This obviously is most unsatis-factory. The use of a common currency by the States of Malaya and Singa-pore and the many, but unknown, transactions between the two countries greatly complicate the balance-payment estimates for the States of Malaya.

BALANCE-PAYMENT ESTIMATES FOR THE STATES OF MALAYA

The balance on current transactions in 1959 was thus sharply higher than in 1958. The figure for 1960 was + $308 million and for 1961 —$31 million. The provisional estimate for 1962 was —$191 million. This drop was in part due to a decline in the export earnings in the balance of trade which at the same time was accentuated by an almost 10% rise in imports.

A revised version of the above table can be found in Table 14, Appendix III. According to the revised version, the balance on current transaction in 1960 was +$358 million and in 1961, +$28 million. The figures for 1962 and 1963 were —$153 million and —$175 million, respectively. For the whole of Malaysia, the balance on current account in 1960 was +$147 million and in 1961, —$281 million, while in 1962 and 1963 the figures dropped further to —$409 million and —$727 million, respectively. Figures on balance of payments for the whole of Malaysia may be found in Table 14(A) of the Statistical Appendix.


Commonwealth Development Finance Co., Ltd and by insurance interests operating in Malaya.

It is the only organisation with the sole purpose of providing long term capital for Malaysian industries, by way of contract loans and or direct share investment.

The facilities it offers may be summarised as follows:

(a) Long or medium term loans secured by a first charge on assets; (b) Equity, preference share or debenture participation; (c) Underwriting of capital issues; (d) Issuing house services for capital flotations; (e) Advisory services in regard to industrial capital;

(f) Hire-purchase finance of specific items of industrial machinery; and (g) Factory mortgage finance to construct new factory buildings.

Long or Medium Term Secured Loans Loans are primarily made available by Malaysian Industrial Development Finance Ltd, for the acquisition of fixed assets, e.g. land, building, plant and machinery, but consideration is also given to applications for initial or additional working capital, but not for fluctuating or seasonal requirements which generally can be more suitably financed by way of bank accom-modation.

Loans are usually repayable over an agreed period of years by means of fixed periodic instalments of principal and interest. Although borrowers have the advantage that repayments are spread over an extended period, they also may have the option to repay their loans at short notice under certain circumstances.

To meet the initial difficulties experienced by new industries or by existing industries undertaking major expansion, M.I.D.F.L. is prepared, in suitable cases, to make loans on the basis that capital repayments will not begin during the development period.

The security required by M.I.D.F.L. for loans is related to the circum-stances of each case. It generally takes the form of a first mortgage debenture charge on all or some of the assets. Alternative forms of security may be considered.


investments. There is generally an arrangement that the shares will, in due course, be made available to the public by means of an offer for sale. Where the size of the investment or other circumstances preclude an offer for sale, arrangements can be made for the shareholders of the company to purchase the shares from M.I.D.F.L. on terms previously arranged.

Advisory Services M.I.D.F.L. is prepared to discuss with existing or potential clients and their professional advisers their capital requirements and in particular the most appropriate capital structure for their undertaking and the most suitable means of obtaining new capital.

Assistance to Small Industry To assist small and medium-sized industries, M.I.D.F.L. has now set up a subsidiary company called the Malaysian Industrial Estates Ltd. This Company will, in collaboration with official bodies and private institutions, develop industrial estates that will benefit industry in general and small and medium-sized industries in particular.

MARKETING Operating in a comparatively small domestic market, Malaysian factories cannot take advantage of economies of large-scale production. Their unit costs of production are therefore higher than those of overseas manufac-turers who produce on a large scale. It is difficult for Malaysian manufac-turers to capture markets in South-East Asia where the goods of many low-cost production countries already have a firm footing. However, it is possible for certain export industries to be established in Malaysia. In fact a number of the local factories are already producing for export markets.

New factories recently established tend to use those commercial houses which have distribution networks already established throughout the country. This is a mutually satisfactory arrangement. New factories are spared the expense of forming their own distribution systems while established com-mercial houses do not lose the business they otherwise might have lost, as a result of locally manufactured goods replacing imported ones which estab-lished commercial houses have been handling for some time.


The purpose of the project is to train managers, supervisors, trade union executives and others as a means towards:

(i) raising standards of management, including supervision at all levels; and

(ii) improving efficiency of industrial operations with particular reference to methods of increasing productivity, of improving quality of output, of lowering costs and of developing constructive labour/management relations.

Training Courses (a) Industrial Engineering The 3rd Production Management Course was held during the year. This course was of 10 weeks duration, three of which was spent in the Centre. For the next six weeks, the participants returned to their own plants to implement some improvement from what they have learnt. On the 10th week, they assembled at the Centre to report on their achievements. With the ILO experts and national officers coaching the trainees, twenty-eight projects were successfully completed up-to-date, achieving an estimated rate of savings at $215,000 per annum.

An introductory work-study course related to the rubber industry was conducted at the Rubber Research Institute headquarters. The RRI has agreed to start pilot studies on rubber estates. Other training courses pertaining to production, planning, work study, etc., were also conducted by the industrial engineers.

(b) Management Accounting Several courses in the field of Management Accounting have been conducted. Twenty-two practical demonstration projects following the formal courses have proved a valuable aid to encourage the proper use of management accounting systems and techniques. In all, 137 persons attended the formal training in this field.

(c) Supervisory Training The Centre offers both "institute" and "basic" training on the following subjects:

(i) Leadership and Human Relations; (ii) Group-work and Discussion-Leading;

(iii) Job Simplification for Supervisors;


for big firms with large supervisory force—126 supervisors from these big firms benefitted from the in-plant training. "Basic" training consists of 5 three-hour sessions. In addition to the above, the Centre also conducted two training courses entitled "Management of Personnel" which were highly popular with the participants drawn from those performing labour, welfare, industrial relations and personnel functions.

(d) Other Training Activities Besides the above training courses, the Centre conducts the following:

(i) Appreciation Courses Two courses of this nature were held in Penang and Ipoh. The purpose of the course was not only to stress the importance of productivity techniques to top management but also to acquaint them with the various subjects under the Centre's Supervisory Training Unit on which training is offered.

(ii) Trade Union Courses Lectures and Seminars were held for the benefit of trade union officials in conjunction with the Education Officer of the Malayan Trade Union Congress (headquarters) and the respective Divisional Committees of the Congress.

(iii) Productivity Survey Preliminary investigations have started on the Rubber Replanting Board (Fund B)—small holdings, as part of a productivity Survey. It is an attempt to advise the Fund on improvements to the system of payment and procedures and to make appropriate recommen-dations to increase the Fund's efficiency and reduce complaints from small-holders. Investigations are continuing.

(iv) Introduction to Management This course is specially designed for young executives just beginning to take on managerial responsibility. Several Malay businessmen from the East Coast states and one Dyak from Sarawak participated.

(v) Job Evaluation Training The ILO Industrial Engineering expert continued training both management and trade union representatives jointly in the Job Evaluation Project started


from the successful application of the system other firms are considering similar adaptation to suit their own needs.

(vi) Productivity Seminar Due to popular demand from industrial organisations, especially pioneer firms and other industries located in the Tampin and Jalan Larkin industrial areas, a Seminar on Productivity was conducted by the Centre in Johore Bahru. A number of practical projects was drawn up at the close of the Seminar. As a result, participating firms nominated their representatives to attend the Centre's training programmes in Petaling Jaya. They also requested exclusive training to industries in the Johore area.

(vii) Technical Courses for Malay Contractors In compliance with Government's policy to stimulate and encourage more active participation of Malay nationals in commerce and industry, the Centre together with the Rural and Industrial Development Authority, Public Works Department, Attorney-General's Office, Technical College and Dewan Latehan RIDA and under the auspices of the Malay Secretariat of the Ministry, has drawn up plans to conduct a series of training courses for Malay contractors in the building industry. The course would be conducted in the national language. The duration of each course would be one month.

Shorter courses on various subjects like production, personnel, manage-ment inventory and development, finance and control were also conducted.

T H E S T O C K E X C H A N G E Basically, a Stock Exchange is a sort of market place where stocks and shares can be bought and sold freely, fairly and efficiently. A market for securities is necessary not only for the needs of business and industry but also for Federal and State Governments and public authorities.

The modern industrial enterprise of today requires capital of a size which is often beyond the financial resources of a single person or even a group of persons, and the solution adopted in the industrialised countries has been to form joint stock companies or corporations whose capital is subscribed in varying amounts by members of the public. The Stock Exchange is the agency by means of which capital is raised through the sale of such shares


This ability to transform investments into cash quickly and cheaply encourages the individual both to save and to invest. From the nation's point of view, this enables the savings of the community to be put to produc-tive use and thus raise the level of output, employment and income.

In a newly-independent and developing country like Malaysia where the Government is committed to a development programme which requires substantial Government expenditure, it is essential that Government loan raisings should be well supported and the existence of a Stock Exchange will tend to increase the size and liquidity of the market in Government securities.

The Malaysian Stock Exchange, first formed in 1937, had its first real taste of Stock Exchange operation on May 9, 1960 when stockbrokers in Kuala Lumpur met in the Clearing House of Bank Negara to conduct their first afternoon call and price marking. The early workings of the Exchange was rather unsatisfactory due to restricted hours of operation in the Clearing House and difficulties to tap other markets including Singapore. However, these obstacles were removed when the Stock Exchange moved to their own trading room in 1962, and installed direct telephone communication with Singapore. The telephone link enables the best "bid" and "offered" prices reflecting the condition of supply and demand of any particular stock in the two centres.

In 1964, the Malaysian Stock Exchange implemented a number of measures to strengthen its organisation. On the recommendations of an expert from the Sydney Stock Exchange, the Stock Exchange of Malaysia adopted new rules and by-laws, tightened up listing requirements for companies seeking listings and appointed a full-time manager for closer supervision over dealings in the Exchange. Of great significance is the establishment of a Fidelity Guarantee Fund to which all stock-brokers are required to contri-bute, as this offers the public greater protection when dealing with members of the Stock Exchange.

There are at present 25 member firms in the Stock Exchange, of which 11 are in Singapore, 6 in Kuala Lumpur, 4 in Penang and 2 each in Ipoh and Malacca. The total number of companies officially listed at the Exchange is 169. Since 1962, companies incorporated in the United Kingdom whose shares are widely traded in Malaya have begun to establish branch share registers here. In 1962, there were 22 such share registers, increasing to 38

TRADE AND INDUSTRY 349

disturbing that the Stock Exchange found it necessary to shorten the period required for delivery of shares and, as a result, more stable conditions were restored in the market. The unfavourable change of conditions greatly affected the new issues more than the old ones since the former tended to be among the first to be disposed of, sometimes at a loss.

The draft of the New Companies Bill for Malaysia was made available to the public for comment and discussion in March, 1964, and it had its first reading in Parliament in May, 1965. The bill should result in significant and beneficial changes in the legal framework governing the operations of companies in Malaysia.

T O U R I S T P R O M O T I O N S E C T I O N The rubber and tin industries are indisputably the main pillars that support the economy of Malaysia. However, increasing attention is now being directed by Government towards a diversification of policy with an aim to building up other industries to act as a stabilising factor for the country's economy. One such industry is Tourism.

The Tourism Promotion Section was set up in January 1959 with the Tourist Promotion Officer as Head of the Section. The Section's respon-sibilities cover the promotion and development of tourism in Malaysia. This responsibility is executed through various channels. The Section takes advertisements in a carefully selected number of travel magazines as well as several other magazines with a high circulation; preparation and distribution of brochures, folders, posters, films and other tourist publicity material to local and overseas travel agents and others connected with the tourist trade is undertaken as well as arrangement of tours for official visitors from overseas.

The Section maintains liaison with Ministries, various Central Government Departments, State Governments, Municipalities and Local Councils on the development of tourist sites and serves as a Government advisory department to international and local carriers, co-ordinating the activities of the tourist associations or tourist committees, local travel agents, hotels and other organisations related to the tourist industry. The Section is the channel of communication in matters of tourism between the Government and the Pacific Area Travel Association and the International Union of Official Travel Organisations (the Government is member of both) and other such international organisations.


Committee, comprising of Ministers, to plan, direct, and co-ordinate operations relating to steps and measures to be taken to achieve greater and more effective participation in commerce and industry.

Conscious of the many problems facing Malays participating in commerce and industry, especially in view of the fact that they are new-comers into these fields, the Government always encourage them to pool their resources, knowledge, and experience by forming public companies. In order to pool their capital resources for investment particularly in pioneer industries, the Malay Secretariat sponsored the establishment of an investment company known as the Sharikat Permodalan Kebangsaan Limited. To provide additional source of capital, a finance company, called the Sharikat Ke-wangan Melayu Raya Limited was established.

Whilst encouraging the Malays to unite and incorporate themselves into commercial entities, the Government does not forget the small businessmen and help them by providing advice, training and easy source of capital.

In order to enable Malays to participate in fields requiring technical skill, large capital, efficient organisation, external contacts, and training, the Malay Secretariat sponsored the formation of joint-venture companies wherein the Malays have preponderant capital participation. The National Construction Company Limited and the National Timber Industries Com-pany Limited were established with these aims in view.

In discharging its responsibilities, the Malay Secretariat maintains close liaison with the various State Governments, particularly in connection with those matters coming under their exclusive jurisdiction. Frequent visits were made to the various States during which opportunities were taken to discuss, exchange ideas, and hear briefings on matters connected with the implementation of Government policy to improve the position of the Malays.

CO-OPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT

Structure of the Movement The Co-operative Movement was introduced in the Federation of Malaya in 1922 and its development became the function of a new Department called the Department of Co-operative Development. The object of the Government was to improve the economic position of the agriculturists, salary earners and artisans who were then heavily indebted to financiers and money-lenders.


provided for the development of various types of co-operative societies, both in the urban and rural areas. In 1955, an amendment to the Ordinance provided for the establishment and working of co-operative insurance societies. The law as it now stands is sufficiently comprehensive to allow for all forms of co-operative development to be undertaken.

The Department is now one of the Divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives with the Permanent Secretary to that Ministry as its Administrative Head. The Commissioner for Co-operative Development who is the Technical Head of the Department is also the Registrar of Co-operative Societies.

The progress of the movement at the beginning was somewhat slow. It was difficult to convince the people that the movement was good for them, with the result that it sometimes took months to persuade a group of persons to form a co-operative society. As time went on, however, with the support and encouragement given by the Government coupled with the efforts of co-operators who worked in a missionary spirit for the advancement of the movement, the people became more responsive and the number and variety of societies increased steadily. The tempo gained momentum since the attainment of Independence. The Government has not only given full encouragement to the Movement but has also provided funds for financing co-operative projects and schemes and increased the staff of the Department of Co-operative Development considerably. There are at present 2,983 registered co-operative societies of all types with a membership of over 421,596 and a working capital of nearly $183,169,742.

In the rural areas the co-operative credit societies with unlimited liability still constitute the backbone of the movement. There are now 1,555 societies of this type with a membership of some 58,883 and a working capital of $11,567,058. These societies have formed themselves into Co-operative Banking Unions which in turn formed themselves into the Federation of Malaya Rural Co-operative Apex Bank. The object of the Apex Bank is to raise funds either from Government or from other sources for financing the Unions and the primary societies.

From funds supplied by the Apex Bank and also from their own funds, the rural credit societies have been issuing loans to their members at a low rate of interest. Two types of loans are normally granted. The first type is seasonal loan and the second medium term. Seasonal loans are for meeting padi cultivation expenses while medium term loans are given for the purposes of paying off prior debts, improving land, buying cattle, building or repairing


Had these loans been obtained by the padi planters from money-lenders under the pernicious "padi kuncha" system, interest charges would have amounted to more than $17,956,853. Thus a saving of nearly $15 million has, over the last seven years, been recorded on the score of interest charges alone. In addition to the seasonal loans, medium term loans totalling $10 million were also granted. The rural credit societies do not confine their activities to the granting of loans only. They also undertake the supply of fertiliser to their padi planting members, thereby increasing the yield of their padi considerably.

Other than rural credit societies there are the Marketing and Processing Societies. There are now 618 societies under this category all over the country. Among the important ones are: Rice Milling Societies, Rubber Marketing Societies and Fishermen's Co-operative Credit and Marketing Societies.

Rice Milling Societies The number of rice milling societies now stands at 363. They have a total membership of 50,268 and a working capital of $4,986,386. These societies mill padi for their members on commission basis and keep the bran for sale. To facilitate their working, the milling societies have formed themselves into Rice Milling Unions. There are now 11 milling unions on the register. Most of the Unions undertake the marketing of padi produced by the members of their affiliated societies. Before the co-operatives came into the picture padi used to sell at not more than $11 a picul in the field and in some places like Selangor and Kelantan for as low as $9 a picul even though the Government guaranteed price of good padi at the mill door was $16 a picul. Organised marketing by the co-operatives made the prices of padi in the field competitive which helped to maintain steadily the price level of $15 to $15.50 a picul ex-field throughout the year. The total quantity of padi sold through the co-operatives last year was 902,851 piculs. The general increase in the price of padi in the field has also benefited those padi planters who are not members of co-operative societies, since private millers are forced to pay them the same price as that offered by the co-operatives. Three of the milling unions which own big rice mills also undertake the milling of padi and sell the rice to Government. By doing this not only the padi planting members of their affiliated societies earn extra income, but they are also learning the milling business.


of padi which were milled into rice before the end of the year and a total of 14,513 piculs was sold.

Rubber Marketing Societies Rubber marketing societies are also doing good service to their members. By selling their rubber through their societies the members obtained a much higher price than those normally obtained elsewhere.

Farming Marketing Society In Sitiawan, Perak, there is a Farming Marketing Society which is doing good service to its members who are mostly Chinese tapioca planters. It handles the sale of sliced dried tapioca produced by its members and supplies them with consumer goods.

Fishermen's Co-operatives In an effort to improve the economic position of fishermen who are among the poorest in the country, the Government introduced the Assistance to Fishermen's Scheme whereby fishermen who are members of co-operative societies are given loans for the purposes of purchasing modern fishing equipment, marketing of fish and putting up curing sheds. To finance the scheme: the Government has put aside $5% million out of which loans are given to fishermen through their societies. To begin with, a scheme covering the East Coast has been implemented since 1957. The loans were granted by the Government to the East Coast Fishermen's Co-operative Transport and Marketing Union to which the societies are affiliated. The Union organises the marketing of catches and for this purpose it operates two large lorries and four vans. Co-operative marketing has ensured a net increase of between $2 and $8 a picul to the price of the catch. The Union has also purchased an Ice Factory with a 30-ton output capacity per day at Kota Bharu. Refrigeration units, cold rooms and other storage facilities at eight centres along the East Coast are being established. These units when ready will be operated by the co-operatives and will facilitate and further improve the marketing activities now being undertaken. The scheme in the East Coast has undoubtedly improved the economic position of the fishermen in that area. The scheme has been extended to the West Coast where a number of Fishermen's Societies have been formed recently.


Another type of society that has played a great part in the co-operative movement in this country is the consumer society. This type of society is comparatively of recent growth. There were only two consumer societies before the war. Progress during the post-war period was slow and it was not until 1951 that the number of societies started to increase rapidly due to the Government's deliberate policy to combat an inflationary situation which had arisen with the shortage of consumer goods following the Emergency and the Korean War. The existence of the societies had the desired effect. They forced those who might otherwise have made excessive profits at the expense of the consumers, to reduce their prices to the fair level at which the co-operative stores and co-operative shops were selling. There are now 187 societies on the register with a yearly turnover of about $15,704,816.

The Malayan Co-operative Wholesale Society to which more than 121 shops and stores are affiliated, has been given a virtual monopoly of supplying consumer goods to settlers of new land development schemes under the Federal Land Development Authority. It has opened 25 sundry shops in the land schemes.

Among the important types of societies in existence in the urban areas are the Co-operative Thrift & Loan Societies, the Co-operative Housing Societies and the Co-operative Insurance Society.

The Thrift & Loan Societies are the most financially sound societies in the country. They were designed to encourage thrift and to provide credit on reasonable terms for necessary and useful purposes. They are formed chiefly among Government employees, but some have been formed among the staff of mercantile firms. There are now 154 Thrift & Loan Societies with a membership of 130,522 and a working capital of $98.3 million. Some idea of their great value in keeping their members out of the hands of the more rapacious type of money-lenders may be gathered from the fact that loans granted by them in 1964 amounted to about $56,287,791. Indeed these societies have turned thousands of their members from financial frustration into happy and contented citizens.

Co-operative Housing Societies are comparatively new in this country and came into the picture only after the second world war. The position after


The Co-operative Insurance Society which commenced business in the middle of 1956 is making excellent progress. It was organised to provide co-operators with life insurance facilities at competitive rates and also to make available the accumulated funds of the society for investment within the move-ment. Up to the end of December, 1964, the society had issued about 26,996 life policies valued at over $101,379,446. The Society had explored into the possibility of also introducing Group Life Schemes and Fire Insurance business.

The societies in the urban areas have established a Co-operative Central Bank. The idea of having this Bank is to pool the surplus funds of the societies, for investment in co-operative projects. The Bank has accumulated a capital of over half a million dollars and has commenced granting loans to societies in a limited way.

With a view to improving the living condition of workers in estates and places of employment, the Department of Co-operative Development has encouraged the formation of co-operative credit societies among them. There are now 216 such societies with a membership of 18,475 and a working capital of $6 million. These societies have helped their members to save regularly every month and have granted loans to them for urgent and necessary purposes, thus preventing them from being exploited by money-lenders. Recently the workers have gone a step further by forming a Co-operative Land Finance Society with the object of buying rubber estates in order to stop fragmentation and loss of employment. At present the Society has a membership of 32,807 with a paid-up capital of over $4,456,024.

With a view to launching the industrial aspect of the movement, a Fertiliser and Paper Industrial Co-operative Society was formed and registered in November, 1961. The object of this Society is to establish a Urea Manufac-turing Plant and a Paper Manufacturing Plant utilising local rice stalks as the basis for its manufacture of varied types of papers and card-boards. In 1963, the Society had a membership of 9,656 and a working capital of $1,173,531.

Co-operative Education With the rapid expansion of the co-operative movement it was considered necessary that co-operative education and expansion should go hand in hand. The recognition of this fact has resulted in the establishment of the Co-operative College of Malaya in November, 1956. The College is providing co-operative courses and training not only for co-operative officers, but also


as one of the most effective instruments for improving the economic and social position of the people. Funds amounting to $25 million have been provided by the Government in the Plan for financing co-operative projects, for the building of additional offices and quarters and for the extension of the Co-operative College. Many of the projects have been implemented and several are in the course of implementation. These would help to raise the standard of living of the rural people. Offices and quarters for the Department will now enable the posting of field officers in the potential areas of co-operative development.

CHAPTER XIII

BANKING AND CURRENCY T H E C E N T R A L B A N K

Introduction THE CENTRAL Bank of Malaysia, known as the Central Bank of Malaya before the coming into being of Malaysia, was established on January 26, 1959, under the provisions of the Central Bank of Malaya Ordinance, 1958, which has since been renamed as the Central Bank of Malaysia Ordinance. The Banking Ordinance, 1958, providing for the licensing and regulation of the business of banking came into force on the same date as the establish-ment of the Central Bank.

Following the coming into being of Malaysia, the Central Bank of Malaysia (Amendment and Extension) Act, 1965, and the Banking (Amendment and Extension) Act, 1965, were enacted to extend the scope and jurisdiction of the Central Bank to all parts of Malaysia and to bring banking under a single law with effect from January 18, 1965. Prior to that date, banking in Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore was governed by the respective State legislation.

The major amendments in the Central Bank of Malaysia legislation provide for an increase in the authorised capital of the Bank from $30 million to $50 million with provision for the present paid up capital of the Bank of $20 million to be augmented by transfers from the Bank's reserves, an increase in the number of members of the Board of Directors from seven to a maximum of ten, an enlargement of the powers of the Bank to enable it to make advances to appropriate authorities for the purpose of assisting the growing or marketing of primary produce, authority for the Bank to deal in Treasury bills and securities of State Governments and to undertake the issue and management of loans publicly issued by State Governments or public authorities, and for the exclusion of foreign assets from the definition of liquid assets. In the banking legislation, the principal amendments included provisions requiring banks to obtain the written consent of the Central Bank to open branches, regulating the power of banks to grant unsecured advances to their directors and related companies, and requiring banks to submit annual statements of their income and expenditure in respect of their business in Malaysia.


of the money supply and the availability and cost of credit to the national advantage, to issue currency and to maintain reserves to safeguard the value of the currency. Its other functions are to act as a fiscal agent and a financial adviser to the Government, to act as a banker to the commercial banks and to supervise and inspect the operations of the banking system throughout the country.

Operations Apart from the Head Office in Kuala Lumpur, the Central Bank has branch offices in Penang and Singapore. The Penang branch was established on March 6, 1961. In Singapore, the branch was opened in September, 1963, to service the requirements of the Central Government and the State Govern-ment of Singapore under the provisions of the Malaysia Agreement, and commenced to provide full banking facilities when it occupied renovated premises in March, 1964. The Bank serves as a banker to the Central Government in Kuala Lumpur, and to the State Governments of Selangor, Penang and Singapore. It provides clearing house facilities to the commercial banks in the three centres where it has offices.

The Central Bank is authorised to act as agent of the Central Government for the investment of certain of its funds abroad. It manages the local funded debt of the Central Government and, since February, 1964, it has taken over from the Accountant-General the issue and management of Treasury bills of the Central Government. In its capacity as the agent of the Central Government for publicly issued external loans, the Central Bank arranged for the placing of an amount of US$25 million external serial bonds in New York in April, 1965.

The Central Bank administers the Exchange Control Ordinance, 1953, on behalf of the Central Government. With the extension of the application of this Ordinance to Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore on August 6, 1964, the jurisdiction of the Governor as Controller of Foreign Exchange was extended to cover these States. The staff of the Exchange Control Department in Singapore moved into the Bank's premises in November, while in Sabah and Sarawak, the officers there continue to attend to Exchange Control matters under the direction of the Central Bank.

The Central Bank is the official depository in Malaysia of the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-ment, the International Finance Corporation and the International Develop-ment Association. The Governor of the Bank is the Alternate Governor of

B A N K I N G A N D C U R R E N C Y 359

taxation and other financial matters. The Governor of the Bank and the Staff members serve in a number of Government Committees concerned with national development planning, trade policy, company legislation and other important economic and financial matters.

On its establishment in 1959, the Central Bank assumed responsibility for the provision of cash required by commercial banks in Malaya and for the acceptance of surplus cash from them, thus eliminating the need for recourse to the Currency Board for their cash requirements. These facilities have enabled the commercial banks in Malaya to operate with progressively smaller cash holdings in relation to their deposit liabilities. Since June, 1964, similar facilities have been extended to banks in Singapore, so that there has been no need for commercial banks in Malaysia to have recourse to the Currency Board for their cash needs or for the deposit of their surplus cash.

The Central Bank provides facilities for the transfer of funds free of charge by the commercial banks between Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Singapore. The Central Bank also carries out regular inspections of the commercial banks in Malaya.

Currency Part III of the Central Bank of Malaysia Ordinance, 1958, provides for the Bank to have sole authority of issuing notes and coin in the country, but this power has been withheld until the Board of Commissioners of Currency has ceased to have authority to issue currency in Malaysia. In the meantime, Malaysia continues to share with Brunei a common currency issued by the Board of Commissioners of Currency under the provisions of the Currency Agreement, 1960. With the establishment of Malaysia, the Government initiated steps to liquidate the Currency Board so as to enable the Central Bank to assume currency issuing powers as soon as possible. Accordingly, the Malaysian Government lodged with the Currency Board on December 12, 1964, notice of its intention to replace the Board by the Central Bank of Malaysia as the sole currency issuing authority. This means that in accordance with the provisions of the Currency Agree-ment, the Bank will be able to issue its own currency by the middle of 1966.

Although notice of replacement has been lodged with the Currency Board, negotiations initiated towards the end of 1963 are continuing in 1965 on the possibility of Brunei electing to use currency to be issued by He


Money Supply The estimated money supply in Malaysia for the years 1962-1964 is shown in the following table:

ESTIMATED MONEY SUPPLY—MALAYSIA $ Million

M O N E T A R Y P O L I C Y The statutory reserves which commercial banks operating in Malaya were required to maintain with the Central Bank remained unchanged at 4 per cent of the total deposits throughout 1964. There was also no change in the minimum liquidity ratio which commercial banks in Malaya had agreed to observe. This continued to be 25 per cent of total deposits, in the calculation of which Government securities with maturities longer than three months up to a maximum of 5 per cent of total deposits were allowed to be included.

In addition to the power to require banks to maintain statutory reserves with the Central Bank and to observe a minimum liquidity ratio, the Central Bank may prescrible a local assets ratio requiring banks to hold a prescribed proportion of their deposit liabilities in assets within the country. The Bank may also prescribe a structure of interest rates and influence the direction of bank lending. A local assets ratio has not been introduced as the commercial banks have on their own accord increased their holdings of local assets. No formal directives were issued during the year regarding bank lending although the Central Bank has discouraged any tendency to an undue increase in the volume of bank credit. As in previous years, commercial banks were advised of the desirability to channel more of their


Rates of interest which had remained unchanged since August, 1962, were adjusted upwards in November following increases in interest rates in the major financial centres of the world.. This action was consonant with the internal requirements of the economy as it was desirable that the ex-pansion of bank credit should be dampened.

With the extension of the application of the banking legislation to all parts of Malaysia, consideration was given to the application of statutory reserve requirements and the minimum liquidity ratio to all banks on a Malaysian basis. To this end, an examination was made of the position of individual banks and the banking system as a whole in relation to the needs of the economy, and, as a result, it was decided that with effect from February 16, 1965, banks in Malaysia should maintain statutory reserves with the Central Bank equivalent to 3 1/2 per cent of their deposit liabilities; that after the end of September, 1955, banks should maintain a minimum ratio of liquid assets, which are to be restricted to Malaysian liquid assets and Government securities only, of 20 per cent of total deposits; that it would be desirable for banks to maintain a minimum ratio of liquid assets (other than longer term Government securities) to deposits of 10 per cent. During the interim period, banks are permitted to observe either the existing liquidity ratio of 25 per cent or the new liquidity ratio of 20 per cent.

The reduction of the statutory reserve from 4 per cent to per cent of total deposits was not intended to be an indication of a policy of credit ease but as a measure appropriate to current economic conditions. The position is kept under review from month to month with a view to effecting any changes that may be desirable for monetary policy purposes.

The introduction of a ratio of liquid assets consisting of Malaysian liquid assets and Government securities is a desirable change and should increase, to some extent, the effectiveness of monetary measures that may be taken by the Central Bank.

COMMERCIAL BANKING At the end of 1964, there were 43 licensed banks in Malaysia operating a total of 378 banking offices, compared with 42 banks with 355 offices at the end of 1963. Two additional banks, one local and one foreign, were issued licences to carry on banking business in Malaysia while one foreign bank ceased operations. Of the 43 licensed banks, 22 are local banks operating

I


The distribution of the offices of commercial banks in Malaysia at the end of 1963 and 1964 is shown in the table below:

DISTRIBUTION OF COMMERCIAL BANKING OFFICES AT END OF YEAR

Total assets of the banking system increased by 4.5 per cent to $3,223 million at the end of 1964, compared with assets at the end of 1963. The main components of the banks' assets and liabilities are given in the following table:

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF COMMERCIAL BANKS

b a n k i n g a n d c u r r e n c y 363

ASSETS AND LIABILITIES OF COMMERCIAL BANKS—(cont.)

The table below shows the trend of deposits and advances for all commercial banks in Malaysia as at the end of each year of the years 1959-1964:


At the end of 1964, bank deposits in Malaysia amounted to $2,656 million, as compared with $2,490 million at the end of 1963, an increase of 6.7 per cent. The deposits of local banks amounted to $1,303 million or 49.1 per cent of total deposits. Fixed deposits showed the largest absolute increase and accounted for $104 million or 10.6 per cent, part of the increase probably reflecting the introduction of one-month fixed deposits. With effect from January 1, 1964, banks agreed to accept such deposits in amounts of not less than $25,000. Fixed deposits increased from $980 million in 1963 to $1,084 million in 1964. Savings deposits increased by $54 million or 13.1 per cent over 1963 to $466 million in 1964, while current account deposits increased by $13 million to $1,083 million.

The table below shows the changes in various types of deposits in recent years in Malaysia:

Bank advances rose at a faster rate than deposits. At the end of 1964, total loans and advances excluding loans to banks and money at call amounted to $2,151 million, as compared with $1,944 million at the end of 1953, an increase of 10.6 per cent. At the end of the year, advances of local banks amounted to $922 million or 42.8 per cent of total advances.

Loans and advances for financing general commerce, mainly the movement of exports and imports, declined slightly both in absolute amount and as a proportion of total loans and advances, in part because of the severance


Details of the general pattern of bank lending are shown in the following table :

CLASSIFICATION OF LOANS AND ADVANCES OF COMMERCIAL BANKS


Apart from the introduction of the one-month fixed deposits for which a maximum rate of interest payable was 2 per cent per annum, there was no change in the maximum interest rate on fixed deposits and in the minimum lending rate of commercial banks in Malaya between August 30, 1962, and November 24, 1964. During the period, the maximum interest rate on fixed deposits for 3, 6, 9 and 12 months was 4 per cent per annum and the minimum lending rate was 6\ per cent per annum.

On November 25, 1964, the maximum interest rate for fixed deposit of one month was increased to 2 1/2 per cent per annum while the maximum interest rate on fixed deposits for 3, 6, 9 and 12 months was increased to 5 per cent per annum. At the same time, the minimum lending rate was increased to 7 per cent per annum.

T H E P O S T O F F I C E S A V I N G S B A N K S Savings Banks in Malaysia had their beginnings in the last quarter of the 19th century. The first Savings Bank was started by the Government of Perak in 1888 followed by Selangor in 1893. In 1907 the Post Office took over control of the Savings Banks of Perak and Selangor and simultaneously introduced Savings Bank facilities in Negeri Sembilan and Pahang. Thus the Federated Malay States Post Office Savings Bank was formed. The Straits Settlements Post Office Savings Bank was formed in 1902 with depositors from Singapore, Penang and Malacca. In the years prior to the Second World War the States of Kedah, Kelantan and Johore operated separate Savings Bank.

The critical years in the build up of the Savings Bank were those of the immediate post-war period. In 1941 the Headquarters of the Bank was bombed and many documents were lost. Further difficulty was experienced in the loss of passbooks by depositors during those years making the task of reconstituting individual accounts even more difficult. On 15th October, 1945, the Malayan Post Office Savings Bank re-opened for business and the work of rehabilitation was begun.

In 1949 the Federated Malay States Savings Bank, the Penang and Malacca accounts of the Straits Settlements Savings Bank and the Kedah, Kelantan and Johore banks were amalgamated and became the Federation of Malaya Post Office Savings Bank with a total of 229,652 depositors and $47.28 million standing to their credit. By the end of 1957 these figures had increased to 579,747 and $121.85 million respectively. In the same year, i.e., 1949,


to expand its business. At the end of 1963 there were 956,545 depositors and $172.1 million to their credit. The extension of postal facilities throughout the States of Malaya and the general increase in the prosperity of the country have contributed in a large measure to this steady growth. In the field of postal facilities at the close of 1957 there were 201 post offices and 3 mobile post offices, whereas at the end of 1963 there were 221 post offices and 46 mobile post offices. As Savings Bank, business is transacted at all post offices and mobile post offices; this extension of postal facilities has also extended the Savings Bank facilities throughout the States of Malaya.

However, in the case of the Singapore Post Office Savings Bank since 1955 when the total amount standing to the credit of depositors reached the peak of $57.62 million withdrawals have exceeded deposits. But the number of depositors has shown a steady increase and there were 235,460 depositors at the end of 1963.

In Sarawak the number of depositors in the Post Office Savings Banks on 31st December, 1964, was 11,491 as compared with 10,848 on 31st December, 1963, an increase of 643 depositors. During the year 1,227 new accounts were opened and 584 accounts were closed.

The number of transactions for the year increased by 2,807 from 20,059 in 1963 to 22,866.

At the end of the year the total amount standing to the credit of depositors inclusive of interest was $4,101,030 as compared with $4,115,212 on 31st December, 1963. The deposits totalled $1,638,258 as compared with $1,582,856 in 1963. Withdrawals totalled $1,749,662 as compared with $1,428,836 in 1963.

The number of deposit transactions exceeded the number of withdrawal transactions by 5,686 during the year. There was, however, an excess of withdrawals over deposits of $111,404.

In recent years special Savings Schemes have been introduced to provide easy means of savings for members of the military forces and employees of large firms and institutions. These schemes have proved to be popular.

It has always been recognised that the habit of thrift is best fostered from


POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK STATISTICS*

STATES OF MALAYA

CHAPTER XIV

PUBLIC FINANCE THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM

T h e M a j o r outlines of the Malaysian financial system are laid down in the financial provisions of the Constitution. These are spelled out in greater detail in the Financial Procedure Ordinance, 1957.

The Constitution provides that no tax or rate shall be levied except under authority of law. All revenues and moneys raised (except revenue raised from Muslim religious levies) must be paid into a Consolidated Fund of the Federal or State Government, as the case may be.

No further authority is required for expenditure to be made out of the Consolidated Fund to meet "charges on the Consolidated Fund" provided under the Constitution or any other law. For the Federal Government, these charged expenditures include financial provisions for the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, expenditure on pensions, retiring allowances and gratuities, charges on account of public debt, various grants to States, and personal emoluments and other charges related to specific public offices (e.g. the Chief Justice and the Auditor-General) provided by the Constitution and other federal laws in the belief that the independence of the holders from the government is better guaranteed by permanent grants than by annual votes. Money required to satisfy judgements against the Federation by any court or tribunal is also a charge on the Consolidated Fund.

Authority for all other expenditure (other than charged expenditure) to be met from the Consolidated Fund are obtained from year to year in the form of Supply Bills, which when approved by Parliament, provide for the issue from the Consolidated Fund of the sums necessary to meet expenditure for the purposes specified. Funds are thus appropriated to meet expenditure on defence, the social services and general administration of the country.

The Constitution also provides that the Federation shall not borrow except under authority of law. Furthermore, the Constitution provides that a State shall not borrow from abroad except from the Federal Government. The Singapore Government, however, is not restricted from borrowing abroad provided it has the approval of the Central Government.

The House of Representatives, being the elected Chamber of Parliament, has the predominant voice in sanctioning revenue and expenditure. The


The Federal Constitution draws the line between Federal and State legislative powers and rights for raising revenue and authorising expenditure. Specific taxes and fees are assigned to the States. In addition, the States receive from the Federal Government grants known as the capitation grant and grant for maintenance of state roads. The Federal Government have also to provide grants equivalent to specific proportions of the proceeds from export duties on tin and now also on iron ore to the producing States. In the case of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak the position is somewhat different. All Federal revenue derived from Singapore is paid into a Joint Fund which receipts are then apportioned on the basis of 60 % to the Singa-pore Government and 40% to the Federal Government. Similarly, the Singapore Government is fully responsible for expenditure on Education, Health and Labour. Sabah also has autonomy in matters pertaining to Health.

The broad account of public finance provided in this chapter will be concerned mainly with Federal Government finance, and only incidentally with State Governments' finance. It does not attempt to cover the finances of the other public authorities which includes the public corporations (such as the Central Electricity Board, the Malayan Railways, etc.), the Muni-cipalities and the local government authorities.

THE (ORDINARY) BUDGET The Federal Constitution requires that a statement of estimated receipts and expenditure of the Federation for each financial year be laid before the House of Representatives before the commencement of that year (unless Parliament provides otherwise). The statement is also to show, so far as is practicable, the assets and liabilities of the Federation at the end of the last completed financial year, the manner in which those assets are invested or held, and the general heads in respect of which those liabilities are out-standing. In order to assess the proposals for the ensuing year, it is clearly necessary to know the present outstanding assets and liabilities of the Government.

The annual expenditure estimates show separately sums to meet expen-diture charged on the Consolidated Fund (for which no further authority is required), and sums required to meet other expenditure proposed to be met from the Consolidated Fund, for which authority is sought in the form of Supply Bill. The Bill itself contains a schedule listing the total amounts which the Legislature is asked to approve under each "Head" of expenditure,

PUBLIC FINANCE 371

Bill has been debated on the general policies it embodies and had its second reading, the legislature resolves into a Committee of the whole House, and considers the estimates, Head by Head. It is open to the Members of Parlia-ment to challenge any item they wish, and if one or more items are varied, the amendment is made to the Bill (at the Report stage) altering the original figure to that finally agreed. After passing the Senate (which has dilatory powers of one month only) and on receiving the royal assent, the Supply Act becomes the legislative authority to incur the expenditure voted. During the course of the year, should the voted provision be found insufficient, supplementary supply bills may be presented for increased appropriation. It may also be noted that if Parliament could not complete its consideration of the Supply Bill before the commencement of the financial year, it is empowered to authorise by law expenditure for part of the year to prevent any hiatus in government activities.

No tax may be levied without authority of law. Taxation proposals or amendments are generally presented in the form of a parliamentary bill to the legislature concerned. In the Federal Parliament, they must start in the House of Representatives and be presented by a Minister. In certain circum-stances, however, the previous publicity inherent in presenting a bill must in the national interest be avoided, and this applies particularly to proposals to vary customs duties. In these cases, the Minister of Finance varies the rates of duties by an executive order which is arranged to come into effect at the time when he announces his (budget) proposals to Parlia-ment. Should Parliament disallow the new rates or any one of them, the relevant part of the order would be rescinded. The Revenue Estimates show the anticipated revenue for the budget year on the basis of the new rates of taxation that is proposed.

The Budget Speech, made by the Minister of Finance in presenting the Estimates, is the main occasion of the year for reviewing the financial state of the nation. Not long before the Budget is introduced (usually in November or December), the Expenditure Estimates will have been presented to Parliament and published. The Finance Minister estimates revenue receipts on the basis of existing taxes, and proposes such changes in taxation as will provide whatever surplus or deficit he considers desirable.


buildings, machinery, equipment, land and other capital assets in connection with a large number of subjects such as drainage and irrigation, transport and communication, defence and internal security, education, hospitals, water supplies, etc. Money in the Development Fund may also be used to make grants and loans to the States, public and statutory authorities, or to any other body for the above purposes. The establishment of the Develop-ment Fund in effect takes out all the capital and developmental expenditure and loans previously included in the (Ordinary) Budget Expenditure and charge these disbursements instead to the Development Fund. On the other hand, the (Ordinary) Budget Expenditure now includes an item "Contri-bution to Development Fund", a varying but usually sizeable appropriation which is paid into the Development Fund. In addition to these appropria-tions paid into the Fund, all long-term loans, both foreign and domestic, raised since 1958 are also credited to the Development Fund. The Fund will in the course of time be also replenished by repayments of principles of loans made from the Development Fund.

The Development Fund Ordinance requires that in respect of each financial year a detailed statement of the proposed expenditure out of the Development Fund for that year must be presented to the House of Rep-resentatives. The statement is to include the estimated total cost of projects, works and undertakings on which the expenditure is to be made. The House of Representatives may by resolution approve all or any of the expenditure. As in the case of ordinary budget expenditure, authority for greater expenditure on each head may only be obtained by supplementary appropria-tions approved by the House of Representatives.

It is thus clear from the above description that the Development Fund is an important and an integral part of the overall government account; and the expenditure from the Development Fund must not be overlooked in considering the overall government's revenue and expenditure position since it approaches by 1963 some 36% of Ordinary Budget Expenditure excluding contributions to statutory funds. It is also to be noted that practically the whole of the Federal Government's share of the Second Five-Year Plan development expenditure will be incurred in the form of expenditure disbursed from the Development Fund.

P U B L I C F I N A N C E 373

Government as at 31st December, 1963, which is reproduced at Table I in fact shows the position of the Consolidated Fund. The Treasury is required to maintain three separate accounts in respect of the Consolidated Fund. The Consolidated Revenue Account is the principal account to which the whole of budget revenue is credited and against which the whole of the (Ordinary) budget expenditure is debited. All moneys received by way of loans raised upon the public credit of the Federation are accounted for in the Consolidated Loan Account. Finally all moneys received subject to a trust and to be applied in accordance with the terms of the trust are accounted for in the Consolidated Trust Account.

It is convenient to examine these three accounts in reverse order. The Consolidated Trust Account includes roughly three categories of accounts. The first category is typified by the Supplies Department Trading Account. This account is used to finance the government's rice stockpile. Costs of purchases of rice are debited against the account while receipts realised from sales from the stockpile are credited to the account. Should the government decide to hold a larger stockpile, then more money has to be appropriated to this account which in 1963 provides up to $50 million to be used for this purpose. To do this, the necessary provision is entered under "Contributions to Statutory Funds", a head in the Supply Bill, which when approved, authorises the appropriation of the amount provided from the Consolidated Revenue Account to this Trust Fund. If certain sums are regarded as no longer necessary for the purposes of the Trust Account, the sums are paid back to the Consolidated Revenue Account. In the same way, in 1963, disbursements up to $30.6 million might be incurred to finance unallocated stores and works, while up to $11.5 million might be disbursed to government servants as loans to buy motor cars, etc., from the Conveyance Advance Fund. Included under this first general category are the trust funds established, not to make expenditure in the common sense of the word, but to finance running accounts of various kinds whose requirements are not capable of exact estimation, and they cannot in consequence be appropriately included in a Supply Bill. These include the "Inter-Administration Current Account", the "Self-Accounting Departments Clearance Account", etc. We may also include under this first general category the "Development Fund", the "State Reserve Fund" and the "Telecommunications Renewals Fund" separately itemised in Table I. The Development Fund has been discussed


The second general category of trust accounts include the "Specific" Funds" and "Deposits" placed with the Accountant-General. These include deposits for tenders, and deposits required by the law courts, etc. Deposits for tenders would normally be returned, while the law courts would direct the disposal of the deposits it required according to its findings.

The third and final category of trust accounts consists of the "Sinking Funds", each created to provide for the redemption of a long-term loan raised by the Federal Government. Each year the equivalent of a certain percentage of the loan principal is provided in Ordinary Budget Expenditure as contribution to the particular sinking fund. Money in the Sinking Fund is invested (usually abroad) and the interest earned from the investment is accumulated in the Sinking Fund together with further contributions. The accumulated sinking fund is used to repay the particular loan when the latter falls due to be redeemed (if necessary, by an additional supplementary contribution included under ordinary budget expenditure).

The balance outstanding in all these trust accounts are shown at Table I as liabilities of the Consolidated Trust Account. Separate cash and invest-ments held for some of the Specific Funds and for all of the Sinking Funds are shown on the assets side of the Table. The balance of the assets held against the other trust accounts are not differentiated but are held as part of the general cash and investment shown under the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The Consolidated Loan Account is the channel through which all loan moneys are received. Loans can only be raised on the authority of Parliament, by way of "money bills", which specify the amounts which may be raised and the purposes for which they may be spent. Costs incurred in raising the loans are charged against the moneys received. The net receipts are available for the purposes stated in the Acts under which the loans are raised. Since 1957 the net receipts of all long-term loans are paid out of the Consolidated Loans Account and credited to the Development Fund. Funds raised through the issues of Treasury Bills and Treasury Deposit Receipts are held against the Consolidated Loans Account although they are undifferentiated and included in the general cash and investments shown under Consolidated Revenue Account.

The Consolidated Revenue Account is the principal account to which the whole of budget revenue is credited and against which the whole of budget expenditure is debited. We will examine the sources of revenue and


Account. The surplus or deficit or revenue over expenditure for the year changes the balance in the Consolidated Revenue Account carried over from the previous year. (In some years, particular funds no longer required would be written back from the Consolidated Trust Account and thus further affects the balance in the Consolidated Revenue Account).

The balance held in the Consolidated Revenue Account is in the form of Cash and Investments, but they are not differentiated from the portions of cash and investments shown under this account held for the Consolidated Trust and Loan Accounts. Thus the total general cash and investments shown under this account at Table I amounting to $883 million plus the cash and investments separately held for some Specific Funds and for all Sinking Funds amounting to $13 million and $292 million, respectively, add up to the total asset of the Consolidated Fund of $ 1,188 million as at the end of 1963.

It should be stressed here that not all of the assets in the Consolidated Fund can be used to finance development expenditure or budget deficits. Looking at the 1963 balance sheet shown at Table I, it may be noted that a part of the total assets of $1,188 million is separately held for the Sinking Funds and for some Specific Funds. These sums of $292 million and $13 million respectively could not be used for purposes other than those for which they were held. Furthermore, the general cash and investments totalling $883 million included assets which the Federal Government would not normally wish to realise. The latter are the investments in Central Electricity Board ($38 million), the Malaya Borneo Building Society ($15 million), the Malayan Airways ($0.5 million) and the Perak River Hydro-Electric Power Company ($7 million). In addition, various amounts of cash are held with the Federal Self-Accounting Departments, and as imprests and cash in transit. The balance of about $805 million may be regarded as "Realisable Assets". A portion of this must be looked at as a cover for short-term liabilities which include outstanding Two-Year Loans, Treasury Bills and Treasury Deposit Receipts amounting to $253 million at the end of 1963. In deciding to what extent and how fast the Federal Government reserves might be run down, various questions must be borne in mind. Malaya is still an export-dominated economy greatly dependent on the fluctuating fortunes of its major export products. The Federal Government reserves should provide a cushion for temporary bad periods when revenue may be abnormally low. The prospects for future years when price of rubber


(other than those specifically assigned to other Ministers) relating to the financial affairs of the Federation. This control is exercised by the Treasury, presided over by the Minister of Finance, in accordance with the financial provisions in the Constitution, and the Financial Procedure Ordinance. This latter Ordinance provides for the control and management of the public finances of the Federation, and for financial and accounting procedure, including procedure for the collection, custody and payment of the public moneys of the Federation and of the States; and for the purchase, custody and disposal of public property other than land. The Minister of Finance may submit to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong subsidiary legislations giving effect to the provisions of the Ordinance; and the Treasury may issue instructions providing for the minutiae of day-to-day procedure.

When Parliament has approved the budget by giving general sanction to the provisions of revenue and expenditure for the year, executive permis-sion is still necessary before any expenditure is incurred. This is done "by warrant", which is a document signed by the Minister of Finance authorising the appropriate officer to expend the moneys voted by the legislature. Any warrant issued for the service of any financial year will lapse and cease to have effect at the close of that year. Notwithstanding any general or specific authority which may have been given by him, it is within the discretion of the Minister of Finance to limit or suspend any expenditure so authorised.

The Supply Act approved by Parliament gives authority for expenditure to be incurred up to the total sums shown in respect of each Head of expen-diture specified. The Treasury operates its ledgers on the basis of the detailed Estimates to ensure that the funds being expended are in accordance with the general intentions of the legislature. If the exigencies of the public service render it necessary to alter the proportions assigned to the sub-heads of expenditure in the Estimates or to create a new sub-head, the Treasury may direct that any surplus arising from any other sub-head of the same head be applied for this purpose, provided that the amount appropriated under any head by the Supply Act is not thereby exceeded. This authority to sanction virements, however, does not extend to the case where the amount required means that the total expenditure for a particular head will be exceeded. It will be necessary in such a case to obtain the requisite authority from Parliament in the form of a Supplementary Supply Bill.

To seek legislative approval or enact a Supplementary Supply Bill takes some time. The Minister of Finance may, if he is satisfied that there has

PUBLIC f i n a n c e 377

reserve on which the Executive can draw to meet unforeseeable but unusually urgent requirements which cannot be postponed without detriment to the public service or interest. (The need to provide relief in the event of a bad flood or fire would be a classic example). When an advance is made from the Contingencies Fund, a supplementary estimate has to be presented and a Supply Bill introduced as soon as possible for the purpose of replacing the amount so advanced. This is another device which enables Parliament to exercise control over the Executive without completely tying the latter's hand.

C O N T R O L O F E X P E N D I T U R E

Treasury Control The Treasury has general responsibility to see that the money spent by the government is spent wisely for the purposes intended by Parliament and that financial commitments incurred are covered by specific legislative authority. Treasury control of expenditure is a continuous day-to-day process but is particularly marked at the time when the Annual Estimates are being prepared. The submission to, and the detailed item by item scrutiny by Treasury officers of the Estimates prepared by Ministries and Departments is the annual occasion for a comprehensive review of the Ministries' and Departments' activities and general trend of expenditure in the context of current government policies. In the process, any wasteful, uneconomic or unnecessary expenditure proposals are eliminated. Government policy usually emanates from the particular Department and Ministry responsible; the estimates prepared by them are the embodiment or expression of their policy. It follows that the scrutiny by the Treasury of departments' and Ministries' estimates involves also the scrutiny of policy, although policy is essentially the responsibility of the Cabinet, and the Minister in charge must be prepared to defend the government's policy before Parliament and outside it. The importance of Treasury control over expenditure and its implications in policy decisions is recognised in the rule that no proposals with any important financial implications may be submitted to Cabinet for its consideration without being accompanied by Treasury comments.

It may be pointed here that in the preparation of the Development Budget, the National Development Planning Committee which is the committee


Departmental Control While the Treasury clearly plays a crucial role in the control of expenditure, the importance of Departmental control must be emphasised. The fact that over and above departmental control there is control by the Treasury as well as by Parliament, does not remove the responsibility of the Department itself to ensure that money is spent in the best way possible, and where expert knowledge is required on a subject to see that the knowledge is obtained and applied. The "Controlling Officer" of each head of expenditure (usually the Head of the Ministry or Department concerned), who is responsible for the immediate control of specific votes, is also answerable for any audit queries and to the Public Accounts Committee of Parliament for the formal regularity and propriety of all the expenditure incurred out of votes which he controls.

Audit An integral part of control over government expenditure is the supervision and check over actual spending that is made by the Auditor-General. He occupies a position of direct responsibility to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and is required under the provision of the Constitution to audit and report on the accounts of the Federal and State governments (and such other public authorities and bodies administering public funds as may be provided by law). His reports submitted to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong are laid before the appropriate House of Representatives.

The Auditor-General in his audit ascertains whether all reasonable precautions have been taken to safeguard the collection and custody of public moneys; whether payments were made in accordance with proper authority, and were properly chargeable and supported by sufficient vouchers or proof of payment; and whether the provisions of all laws relating to the moneys or stores subject to his audit have been in all respect been complied with. In the performance of his functions, the Auditor-General may call upon any person for any explanations and information, has access to all records (including all secret matters unless expressly excluded by law) and may examine upon oath or affirmation any person he may wish. His depart-ment in fact makes a running "spot" audit throughout the year. He may also make recommendations and generally comment upon all matters relating to public accounts, public moneys and stores.

The Auditor-General occupies an entrenched position independent of


by Parliament. Expenditure authorised by Supply Acts have been debated and approved by Parliament. Even the development budget expenditure charged on the Development Fund is approved by Resolution of the House of Representatives after debate.

While the Executive is responsible for the day-to-day control of public expenditure, Parliament reviews the actions of the executive when the accounts for the year have been settled. This is done through the institution of the Public Accounts Committee which is a committee of the House of Representatives appointed annually to act as a sort of "watch-dog" on behalf of the Legislature. Its functions are to ensure that the legislative intentions of Parliament are carried out by the executive side of the Government, to ensure the exercise of due economy, to consider the points of information or criticism brought to light by the Auditor-General and to maintain a higher standard of public morality in all financial matters. The Committee consists of a Chairman and six other members of the House of Represen-tatives (none of them being a Minister of the Government). The reports of the Auditor-General form the basis of the Committee's investigations. It is open to the Committee, and it usually does examine the government officials responsible for the control of any head of revenue or expenditure. Being a Committee of the House of Representatives itself, the Public Accounts Committee is a powerful instrument for the exposure of wastage and any irregularities. Its reports are debated in Parliament.

MAJOR FEDERAL TAXES Tables II and IIA show ordinary Revenue and Expenditure of the Federal Government. The breakdown of Revenue receipts indicates the declining revenue from rubber. The 1965 Budget estimate of $58 million however is expected to rise to above $92 million if the present favourable price level is maintained. The bulk of the revenue is derived from import duties which are estimated to yield $424 million in 1965. Total receipts from import duties have not risen significantly over the past few years, largely because of the replacement of imports of petroleum and malt liquors by local substitutes. The import receipts in fact dropped in 1963 but excise receipts are expected


taxation, introducing increases in the existing tax structure and also new taxes like the Capital Gains Tax, the Turnover Tax, the Profits Tax for tin, etc. The new taxes are estimated to increase revenue in 1965 by about $145 million of which $110 million will accrue to the Federal Government.

The yield from income tax was favourably affected by the high price of rubber. Revenue from income tax has been steadily rising and is expected to reach the $300 million mark for the first time in 1964. This is partly due to accelerated collection and partly to success in checking evasion.

Receipts from road transport licence and registration fees had increased steadily over the years with the increasing number of vehicles on the road. The more marked increase estimated for 1964 is as a result of a 10 % increase in registration fees on all vehicles except buses. Those significant increases are made in 1964 and the Budget estimate for 1965 is expected to be a record of $119 million. Other taxes shown in the Table includes revenue from wireless licences, estate duty, stamp duties, and duties on lotteries, betting and sweepstakes, and from various fees.

Gross receipts on account of undertakings of a commercial character, particularly from telecommunications, increased steadily. As from 1962, it includes receipts from commercial broadcasting. Other revenue receipts include interest on loans granted by government and interest on investments, the Federation's share of Currency Board profit distributed, Social and Welfare Services Lotteries Board's profit and a number of other miscellaneous items.

Total recurrent expenditure continues to rise steadily from $1,057 million in 1963 to an estimated $1,549 million in 1965. This is largely due to the formation of Malaysia and the rising expenditure on Defence, Security, and Social Services like Education which is expected to show an increase in recurrent expenditure of $83 million over two years from $237 million in 1963 to an estimated expenditure of $320 million in 1965. This itself represents an increase of about 35 %. Similarly, the recurrent expenditure on Defence and Security is expected to rise to $390 million in 1965 and this will mean an increase of $94 million over the actual expenditure for 1963. It should be noted that "debt servicing" shows only interest charges on the public debt. Allocations and grants to States include allocation in respect of iron ore to the producing States for the first time in 1963 and accounts for the marked increase in budget provision for that year.


from $141 million in 1960 to $455 million in 1963 or an increase of 233% in three years. It is expected to rise up to $610 million in 1965.

The Federal Government Debt has been steadily increasing in the last few years due to the heavy expenditure on economic development and defence. The increase from $1,466 million in December 1960 to $2,217 million in December 1964 represents an increase of 51 per cent.

The bulk of the National Debt is from Domestic Sources and only 20% of the total debt constituted external borrowing as at the end of 1964.

The Federal Government Securities, which constitute the Domestic Debt, are held by Federal and State Governments, Statutory Funds and Agencies like the Employees' Provident Fund, Financial Institutions like Bank Negara and Commercial Banks, other miscellaneous local investors like Commercial firms, and even individuals. The Employees' Provident Fund is the most important subscriber to Government Securities and in December 1964 held $975 million in Government Securities, the vast majority of which was in Long Term Securities. The Employees' Provident Fund's holding of Govern-ment securities above accounted for 65 % of the total outstanding Domestic Debt of $1,779 million in December 1964.

The growth of the public debt since 1960 is shown below:

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT DEBT OUTSTANDING


the next loan will be raised. The Federal Government also issues Treasury Bills (for maturities up to one year) and Treasury Deposit Receipts (with maturities between two and five years). Federal Government gross receipts from foreign loans totalled $44 million and $31 million for 1960 and 1961, and amounted to $38 million, $60 million and $6 million in 1962, 1963 and 1964 respectively. Repayments on foreign loans totalled $18 million in 1960 and $17 million during each of the years 1961 and 1962, and $11 million in each of the ensuing years 1963 and 1964.

The Employees' Provident Fund accounted for more than two-fifths (44 %) of the total Federal Government domestic and external debt of $2,206 million as at the end of 1964. The Rubber Industry Replanting Board, the Post Office Savings Bank, State Government, Municipalities and public corporations, banks, insurance companies, other provident funds, nominee and trust companies, private individuals, etc., held varying amounts of the balance.

Receipts from external borrowing by the Federal Government are thus much smaller than receipts from domestic borrowing. It should be remem-bered that public corporation debts, e.g., Central Electricity Board loan from the World Bank, have not been included in the above figures.

Item 10 "Other Adjustments" shown in Table III is the sum of net disburse-ments from various trust funds not already included in the total expenditure figures, and net deposits received by the Accountant-General on various trust accounts. It may be treated as a residual item here.

The overall financial picture presented in Table III emphasised the marked success in accelerating development expenditure under the Second Five-Year Plan. Since revenue had increased only slightly, the increased total expen-diture will have to be financed from loans and from reserves, as envisaged in the Plan. 1960 was a very favourable year when the Federal Government achieved an overall surplus of revenue over total (ordinary and development) expenditure. This together with loan receipts and foreign grants led to a substantial increase in reserves during that year. In 1963, the substantial overall deficit of revenue over expenditure ($362 million) was in excess of loan receipts, and reserves thus continued to fall. The 1964 revised estimates show that the overall deficit resulting especially from accelerated development expenditure will be much larger than in previous years and could only be partially met by loans, in which case reserves would decrease further. The decline in general reserves in 1964 may be higher than $200 million (see Table III). The 1965 budget estimates show that the large overall deficit will


has been allowed for development expenditure and a shortfall of $9 million for ordinary expenditure. It seems certain that the run-down in general reserves for 1965 will be substantial. This run-down is part of that planned for the five years 1961-65 to finance accelerated development. It must now be seen in the context of Malaysia. As emphasized by the Minister of Finance in his 1963 Budget Speech, "our financial position must compel us to exercise the greatest restraint and care in regard to expenditure". In fulfilling the objectives of the Second Five-Year Plan, it is necessary at the same time to set the rate of expenditure at a level which is not in excess of the avail-ability of funds.

I N S U R A N C E

With the advent of Malaysia in 1963, different laws relating to insurance are in force in the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Nego-tiations were in train in 1964 for the extension of the comprehensive insurance legislation of the States of Malaya to the whole of Malaysia. Comments therefore relate only to that legislation and references to "Federation" are references to "States of Malaya". At the time of going to print, the first available statistics relating to insurance were incomplete, but will be incorpo-rated in the Second Annual Report of the Insurance Commissioner, which will be available from the Government Printer, Kuala Lumpur, at the end of May 1965.

A total of 95 insurance companies carry on business in the States of Malaya: 76 carry on general business only, 10 life business only and 9 both life and general business. Additionally, underwriters at Lloyd's carry on general business. It does appear that only one general insurance company carries on business in some States of Malaysia but not in the States of Malaya.

The conduct of insurance business in the Federation is regulated by the Insurance Act, 1963 and the Insurance (Amendment) Act, 1964. The following regulations were made under the Act:

The Insurance Companies Registration Regulations, 1963; The Insurance Companies (Funds and Deposits) Regulations, 1963; and The Insurance Regulations, 1963.

The legislation provides that insurance business may only be carried on in the Federation by incorporated companies or by co-operative societies.


they seek to carry on both classes of insurance. Additionally, they will be required to produce evidence that their businesses are likely to be conducted in accordance with sound insurance principles.

Insurers are required to keep a register of policies of a Malayan character (as defined in paragraph 2 of the First Schedule). They are to keep separate accounts regarding those policies, and separate assets shall secure those policies and only those policies. The Act provides that those assets shall be subject to tests of adequacy and it lays down the conditions under which an insurer may take a profit out of the business.

Twenty-five per cent of the assets held as at 31st December, 1963, by insurers on account of their policies in the Federation were required to be invested in assets set out in the Second Schedule. These assets are of a local character. The percentage rises at the rate of ten per cent per annum until it reaches the maximum requirement of fifty-five per cent. Assets held on account of foreign currency policies of life insurance may be deducted from the total before the percentage is applied, but in future foreign currency life insurance policies may only be issued to people who are not citizens of the Federation.

The Act requires all insurers to deposit audited accounts annually in a prescribed form. Insurers registered in respect of life business are required to have their business investigated by an actuary not less frequently than every three years and to deposit an abstract of the actuary's report and actuarial statements.

The Act creates a statutory position of Insurance Commissioner, and provides for the Commissioner to be subject to the directions of the Minister of Finance. The Commissioner is required to make an annual report on the working of the Act.

It is provided that a person effecting a policy of life insurance shall have an insurable interest in the life insured, although a policy shall not be void if it is effected on the person's wife, husband, child or ward or any person on whom he or she is dependent.

Minimum levels for the surrender values and paid-up values of life insurance policies are specified by the Act. After such policies have been three years in force, they may not lapse until after they have been continued in force (in some circumstances for a reduced amount) under a plan which needs to be approved by the Commissioner.

PUBLIC FINANCE 385

TABLE I—FEDERAL GOVERNMENT STATEMENT OF ASSETS AND LIABILITIES AS AT 31ST DECEMBER, 1963


TABLE II—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 5



T a b l e I I I — O v e r a l l S u m m a r y A c c o u n t s

CHAPTER XV

AGRICULTURE, DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION AND

FORESTRY

A G R I C U L T U R E Malaysia is truly a tropical country, lying as it does just north of the equator. The central range of hills and mountains in both regions, the Malay Peninsula and the Borneo Territories, dictate to an extent the location of agriculture, which is confined generally to the coastal plains, the bottom of the river-valleys and the foothills.

The seasons too have their effect. Although the temperature remains more or less static, the rainfall is governed by periodical variations in wind which occur four times a year. These divisions of season are the South-West monsoon, the North-East monsoon and the two brief seasons which separate the end of the one from the commencement of the other. The South-West monsoon, characterised by light wind, blows from about late May to early September, whilst the North-East monsoon (which is more violent, particu-larly on the East Coast) commences in late October or early November and lasts until about March. These seasons have their effect on the various agricultural crops grown in Malaysia.

Agriculture Generally Malaysia is one of the few tropical areas where agriculture has undergone remarkable development within a comparatively short period of about 60 years. From the subsistence type of crop production of essential food crops, agriculture has grown into a dominant sector of the country's economy. This growth has taken place amongst smallholdings as well as by the deve-lopment of estates or plantations. This sector of the country's economy provides employment for a large proportion of the country's population and contributes a major part of the national revenue. It produces the bulk of the rice and other foodstuff requirements of the federation.

The development of Malaysian agriculture has brought about the existence


major sector of the population, is derived entirely from smallholdings; and the production of oil palm is at present confined mainly to plantations,

The Division of Agriculture The Division of Agriculture, States of Malaya, comprises one Federal Department and 13 State Departments. The Federal Department of Agri-culture is charged with the responsibility for agricultural research and inves-tigational work, while the State Departments are concerned with the provi-sion of an agricultural extension service. Although administration is thus divided, close contact is maintained between the Federal and State Officers between whom there is unrestricted exchange of information and the essential co-operation is achieved through the federal officer who is head of the Field Branch.

Policy The agricultural policy of the present Government is eventually to attain self-sufficiency in essential foodstuffs. Other aspects of its policy which are directly the concern of the Division of Agriculture are:

To increase, both quantitatively and qualitatively, existing agricultural produce and to diversify cropping; To provide agricultural education on as extensive a scale as possible.

The Division is also concerned, but to a lesser degree, with the following broad aspects of agricultural policy:

To ensure security to cultivators; To provide necessary assistance to agriculturists.

Research The research responsibilities of the Federal Department are carried out by two branches—Research and Agronomy. The Research Branch comprises five specialised divisions of Soil Science, Botany, Chemistry (including Food Technology), Plant Pathology and Entomology. The Soil Science Division is responsible for conducting soil surveys and soil investigations aimed at determining and improving the suitability of the various soil types for the cultivation of particular crops. Plant breeding and selection are carried out

A G R I C U L T U R E , DRAINAGE, IRRIGATION AND FORESTRY 391

Field experimentation is carried out by the Agronomy Branch at experi-ment stations established in the different regions of the country and on farmers' land. There are padi experiment stations in all the major padi growing areas where padi research work is carried out and agricultural stations where investigations on dry land crops are conducted.

In Sabah the various specialist divisions within the Department of Agri-culture have been consolidated into a Research Branch at Tuaran. Cocoa research, however, continues to be centred at the Cocoa Research Station at Quoin Hill in Tawau and oil palm research at the Oil Palm Research Station at Ulu Dusun in Sandakan. In Sarawak, the Research Branch of the Department of Agriculture conducts its own soil survey and agronomy on rice, field crop and pepper.

Training

Training in agriculture for young men and women for employment as Agri-cultural Assistants in the Division of Agriculture, States of Malaya, is provided at the College of Agriculture, Serdang, Selangor. The period of training is three years and leads to the award of the Diploma of Agriculture. Since 1st January, 1962, the administration of the College of Agriculture was transferred from the Division of Agriculture to the Council of the College of Agriculture—an autonomous Authority affiliated to the University of Malaya. In addition, the Federal Field Branch which controls the 13 State Departments of Agriculture conducts in-service training courses for Junior Agricultural Assistants in the States of Malaya. The course is of 17 months' duration and the training is conducted at three schools at Serdang, Selangor; at Telok Chengai, Kedah and at Lundang, Kelantan. An important item in agricultural extension is agricultural education for the farmers. There are 16 rural agricultural training centres to teach farmers on the modern techniques of farming.

In Sabah training in agriculture takes two forms, namely: semi-formal courses at the School of Agriculture at Tuaran and practical courses at the Rural Training Centres at the various agricultural stations. The School gives pre-service and in-service training to junior staff, including agricultural assistants, junior agricultural assistants and home demonstrator grades on course of 14, 6 and 9 months duration, respectively.


responsible for the production of improved planting material's for the farmers and for encouraging the adoption of improved agricultural techniques by the fanners. To this end it organizes training courses for the farmers and demonstrates improved techniques on the farmers' own land working where possible through Farmers' Associations and similar bodies.

Agricultural Stations There are a total of 19 agricultural stations in the State of Sabah. On most of the stations, farm schools or rural training centres exist where classes for smallholders are conducted. These stations also produce fruit trees and other planting supplies for smallholders and in some cases pigs and poultry for distribution. Some stations also pioneer the establishment of new crops in their districts.

Publications The Publications Branch of the Department is concerned with the publi-cation of all departmental reports and of technical journals and bulletins, recording experimental results and other work of the Department in general, as well as simple extension materials for use in teaching improved agri-cultural methods to the farmers. A very comprehensive agricultural library is also maintained for the use of research workers and the public. The scope and functions of this Branch have been expanded to cover the activities of other departments of the Ministry of Agriculture.

Assistance to the Public The Division of Agriculture provides an agricultural advisory service particu-larly for smallholders. This is provided by the extension officers who are located in all districts and are in a position to obtain the advice of agri-cultural specialists when this is required. The Division is also responsible for the introduction of Malaysian agriculture of various forms of improved planting material. Principal amongst these are selected strains of padi seed and selected fruit clones. The Division continuously seeks to increase production per acre by selecting or breeding improved planting material and by investigating improved methods of husbandry—manuring, pest and disease control, etc. Advice on these matters is available to the public in most cases in the form of published material.

Further information about the Division of Agriculture may be obtained from:

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A G R I C U L T U R A L P R O D U C E

Rubber The principal agricultural product of Malaysia is rubber, and as this crop is the backbone of the nation's economy it deserves a chapter of its own. This will be found at Chapter XVII.

Rice Next to rubber, rice occupies the largest area of cultivated land. In the 1962/3 season some 988,000 acres were planted with this crop of which about 55,560 acres was under dry padi. Rice is the staple food of the Malaysian population. This is entirely a smallholders' crop and, although the main areas are to be found in the States of Perlis, Kedah, Province Wellesley, Kelantan, Trengganu and north of Perak, it is also important in the smallholding agriculture in all parts of the country.

Many of the large rice growing areas are provided with irrigation systems and the area covered by such systems is constantly being increased. The remainder depends entirely on rainfall and as such, production is less reliable, as drought or floods occasionally damage the crop. The provision of drainage and irrigation facilities has also enabled double-cropping of rice cultivation in certain parts of the country, and this area is steadily increasing. In 1964 54,500 acres were double-cropped. Over the last decade rice yields have been steadily rising and a record crop was produced in the 1962/3 season. The average yield of wet rice was 2,324 pounds per acre although in the highest yielding areas where the standard of cultivation is high, yields of 7,280 pounds/acre have been recorded. The average yield compares favourably with that of other tropical countries in South-East Asia. This yield enables Malaysia to meet some 69 per cent of its rice requirements and year by year the target of self-sufficiency is approached more nearly. A new variety called Malinja padi has been released for double-cropping in 1964. It is higher yielding and of better quality than the present Taiwan variety.

In Sabah, the 1962-63 padi crop was lower than expected due to flooding and general growing conditions. The total acreage of wet padi here is esti-mated to have increased to 68,000 acres, principally due to a large number of small padi schemes which are now coming into production. The 1963-64 crop suffered from dry conditions which delayed planting and from uneven rainfall during the growing period.


only in the husbandry technique but also in pest and disease control measures as well as in soil management to maintain a high degree of fertility that is required chiefly by the leafy vegetables. It is common to find that vegetable production is closely associated with intensive animal husbandry.

Temperate climate vegetables are also produced in the highlands of Malaysia. The main producing areas are the Cameron Highlands and the highlands near Mt. Kinabalu, where such crops as cabbage, leeks, beetroots, carrots and tomatoes are produced and transported to supply the markets of the lowlands towns.

Cocoa A small quantity of cocoa is cultivated in the States of Malaya and Sabah. Sabah owns approximately 4,500 acres of cocoa plantations, mainly found in the Tawau Residency. Recently a new company has started operations in the Labuk area, thus becoming the first cocoa estate in the Sandakan Residency.

Pepper Pepper is mainly cultivated by Chinese farmers in the Sarawak region. It occupies an area of over 7,000 acres, mainly found in the First and Third Divisions. Disease control and techniques to lower costs of production are the main problems associated with pepper cultivation.

Sago The sago palm occurs widely in Sarawak, especially in the Third and Second Divisions, where some 90,000 acres are estimated to exist. Although one of the country's major revenue-earners in the 19th century, the importance of this crop has declined considerably.

Tea The States of Malaya produce tea, both highland and lowland. The total acreage of the former is 5,600 and of the latter 4,000. Approximately 91 per cent of the total acreage is owned by estates. Smallholding production is confined mainly to the highlands but the yields of such holdings are low and the expansion of smallholder production should ideally be limited to properly

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It is to be noted that the yield of lowland tea which is slightly of an inferior quality is much higher than that of the highland tea which is relatively superior in quality.

The highland tea is concentrated mainly in the Cameron Highland areas. Lowland tea is planted mainly on the West Coast on alluvial soils. Inland riverine areas and sedentary soils of the Jerangau series together with those developed from intermediate and basic igneous rocks are also suitable for growing lowland tea. There are potential areas in the Malaysian territories for the expansion of tea cultivation.

Coffee The production of coffee in Malaysia has a somewhat chequered history. The industry was first developed in the latter part of the nineteenth century in the Malay peninsula but had a setback due to an outbreak of coffee rust Hemileia vastatrix. Liberian coffee introduced subsequently flourished at first but eventually due to an increasing incidence of rust resulted in a reduction in acreage and this was further depressed by low prices resultant from over-production in Brazil. The low price of rubber in the 1920's again encouraged interest in coffee production but the subsequent Japanese occupation restricted expansion. In recent years the production of coffee in Malaya has substantially increased and a total of 16,600 acres existed in 1963.

The bulk of the local coffee is of Liberian type. The robusta coffee is also grown in the north or north-eastern areas of the country. The crop is con-sumed entirely by the local market and it is estimated that only a limited further expansion will be feasible if market saturation is to be avoided.

The production of Liberica coffee is almost exclusively a smallholder industry. The yield of beans per acre is high and the gross average return of between 5800 and $900 per acre is obtained from a mature stand. The crop is marketed totally through dealers who disperse it throughout the peninsula. It is an attractive crop for smallholders and comparable with rubber in many respects although the latter at the current high prices may be temporarily more lucrative.

Today, Liberian coffee is grown relatively easily in the States of Malaya in a wide variety of soil types, but it is concentrated mainly on muck soils and coastal clays. It is a particularly convenient crop to be grown under coconut palms and in this way provides many farmers with a constant and


Tobacco Sabah produces cheroots arid pipe tobacco in the Interior and West Coast districts owned by smallholders. Local consumption of local cheroots is increasing and the standard of manufacture is improving.

Abaca Sabah is the only state in Malaysia which produces abaca hemp. In 1963, a further 500 acres was planted on the main abaca-growing estate in the Tawau Residency where a close watch on disease was maintained throughout the year.

D R A I N A G E A N D I R R I G A T I O N The high rainfall in Malaysia would suggest, to the uninitiated, that the main problem in promoting agricultural produce was the draining-off of surplus water. To an extent, this is true, but is not the whole story. In its natural state, the jungle with its undergrowth acts as a sort of gigantic sponge which slows down the flow of water, especially in the watersheds; once this sponge is removed or thinned-out, the rate of flow inevitably increases with the concomitant twin dangers of erosion and river silting. This is markedly the case where undulating or hilly land has been cleared for rubber planting. Likewise, mining operations can easily play havoc in the rivers unless a system of silt control is rigidly enforced. It is only in comparatively recent years that hydraulic engineering has come into its own, but today the Central Government maintains a specialised department in the States of Malaya to study and control the problem in conjunction with those who will use the land as it is cleared and developed.

History The Drainage and Irrigation Department in the States of Malaya was formed in 1932 following acceptance by Government of the recommendations of the Rice Cultivation Committee appointed in 1930. The Committee made a number of recommendations including the following:

"That largescale schemes must be undertaken by the Government; that hitherto carrying out of largescale schemes has been handicapped in a number of States and Settlements owing to the absence of an organization capable of working them out; it is very desirable that the problem should be regarded from a Malayan standpoint; an authority is required capable of dealing with the water control problems of the country as a whole and with which the initiative should lie in the first


States and advisory in the Unfed-rated Malay States which will absorb the existing Hydraulic Branch of the Public Works Department, Federated Malay States. The separation of irrigation and drainage work from flood prevention and river training is undesirable so that existing activity of the Hydraulic Branch in this direction would be absorbed by the new department."

The above recommendations were accepted by Government and the Drainage and Irrigation Department was accordingly established as from 1st January, 1932.

Prior to the formation of the Department, the only major irrigation scheme carried out in Malaya was the Krian Irrigation Scheme, which was completed during the first decade of the present century. The scheme covers some fifty thousand acres of coastal flats in north Perak. Assistance to padi planters elsewhere was usually limited to minor works which were carried out by District Engineers in the ordinary course of their duties.

The first move towards the establishment of a separate Department was made in 1913, when an Irrigation Branch of the Public Works Department was formed. The start was a modest one as the activities of the Branch were confined to hydrological investigations. The Branch was re-organized in 1920, and with the appointment of a Chief Hydraulic Engineer in 1921 was re-named the Hydraulic Branch of the Public Works Department. Its duties were extended to include surveys and investigations for river conservancy schemes.

The year 1927 saw a further re-organization when Government conferred executive powers on the Chief Hydraulic Engineer, and approved a staff of four State Engineers, twenty-three Executive Engineers and two Dredge Masters. The object of the re-organization was to make the Branch directly responsible for carrying out river conservancy works, as these works were closely related with and to a large extent complementary to normal activities on irrigation and water supply projects. The Department was integrated with the Departments of Agriculture, Fisheries and Veterinary into the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives since 1962.

The original establishment of the Department in 1932 included 17 engi-neers, headed by the Director, Drainage and Irrigation, Straits Settlements, who was also Adviser on Drainage and Irrigation, Malay States.

At the time of the Japanese invasion the department had grown to 31 engi-neers. It was re-established in April 1946 with 24 engineers and by 1963 had an establishment for 75 engineers excluding pupil engineers and student


Existing schemes at Papar and Tuaran and Kota Belud functioned reasonably well, and improvements to all areas were made during recent years. The Drainage and Irrigation Branch in Sarawak was first established at the end of 1957 as a section of the Lands and Surveys Department and transferred to the Public Works Department on 1st December, 1958. Its work is mainly in connection with hydrological survey and investigation, survey and design of land improvement schemes both by drainage and irrigation as well as flood relief and river works.

The Hydrological Survey of Sarawak was approved in 1960, and at the end of 1962 a total of 22 recording rain-gauges and nine evaporation recording stations had been installed. The Sadong river recording station was installed in 1963 and action taken on the establishment of another five stations on the Rejang, Baleh, Baram, Lupar and Limbang rivers. The construction of the standing wave flume at the standard catchment area at Sungai Bed up is now under way.

Scope The most important function of the Department since its formation has been the planning and execution of schemes for increasing rice production, though river conservancy and land drainage schemes are also included in the scope of its activities.

The main functions of the Department may be summarised as follows: (a) The improvement of irrigation and drainage facilities in existing

padi areas in order to increase rice yields; (,b) The development of new areas for rice cultivation; (c) The construction of agricultural drainage schemes in coastal areas to

improve the production of agricultural crops, other than rice; (d) Maintenance and operation of drainage and irrigation schemes; (e) The maintenance and improvement of rivers, the natural drainage

channels of the country (including dredging, flood mitigation works, liver training schemes, and river deviation schemes in connection with alluvial tin mining operations);

(f) The execution of the surveys and investigations necessary to prepare schemes proposed for execution by the Department;

(g) The design and research necessary to prepare the detailed plans for the schemes.

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schemes. Provision for new major construction works is usually made in the Federal Development Estimates at the request of the State Government and with the approval of the Minister on the principle that such schemes benefit the Federation as a whole and are too large to be financed from State revenue, though the States in which the schemes are carried out derive the greatest proportion of benefits resulting from them. However, although the Federal Government provides the funds to meet the capital costs of major schemes State Governments are responsible for the maintenance and operation of the completed schemes and pay for the salaries of all staff concerned in this work. Thus the Federal and State Governments are partners in all develop-ment schemes carried out by the department.

In Sarawak, Divisional and Central Advisory Committees for land improvement schemes were established in 1962 to deal with all types of land improvement proposals and investigations, the engineering aspects of which are the responsibility of the Drainage and Irrigation Branch of the Public Works Department. Besides, investigations for the alleviation of flooding of Rock Rock, Kuching, the drainage improvement to the first four miles of the Sibu/Ulu Oya Road, the flooding at Serian, the hydrology of the Sarawak river at the Batu Kitang new bridge site, and the surface water drainage layout for the Pending Peninsular development area, were carried out. Investigations have also been carried out in recent years on the erosion problems affecting the valuable land area on the river banks.

In Sabah, the Tomani Scheme is now in operation. The Keningau is practically completed as far as the main channels are concerned, but distri-bution problems remain to be dealt with. A new settlement scheme at Barujumpa in the Tenom district is now successfully irrigated. Further plans for the improvement of drainage and irrigation systems are now being made. Arrangements for the phasing out of the Labuk Valley Project, with the agreement of the United Nations Special Fund, are well in hand. It is expected that extensive field investigations will soon be presented in the form of a co-ordinated report supported by recommendations for the future utilisation of the project area and by a plan of development.

Statutory Powers The Irrigation Ordinance of 1953 gives authority for the formation, operation and maintenance of irrigation areas.


The Silt Control Enactment gives the once Federated Malay States certain powers to control erosion leading to silting of rivers.

Officers of the DID have executive powers only under the Irrigation and Drainage Ordinances.

FORESTRY A Chief Forest Officer, Federated Malay States and Straits Settlements, was appointed in 1901. The organisation he established grew only slowly, and it was not until 1920 that the first of the Unfederated Malay States (Johore) appointed a Conservator of Forests, followed by Kedah in 1923, Kelantan in 1933 and Trengganu in 1936. However, it was the Federated Malay States cadre which leavened the expansion, so that it can be said that all States now enjoy equally the fruits of the work which began in 1901.

In Sabah timber export had been an important industry long before the Forest Department was established in 1913. The first exports were made in 1885, and by 1902 timber was second in importance only to tobacco. Prior to June 1952 the British Borneo Timber Company Limited held a monopoly concession covering all the forests of Sabah, and the Forest Department had no control over the felling of timber or the regeneration of the forests. In 1952 this concession was terminated by mutual agreement and four new Concession Agreements working on a sustained yield basis were concluded. These concessions were for original periods of 21 years.

The Department of Forestry—Statement of Policy Since the advent of independence a working party has been appointed by the Cabinet to consider the question of a National Forest Policy as most of the States comprising the States of Malaya have subscribed to a statement of policy in general terms. Under the new Constitution forestry remains a matter, as it had been previously, on which each State is empowered to legislate, the power of the Federal Parliament being confined to such forestry legislation as may be necessary to promote unity between two or more States.

Forest Reservation in Malaya now extends to over 8,000 square miles of productive forest and 4,500 square miles of protective forest totalling 26 per cent of the land area. The Department, after assessing the probable future needs of the country, has recommended that productive forest should be increased from 8,000 to 12,500 square miles. It has been known for many years that Malaya could not support itself indefinitely in timber if it had always to depend on virgin forests where yields were comparable to those


are exploited for timber requires time because the growing of the new trees takes something like seventy years.

Malaya will have a population of 28 million in 70 years' time and an actual shortage of timber could easily occur. The Forest Department's belief is that this will almost certainly happen, and that it will do so at the turn of the present century. If the danger facing Malaya is that the demand for timber will outstrip the growing of the new tree crops, it follows that the most effective defence against it is to set about growing the new crops as rapidly as possible in those Forest Reserves which have already been dedicated to that purpose.

The ideal way to deal with this matter would be to cut the whole of the present annual timber production of roughly one million tons from 100,000 acres of Forest Reserves and, in the process, to grow 100,000 acres of new timber ultimately yielding four million tons. An annual cut of this size is also just what would be ideally required with the permanent forest estate of 12,500 square miles mentioned in an earlier paragraph. That is to say, the present moment is theoretically one where there could be a convenient balance between timber consumption and the regeneration of forest reserves. In practice this is not attainable because of the existence of large areas of forest on State Land destined for future agricultural and other develop-ments. The time has long since passed when the timber could be burnt to provide land for development, and it is necessary nowadays to ensure that all usable timber is removed from State Land before it is alienated and the forest destroyed. This means that State Land must continue to make its contribution to general timber production until the last of it is alienated.

The forest policy in the Borneo Region is based on the experience and errors of several other countries in the Far East, and it may be summarized as below:

(a) to reserve permanently for the benefit of the present and future inhabitants of the country forest land sufficient for the maintenance of the climate and physical condition of the country, the safeguarding of water supplies and soil fertility, the prevention of damage to rivers and agricultural land by flooding and erosion, and also for the supply in perpetuity at reasonable rates of all forms of forest-produce required by the people for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes;

(b) to manage the forest state with the object of obtaining the highest revenue compatible with sustained yield, in so far as this is con-sistent with the two primary objects set out above;


(d) to support and co-operate with all appropriate schemes of regional forest research;

(e) to accept the principle that security of tenure and long-term planning are essential for the successful management of the forest estate; and

(f) to foster, by education and propaganda, a real understanding among the people of Sabah of the value of forests to them and their descendants.

Control of Forest Exploitation With a few minor exceptions, the forests of Malaysia are State owned and fall into two categories, Reserved Forests and State Land Forests, the exploitation and management of which differ in certain essentials. Reserved Forests (or Forest Reserves, as they are commonly termed) form the per-manent forest estate of the federation and are being dedicated to the growing of a continuous succession of timber crops and not (as is often mistakenly supposed) merely forming a static reserve until all other sources of timber supplies are exhausted. Harvesting of the mature crop is, therefore, strictly controlled, and the most complete exploitation possible insisted upon. State Land Forests, on the other hand, once the target acreage required for Reserved Forests has been achieved (and this is not yet the case in most States), are destined for eventual destruction prior to the conversion of the land to agriculture and other uses; exploitation is virtually un-controlled, much timber being wasted. The yield from Forest Reserves is, therefore, markedly higher than that from State Land Forests and this will have an important bearing on the adequacy or otherwise of timber resources of the federation in the period before the new, improved timber crops mature.

Five broad types of forest may be distinguished in the States of Malaya:

(i) mangrove swamp forests growing in the tidal water and covering about 560 square miles, mainly on the west coast;

(ii) fresh-water swamp forests covering about 2,000 square miles of alluvial flats near the coast;

(iii) lowland dipterocarp forests on dry land from sea-level up to an


are now in progress into the possibilities of converting the swamp forests to the growing of food crops though areas with deep peat will probably be retained as Reserved Forests.

In Malaya, the location of Reserved Forest by States, together with its extent in each State and its percentage to the total area of the State is as follows :

In general Reserved Forests are accessible. In Sarawak, almost three-quarters of the land is covered by natural

forest, i.e., about 35,000 square miles. Of this area 12,000 square miles have already been selected to form part of the permanent forest estate. By this is meant the area of forest to be maintained as such for ever and from which Sarawak's requirements of timber and other forest crops, both for local consumption and export, will be obtained in perpetuity. There are two main types of forest, the swamp forests found in the peat swamps of the deltas and the dry land forests found on well-drained ground and which are known technically as lowland dipterocarp forests.


There are about 6,000 square miles of swamp forest and, although their true value has only been recognised since the war, they produce most of Sarawak's commercial timber. By far the most important species is Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus), an excellent light hardwood comparable to beech. Ramin has a white colour, singularly free from defects and is very suitable for furniture manufacture, mouldings, plywoods and many other uses. Annual production has averaged about 300,000 tons during the past few years but the supply is limited and production is expected to fall in 1965 and thereafter.

The other principal swamp timbers are Alan (Shorea albida), Kapur (Dryobalanops rappa), Meranti (Shorea spp.), Jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys) and Sepetir (Copaifera palustris). These are all excellent hardwoods and very large supplies are available.

There are much larger areas of lowland dipterocarp forest. Most of the stands are in the interior and are often difficult of access. The best known timber is probably Belian (Eusideroxylon zwageri), the celebrated Bornean ironwood, one of the strongest, heaviest and most durable timbers in the world. Unfortunately, supplies are very limited and localised and exploitation is now strictly controlled. The principal timbers are dry land varieties of Kapur and Meranti, Keruing (Dipterocarp spp.), Selangan Batu (Shorea spp.) and many other species.

Nearly all the accessible forests have now been licensed for timber pro-duction and there are relatively few openings available for further investment except in the case of companies willing to take up forests in areas requiring considerable expenditure for the opening up of communications.

In Sabah the permanent forest estate (that is the Forest Reserves) covered 9,885 square miles, or 33.6% of the area of the State. Of this 311 square miles are mangrove and 1,634 square miles protective and domestic-supply reserves, leaving 7,940 square miles of commercial forests. These commer-cial forests are at present being logged on a sustained yield basis to supply the log export trade. It is estimated that a fully-developed Sabah will require about 55,000,000 cubic feet of logs per year to supply internal needs for timber, and to produce this, about 6,000 square miles of productive forest will be needed. So, it is apparent that as development proceeds, the log export trade will steadily diminish, until it is virtually extinguished, but this, of course, will not take place for very many years.

Apart from several large leases, chiefly in the Sandakan Residency, the forests of Sabah are State-owned. They are divided into State Land and


timber each year, and as logging proceeds the worked-out forest is regene-rated. The forests of Sabah total about 23,350 square miles, or 80 percent of the land area of the State and may be classified as follows:

Type sq miles Exploitable Dipterocarp 10,000 Exploitable freshwater-swamp 250 Mangrove 1,100 Inaccessible Dipterocarp 5,000 Montane 1,500 Secondary, but not under current shifting cul-tivation 2,500

23,350

The Department has virtually lost control over the exploitation of State land forests, due to the demand for short-term licences and for forested land for alienation, and has concentrated its efforts in recent years on the management and regeneration of the Reserved Forests.

Forest Management and Silviculture The growing of a long-term crop necessitates long-term planning to regulate the harvesting of the existing crop and the tending of the new crop, and such plans have been completed for all States.

Silvicultural work was severely restricted in Malaya since the Emergency began in 1948, but conditions improved to an extent which enabled 48,000 acres to be treated for natural regeneration by 1959. The system practised is the Malayan Uniform System on an estimated rotation of 70 years, a system in which the economic crop is removed in one operation and the release of the selected natural regeneration beneath is completed by the poison girdling of the unwanted stems immediately after the commercial felling.

In Sabah, about 30,000 acres of Reserved Forest are worked for timber each year, but in 1964 only 21,500 acres of this forest received silvicultural treatment. This short-fall is due to lack of labour and it is difficult at present to see how this situation can be remedied though proposals to recruit labour from the States of Malaya have been made.


(although research plots are scattered countrywide). The site is at Kepong, Selangor, about ten miles from Kuala Lumpur.

Research is divided into two main sections, having eight Branches-Forest Botany, Ecology, Silviculture, Forest Mensuration, Timber Research, Wood Technology, Chemistry and Entomology. Botany is necessary to identify with certainty at all stages of their growth the hundreds of valuable species in the mixed rain-forests of Malaya and to distinguish them from upwards of the two thousand woody species that are not at present of value. Timber Research and Wood Technology indicate the suitability of the products of the existing forest species to various end-uses and, by deduction, which species of tree will form desirable components of young forests. Silvicultural research indicates the methods by which the desirable crops can best be grown, and mensuration provides information on their rate of growth and the volume which can be grown per unit area and, by deduction, the area of land which it is necessary to devote to growing forest crops in order to meet a sustained demand of any given magnitude. Ecology is the study of the inter-relation of growing plants with each other and their physical environment, and is thus closely related with the purposes of both botany and silviculture. At this time special attention is being paid to the reclamation of degraded soils. Chemistry, in its specialised application to forest research, is the study of methods whereby forest products at present going to waste may be converted into the paper, pulp, fibreboard and other secondary produce which the country now imports in considerable quantities. Entomology studies the insects where incessant attacks diminish so greatly the value of trees and their produce, and the methods whereby they may be controlled, or, should the insects prove intractable, at least it will indicate which tree species are not worth while growing. Further particulars are in the report of the Forest Department, and in departmental publications with specific projects.

In each State the State Forest Officer is responsible to his State Govern-ment for the efficient management of the Reserved Forests and the collection of forest revenue from such forests and for the licensing and revenue collecting, derived from such licensing, of any working of forest produce from State Land.

In Sabah, a new research building and herbarium was opened in Sandakan in 1964 to replace the previous buildings which were destroyed by fire in 1961. Research is divided into three sections, Ecology and Silviculture, Botany, and Wood Technology.


intensified in view of the possibility of establishing large scale pulp plantations in the degraded hill lands of the West Coast.

Botanical research has been directed primarily towards the rehabilitation of the herbarium, and by the end of 1964 there were nearly 23,000 specimens in the herbarium, which number exceeds the collections made before the 1961 fire. In addition to collecting work, the "Forest Botanist" published in 1964 a forest officers' manual of the Dipterocarp timber trees, "Dipterocarps of Sabah", and has done a good deal of preliminary work for a companion volume on the non-Dipterocarps.

Wood Technology is in its infancy stage in Sandakan, having been started only in 1964 when the new Laboratory was built. Efforts so far have been directed to the establishment of the wood collection of botanically-identified material (this now numbers over 1,000 specimens), density deter-minations, silica tests, macroscopic and microscopic descriptions of timbers and micro and macrophotography of timbers. Much of the work of the Laboratory was directed towards the completion of Yol. I of "Timbers of Sabah" which is shortly to be published.

Education consists of the vernacular Forest School at Sandakan, where all subordinate officers receive basic training. The more promising officers are sent to the Forest School at Kepong, Malaya.

Statutory Powers Executive authority is conferred on States over all their forests, except those financed by the Federation for research, or technical training, or for production of special studies. Administrative control of the forests, therefore, rests entirely with the State authorities, but the transfer and discipline of officers liable for service in more than one State is the responsibility of the Federal Head of Department, subject to compliance with the current General Orders on the subject.

The forest organisation in Malaysia may thus be defined as a group of thirteen miniature forest departments (certain of them being combined for administrative purposes) comprising the States of Sabah, Sarawak, Johore, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Pahang, Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu, Malacca and Penang (the latter includes Province Wellesley). Each has its own forest legislation, and all are loosely united by a common and inter-changeable staff of senior officers, and by joint research facilities, but with the central Federal Staff (under the Chief Conservator of Forests)


forests is today a very major industry. Malaya generally discourage the export of logs overseas as the policy is to encourage the establishment of sawmilling industry locally. However, logs of the species White Meranti and Mersawa were allowed to be exported a few years back as those logs are not easily sawn by the country's sawmills. But the practice has virtually stopped now.

Sawmilling in the federation is licensed by State Forest Officers and 400 Sawmills are in operation.

Malaya today exports graded timbers to many highly industrialised countries of the world. The major buyers are Australia, UK, S. Africa and continental Europe. The exported timbers are graded on the Malayan Grading Rules which was revised in 1960. Private timber graders are trained for exporting firms of sawmillers by the Forest Department and their work is checked by Timber Inspectors of that Department which then issues the Grading Certificates. The f.o.b. value of sawn timber exports from Malaya was about $62 million in 1963 and the exports were of 21 kinds of timber sent to 45 different countries. The most popular species for export are Light Red Meranti and Keruing.

For those unfamiliar with major properties of some Malayan timbers a comparison with timber well known on world markets can be seen in the table below:

A COMPARISON OF MALAYAN AND OTHER TIMBERS

Static Bending


Malaya's climate is very suitable for the growth of fungi and termites and in order to ensure that certain timbers are free of these pests the Forest Department pioneered some years ago in treating the timbers by means of pressure impregnation using suitable chemical preservatives. By now the timber-using public have become very much convinced in the use of timber thus treated and this is evidenced by the establishment of about 14 timber impregnation plants in last couple of years. It is also becoming increasingly evident now that there is a vigorous move made by sawmillers to modernise their sawmill set up and outfit with a view to increase quantity and quality of production. Plywood industry is gradually capturing the interest of local sawmillers who are desirous in putting up veneer plant along with their sawmills.

The production of round poles are sufficient for local requirements whilst firewood and charcoal production, the latter of which centres around the mangrove forests maintains a small export trade. Minor forest products include various damars, rottans, bamboos and Jelutong latex.

The Forestry Division Headquarters runs a Utilisation Branch which can assist and give advice on all timber problems. The Forest Engineer, at the same address offers a Design Service for timber or part timber structures, and the facilities of the Forest Research Institute at Kepong are also available.

Sabah exports over one-quarter of the world's exports of hardwood logs, and about seventy-two per cent of these go to Japan. Hong Kong is an important market for low-grade material, and Australia, Korea and Formosa are also important customers.

The timber industry in Sabah consists of 12 Concessionaires and four Special Licences. In addition, there are a large number of small operators working in forest under clearance for agriculture and also for local supply. The long-term operators produced 65.5 million Hoppus cubic feet of timber in 1964 and the short-term operators 33.9 million cubic feet, i.e. 66% and 34 Irrespectively of the total. Nearly 94 per cent cf Sabah's timber production is exported and of these exports, over 99 per cent was, in 1964, in log form.

The main reason for the lack of a large timber conversion industry in Sabah is difficulty in disposing low-grade converted out-turn locally, due to the lack of skilled labour and technicians, cheap power and general engineering services. It is likely that when conversion plants are erected, they will be for the production of veneer and plywood rather than for sawn timber. At present, there is one veneer mill in Sandakan and a plywood


for the small operators, but the larger ones tend to use road. Logs are rafted down-river and along the coast to shipping points where they are floated out to the ships and loaded by the ship's tackle.

The timbers of Sabah are, with minor exceptions, members of the family Dipterocarpaceae. The more important timbers, with botanical and Malayan equivalent names and the percentage of the total exported in 1964 are as follows:

CHAPTER XVI

FISHERIES AND LIVESTOCK F I S H E R I E S

THE FISHING industry in Malaysia is undergoing radical changes. An industry based on small, wind-driven craft and traditional methods and gears of limited efficiency is progressively being modernised into one based on larger, more versatile engine-driven boats and more productive techniques and equipment. Although these progressive changes are taking place throughout Malaysia today, the extent to which and the speed at which such changes are occurring in the different parts of the country are far from uniform. Such disparity in rates and levels of progress is the result of the different factors that were, and some still are, operative in the various areas. The different governmental policies that were in force during pre-Malaysia days in Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore and Malaya have had their influence. On the different administrative appreciations of how and the extent to which marine and inland fisheries could or should contribute to social and economic advancement depended the tenor of fisheries deve-lopment in these areas. Climate factors too have had their play; they still do. From the earliest times, the monsoons have dictated the tempo and type of fishing activity. In areas exposed to the high seas and heavy rains of the north-east monsoon, sea fishing is frequently brought to a stand-still by this equatorial airstream which blows in from the South China Sea from about November to March. Dissimilar cultural backgrounds and varying availability of capital are among other factors that have influenced the extent and rate of modernisation of the fishing industry in the country.

The Government of Malaysia is conscious of these differences in progress and now political independence has given her the opportunity to try to erase some of these inequalities. Concerned over the need to produce more food supplies for a rapidly increasing population, concerned over the under-utilisation of resources in the less progressive areas and concerned over the relatively impoverished condition of her fishermen, Government has implemented and is continuing to introduce and implement various economic development programmes for the industry. It may be said that even if fishery problems were left to follow their own path of development,


The Division of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Malaysia, is directly responsible for the control and development of the fishing industry in the States of Malaya. The Division is under the charge of the Director of Fisheries who is stationed at the Headquarters of the Division situated on Jalan Swettenham, Kuala Lumpur. For administrative purposes, the States of Malaya are grouped into zones, each of which is headed by a Fisheries Officer who performs his duties under the direction of the Director of Fisheries. Perlis, Kedah, Penang and Perak form one administrative zone, with the zonal head office sited in Penang town. (In January, 1965, Perak will constitute a zone by herself and her head office will be established in Ipoh). Selangor, Pahang and Johore are each separate zones with their zonal head offices in Kuala Lumpur, Kuantan and Johore Bahru respectively. Negeri Sembilan and Malacca together make up one administrative unit and the head office for this zone is in Malacca town. Kelantan and Trengganu are administered as one zone from the zonal head office in Kuala Trengganu. Each of the zonal Fisheries Officers has under him a number of Fisheries Assistants who are stationed in the impor-tant fishing centres of the zone and who thus provide the immediate link between the fishermen and the Division. Stationed at Headquarters is the Fisheries Officer (Extension) who is in overall charge of the Division's freshwater fisheries programmes. He is assisted by a number of Fresh-water Fisheries Assistants and Junior Fisheries Assistants. The Divi-sion's schemes for training fishermen in modern fishing techniques and related disciplines are managed by the Principal, Marine Fisheries Schools, who is stationed in Penang at the School there. Also within the Division is a section devoted to fisheries research. This section is housed in the buildings of the Fisheries Research Institute in Glugor, Penang, and is staffed by officers carrying out investigations into the biological as well as technical aspects of fisheries.

The day-to-day administration for the fishing industry in Singapore is at present handled by the Fisheries Division of the Department of Primary Production, which is a Department within the Singapore State Ministry of National Development. Eventually, when the staff position at Malaysian Headquarters allows it, those sections of this Division connected with marine and estuarine fisheries will come under the immediate direction of the Director of Fisheries in Kuala Lumpur.

There is as yet no Fisheries Department to administer marine fisheries in Sarawak. However, the position will improve in 1965 when the Central

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The fisheries services in Sabah are provided by two separate Departments. The Fisheries Branch of the Department of Agriculture, Sabah, is responsible for both administration and development of the industry while licensing of boats and fishing gear is done by the Marine Department, Sabah, or by the District Office in those ports where Marine Department services are lacking.

Marine and estuarine fisheries in the Borneo States are concurrent subjects under the Malaysia Constitution.

M A R I N E F I S H E R I E S

Fishing Grounds The majority of Malaysian fishermen confine their fishing activity to the shallow waters around the coasts.

With education and technical progress, the picture is however changing. Singapore fishermen who operate large fishing boats powered by inboard engines now fish m the South China Sea and in the fringes of the Indian Ocean. The joint Malaysian-Japanese fishing company, Malayan Marine Industries Ltd, which was formed in 1959 in Penang, fishes for tuna in the Indian Ocean. Further technical progress in the industry should see the establishment of more distant water fleets fishing in oceanic waters.

Fishing Methods and Gears Malaysian fishermen employ a great variety of methods to fish and most of the gears and techniques used are traditional ones which have slowly evolved through the ages. The gears operated include palisade traps (e.g. kelongs, blats), seine nets, gill or drift nets and lines. Some lift nets, pukat tangkol, and scoop and encircling nets, pukat sudu, used in conjunction with lures are peculiar to the region. The modern and well-proven method of fishing by trawls has been introduced into the industry and as the social and economic problems which followed its introduction are resolved, this type of fishing should find wider usage. Although otter trawling was in-troduced into Sabah in 1952, it was not until 1959 before local fishermen took a real interest in adopting this method of fishing. Following the establishment of modern prawn-processing plants in Sandakan and Labuan in 1961 and 1962, prawn trawling from these two ports has flourished very rapidly. There were about 50 boats engaged in prawn trawling in 1963, whereas in 1961 there were some 12 boats only. In March 1964,


of Malaya, netting and lines made from cotton and ramie have largely been replaced by those made from synthetic fibres. Nets and lines made of synthetic fibre are more resistant to wear and tear and are less likely to break under heavy catches during fishing operations. They are also easier to handle. Unlike these nets, the old cotton nets on immersion in the sea absorbed water, making them much heavier to handle. With the conversion to synthetic fibres, problems of net preservation and drying are no longer felt. The increase in fish landings registered in Malaysia are attributed in part to the greater use of synthetic fibre nets.

The palisade traps bring in sizeable amounts of the anchovies (bilis; Stolephorus spp.) and significant amounts of the prawns (udang) that are landed. Substantial quantities of anchovies and prawns are caught by seine nets too which also bring in much the bulk of trevally (chincharu; Megalaspis cordyla), jewfish (gelama; Sciaenidea), mackeral (kembong; Rastrelliger kanagurta) and sardine (tamban; Clupea spp.) landed in Malaysia. Fish like Spanish mackerel (tenggiri; Scomberomorus spp.) are brought in largely by gill nets and lines. Gill nets, in addition, land much of the pomfrets (bawal, duai; Stromateidae) and dorabs or wolf herrings (parang-parang; Chirocentrus dorab) caught. Red snappers (merah; Lutianus spp.) and other bottom feeders are landed mainly by lines and portable fish traps. The lift nets catch the bulk of the scads (selayang; Decapterus russellii and selar kuning; Selaroides leptolepis) that are brought in.

Fishermen In 1963, there were some 59,500 fishermen in the States of Malaya while estimates of the number of fishermen in Singapore on 31st December, 1963, put the figure at some 4,100. The 1960 population census for Sabah counted 6,000 fishermen in the State. However, with many fishermen taking to agriculture in the east coast of the State, this number may have declined to some 5,500 in 1964. According to the population census made in 1960 in Sarawak, there were then some 4,400 fishermen in the State.

Of the 14 States comprising Malaysia, the three with the largest population of fishermen are Trengganu, Johore and Perak which had in 1963 some 11,400, 10,800 and 10,000 fishermen respectively.

An analysis of the ethnic composition of the fishing population shows that, in the States of Malaya, some 36,200 fishermen out of the 1963 total were of Malay stock, with some 22,900 of Chinese extraction and some 400 of Indian or other extraction. The Malay fishermen are largely con-

F I S H E R I E S ANI> LIVESTOCK 417

populations which are wholly of Malay stock. In Singapore, the fishing population as estimated in 1963 was predominantly Chinese. There were some 3,100 Chinese fishermen as compared to the 1,000 of Malay stock. In Sarawak, the 1960 census counted some 2,400 Malay, some 1,300 Melanau and some 650 Chinese fishermen in the State. Sea Dayaks, Land Dayaks and other indigenous and non-indigenous peoples accounted for some 50 fishermen only.

Fishing and Fish Landing Centres The principal fishing centres in the States of Malaya are Tumpat, Besut, Kuala Trengganu, Dungun, Kemaman, Kuantan, Mersing, Sedili, all of which are on the eastern seaboard of the peninsula, and Muar, Batu Pahat, Malacca, Pulau Ketam, Pulau Pangkor, Panchor, Kuala Kurau, Penang Island, Kuala Kedah, all of which are on the west coast. Singapore by itself is an important fish landing centre and so also are such towns as Kuching, Oya, Mukah and Miri in Sarawak. The most important fishing ports in Sabah are Labuan, Sandakan, Semporna and Tawau.

Marine Fish Landings Like all tropical waters, Malaysian waters abound in a great variety of fish species. C.N. Maxwell in his work on Malayan Fishes gives a round figure of 250 species of valuable marine food fishes for Malaya, and if other species for the Borneo States were added as well as crustacea and mollusca, the total would be larger. Many kinds of fish are however caught in small quantities only. In 1964, in the States of Malaya, there were, on record, two species of fish of which 15,000 tons-or more were landed. These were the kembong (.Rastrelliger kanagurta) and the selayang (Decapterus russellii). It may be mentioned also that some 19,000 tons of cockle (kerang; Anadara granosa) were harvested in 1964.

The total recorded landings of marine fish, crustacea and mollusca in the States of Malaya amounted to 192,158 tons in 1964. These are estimated to have been worth a retail market value of some $163.4 million. The 1964 landings represent an increase of 4.6 per cent over the 1963 production figure. In Singapore for 1964, the major inshore and offshore gears landed an estimated 10,280 tons, a poorer production figure than that in 1963


Fish Utilization and Products The bulk of the fish landed in Malaysia by local fishermen is marketed in the wet form, without dressing, and is consumed locally. Ice may be used to prolong the useful life of fish. Icing of fish allows the quality of fish to be maintained for longer than would be otherwise possible. In a climate like that in Malaysia, unless precautions are taken to prevent it, fish spoils rapidly. The use of ice to preserve fish is however not as widespread as one would wish it to be. Although ice is widely used on the west coast of Malaya and in Singapore, in Sarawak the bulk of fishermen have yet to be persuaded or are unable or unwilling to meet the costs of icing fish, particularly icing at sea. While ice is in plentiful supply in most parts of the States of Malaya and Singapore, it is not readily available along most of the coast of Sarawak and where it is, it is relatively expensive. Consumer resistance to fish which is on ice has no doubt adversely affected the use of ice too.

The kinds of fish which fetch the best prices on the Malaysian market include the pomfrets (bawal; dnai; Stromateidae), the dorabs or wolf herrings {parang-parang; Chirocentrus dorab), the spanish mackerels (itenggiri; Scomberomorus spp.) and the threadfins (kurau; senangin; Polynemus spp.) all fetching more than a dollar a kati in the retail markets in Singapore and the States of Malaya. Big prawns are also very highly favoured and the average retail price in 1963 in Singapore and Malayan markets was some $2.30 per kati.

Fish that is not disposed of in the wet form is processed in various ways, particularly those fish like red snappers (merah; Lutianus spp.) which are less saleable when "fresh".

Salting and sun-drying the salted fish is the most common form of processing. The fish to be processed in this fashion may or may not be dressed first. Where dressing is involved, the fish are eviscerated and may be scaled and boned as well. Small jewfish (gelama; Sciaenidae) and sardines (tamban; Clupea spp.) are processed whole. In the case of very big red snappers (merah; Lutianus spp.) the fish is split into two halves along the back from the snout to the caudal fin; the entrails, vertebrae and scales are all removed. The dressed or undressed fish to be salted are either placed in wooden tubs or concrete tanks containing brine or if they are big and valuable like Spanish mackerel (tenggiri; Scomberomorus spp.), the split-halves of the fish are stacked in layers and salt sprinkled in between. The

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In addition to fish, prawns may be dried. Dried prawns are used exten-sively by Malaysians to "sweeten" their food. These dried prawns are prepared by first boiling the raw prawns in dilute brine in large cauldrons. Generally about four parts of salt are used to one hundred parts of prawns. If the prawns are less fresh, more salt is added. The cooked prawns are removed from the brine and spread on mats to dry in the sun. (It may be mentioned that the now sweetened brine left in the cauldrons is concentrated by further boiling to produce a black sauce called petis, har koh.) The length of the drying process depends on the weather. When the prawns are sufficiently dried, they are "shelled" by beating up with something hard or the gunny sacks into which the prawns are deposited. The dried shells are brittle and thus break up when hit. A series of sieves is then used to separate the whole prawns (higher grade) from the broken up prawns (lower grade), and these fine bits of shell tissues and heads are used as animal feed or fertilizer. The less salt the product has the higher grade it is so that quality depends indirectly on the freshness of the prawns used. In Sarawak a certain amount of dried prawns is produced by smoking over open wood fires. In the States of Malaya, in 1964, some 1,355 tons of dried prawns were produced.

Another crustacean product is a shrimp-paste known locally as belachan. This is used as a condiment. Belachan is prepared by mixing shrimps with salt and putting the mixture in gunny sacks which are weighed under heavy objects like stones to remove as much liquid as possible from the mixture. When the mixture stops dripping, it is spread onto mats to dry in the sun for a day or so. It is then pounded in tubs to turn the mixture into a homogeneous paste which is then allowed to mature in cylindrical sacks made from palm leaves. The quality of belachan depends on its salt content and also on the amount of non-shrimp material in it. The less salt and non-shrimp material it contains, the better the price it fetches. In the preparation, salt is added up to a maximum of twenty per cent of the weight of wet shrimps. Some 2,121 tons of belachan were produced in the States of Malaya in 1964.

Some other local fishery products which may be mentioned are budu, a fermented anchovy (bills; Stolephorus spp.) product, chenchalok, a fermented shrimp product and kerupok, a type of cracker made from shrimps or fish.


of handling 10 tons a day was completed recently. The company has also erected a fish meal plant to utilise the wastes from the canning factory. In 1963, the company is recorded to have exported canned fish valued at about $566,000. Canned tuna from Malaysia is now on sale in Europe, Canada and the United States.

Frozen fish has yet to make inroads into the Malaysian market. A company based in Perak is, however, breaking ground in this type of processing in the States of Malaya. In Sabah, up-to-date ice plants and processing plants for frozen fish and prawns have been established in Sandakan and Labuan and these enterprises have been thriving since.

Pearl Oyster Fishery Pearl culture was started in early 1963 by a joint Sabahan-Japanese company at Pulau Bohi Dulong, Sabah. Some 20,000 half-round pearls from the winged oyster (tangku-tangku; Magnavicula macroptera) were produced at the end of 1963. Production of round pearls from the black-lips pearl oyster (tipai batu; Pinctada margaritifera) is expected in early 1965.

Mechanization of Fishing Boats More Malaysian fishermen are installing engines into their fishing boats or are replacing the engines in their boats with more powerful ones. Thus a fishing industry based on the more productive, motorised vessel is being established and consequently the ground-work for the extension of Malay-sian fishing into oceanic waters is being laid. Craft fitted with engines can get to and return from fishing grounds more quickly, make more trips, carry more fish and operate farther afield than sailing or rowing boats. The motorisation of fishing boats in the States of Malaya has also helped reduce the ill-effects of the north-east monsoon on fishing activity. The heavier and larger motorised boats in operation, particularly the inboard-engined boats, are able to leave the estuaries to fish in all but the worst weather. Although the larger fishing gears cannot be used in the rough seas, hand-lines and fish-traps are employed. The increased mobility conferred on fishing boats by engines enables east coast fishermen to migrate to the sheltered west coast of Malaya for the monsoon period, thus avoiding the adverse conditions prevalent then.

Out of a recorded total of 22,754 fishing boats licensed for operation in 1963 in the States of Malaya, 46.0 per cent had engines, 28.2 per cent (6,426) with inboard engines and 17.8 per cent (4,057) with outboard ones.

F I S H E R I E S AND LIVESTOCK 421 the increasing preference for inboard powered craft over outboard powered ones, which in fact are declining in numbers. In view of the fact that diesoline which is used in inboard engines is so much cheaper than petrol, used in outboards, this means that operational costs are steadily being lowered. It may also be noted that inboard powered craft are as a rule more sturdy and have a longer operational range than outboard powered ones, with the result that they are better able to move farther afield and offshore than the latter.

In Singapore, a total of 1,899 fishing boats were licensed for operation in 1963 as compared to 2,080 in 1962. Of the boats licensed in 1963, 33.9 per cent were motorised, 9.9 per cent (188) by inboards and 24.0 per cent (456) by outboards and of those licensed in 1962, 32.4 per cent were powered, 9.0 per cent (187) by inboard engines and 23.4 per cent (486) by outboard ones.

Sabah had 5,235 fishing boats in operation in 1963 and of these 586 had inboard engines while it has been estimated that 1,800 had outboards. Of the 5,963 total in use in 1962, 482 were powered by inboard engines and some 1,500 by outboards ones.

Following the increasing mechanization of fishing boats, the Fisheries Division in Singapore operates a Mobile Repair Service for fishing boat engines. The unit consists of a van the inside of which is outfitted as a workshop and is under the charge of a foreman mechanic and an assistant mechanic. Free repair service is provided and engine parts are sold at cost price to fishermen. Demonstrations on engines maintenance and repair are given to fishermen by the unit.

Fisheries Education The mechanization of fishing boats and the advent of new and modified fishing methods and materials have necessitated the provision of technical education for fishermen. Government's desire to introduce modern and more productive fishing techniques and equipment into the industry has also called for some definitive educational policy and programme for fisheries. In the absence of large industrial complexes based on fish and fish products with organised systems of apprenticeship or in-service training, Government necessarily has had to pioneer programmes in fisheries education.

Out of the modest beginnings in 1953 when marine fisheries training


month courses per year and takes in some 90 trainees annually. The following table gives the annual total numbers of men that have enrolled for marine fisheries courses since 1957.

Annual Total Year Numbers of

Trainees 1957 44 1958 63 1959 77 1960 72 1961 119 1962 150 1963 153 1964 150

1964 saw for the first time, fishermen recruits from Sarawak and Sabah for these courses. This programme of co-operation is to be expanded in 1965 with the acceptance of more fishermen trainees from the Borneo States. The training offered at these Schools consists of instruction in navigation, engine maintenance, fishing methods and co-operative principles. Trainees at the end of their course may present themselves for examination for three different certificates, the Fisheries School Certificate issued by the Fisheries Division, the Engine Driver 3rd Class Certificate issued by the Surveyor of Ships' Office and the Helmsman of a Fishing Boat Certificate issued by the Marine Department.

Apart from these in-resident courses held in the States of Malaya, fisher-men in Singapore may attend fisheries courses organised by the Singapore Fisheries Division. These are normally conducted at the fishing villages themselves and the curricula include navigation, fishing methods and engine maintenance and repair. Each course is of about one and a half years duration.

Shipboard training in trawling techniques has been afforded Sabah fishermen since 1961. Under this programme the two Government-owned boats equipped with trawl fishing gear are chartered out, for periods of three months each, to selected groups of fishermen. Government supplies


Attention to fisheries education in Malaysia has not been confined to the primary producer level only. The University of Singapore established, in mid-1962, a Fisheries Biology Unit within the Department of Zoology. Besides participating in the accumulation of biological data for fisheries development, this Unit was organised to train personnel for fisheries research, fisheries administration and management. A post-graduate course of one year leading to the Diploma in Fisheries as well as a three-month course for working fisheries officers leading to the Certificate in Fisheries Administration was started in May, 1964.

Navigation Aids With the advent of heavy mechanised boats, the need for navigation aids like guiding lights to mark out the navigable channels leading in and out of fishing bases has become more urgent. Mechanization of boats has conferred increased mobility to fishing units. As a consequence, there is now greater business intercourse between villages and navigable channels which may be familiar to locals but quite unknown to visitors. Also, channels which may have served wind-driven boats may now not serve mechanised boats shipping larger draughts. With heavier mechanised boats, fishermen can now go out in all but the worst weather. There is therefore need for the fewer usable channels to be marked out to aid the return to home base of fishing units during bad weather conditions. Up to the end of 1963, Government had expended $19,711 for the provision of navigation aids in various areas in the States of Malaya.

Halting Bungalows In order to extend still further the range of fishing units and in order that the increased range of operation bestowed by engine-driven boats may be maximally exploited, Government has also set up on offshore islands and elsewhere bases which serve as provisioning and rest centres. For instance, Government has built two halting bungalows on the Redang group of islands off Trengganu. These bases are of particular help to Kelantan and Trengganu fishermen especially during the north-east monsoon period. They serve as near retreats to fishermen faced, while out fishing, with a sudden turn of weather. With such near retreats available, fishermen can remain on the fishing grounds longer than they otherwise would have been able to, had they to return all the way to their mainland bases ahead of the threatening storm.


contributed to increased fish landings. Since 1957 local recorded marine fish production in the States of Malaya has increased by 73.2 per cent from 110,863 tons to 192,158 tons in 1964. With such an increase in quantity of fish to be handled, fish landing and marketing facilities have naturally had to be improved and expanded accordingly. Indeed, since wet fish is such a perishable product, the handling of fish after it is caught is as impor-tant as the process of catching it and may, as it does so now in Malaya, determine the structure of the industry.

In the States of Malaya, the important centres supplying marine fish are Pangkor, Pulau Ketam, Kuala Kedah and Sedili while the most impor-tant destinations are the heavily populated towns of Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Penang and Malacca. A good amount of Malayan wet fish goes to Singapore. In 1964, this amounted to some 35,000 tons.

Government's involvement in Malayan fish landing and marketing has been primarily concentrated in those areas where these are less well developed. Pasar Payang in Trengganu has received Government's attention and funds. The landing and provisioning facilities here have been centralised. Installed by the jetty are facilities like an ice crushing unit, diesoline and petrol supply pumps, a water supply point and telephones. Jetties to facilitate landing of fish have also been built by Government in Kemaman, Dungun, Besut, all in Trengganu and in Kuala Linggi in Malacca. On the east coast of Malaya, where, because of the north-east monsoon, problems of seasonal glut and scarcity of fish are annually recurrent and acute, eight cold-room depots have been put up under a joint Canadian-Malaysian co-operative scheme. Two refrigerated fish-carrier boats are being built to transport fish from sea to landing points from where refrigerated or insulated trucks will take the fish to the cold-room depots for storage. The eight depots comprise twenty-one units of cold-rooms with a total storage capacity of about 360 tons. These rooms by holding fish from periods of plenty to periods of scarcity will enable fishermen and consumers alike to overcome undesirable price fluctuations.

In a further endeavour to ensure fair prices to consumers and fair returns to fishermen, Government has encouraged fishermen to organise themselves into co-operatives. In the past, due to the scatteredness of fishing settlements and the difficulty of access, most fishermen were not able, in addition to the catching of fish, to handle the transportation and marketing of their catch. Therefore, over the years, a system has evolved whereby the fisherman sells his catch to a fish dealer who arranges for the marketing or onward

F I S H E R I E S AND LIVESTOCK 425

addition, the fisherman is seldom paid in full for the fish at the time it is taken from him. While waiting for the balance, he is usually forced by circumstances to borrow money or food or fishing equipment from a financier or the dealer to tide him over lean periods. With a growing "unseen" credit from the dealer, he soon finds himself in a state of perpetual indebtedness. It must not be overlooked, however, that the financier or dealer safeguards the fisherman to a certain extent. He must pay the fisher-man for the fish and he stands to lose if the market is bad. He gives the fisherman credit, advancing provisions and fishing material, with little hope of getting a full return. He takes on the problem of icing, packing and transporting fish to the markets.

There are, of course, all grades of dealers and fishermen. There are fishermen that are completely independent and those that are completely exploited. It is to help the exploited fishermen that fishermen co-operative societies have been encouraged in the States of Malaya. These societies will enable fishermen to market their catch in bulk and place them in a better bargaining position with dealers. At the same time, fishermen co-operative societies have been encouraged to combine to form their own transport and marketing organisation and to run their own ice plants. In this way, the profits from their operations can be passed back to the members. At the end of 1963 there were 75 Fishermen Co-operative Societies registered with a total membership of 5,788 in the States of Malaya. There have been certain set-backs to the co-operative movement, and efforts as such have now become re-oriented to its consolidation.

A refinement of co-operative endeavour has been the establishment of fishermen resettlements. Under this programme fishermen are persuaded to come together into more compact fishing communities so that they can organise themselves more effectively into co-operatives and so that they can be supplied more easily and economically with such amenities as piped water, electricity, landing jetties, fish-packing sheds and cold-storage rooms. Under the two resettlement projects that have been implemented in the States of Malaya, one in Malacca and the other in Selangor, parti-cipating fishermen and their families have also been provided with houses and plots of land to enable them to supplement their income from the soil.

In Singapore, fish landed at various points on the island are channelled through five main wholesale centres. These are Ellenborough Market, Clyde Terrace Markets, Upper Serangoon Road End, Marine Parade and


of the private markets charge a commission ranging from five per' cent to 7.5 per cent of the auction value of the fish.

In Sabah, two new fish markets were completed in 1963, one in Jesselton and the other in Tawau. The fish market in Sandakan was extended and the jetty improved during 1963. The new Jesselton market is capable of handling six tons of fish a day, the Tawau one 2.5 tons and the newly extended Sandakan one 12 tons.

I N L A N D F I S H E R I E S

Freshwater Fisheries The culture and capture of edible fish from freshwaters is playing an increasingly important part in providing fish for the nation. The need to exploit the fish resources of inland waters to supplement fish landings from the sea arises particularly from the fact that in rural areas fresh sea fish is usually unobtainable because of difficulties in communications and lack of transport facilities to service scattered, small communities. Meat in these areas is often in short supply and when available is expensive and beyond the means of many. To meet the protein needs of all, fish is a good alternative since its protein nutritive value is high and since it finds wide acceptance among the people.

It is estimated that the paddy fields, the rivers, lakes and swamps and the ponds under fish culture in Malaya together produce some 25,000 tons of fish annually. It is not known what quantities of fish the fresh waters in the other parts of Malaysia produce.

Fish Culture Freshwater fish culture in Malaysia is mainly carried out as a subsidiary occupation to small holding poultry rearing, vegetable cultivation, pig rearing and such like rural occupations.

The sizes of the ponds for fish culture vary depending on the amount of land available and the lie of the site. However the majority of ponds are less than a tenth of an acre in size.

Judging from the number of fish distributed by the Fisheries Division to fish farmers in the States of Malaya, the three most popular types of local-bred fish for fish culture are lampam jawa (Puntius gonionotus — P.javanicus), lee koh (Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia (Tilapia mossambica), in

F I S H E R I E S ANI> L I V E S T O C K 427

it was only in 1953 that the species was introduced by the Division into Malaya from Indonesia and the thousands of lampam jawa being cultivated in ponds in Malaya are derived from ten fish, survivals of the original imported stock. Other than the locally bred fish, substantial numbers, some 740,000 fry in 1963, of Chinese carp fry, mainly the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), the big head (Aristichthys nobilis) and the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), are imported from China via Singapore for fish culture in the States of Malaya. These three species do not spawn locally.

On account of the limited amount of land and water resources available in the island State of Singapore, freshwater fish culture is somewhat res-tricted particularly in so far as expansion is concerned. The fish culture there is largely confined to carp farming. Four species of carp are commonly cultivated in Singapore ponds. Although the mud carp (Cirrhina molitorella) has been reported to be cultivated in the State as well, it is seldom seen nowadays. The four species in use are the grass carp, the big head, the common carp (lee koh; Cyprinus carpio) and the silver carp. Most Singapore fish ponds are stocked with the first three species. Some however have all the four. This practice of cultivating the species together is said to be beneficial because of the complementary habits of the various species. The grass carp is a vegetable feeder, the big head feeds on macroplankton, the silver carp on microplankton and the common carp is a general scavenger. It has been said that some of the Singapore carp ponds give some of the best yields in the world. Of the species of carp mentioned, only the common carp breeds in Singapore. The fry of the others have to be imported from China via Hongkong. In 1963, some 844,000 fry were imported into Singa-pore. Lampam jawa from the States of Malaya has been recently introduced into the State for culture in fish ponds. Tilapia is also cultivated in Singapore, but mainly in brackish water ponds. This fish however does not fetch a good price in the markets and much of it is used as feed for livestock.

In Sarawak seven species of fish are available for issue, free of charge as in the States of Malaya, to owners of ponds interested in or practising fish culture. These are tilapia (Tilapia mossambica), sepat siatn (Trichogaster pectoralis), lee koh (Cyprinus carpio), kalui (Osphronemus goramy), biawan (temakang; Helostoma temmincki), chit ku (Carassius auratus) and lampam jawa (.Puntius gonionotus=P. javanicus). Records of fry distributed by the Agriculture Department, Sarawak, show that lee koh, tipalia and biawan form the bulk of the fry distributed. Some 200,000 fry were distributed by the Department in the first half of 1964.


Fish Breeding Stations To give impetus to fish culture and to provide the quantities of fry required to stock ponds, Government has built fry breeding and distribution stations. In the States of Malaya there are now established five such stations at Tapah, Enggor, Kluang, Bukit Tinggi and Ajil, with two more under construction at Machang and Cameron Highlands. In Sarawak, there are eight fry breeding stations.

Of the 1,643,327 fry that were distributed by the Fisheries Division in Malaya in 1964, 1,633,797 were produced by the Malayan stations, 8,530 were contributed by the Tropical Fish Culture Research Institute and 1,000 were purchased. Of the number distributed 1,096,196 were supplied to fish farmers. The 1964 distribution represents an improvement of some 50 per cent over the performance in 1963 when the total distribution was 1,027,402 fish fry. In Sarawak, some 514,000 and 436,000 fish fry were distributed by the Agriculture Department there in 1962 and 1963 respectively.

Acreage of Ponds under Fish Culture With the attention Government has devoted to fish culture in the States of Malaya, there have been large increases in the total acreage of ponds that have been opened up and stocked. In 1957 the estimated number and acreage of ponds under fish culture were 770 and 361 acres. By the end of 1964, the number went up to 4,567 and the acreage increased more than six-fold to 2,434 acres. Some 848 ponds and 500 acres were added in 1964.

In Sarawak, at the eDd of 1964, there were some 8,048 ponds under freshwater fish culture and their total acreage is estimated at 724 acres. Some 1,162 ponds and some 116 acres were added in 1964.

In Sabah, there were some 800 fish ponds totalling some 65 acres at the end of 1963.

Stocking of Public Waters Another feature of the Government freshwater fisheries programme is the rough release of fish fry into natural waters to increase their fish stocks for public fishing. This scheme is being pursued in the States of Malaya and Sarawak. Some 544,900 fish fry were stocked in Malayan natural waters in 1964 as compared to 336,000 in 1963. As it has been found that

F I S H E R I E S AND L I V E S T O C K 429

Fish Culture Training In addition to the production of fry, the Government fry breeding stations in Malaya and Sarawak serve as centres for experimental work and training of fish culturists. In 1964, in the States of Malaya, a total of 138 farmers and pond owners attended fish culture training courses held at the Malayan stations. The 1964 intake was an increase of 18 over the 1963 enrolment. As in the marine fisheries trailing schemes, trainees attending these courses receive, for the duration of the course, an allowance to cover their expenses acid free passage to and from their homes. In addition to these courses organised and run by the Fisheries Division, talks on fish culture are given by fisheries officers to trainees attending the Malayan Department of Agriculture courses. In 1963, a total of 77 such talks were delivered to 1,000 agriculture trainees. In Sarawak, besides the fish culture courses conducted for farmers and fishermen, special courses have been run for retixed policemen, interested early school leavers, selected staff of institutions and members of the 4H Clubs from rural areas.

Technical Assistance In addition to being provided with supplies of fry and training courses, farmers engaged in fish culture also receive technical assistance in the way of advice on pond maintenance and construction, and help in the removal of predatory fish from ponds. In Sarawak, such free assistance extends to the supply of lime, drainage pipes, materials for sluice gates and cash incentives at the rate of MS100.00 per acre for ponds whose size is 0.1 acre or more.

Brackish Water Fisheries The latest available estimates of the acreage of tidal swamp land in Singapore that have been bunded up for prawn production put the figure at some 1,500 acres. In this method of prawn production, suitable areas in tidal swamps are enclosed with mud bunds to form brackish water ponds. The bunds are fitted with sluice gates which permit the control of the tidal flow into and from the ponds. The gates are opened when the tide comes in and the prawns are swept in with the flood tide. The gates are closed when the tide begins to ebb. In this way the ponds are filled and the prawns captured. When a sufficient head of water has been obtained in the pond, long conical nets are fitted to the gates which are then opened. As the


about once every six months. An estimated 200 tons of prawns, with some fish, are produced annually by the Singapore brackish water prawn ponds. With foreshores being reclaimed at the present time in Singapore, some of these ponds have disappeared or will disappear soon.

The Singapore-type of prawn pond operation has now spread across the Straits to Johore. In Sabah brackish water pond culture is in an expe-rimental stage. In Sarawak development of brackish water fisheries is planned, and a preliminary survey is being undertaken to site a brackish water fisheries station in the Semeriang area.

F I S H E R I E S R E S E A R C H Fisheries research in the States of Malaya has been carried out on a broad front from exploratory fishing cruises looking for new fish resources to market research. Among the latest work have been investigations into fishing methods and gears, fish biology, fish preservation and market research.

With the help of Japanese Colombo Plan experts, studies were made on the performance in Malayan conditions of tuna long lines, bottom long lines, shrimp trawls, portable set traps (bubu), lift nets (pukat tangkol), beach seines and set nets (Musuami). Investigations on the otter trawl and its fishery have recently been initiated.

With regard to biological research, investigations have been made on the life history and bionomics of the cockle (kerang; Anadara granosa), the culture of local oysters, the life history and bionomics of the mangrove crab (ketam batu; Scylla serrata), while work is underway on the biology of the mackerel (kembong; Rastrelliger kanagurta), on the culture of the giant freshwater prawn (udang galah; Macrobrachium rosenbergi), on the spawning of ikan temoleh (Probarbus jullieni) and the improvement of the breeding stock of Lampam jawa. Subjects chosen for research have neces-sarily been those that are economically important or have the potential for being so. For instance, cockle culture which started in 1948 has grown into an important industry in Perak. The recorded production of cockles in the State in 1952 amounted to 1,609 tons. In 1963, the production had improved some twelve times to 18,729 tons. The industry is capable of even greater expansion but for the want of adequate market outlets.

FISHERIES AND LIVESTOCK 4 3 1

processing and preservation, increasing attention in this direction has been paid by the Fisheries Division in Malaya. Among problems being looked into are the keeping qualities of commercially prepared salt fish and the use of anti-biotics for wet fish preservation.

A survey to gauge the structure of the present fish marketing system was launched towards the end of 1963. The findings of this survey are expected to become available in 1965.

Mention must also be made of the work done by the Tropical Fish Culture Research Institute in Malacca which is supported mainly by United Kingdom funds with a small contribution from the Malaysian Government and which is managed by a Board of seven, four members of which axe nominated by the United Kingdom Government, two by the Malaysian Government and one by the University of Malaya. In this Institute, whose research is devoted to freshwater, studies have been made on the genetics of Tilapia mossambica, on the artificial spawning of the grass carp and on the effects of fertilisers on fish ponds.

The Fisheries Biology Unit of the University of Singapore is undertaking studies on the scad (selayang; Decapterns russellii), the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in the Straits of Singapore and in carp ponds in Singapore.

In Sarawak, studies on the growth rate of Tor tambroides under different pond and water conditions are being made. Spawning of lampam jawa, the controlled hatching of eggs of kalui and biawan have received attention.

F I S H E R I E S L E G I S L A T I O N As fisheries expand and as gears and methods of fishing become more

efficient, the need to regulate fishing activities if resources are to be rationally utilised and conserved becomes more urgent. With the advent of cheap insecticides, some of which can also be used as piscicides and with the increasing industrialisation of the economy, problems of poisoning and pollution of our waters will multiply.

With the progress of motorisation, traditionally "closed" home or village fishing grounds become accessible to fishermen from elsewhere. As such the likelihood of disputes arising is greatly increased.

Statistical data are fundamental for the production of development programmes and for the assessment of needs and performance. Their collection through licensing and surveys is therefore a necessary and


In Singapore, control of fishing is exercised under the Fisheries Ordinance and its subsidiary Rules. Sarawak has her Sea Fishing and Kilongs Ordinance and subsidiary Regulations, while Sabah has her Fisheries Ordinance, 1963, and her Fisheries Regulations, 1964.

L I V E S T O C K

Introduction

Malaya The Government Veterinary Services in Malaya was first started in Penang in 1888 when a Government Veterinary Surgeon was appointed under the control of the Colonial Surgeon to check animal diseases. Two years later the first cattle quarantine station was completed at the site of the present Government Veterinary Office. The veterinary services were then gradually extended to Perak (1895), Selangor (1900), Negeri Sembilan (1906) and Pahang (1913). In the Unfederated Malay States, Kedah was the first State to have a Veterinary Department (1907) while Johore had one a few years later.

By 1913 only the two Unfederated States of Kelantan and Trengganu were without a veterinary service. Under the then constitutional arrangements each State and Settlement Department worked independently and was a branch of the Medical Department. This situation continued until 1930 when the post of Principal Veterinary Officer, Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States, was created with a Headquarters in Singapore. In 1934 the Veterinary Headquarters was shifted to Kuala Lumpur and was under the control of the Director of Veterinary Research and Veterinary Adviser. This set-up continued until World War II.

On the resumption of Civil Government after the liberation, the Veterinary Department was reorganised to include more specific provision for three sectional activities, viz., Disease Control, Animal Husbandry and Research and was administered by a Director of Veterinary Services with a Deputy Director dealing largely with disease control, a Chief Animal Husbandry Officer responsible for the development of animal husbandry and a Chief Research Officer in charge of the Veterinary Research Institute at Ipoh. When the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya was adopted on 1st February, 1948, the Veterinary Department became a Joint Federal Depart-


that time that the cattle abattoir was completed. The Veterinary Service then was a minor branch of the Medical Department; it became a separate Service sometime in 1926.

The exact nature of duties performed by the first Government Veterinary Surgeon and his assistants was varied but included the treatment of sick animals as well as the prevention of cruelty to them.

With the quarantine of large numbers of animals imported from neigh-bouring countries into Singapore the Veterinary Service expanded and had a staff of four professional officers and several lay assistants. Outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease amongst the imported cattle at the Quarantine Station were very common.

To control and prevent more effectively the introduction of livestock diseases into Singapore and to study the incidence of local diseases, a Research Officer was appointed in the capacity of Director of Veterinary Research and Veterinary Adviser, Malaya. Owing to the lack of adequate laboratory facilities the capacity for research was therefore very limited.

The work of the department continued until the outbreak of war and after the liberation in 1945 the department was re-organised under the charge of a Chief Veterinary Officer.

Sabah There were no veterinary staff in Sabah prior to 1937. In that year there was a severe outbreak of "surra" in the ponies, and help was sought from the College of Veterinary Science in Manila, and Dr Lupe M. Yutue was sent to investigate the problem. Subsequently Dr J. T. Medrana was appointed as the first veterinary officer.

After the war a veterinary staff was established, mainly occupied with the eradication of "surra". In 1953 a disease investigation laboratory was built with the aid of Colonial Development and Welfare Funds and provided with technicians to train the local staff.

Sarawak The first Veterinary Officer in Sarawak was appointed in 1953 and the Branch has expanded from year to year. The present strength of the Veterinary Staff is two Veterinary Officers, three Senior Assistant Veterinary Officers, and a number of trained assistants.


Control In Malaya, control and administration is divided between the Federal Government and the eleven State Governments, the whole set up being linked by the recognised need for a common policy in such matters as disease control, quarantine regulations and livestock improvement in the interest of the country as a whole.

The Federal portion of the Division is responsible for disease control, research and maintenance of Animal Husbandry Stations.

The eleven State Divisions administer and execute the central policies and carry out veterinary work in their own territories which is not otherwise the direct responsibility of the Federal Division. The State Divisions are largely autonomous, each under the control of a Veterinary Officer who is directly responsible to his State Government for the administration of his Division.

In Singapore the Veterinary Division has at its head the Assistant Director of Primary Production who is under the Director of Primary Production, this department coming under the Ministry of National Development.

The veterinary services in Sabah are provided by the Animal Husbandry Branch of the Department of Agriculture. Over the years there has been a gradual expansion of staff and this Branch is now headed by an Assistant Director of Agriculture (Veterinary) with 3 Veterinary Officers, 10 Assistant Veterinary Officers and 30 Junior Staff. One of the Veterinary Officers is a Sabahan who was trained in Australia under Colombo Plan Aid and there are at the moment five students undergoing veterinary training abroad. Responsibility for Veterinary and animal husbandry services in Sarawak is also borne by the Agricultural Department which also controls Agriculture and Fresh-water fisheries.

Policy The policy and aims of the veterinary and animal husbandry services in the country as a whole may be stated as :

(1) to conserve and increase all species of domestic livestock and meat as far as possible from its own resources :

(a) the requirements of fresh meat, milk, poultry and eggs; (b) the agricultural needs of animals for ploughing and the

maintenance of soil fertility ; and


(3) to investigate into animal diseases and maintain an efficient disease control service including preventing the introduction of animal diseases;

(4) to assist in the development of the indigenous people by the provision of livestock wherever necessary, and improved methods of hus-bandry in settlement schemes and kampongs;

(5) to advise and develop a healthy livestock industry; (6) to take part in the preventive and curative treatment of livestock.

These objectives demand the prevention and elimination of animal diseases on the one hand, and an increase in the numbers and quality of indigenous livestock on the other. A close guard is maintained against the possible introduction of animal diseases into the country by quarantine and other measures, and a vigilant watch is kept for outbreaks of indigenous diseases in order that they may be speedily checked. At the same time various ways including controls on the slaughter of breeding stock, castration of male scrub animals, the use of improved stud animals and advice and assistance to livestock rearers, are adopted to increase the numbers and quality of local livestock.

I M P R O V E M E N T O F L I V E S T O C K

Cattle The Swamp Buffalo and the indigenous cattle are mainly kept in small numbers by Malays and are used for draught and meat. On the other hand the Indian Murrah Buffalo and the Indian dairy cattle are kept exclusively, mainly by Indians, for dairy purposes and contribute to the milk supply of some sections of the population.

Due to the climate and vegetation of the country, the number of animals the land can carry is limited and therefore the improvement of the local livestock is of great importance. To improve the cattle in the country the Stud Bull Scheme, based on the use of Red Sindhi bulls was continued and reached a wider public. A breeding herd of Red Sindhis is maintained at one of the Division's stations, and pure-bred young bulls are sold out-right to dairymen and villagers to improve their stock. In some cases bulls are also hired out. Accumulated evidence shows that up-graded cows with good management can produce 3,000 to 5,000 pounds of milk per lactation of 240 days; this excludes the amount of milk consumed by the calf which


from the Animal Husbandry Stations are sold to farmers, with a Government subsidy, and the results have been encouraging.

Besides these schemes, selective breeding legislation is in operation in Kedah, Kelantan and in one district in Trengganu. Under this legislation castration of scrub bulls is compulsory. Voluntary castration of scrub bulls and goats is practised in all the other States.

The cattle population of Sabah is in the region of 15,000. They are of many indeterminate strains and breeds and show from their appearance that there must have been importations in previous years. The major part of the cattle population of Sabah are managed under primitive methods of husbandry. Encouragement is being given to the people to look after their cattle on scientific lines, with some success, but they are very conser-vative and it is difficult to make headway. Even castration of male animals proceeds very slowly with the local opposition to steer beef.

In Sarawak where the population of cattle and buffaloes is around 7,000 and 11,000 respectively, small numbers of cattle are kept on the drier sandy coastal stretches; and upriver Dayaks in First, Second and Third Divisions maintain small numbers often on a communal basis. Nowhere, however, is there any attempt at management; animals are permitted to roam at will, inbreeding is often the rule, and the proportion of males to females is high. Lack of capital on the part of the owners makes improvement difficult. A number of small herds are to be found in First, Third and Fourth Divisions. Animals are stall-fed and maintain fair condition; milk pro-duction, however, is low and the general conditions of housing, hygiene, and milk handling, unsatisfactory.

In view of Sarawak's very small cattle population the control of the export and slaughter of female cattle is vested in the Department of Agri-culture under the Miscellaneous Licences (Slaughter and Export of Female Cattle) Regulations, 1961, which ensures to some extent that there will be no undue decreases in future breeding stock.

Buffaloes In Sabah, there is a large buffalo population on the West Coast and in the Interior. They are primarily used for the cultivation of padi, but are also used as draught animals, as a source of meat, and as currency by the indigenous people.

The numbers are in excess of requirement, and in certain areas there is a gross over-stocking. In the 1961 census there were shown to be 66,787


Animal Husbandry Branch. With the extension of padi-planting under the State Development Plan, a supply of buffaloes will be made available for working the land, and this should ensure that more of the surplus animals are used.

In Sarawak, of the estimated total of twelve thousand buffaloes, the vast majority are to be found in the Fifth Division. These, however, are kept largely as an indication of social standing. Their sale for meat provides a ready source of income when the necessity arises but being, in the main, untrained and semi-wild, they are only rarely used in wet rice cultivation. The complete imbalance in the distribution of buffaloes throughout the State and the lack of interest in their use for the cultivation of padi fields are matters which are receiving attention in the form of a subsidized Buffalo Training and Distribution Scheme. Although locally produced cattle and buffaloes do enter the local market, the small quantity of beef and mutton consumed in Sarawak is mainly imported, the former on the hoof from Singapore, and to a lesser extent from Sabah and Brunei.

Artificial Insemination An artificial insemination service for cattle has been in operation in Malaya since 1960 with a pilot centre being established at Kuala Lumpur. An up-to-date centre was built in Seremban in 1963 to serve as the focal point for all artificial insemination activities in cattle. Sindhi bulls are maintained at this centre and the semen is being transported to as far as Penang.

In Sabah, artificial insemination was started in 1960 using Aberdeen Angus semen and this is now being carried out at Sabrang Livestock Station, Tawau and Jesselton. The experiment is still in its initial stage and it will be some years before the effects are widespread.

The conservation and increase of the livestock population is important. Most States in Malaya have legislations restricting the slaughter of female breeding stock. These legislations have proved very useful and the livestock population is higher than it ever has been since the end of the last world war. This is indeed encouraging when one considers that the bulk of the fresh meat sold in the markets is from locally produced animals.

Goats and Sheep To improve the quality of local goats a scheme is in operation in Malaya whereby improved stud goats of the Indonesian type are sold to farmers. The demand for these goats far exceeds the supply.


short period of arrival. However, a number of the cross-bred offspring survive, and are being used for breeding. Further imports of pure-bred animals have also resulted in deaths, and the pure-bred stock is dwindling.

In Sarawak goats are not numerous and are found mainly in Malay and Dayak Communities. Little attention is paid to management. They provide a useful source of meat on special occasions but do not form an integral part of the diet.

As regards sheep, trials to improve the local sheep are in progress in Kelantan (Malaya) and in Sabah where Dorset Horn Sheep are being used to up-grade the local stock.

Pigs The pig industry in Malaya is an important one and is mainly in the hands of the Chinese. The Industry suffered a severe setback during the beginning of the Emergency when large numbers of pig breeders gave up pig-breeding when they were resettled in New Villages. Others shifted lock, stock and barrel to Singapore. However, with the end of the Emergency and the return of normal conditions in the rural areas, the Chinese farmers have again taken seriously to pig production. On the outskirts of many of the urban areas, there are large pig farms, some carrying up to 1,000 pigs. These farms are run on commercial lines and under good husbandry conditions.

The growth of the pig industry has been very remarkable and during the last two years not only has the pig industry produced about 25 % more pigs for local consumption than in 1962 but also produced 100 per cent of its pork requirements.

The so-called "Chinese" pig reaches the usual market weight of about one pikul (133£ pounds) when about 9-10 months old. Cross-breds from middle white boars are now widespread; these usually reach market weight somewhat earlier, usually 6-8 months of age. It is generally accepted, however, that the cross-bred sow is not as prolific nor as good a mother as the local sow.

To encourage further the development of the pig industry the Government has been supplying at nominal rates pedigree boars of the Middle-white, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds to local farmers. At the same time, a scheme has been evolved whereby Government supplies on loan four young piglings of two months of age to each poor farmer from selected areas. The farmers build communal sheds with concrete floors and thatched roofing and rear their pigs individually. Two of the pigs are allowed to be sold when they


The cycle then continues. In this way many farmers are being assisted and not only will more pork be produced but the dung from the farms also assists in the maintenance of soil fertility and help in the production of more vegetables, cash crops, etc. The scheme is known as the bagidua scheme and is similar to the ones operated for cattle, buffaloes and goats.

Singapore produces annually approximately three quarter-million pigs. The Veterinary Division has contributed greatly towards the increased production of pigs by the supply of free stud-boar services augmented by artificial insemination, and the sale of pure Berkshire boars to farmers to help them establish herds of up-graded pigs.

Cross-breeding experiments conducted in the Veterinary Stations in Singapore have evolved a type of pigs with a greater rate of gain in weight. Normally local pigs take about seven months to reach one picul, whereas the improved cross-breds take only 4 1/2 to 5 months to reach the same weight.

Pigs are found throughout Sabah, except in the predominantly Muslim areas. Nearly all are kept as "backyard" pigs, and are fed on a diet of local vegetation, but there are a few large Chinese-owned pig enterprises around the large towns, using improved methods of husbandry. As is known, the "Chinese" pig, although a prolific mother, is a slow fattener. Cross-breeding with Berkshire pigs gives the animal an improved production growth rate, and carcase quality. Pure-bred Berkshires have been imported and a cross-bred breeding herd established. The pure-bred boars have also been standing at stud at the major centres of population. Cross-bred pigs have been distributed to families in Settlement Schemes, and sold to pig keepers wishing to improve their stock, and the Berkshires blood has been widely disseminated amongst the pigs in Sabah.

Considerable numbers of pigs are kept by non-Muslim races in the rural areas of Sarawak. Although of hardy indigenous breed, these are little more than scavengers. They do, however, provide for the inclusion of protein in a predominantly carbohydrate diet while periodic cash sales furnish an element of income. While this overall position is unsatisfactory, it is noteworthy that under the guidance of extension teams farmers are beginning to attempt to house, feed and manage their pigs. In the absence of a ready source of cheap protein for inclusion in animal feed improvement in general standards of husbandry must be slow. Near the larger towns, however, pork production is comparatively well organised and the possi-bilities for expansion are considerable.

Almost exclusively in the hands of Chinese, the typical unit comprises


high protein rations, some locally mixed from imported ingredients, is gaining in popularity. The industry is based upon the traditional "Chinese" pig admixed to a greater or lesser degree with exotic blood of the Berkshire, Middle White and Tamworth breeds emanating from the Department's piggeries. The former provides "mother" qualities and the latter early maturity and leaner pork. Current Departmental policy places reliance upon the production and issue of one exotic breed only, namely the Berk-shire, for crossing with the traditional "Chinese" pig for the production of cross-breed fatteners. A small unit of the "Chinese" pig is maintained at Semongok Agricultural Station, First Division, and progeny are available for issue to farmers as an assurance against the loss of the excellent mothering qualities of this breed. It is appreciated that Departmental piggeries are unable to meet fully the demand for exotic breeding stock and indeed it would be against commercial interest to attempt to do so. To encourage the production of pure-bred breeding stock from private sources, a Scheme for Subsidized Commercial Piggeries was introduced during the year.

In general, education of the farmers in Sarawak improved animal hus-bandry methods particularly in the lines of early weaning, dry feeding and improved nutrition has proved useful in not only increasing the numbers but also the production of pigs which reach market weight at a much earlier age.

Poultry The rearing of poultry in Malaysia is gaining popularity. During 1963 Malaya produced more than 500 million eggs and more than 90 million lbs of poultry meat valued at about $180 million for local consumption. There is, however, still considerable rooms for development of this industry, for the country still imported about $20 million worth of poultry and eggs in 1963 to meet its requirements. However, there are indications that this deficit would be narrowed and self-sufficiency practically attained within the next two or three years.

A large number of large farms have been established particularly just outside urban areas. Most of these farms specialise either in egg production or in poultry for the table. The farms carry from 3,000 to 10,000 birds and sometimes even up to 30,000. However, the majority of the poultry breeders are "back-yard" rearers and every effort is being made to encourage these rearers to produce more birds under better management and more


head of poultry annually. Cross-breeding with local poultry in Singapore improved normal eggs laying percentage in local birds from 30 % to appro-ximately 50%.

Poultry are found throughout Sabah, and are the main protein component of the diet in the remoter areas. Improvement in the methods of poultry keeping is progressing rapidly, particularly with the increasing availability of imported foodstuffs, and improved breeds of chickens. Large poultry farms are found in all the major towns, but despite the increase in poultry husbandry, the supply of eggs is not sufficient to satisfy the demand and over five million eggs were imported in 1963.

Distribution of improved poultry is being carried out in Settlement Schemes and to the Kampongs to raise the levels of production in the rural areas.

Poultry, mainly of a hardy indigenous breed, are universal in rural areas of Sarawak but standards of housing, feeding and management are low and their use for culinary purposes is confined to special occasions. As with pigs, however, poultry farming is a comparatively big business in the vicinity of the larger towns where commercial units comprising from 1,000 to 5,000 birds kept under intensive conditions are to be found. Management and housing, either in matteries or on netting wire in enclosed houses, are good and feeding is based upon proprietary imported or locally mixed mash. The farmers concerned, predominantly Chinese, have a ready appre-ciation of the importance of diseases and many are equipped to carry out their own prophylactic and remedial treatments. The White Leghorn breed is the most popular but Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire and Astralorp are also to be seen. Hatching eggs other than those locally produced are imported from Australia and Japan while day-old chicks are supplied from efficient hatcheries operating in Kuching, Sibu and Miri.

A Poultry Research and Breeding Station has been established at Johore Bahru at a cost of half million dollars to carry out research and breeding experiments. It will also be used as a training centre.

Animal Diseases Malaysia is unique for a country in the tropics to be free of most of the infectious and contagious diseases affecting livestock. Rinderpest has been absent since 1928 while foot and mouth disease was stamped out in 1939. Rabies was eradicated in 1958 following an intensive mass vaccination campaign coupled with the destruction of all ownerless dogs.


are carried out in the endemic areas in advance of the haemorrhagic sep-ticaemia season.

The number of outbreaks of Pasteurellosis and consequently of animals treated or vaccinated has shown a considerable increase and this is due mainly to increased coverage and the number of outbreaks reported by farmers who previously have accepted their substantial losses as an unfor-tunate event.

Contagious ecthyma and melioidosis continued to occur among goats. Vaccination is commonly practised for the control of the former condition but the slaughter policy is adopted for the control and eradication of the latter.

Minor sporadic outbreaks of swine erysipelas, swine paratyphoid, swine pasteurellosis and swine fever occur among pigs in Malaya.

In Sabah melioidosis in pigs was recorded in 1963 and there seems to be a sporadic distribution of this amongst the pig herds in the West Coast.

In Sarawak the number of pigs treated has again shown an increase. The commonest conditions being pneumonia which stands about the same as last year and pigling diarrhoea which has shown a slight increase. Piglet Anaemia has also shown an increase. Calcium deficiency cases are fewer than previously.

Ranikhet disease is the most common poultry disease. However, the free vaccination service offered has reduced the incidence of the disease. About 13 million birds are vaccinated every year in Malaya. The use of the intra-nasal vaccine for day-old chicks is also gaining popularity very rapidly. Among other poultry conditions fowl-pox, coryza and infectious laryngo-tracheitis do occur but in general the mortality is negligible.

In Sabah other poultry conditions seen are fowl-pox, coryza, coccidiosis, malaria and leucocytozoon, although with the increasing awareness of the people to husbandry, prophylactic treatment is being carried to check some of these.

The incidence of coccidiosis in Sarawak has been on the increase. The majority of cases are in those flocks which are housed on fitter or have access to yards. The majority of commercial poultry keepers are alive to the dangers of this disease and many treat their own birds or are aware of the need for good hygiene.

A scheme to eradicate Pullorum disease in chickens has been introduced in Singapore, the purpose of which is :—


Research into animal diseases and the production of vaccines is carried on at the Veterinary Research Institute, Ipoh. This centre not only serves Malaysia but also Hong Kong.

Meat Supplies As chilled or frozen meats are not generally acceptable to the local

population and as, also, the Muslim section of the community requires the meat eaten by them to have been slaughtered in accordance with certain religious rites, most of the meat consumed in the country is slaughtered locally and sold as fresh meat. Of the total slaughter in Malaya it is estimated that 87 per cent of the fresh beef, 100 per cent of the fresh pork and about 50 per cent of the fresh mutton (goat and sheep) were produced locally.

Most of the meat eaten in Sabah is also home killed, only in the large towns are there supplies of imported frozen meat, and due to religious and aesthetic prejudice, this is not eaten by the indigenous peoples.

The difficulties of communication in the country make the regular supply of animals for the market expensive and haphazard. The supply of home-killed beef, predominantly buffalo meat, is hardly sufficient to meet the demand. There is a good supply of pork to the market, but the price to the housewife is high. A marketing board has been suggested for the control of meat production, to produce a good quality, cheap meat for the consumer.

Public Health In the sphere of Veterinary Public Health, veterinary personnel carry out meat inspection at ports and in many of the larger slaughter-houses in Malaya, and the licensing and control of dogs. The administration and implementation of the relevant regulations connected with the foregoing duties are the responsibilities of the veterinary services.

Since the responsibilities of meat inspection in Singapore were transferred from the Ministry of Health to the Ministry of National Development, officers from this Division supervise the inspection of meat assisted by Public Health Inspectors seconded from the Ministry of Health. Recruitment and training of full-time Meat Inspectors working solely under the Division will be implemented in the not too distant future. Since the later part of last year, port-meat inspection was introduced for the first time and a large proportion of all meats imported into Singapore is inspected before they are sold to the public.

In Sarawak meat inspection—necessarily confined to the larger centres—

CHAPTER XVII

THE RUBBER INDUSTRY IN 1963 nearly 841 ,000 tons of rubber was exported bringing in almost $1,400 million. When it is appreciated that the world consumption of natural rubber runs at present to about 2 1/4 million tons per annum, it can well be understood that the word "rubber" is almost synonymous with the name "Malaya"—this country is the world's biggest producer and provides rather more than one-third of the total world demand.

Curiously enough, the rubber tree is a comparatively recent import into Malaya, and the industry itself has only some seventy years history behind it. We know that Christopher Columbus noted during a visit to the Greater Antilles at the end of the fifteenth century that a natural gum (called caoutchouc) had some quite remarkable bouncing elastic and water-proofing qualities. The gum itself was tapped in South America from trees (called hvevd) which grew wild in the jungles, notably in Brazil; hence the botanical name Hevea Braziliensis given to the trees. The word "rubber" was coined by Dr Joseph Priestly during the middle of the eighteenth century—the learned Doctor (who first isolated oxygen gas and discovered aerated water) observed that lead pencil marks could be erased from paper if rubbed with a piece of caoutchouc: hence RUBBER.

Until the middle of the last century, South America was for all practical purposes the sole provider of rubber, tapped indiscriminately from the local jungles. About this time two matters became apparent: firstly, increased use of the gum led to the demand outpacing the supply; and secondly, the method of tapping it by somewhat savage axing generally led, sooner or later, to the death of the tree. The manufacturers of rubberised products accordingly cast around for alternative supplies, and the initiative was taken by the Directors of the famous Kew Gardens in London to ascertain whether Hevea trees could be cultivated on a scientific or "plantation" basis. Seeds were accordingly obtained from Brazil. The first batch was tried experimen-tally in India, and was a total failure; but the second batch was germinated in the hot-houses of Kew and the seedlings despatched to Ceylon and to Singapore, where they prospered. It is not therefore an exaggeration to say that every rubber tree in South-east Asia today is a descendent of the seedlings so painstakingly germinated at Kew and carefully shipped to the East.


of cultivator. But it must be remembered that it is only from about the turn of the century that there was any plantation industry at all in any part of the world; the early plantations were established on what can only be described as a "hit and miss" basis, and little was known about techniques which are today taken for granted.* Even so, present-day researchers and planters are the first to admit that there is still much to be learned, and the rest of this chapter will be devoted largely to the research and marketing methods which are being devised to enable natural rubber to compete with the synthetic industry, which developed largely through necessity during the war years when the Allied nations were denied access to the rubber output of almost all South-east Asia.

Before considering these modern problems and the techniques being devised to meet them, it may be worth making the points to illustrate the pre-war development of rubber planting:

(a) the tapping problem was solved in Singapore during the last quarter of the last century by the late H. N. Ridleyf of the Singapore Botanical Gardens. He devised a method of cutting a very thin sliver from the rubber bark with an implement somewhat akin to a farrier's knife: thus the bark and the tree would not be permanently damaged, and the former would in time renew itself and be available for further tapping. This was a very major break-through.

(b) planting material gradually began to be selectively chosen, high-yielding trees being carefully isolated for selective breeding and crossing;

(c) bud-grafting was found to be reliable about the middle-twenties (Dutch scientists in Indonesia pioneered this technique); and

(d) from about that time on, enormous strides were made in both the analysis and conservation of soil on a strictly scientific (as opposed to an ad hoc) basis.

The four steps described above are stated in general terms only and are obviously totally inadequate even as a summary; but they will serve to explain the origins and early development of the research which is described in the succeeding pages of this Chapter.

R U B B E R I N D U S T R Y 447

ment

STRUCTURE OF THE RUBBER INDUSTRY From the foregoing, it is clear that the Rubber industry is a complex one. Not only are there large or medium estates, some of which may be as large as fourteen thousand acres, but there are smallholders with as little as four or five acres; there are the associate industries, comprising of rubber dealers, brokers, packers and so forth; and there are the consumers or manufacturers both in Malaya and abroad, whose needs and problems must be understood by the planting industry to ensure that the raw product will meet industrial specifications and thus be in a position to compete with synthetic rubber. It may be convenient at this stage to list the various organisations and associa-tions which have been established so that, when discussing each, we can see how they fit into the general pattern of the industry.

The Malayan Rubber Fund Board, Kuala Lumpur Research and Develop- The Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia,

Kuala Lumpur; The Natural Rubber Producers' Research Association, Welwyn Garden City, England; The Natural Rubber Bureau, with offices in London, Washington, Melbourne, Cape Town, Lower Hutt (New Zealand) and Bombay. The Rubber Industry (Replanting) Board, Kuala Lumpur. The Rubber Producers' Council of the Federa-tion of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur; The Rubber Growers' Association, Kuala Lumpur; The Malayan Estate Owners' Association, Kuala Lumpur; The United Planting Association of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur; The Council of Malayan Smallholders' Associa-tion, Kuala Lumpur.

Industrial Relations .. The Malayan Planting Industry Employers' Association, Kuala Lumpur; The National Union of Plantation Workers, Petaling Jaya (near Kuala Lumpur).

Replanting

Producer Organisations


The Market

Manufacture . .

Export Control..

The Federation of Malaya Rubber Exchange, Kuala Lumpur; The Rubber Trade Association of Singapore, State of Singapore. The Malayan Rubber Goods Manufacturers' Association, Kuala Lumpur. The Malayan Rubber Export Registration Board, State of Singapore.

The Malayan Rubber Fund Board The Malayan Rubber Fund Board was established under the Malayan Rubber Fund (Research and Development) Ordinance of 1958 and its revenue is derived from a cess levied on all rubber produced and exported from the States cf Malaya. The purpose of the Fund is to finance research, development and publicity for increasing and stimulating the production


and consumption of natural rubber throughout the world. The Board controls and finances the operation of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaya, the Natural Rubber Producers Research Association and the Natural Rubber Bureau, and for the year 1963 a sum of approximately Straits $13,500,000 has been allocated for this purpose.

The members of the Board are largely drawn from, or in consultation with, the rubber industry (as represented by the Rubber Producers Council of Malaya), the University, the Department of Agriculture and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The Chairman of the Board who is the Controller of Rubber Research and also the principal executive officer of the Board has his office in Kuala Lumpur. He is also Chairman of the Board of the Natural Rubber Bureau and the Natural Rubber Producers Research Association whose registered offices are in London.

The Board has appointed a London Representative, who is also Vice-Chairman of the Boards of these subsidiary units, to assist the chairman in the exercise of these two functions. The London Representative and the Natural Rubber Bureau, which has established branch offices in six other countries, maintain contact between the Malayan Rubber Fund Board and the major rubber interests in the United Kingdom and other rubber con-suming areas.

The Rubber Producers' Council The Rubber Producers' Council of the Federation of Malaya was formed in March 1951 in recognition of the need for one organisation which could express with authority the opinion of the whole industry upon matters of concern to all rubber producers. It is an "association of Associations", its membership being restricted to:

(i) The Rubber Growers' Association. (ii) The Malayan Estate Owners' Association. (iii) The United Planting Association of Malaya. (iv) The Council of Malayan Smallholders' Associations. The general objects of the Council are to promote, foster and protect the

rubber-producing industry in the Federation. This broadly covers the consideration of questions relating to the industry as a whole, representing to the Federal Government the views and interests of the industry, appointing delegates to international conferences on rubber, appointing members to various official and semi-official bodies, and so on.


to improve the competitive position of the natural rubber industry by reducing the cost of production and improving the quality of the product through replanting and research, everything possible must also be done to improve the marketing organisation in this country to ensure that there is absolute international confidence in the operations of the Federation rubber market".

Membership of the Exchange is open to all members of existing rubber organisations in the Federation the Corporation is to operate on parallel Unes with the Singapore Chamber of Commerce Rubber Association (now reconstituted as the Rubber Association of Singapore). The Corporation will have the distinct advantage of Government backing which will give a greater degree of security to all contracts made under its rules and bye-laws and thus strengthen trade discipline. The principal trading contract of the Exchange will be the F.O.B. contract which will be parallel to and inter-changeable with the F.O.B. contract of the Singapore Chamber of Commerce Rubber Association so as to preserve the Pan-Malayan character of the trade. Bye-laws will provide for joint clearing and settlement and for a common panel of arbitrators and arrangements to maintain common standards and practices relating to discipline, etc.

The Rubber Exchange Corporation will provide greater security than exists at present in the Rubber Market, and provisions have been made to ensure the enforceability of brokers' contracts. Any broker intending to conduct guarantee business through the Exchange will be required to furnish and maintain a continuing security to the Exchange. A Guarantee Fund will also be established, backed by a substantial sum from the Government, to meet claims arising in the event of failure of a guarantee broker.

The establishment of the Federation of Malaya Rubber Exchange is undoubtedly having a favourable effect on the Rubber Market and will definitely draw towards the Federation a larger share of the rubber business. Furthermore, a number of overseas traders are being attracted to the new market set in the heart of the largest natural rubber producing country, realising that these greater security measures should facilitate arbitrage operations and help produce a more stable price.

Export Registration Board—A Safeguard for Quality Malayan natural rubber, a vital material of modern industry, is supplied in a wide range of types, qualities, and grades, from which the purchaser


The Board was set up in 1952 under Section 4 of the Rubber Shipping and Packing Control Ordinances of the Federation of Malaya and Singapore. It consists of a Chairman and twelve substantive members. The Chairman is appointed jointly by H. M. the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of the Federation of Malaya and the Yang di-Pertuan Negara, Head of the State of Singapore, and the twelve substantive members are drawn from the Rubber Association, Chambers of Commerce and Rubber Producers Associations of the two territories.

The Board operates by taking vigorous action against any packer or shipper against whom it has proven to its satisfaction that a shipment does not comply with specifications called for in the contract. However, it should be stressed that the Board is only able to take such action in response to an official complaint laid before it and fully supported by proper samples and other requisite particulars in accordance with the Board's "Rules and Directions for the submission of complaints" (copies of which are obtainable on application to the Board at P.O. Box 354, Singapore); and in this respect the Board relies on the very full co-operation of overseas buyers either individually or through their respective trade association, to enable it to perform this function effectively.

Replanting and New Planting It is seldom appreciated outside Malaya that it takes about seven years before a rubber tree is ready for tapping, from the time the ground is cleared for planting. On initial tapping, production per acre is comparatively low, but rises over the next few years until peak production is attained. After a further period of years (which depends on a number of factors) output begins to decline until it becomes more economical to cut out the stand and replant—particularly as research is steadily producing planting material with higher yields. The average economic life of a rubber tree varies depending on stock and other circumstances: very generally, it may be said to be of the order of twenty-five years. For that reason, long-term planning and financial provision are of the utmost importance, the more so in view of the nation's economic dependence on the rubber crop.

Replant and survive. The force behind this slogan of the Rubber Industry (Replanting) Board is felt throughout the industry. Natural rubber is not a raw material with a declining economic significance as its production is climbing steadily. The end of 1962 saw 50 per cent of Malaya's 4 million rubber acreage planted with high-yielding trees producing 3 or 4 times


Vast acreages which were formerly supporting uneconomic trees already past their prime production, have been replaced by new high-yielding stock, This has been accomplished through the setting up of a fund to finance smallholders replanting. A flat rate replanting cess of cents is levied on every pound of rubber exported from the Federation. This money is redirected into two Funds administered by the Rubber Industry (Replanting) Board.

Fund A ensures that the money collected on estate-produced rubber is returned to the estates and is repaid according to proof of production. A company's New Planting and Replanting policy is handled by the directors and the extent of these operations is of course outside the scope of Fund A.

Fund B, however, is the special replanting scheme for smallholders, affording the necessary financial assistance. Total grants of $750 per acre are paid in seven instalments to help the smallholders to replant and this scheme has given the incentive for the smallholders to replant. In addition a smallholder owning 5 acres and less of land under rubber on 1st January, 1957, qualifies for bonus at the rate of $50 per acre on the successful completion of his replanting/new planting. The Board demands certain standards concerning the proper preparation of land and the correct procedure of planting and maintenance; no grants are paid unless these are fulfilled. RI(R)B staff, however, in collaboration with Rubber Instructions from the RRI Smallholders Advisory Service do their utmost to teach basic planting principles and supervise the replanting. Various services are also supplied, the most important being the provision of high-yielding planting material by official nurseries. Three new areas are being developed as seed gardens—the first of these alone extending for 2,400 acres, so as to assure ample supplies.

The main New Planting, however, is provided for under schemes initiated by the Government and the Federal Land Development Authority. The latter secures areas of land for settlement schemes through the state governments, and this land is cleared and planted by contracted labour, the settlers only being moved in when the housing accommodation is ready. The families are then expected to work together under the supervision and guidance of a FLDA manager and his field staff. Settlers are paid a subsistence allowance for the first two years. These projects are financed for the most part by the Federal Government plus loans from the Colonial Development Corporation. Member smallholders are expected to repay the amount of money advanced towards the development of their rubber

RUBBER I N D U S T R Y 453

seed gardens for the supply of the most up-to-date high-yielding planting material at nominal costs.

In 1962 the Government made another grant of $200 million to assist the industry to replant/new plant. Out of this $112 million is for the benefit of the estate and $88 million for the benefit of the smallholders.

The above outlined some of the advances in natural rubber production and some of the new uses for natural rubber which have been furthered by the research teams working for the Malayan Rubber Fund Board. Apart from such concrete developments these organisations fulfil another function which is just as important. Between them they have accumulated from their researches a wealth of scientific information which has led to a much better understanding of the nature of rubber in all its forms and its behaviour from the tree to the finished product. This information is readily available to the producing and the consumer industries and has greatly aided the advance of natural rubber production and utilisation in many fields. Information is disseminated through publications, lectures, conferences and last but not least the press. Finally, for the rubber producer or manufacturer with a production problem, there is no substitute for the man on the spot. Technical service has recently been expanded and representatives with real "know how" about natural rubber can be called on in many parts of the world.

R E S E A R C H The two principal research organisations at work in the field of natural rubber today are the Rubber Research Institute of Malaya (RRIM) in Kuala Lumpur, and the Natural Rubber Producers' Research Association (NRPRA) in England, both of which work in close collaboration controlled and financed by the Malayan Rubber Fund Board.

Research for the Planter Research has played an important part in aiding the rubber planting industry of Malaya throughout its growth from the few hundred acres which existed at the end of the last century to the nearly four million acres which it covers today. Following the early investigations of Ridley and others at the Singapore Botanic Gardens, research was continued by the Department of Agriculture of the Federated Malay States from 1900 until 1926 when the Rubber Research Institute was founded to take over this


the first objective comes mainly from research into the cultivation of the tree and the harvesting of the crop. The second objective is to achieve a better understanding of the nature of the rubber hydrocarbon and of the non-rubbers in the latex and of how to produce better rubbers from this raw product. A third objective is to find means of improving the efficiency of current estate factory processes.

Information and help is given to producers by the Institute's extensive advisory services referred to elsewhere.

Since its foundation the Institute has made considerable contributions to the improvement of rubber production which are described in the following pages. Yields have been greatly increased by selective breeding, better tapping systems have been devised and the introduction of yield stimulation has given increases which range from 20 to 50 per cent. Control of root diseases has been improved and cheapened. Advances have also been made in soil management, manuring, propagation, planting methods, in the improvement and standardisation of methods of processing and in the production of superior processing rubbers. Although the majority of investigations on rubber trees must necessarily take many years, there are at present good prospects of further advances being made within the next few years, particularly by means of high yields, reduction in the period of immaturity of the trees, cheaper maintenance of plantations, more efficient exploitation of the tree and the production of improved types of rubber.

The success of breeding work, to which the botanists of the RRIM have made a notable contribution, can be judged from the fact that clones now recommended for large scale planting yield from 1,500 to 2,000 lb of rubber per acre and some of the newer clones*, already planted on estates, show promise of yielding well over 2,000 lb. Yet these trees are direct descendants of the first rubber trees grown in Malaya at the end of the nineteenth century which yielded some 500 lb per acre per year.

Breeding work has consisted of crossing, by artificial pollination, the best of the early clones and "intermarrying" the best of the resultant new clones. This is a process which cannot be hurried as a tree takes several years to mature. The procedures used are unique since this is the only tree that is bred for neither wood nor fruit nor seed, but for a somewhat mysterious fluid, quite distinct from sap, whose function in the tree's metabolism is not yet fully understood.

At the RRIM experimental station new clones are grown and tested


After 10 or 11 years testing of the clones in estate trials, the best are recommended for planting on a moderate scale—not more than 10 per cent of an estate's planting programme. After five more years, successful clones are recommended for large scale planting. From pollination to RRIM recommendation for large scale planting is thus at least 25 years, although many large companies are prepared to take a calculated risk by planting a promising clone earlier. Standards are extremely strict and only a small proportion of those tested is allowed to be planted on a large scale. The rest are rejected because of insufficient yields, lack of vigour, susceptibility to disease, liability to wind damage and other defects. Recently, special importance has been attached to speed and vigour of growth since if the tree matures rapidly and can be tapped earlier, overall costs are reduced.

The diagram on page 456 indicates the manner in which the results of research are passed on to the planting industry.

Improving yields by Fertilisers and Nutrients The rubber tree is naturally a vigorous jungle plant that will grow on many types of soil but like most crops it responds to scientific cultivation. The correct use of fertilisers and of selected plants as ground cover between trees can greatly improve its rate of growth and yield of latex. Tapping of the trees for latex commences at about 6 years after planting, and any measures which will help to shorten the unproductive early life of the tree as well as improving its growth and yield, can bring great economic benefits to the industry and Malaya. Large scale field trials with fertilisers and ground cover plants to determine optimum methods of cultivation have been taking place for some years at the RRIM 3,000-acre Experiment Station and on estates in different parts of Malaya. Results show clearly the importance of adjusting the treatment very carefully to suit local conditions—for instance fertiliser requirements of some inland soils are completely different from those of soils from the more fertile coastal belt. As a result of this work the RRIM has been able to recommend detailed manuring schedules for most areas covering the period from planting to tapping. These are now followed by the majority of rubber estates throughout Malaya.

Obviously fertilisers can bring about the most striking improvements where the soil is grossly lacking in a certain nutrient, but first of all it is necessary to diagnose the deficiency accurately. The usual symptoms of


E S T A T E S A D V I S O R Y S E R V I C E

a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e s S M A L L H O L D E R S A D V I S O R Y S E R V I C E

THE ESTATES ADVISORY SERVICE with a small staff in Kuala Lumpur serves estates in all parts of the country, giving advice by letter or visit. In addition the R R I Chemical Division has Advisory Officers giving assis-tance on estate processing.

L A R G E R S M A L L E R E S T A T E S E S T A T E S

Large Small company proprietary

owned estates estates need with well and are being informed actively

managements encouraged normally seek to seek more

advice on general advice. specific Various

problems as extension required. methods are To these used to

estates the stimulate services interest and

function is improve chiefly technical

consultative. knowledge.

ADVISORY SERVICES f inanced by the industry channel the results of research to the planter. There are two distinct sectors making up the Rubber Industry in Malaya. More than a quarter of a million small-holders own approximately half the total acreage of rubber and produce 42 % of the rubber exported while the remaining 58 % of production comes from nearly 2,400 estates, ranging in size from 100 acres to over 15,000 acres. Separate services are provided to meet the special needs of estates and smallholdings. Both provide technical information and advice on the cultivation of the rubber tree, the harvesting and processing of the crop but the methods used are adjusted to the different requirements of the two sectors.

The existence of these services enables the results obtained in the laboratory and experiment station to be applied by the planter with mini-mum delay and so leads to conti-nuous improvement in the efficiency of production.

THE R R I SMALLHOLDERS ADVI-SORY SERVICE compr i ses 200 trained Advisory Officers posted in all rubber growing districts.

Advice is provided to peasant rubber growers mainly by word of mouth supplemented by films, publications, coloured slides, models and other advisory aids. Wherever possible demonstra-tions on techniques are given.


The type of ground cover plant grown between the rows of rubber trees can markedly affect the progress of young trees and experiments have established that creeping legumes planted in place of the natural cover of weeds make the most beneficial ground cover.

Rubber trees are affected by fungal diseases but these can be readily recognised and controlled. The rubber trees in Malaya have an excellent health record, better in fact than those in other parts of the world, and thanks to painstaking research and preventive measures disease is not a serious problem. The worst disease to which rubber trees are susceptible, South American leaf blight, is kept out of Malaya by extremely strict control but measures to deal with it have been carefully worked out as an insurance in the unlikely event of its appearance in South-east Asia.

Science in the Preparation of Latex Many improvements have recently been introduced in carrying out the different stages of preparation of raw rubber.

The collection of latex from plantations covering millions of acres is a formidable task and has been the subject of operational research in which the RRIM is playing a part. This has resulted in more efficient organisation and more contented workers. During the last year or two, collection of latex in special churns which can be handled mechanically on receipt at the factory has been developed on a number of estates. Churns of latex are picked up at arranged centres by lorry, delivered rapidly to the factory along well laid out estate roads, and can then finally be emptied and cleaned automatically.

Difficulties in keeping field latex sweet during collection and transport to the factory at one time presented a major problem. More efficient organisation in collection has helped the situation and many central processing factories are now being set up, with Government assistance, to deal with smallholders latex. Studies concerned with the control of bacteria in latex have contributed a good deal to the solving of this problem.

Current research by the RRIM is concerned with more economic means of coagulating and sheeting rubber based on the use of a higher dry rubber content at which the latex is coagulated. These new methods of coagula-tion also promise to give rubbers improved properties for the rubber manufacturer.

RRIM is also putting considerable effort into the improvement of drying


a view to obtaining better control of bacterial contamination, and a number of promising Dew preservative systems are at present undergoing trials.

In recent years a drive amongst producers to prepare concentrate under more hygienic conditions has led to marked improvement in the quality of latex concentrate supplies. The use of bactericide washes for factory plant, utensils, floors and drains, has paid considerable dividends in improved properties, less trouble during shipment and a more uniform product.

At the RRIM fundamental investigations into the nature of latex start at the tree—the latex vessels are examined to discover the effect upon them of tapping, yield stimulation, wintering and other factors. A wide variety of non-rubber substances have been found in latex some of which are essen-tial to the production of good rubber, acting for example, as antioxidants and accelerators of vulcanisation. These studies are expected to lead to improved means of quality control and the production of rubbers having improved vulcanising characteristics.

Other basic studies are concerned with the rubber hydrocarbon, which has recently been shown to be associated with certain chemical reactive groups, suggesting that it is not a simple polyisoprene. Control of these reactive groups has demonstrated that rubbers having constant Mooney viscosity can now be prepared for the first time.

Possibilities for the near future undoubtedly include the marketing of natural rubber of more uniform characteristics, conforming to specifications which should make it an even more valuable product for consuming industries.

In Search of a more " Versatile" Rubber Recent technical developments in the rubber industry represent collectively a step forward which is as significant as the invention of vulcanisation. Rubber is no longer just rubber. The manufacturer who uses it can exercise great discrimination, selecting from a range of several hundred rubber compounds—some based on natural, some on synthetic and some on a combination of the two—one which is precisely tailored to his needs. The raw material from which this is made must obviously possess a high degree of uniformity and be predictable in its properties. Advances have and are being made in raising still further the purity and uniformity of natural rubber consignments and such work is aided by the deeper understanding of the more

R U b b E R I N D U S T R Y 459

These constituents have in the past been responsible for some variability between consignments delivered to the factory, but a knowledge of their precise nature aud individual effect has enabled greater standardisation to be achieved. The manufacturer who requires the maximum uniformity can specify "Technically Classified" (TC) rubber which has precise vulcanising characteristics shown by a code mark on the bale.

In any natural product collected out of doors the risk of contamination by dirt and grit must be minimised by close supervision. Every effort is made to prevent such contamination in natural rubber, especially in the better grades such as RSSI and pale crepe.

Bales can now be supplied wrapped with plastic sheets and protected by paper bags, a further safeguard.

There has been some demand recently for natural rubber in a smaller bale of 70 to 100 lb to facilitate handling. This also is being satisfied.

NR can be compounded to range from very soft rubber to materials of extreme hardness. The soft rubbers are made by breaking down the molecular structure or by incorporating oils or plasticizors. Hard rubbers are made by vulcanising with a high proportion of sulphur. Other hard rubbers include cyclized rubber and Heveaplus. The latter is made by combining natural rubber with synthetic materials and was developed as an aid to industry by NRPRA.

Nowadays rubber plantations are able to manufacture improved rubber by inexpensive steps interposed in the initial production stages. For example superior processing (SP) rubbers are made by mixing vulcanised and fresh latex before coagulation. These rubbers enable processing, particularly extruding, to be greatly speeded up and give products of exceptionally high quality. Also available now is a superior processing PA 80 masterbatch which can be added to almost any grade of natural or synthetic rubber to impart the improved properties. Launched only a few years ago by the natural rubber producers SP rubbers have reached a consumption figure of 3,500 ton and are used in over 20 countries.

Making rubber better or more versatile requires two definite lines of approach. The first is to take steps to improve the existing range of grades by improved collection and grading methods and the second to produce entirely new grades or blends for specific industrial applications.


of rubber and is thus in a position to assist manufacturers in making the best use of the raw commodity.

The Natural Rubber Producers' Research Association was founded in 1938. At that time natural rubber was a unique material, and the main concern of the Plantation Industry was to keep supply in balance with demand and so avoid the major ups and downs in price that were a bane to producers and consumers alike. The well-being of the industry was then thought of largely in terms of increasing and extending the usage of rubber.

A very different situation confronts us today. The singularity of natural rubber has disappeared, and it has become one, though still the most im-portant, of a family of rubbers. Within a few years, natural rubber has had to learn to live with competitors and to struggle for its share of what is fortunately a much greater and steadily growing market. In this situation, price, quality, and consumer acceptance all take on a new significance, and the NRPRA has a special part to play in strengthening the position of natural rubber in these respects.

Compared with other rubbers, natural rubber is an old material and even in 1938 had a well-developed technology. Hence, improvements in its handling and use are not easy to come by, and for this reason the NRPRA has always considered it important to delve deeply into the fundamental principles underlying the main processing and performance phenomena so as to broaden the scientific framework on which new technological advances can be built. Its efforts in this sense have brought it world renown, and have also contributed to practical developments which,-for example, enable natural rubber products to meet service demands hardly thought possible but a few years ago. Progress made in unravelling the factors governing strength, tear, cracking, and abrasion behaviour not only permits the true technical competitive position of natural rubber to be ascertained in these critically important physical properties but points the way to how best to use natural rubber in the numerous engineering applications, many new and promising, which offer wider outlets.

It is not sufficient, of course, just to make discoveries and carry out developments—these must be exploited. Such exploitation rests with the rubber user and hence the creation of close contacts between the producers and their research units and the consumers has become of the first importance. A Technical Service, now operating on a modest scale in several parts of


of the plantation industry will come to depend more and more on application of scientific and technical skills, and the NRPRA is very conscious of its responsibility in this respect and to all those millions whose livelihood is bound up in one way or another with the prosperity of this great industry.

The Biochemistry of Rubber Modern civilisation has reached an extremely advanced stage of technology without really gaining more than "fringe" knowledge of biochemistry which is basically the study of the natural creation of living organisms. There is, therefore, a big potential for future development open to the scientist working on natural products.

The question "How is latex formed?" is a challenge. If it can be answered satisfactorily, new horizons will appear for the scientists engaged in im-proving both the quality of natural latex and the yield of rubber per acre. Nature does not yield up her secrets easily but both the NRPRA and the RRIM are active in this exciting field of work and in the last three years substantial progress has been made. Latex may be likened to human blood in its complexity and under the electron microscope its structures may be observed with a wealth of detail. Work of this type requires absolutely fresh latex and at the NRPRA this is obtained from rubber trees grown in a tropical greenhouse. Latex is indeed far from being a simple suspension of rubber particles in a watery medium and work is under way to discover whether the curious particles which accompany the hydrocarbon in latex vessels are duplicated among the known components of plant cells, or whether they represent hitherto unknown entities.

It is now beyond doubt that the process of rubber formation occurs within this complex system, and it may be made to continue, experimentally, even after the latex has left the tree. Work already done shows that new rubber is built up rather like a brick "wall" which is very long but only one brick high, and that this process can take place very effectively on the surface of rubber particles already existing in the latex. The important question of the nature of the brick used by the tree for building up its rubber has also been solved. It is a substance known to biochemists as IPP and is actually used by other types of plants to produce not rubber but essential oils and related natural products.


Another very important question is "What stops the rubber molecule from growing indefinitely, i.e., what controls the molecular weight of the rubber?"

The molecules of which natural rubber is composed differ from those of simple substances (such as oxygen and water) in one important respect— they are very large. This is the distinguishing feature of the class of sub-stances known as high polymers to which belong many other natural products (silk, cellulose, wool, proteins, etc.), and all synthetic plastic, resins and rubber. A typical rubber molecule may contain as many as 200,000 atoms of carbon and hydrogen.

These groups of atoms are not arranged at random. The building block is an atomic grouping known as isoprene (13 atoms). Inside the rubber tree, at the site where the large molecules are synthesised, a complex mechanism organises the isoprene units into long flexible chains each of which is a rubber molecule. The arrangement of each isoprene unit is in accord with a definite geometrical pattern. This pattern is unique and any other arrange-ment of the building units gives a material of quite different properties. In natural rubber the arrangement is designated cis and the chemical name for natural rubber is cis-polyisoprene. A different geometric arrangement of the isoprene units is described as trans. This arrangement is found in gutta percha (trans-polyisoprene).

Rubber is an elastic substance primarily because it is composed of large long molecules. Both these features are necessary to produce elasticity but they are not sufficient. All elastomers are high polymers but not all high polymers are elastomers. The natural rubber molecule has been provided with just the right balance of properties to provide a unique resilient material.

It is not sufficient for an elastomer to be elastic. It must be strong. One must distinguish between strength of a raw rubber and strength of a rubber after it has been vulcanised and combined with reinforcing fillers such as carbon black. It is difficult to generalise but one molecular feature which is important in this context is the ability of the molecules to align with each other to form crystalline regions. Natural rubber molecules crystallise readily on stretching and this contributes to the high strength of raw rubber.

So far we have considered the overall physical qualities of the rubber molecule. The chemical properties of the rubber molecule are also important. Natural rubber, in common with almost all the available elastomers, belongs to a class of substances known as unsaturated compounds. These compounds

RUBBER INDUSTRY 463

but to maintain natural's lead, it is important to reduce still further certain deficiencies, which it shares with synthetic rubbers such as SBR. One of these is its susceptibility to attack by ozone. Even the minute quantities of ozone, only a few parts per million present in the atmosphere can in time cause serious cracking. To find a remedy it is necessary to carry out a pains-taking diagnosis of the nature of the disease and this has been one of the tasks of the NRPRA. As a result of this work progress has been made in developing methods of protection against ozone. There are several of these, the choice depending on the conditions of service. For instance a rubber component which is flexed repeatedly, as in a vehicle suspension, has to be compounded differently from, say, a cable insulation or a sealing ring, which is more or less permanently bent or squeezed.

Another problem which is being tackled is known as "ageing". This causes the physical properties of rubber to deteriorate during prolonged exposure, particularly at higher temperatures. This work has shown that if the normal high strength and elasticity of the rubber compound is some-what reduced initially, which can often be done without disadvantage, it will last longer and retain its shape better. As a result of this work several manufacturers have already made use of natural rubber compounds in applications for which it was previously regarded as unsuitable.

More than any other engineering material, rubber has to withstand repeated flexing, deformation or compression and this in time does result in the development of cracks or tears which grow from minute flaws in the rubber, only about one-thousandth of an inch in length. Research has led to a much greater understanding of the way in which chemicals in the atmosphere reduce fatigue life and methods of protection have been devised. It has also enabled improvements to be made in the design of rubber com-ponents to reduce mechanical damage.

As a result of our greatly improved knowledge of the nature and be-haviour of rubber a number of new applications for it have been found in civil engineering. For instance, hundreds of bridges all over the world are now mounted on rubber bearings in place of steel rollers. The NRPRA has contributed by issuing rules for designs and specifications in this ex-panding field.

Fundamental research is enlarging our understanding of the complex chemical and physical reactions which effect service life and technological


temperatures and climates. For instance rubber components may be called on to serve in arctic conditions without losing their rubbery characteristics. They may also be expected to be unaffected by heat. The NRPRA have been able to extend considerably the limits within which natural rubber can be used effectively by developing special compounding techniques or by chemical modification of the rubber itself.

Where great heat resistance is required in, to give three examples, steam hoses, vehicle radiator tubing or hospital equipment which has to with-stand repeated sterilisation, special vulcanising systems and protective agents are used during the processing of the selected rubber. At the other extreme, to make rubber suitable for long service at subzero temperatures, as in high altitude aircraft or arctic equipment, it is necessary to modify the rubber by chemical processing to make the structure of the molecule rather less regular. A simple and very effective way of doing this has been developed during the last few years, but when even lower temperatures have to be withstood such chemical modification of the rubber is insufficient to prevent its becoming brittle. Fortunately this difficulty can also be overcome by incorporating certain oils known in this context, as plasticizers.

The inflammability of natural rubber has hitherto restricted its use where there is a fire hazard. Previously it was impossible to make natural rubber permanently fire-resistant without causing a serious deterioration in its physical properties. Again this difficulty has been overcome—this time by combining rubber with another organic substance. Fire resistance is actually built into the rubber molecule and cannot be removed by washing, wear or other physical processes. It is permanent. The first application of fire-resistant natural rubber is likely to be in latex foam products.

Other associated problems include the building in of such properties as resistance to electrical current, or alternatively rendering the rubber conductive, permeable by air and resistant to radiation. Investigations concerned with all of these are a part of the NRPRA research programme.

The Role of Rubber in the Transport Industry Fast transport is the basis of modern society. Each year car ownership becomes a reality to millions of people, and in the U.S.A.—a trend setter for the world—already over one person in three owns a motor car. The plantation industry of Malaya and the invention of the pneumatic tyre made this revolution possible. Nowadays well over 500,000,000 motor tyres glide over the highways of the world plus countless motor and pedal

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along in 1960 the tyre market accounted for 68 per cent of the NR consumed. World consumption of NR for tyres in 1961 was of the order of 1 1/4 million tons.

The proportion of NR in tyres is greatest in the high performance ranges and, at the upper extreme, racing car and aircraft tyres are made almost exclusively of natural because of its low heat build-up. This low hysteresis loss means that NR tyres run cooler, dissipating the frictional heat generated rather than absorbing it. With the trend towards ever higher performance and faster speeds on the ordinary road this characteristic is likely to gain in importance. In the past standard tyres have been considered capable of a sustained maximum speed of 85 miles per hour. Recently new categories have been added with a ceiling of 130 miles per hour. Using NR, without too much change of construction, tyres capable of reaching such speeds can be readily produced, and tyre failure, due to standard tyres being run for too long at or above their limit on the high speed motorways, will be eliminated.

To arrive at the ideal and most economical construction for the high performance standard tyre of the future it is essential to understand the processes which cause a tyre to deteriorate. The most important cause of tyre wear is abrasion—the grinding away of the tread of the tyre against the road surface. Here studies made by a scientific team at the NRPRA have thrown new light upon the problems of abrasion. By laboratory tests and road trials it has been shown that tyre wear is caused by mechanical failure in the rubber resulting from local stressing of the tyre tread as it encounters the hard protruberances and edges of the road stone. This eventually causes minute pieces of the rubber to break away. This work confirms that tyres wear mainly when cornering or overtaking. When cornering the driver instinctively turns the front wheels at an exaggerated angle so that sideways pressure on the tyre helps to counteract centrifugal force. This severely distorts the tyre in and around the area of contact. This distortion enables the tyre to adhere to the road in the front of the area of contact, which alone makes steering possible. The tyre retracts in the rear part of the contact, scrubs across the road surface and suffers wear.

T H E N A T U R A L R U B B E R B U R E A U The Natural Rubber Bureau, third of the major organisations financed by the Malayan Rubber Fund provides the industry with global channels of communication, placing the facts in the right form, at the right time, where they can do most good. It aims to stimulate demand where there


Through the national and technical press and its own periodicals Rubber Developments and Natural Rubber News, on the television and cinema screens and through all publicity media it speaks to the rubber manufacturer, the consumer, the colleges and the public concerning developments in the science, production and utilisation of natural rubber which are of interest and practical use. By its published material inspired by the work of the associate research organisations it prepares the ground for its own and the associations' technical service representatives—an aspect of the work of increasing importance. Though the publicising of new applications for finished products takes second place at the present time the Bureau watches vigilantly for opportunities to assist the advance of any techniques in any industry which offers a useful outlet for natural rubber and, where justified, draws on specialist consultants and committees, for technical guidance.

Here both development work, sometimes in co-operation with other organisations, and publicity play their part. To take one example the use of rubber powder and latex as additives to make longer lasting road surfaces is being developed by the Bureau's experts in co-operation with the British Government's Road Research Laboratory. This use represents a potential large scale outlet for rubber estimated at over 100,000 tons a year should the industry even be faced with under-consumption. Already several thousand miles of rubberised roads have been laid commercially throughout the world.

The Bureau also participates in joint publicity schemes with other organisa-tions to develop markets where natural rubber is partly used—as in shoe solings, plant linings and upholstery.

In addition to Rubber Developments and Natural Rubber News the Bureau has issued, since 1950, over 450 new or revised books and booklets, totalling over 4,500,000 copies. As well as reporting scientific developments, these cover progressive uses of natural rubber in many branches of engineering, building, furniture, shoes, plus numerous other markets.

In response to demand the circulation of Rubber Developments has been extended from 4,700 to 15,000 copies a quarter and that of Natural Rubber News from 1,800 to 6,000 a month. Since 1950 over 15,000 articles and news stories on natural rubber developments have appeared in the world's press. The Bureau has sponsored nearly 400 sound radio programmes and 300 T.V. programmes and hundreds of copies of the films "This is Rubber", "Rubber in Engineering", "Rubber in Roads", "Rubber in Building", etc. have been shown to audiences all over the world on over 30,000 occasions.

CHAPTER XVIII

MINERALS AND MINING M I N E R A L O C C U R R E N C E S A N D M E T H O D S O F M I N I N G

IN THE States of Malaya mineral deposits are connected with the intrusion of the granite, forming some of the mountain ranges and are to be found most often near the edge of the granite or in the altered rocks nearby. The mountain ranges have been extensively eroded by weathering and by the action of streams, with the result that alluvial deposits of tin-ore and to a lesser extent of gold have been formed by the process of natural concentration.

On the western plains the extensive alluvial tin-fields of Taiping, Kinta and Kuala Lumpur may be noted; on the East Coast at Sungei Lembing, tin-lodes are found in altered rocks near the granite margin. In certain areas other minerals are found in small quantities in association with deposits of tin-ore, including tungsten minerals and columbite. Similarly, gold deposits include both alluvial deposits and primary lode deposits, as at Raub. Deposits of iron-ore are widespread, although not large, and are thought to have an origin connected with the granite. Deposits of bauxite have been formed by weathering of rocks under conditions suitable for the formation of residual deposits.

In the State of Sarawak deposits of bauxite are found and gold is known to be widely distributed in small quantities. There is a small declining oil-field at Miri and coal occurs at Silantek and elsewhere.

Tin-mining methods and the mineral recovery processes used depend both upon the nature of the deposit and the mineral to be mined.

Bucket-dredging for tin is best used in swampy ground with a soft bed-rock, for with dredging there is no pumping problem and the soft bedrock enables the dredge buckets to make a good recovery.

Open mining may comprise gravel-pumping, open cast-mining, or hydraulicing. Gravel-pumping for tin or gold is widely used and enables a good recovery to be made when the bedrock is uneven and there are pockets of ore to be cleaned up. Open-cast mining for tin is used for deep contact deposits where the depth may be too great for the economic application of gravel pumps and where the overburden must be mined separately and dumped; this method is also used for mining iron-ore and


economic operation, deposits worked by this method must be of higher grade.

A bucket dredge consists of a large floating pontoon carrying at the front an endless chain of buckets for digging under water the working face of the dredge paddock; the buckets also serve to raise the excavated ground to the mineral recovery plant of the dredge, from the rear of which the tailing is discharged back into the dredge paddock. The pontoon is moved forwards and sideways for digging the working face by means of head and sidelines anchored to the shore and pulled by powerful winches on the dredge. The mineral recovery plant includes revolving screens for sizing the feed to the jigs, from which the tin-concentrate recovered is treated again in a tin-shed on shore. The majority of dredges are operated by electricity.

In open mines there are different methods of cutting the ground and moving it to the mineral recovery plant. In a gravel-pump mine the ground is cut and disintegrated by jets of water supplied by a water pump and is then raised by means of a gravel pump to an elevated sluice box or palong where the mineral is recovered. In some gravel-pump mines jigs take the place of the palong. The water pumps and gravel pumps may be operated by oil engines or by electric motors. In an open-cast mine, on the other hand, the ground is cut by means of mechanical excavators, although in former years by hand, and is moved to the mineral recovery plant by rail and incline, by road, or by endless belt conveyor. In hydraulicing the water pumps and gravel pumps of the gravel pump-mine are replaced by monitors and hydraulic elevators using water under natural head from a pipeline from the hills.

In underground lode-mining, as the name suggests, operations are carried out underground, the workings being reached by tunnels or by shafts. The rock is hard and it is broken by drilling holes, by charging with explosives, and by blasting; the broken rock is taken in trucks out of the tunnels or up the shafts to the mineral recovery plant, which must include the necessary crushing and grinding equipment.

M I N I N G

Scope of Work and Responsibilities The Department of Mines advises on matters pertaining to mining and exercises supervision and control over mining operations; serious mining

M I N E R A L S A N D M I N I N G 469

problems. A prospecting unit known as the Mineral Investigation Drilling Unit is operated in conjunction with the Geological Survey. This organisation carries out prospecting for Government and in particular investigates, when necessary, the mineral potentialities of areas which may be required for purposes of land development. The Department administers Tin Control under local legislation designed to implement the International Tin Agreement of 1960.

Statutory Powers The officers of the Department administer the following Enactments:

The Mining Enactment The Mineral Ores Enactment The Gold Buyers Enactment The Dangerous Trades Enactment The Chinese Tin Mines (Rehabilitation Loans) Ordinance The Tin Control Ordinance, 1954 The Tin Control Regulations, 1955, and The Tin Control (Buffer Stock) Regulations, 1961.

In some States, officers of the Department exercise power under certain State legislation relating to mining.

Administration and Branches The Department of Mines is in the Ministry of Lands and Mines and is administered by a Federal Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. For purposes of mining administration the States of Malaya are divided into three zones, which are again sub-divided into Inspectorates. There is a Senior Inspector of Mines in charge of each zone and when available an Inspector of Mines in charge of each Inspectorate.

The Headquarters of the North Zone is at Ipoh, with Inspectorate offices in Kulim, Ipoh (2), Batu Gajah, Kampar and Tapah. The Senior Inspector of Mines, North, is responsible for Perak, Penang, Kedah and Perlis. The headquarters of the South Zone is at Kuala Lumpur with Inspectorate offices at Kuala Kubu, Kuala Lumpur (2), Seremban and Johore Bahru. The Senior Inspector of Mines, South, is responsible for Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore. The headquarters of the East Zone and


The Senior Inspector of Mines advises State Governments on applications for prospecting permits and mining leases and all matters concerned with mining. They are also responsible for the administration of mining and ancillary laws in their zones.

The officers of the Department assist the mining public with advice in cases of difficulty and by the provision of technical advice on mining, mineral dressing and allied problems. The Research Division with headquarters at Ipoh is constantly employed in developing new methods of mineral recovery and on improving old methods. From time to time bulletins are published on recent developments, and may be obtained from the Chief Research Officer, Department of Mines, Research Division, Tiger Lane, Ipoh or from the Chief Inspector of Mines in Kuala Lumpur.

A monthly statistical sheet and a quarterly bulletin of statistics are issued from the Department of Mines Headquarters in Kuala Lumpur. These contain the essential statistics relating to mineral production.

A Department of Mines has yet to be established in the Borneo States and, in the meanwhile, the Director of Geological Survey (Borneo Region) advises the Governments of both Sarawak and Sabah on all aspects of mineral prospecting and mining, including petroleum prospecting.

Mineral Rights, Royalties and Export Duties The property in all minerals is vested in the State Governments by whom licences or permits to prospect and mining leases are granted. Owners of agricultural land may prospect their own land or authorise others to do so by giving notice to a Senior Inspector of Mines. Mining may only be carried out under a mining lease, which may be issued for a period up to 21 years and which may be subject to appropriate conditions.

In the States of Malaya Royalties payable to State Governments are levied on gold at 5 per cent and, in certain instances, on tin. On all other minerals export duties are payable to the Federal Government. The export duty on tin concentrates is on a sliding scale dependent on the price of tin metal and at present is about 16.2 per cent of the value of the metal content. On other minerals the rate is 10 per cent ad valorem, except for iron, which varies from 5 per cent to 15 per cent ad valorem.


The Mining Industry For over 76 years, Malaya has been the largest single tin producer in the world. Tin-ore remains the most important mineral product of the country, and tin-mining is the largest section of the mining industry. In 1957, 36.3 per cent of the world production (excluding Iron Curtain countries) was won in the Federation. In 1963, the figure was 42.5 per cent. Other mineral products in 1963, in order of value, have been iron-ore, bauxite, ilmenite, gold, columbite, monazite, copper concentrates, china clay, wolfram and zircon. The production of iron-ore has increased in recent years, but the mining of coal ceased in 1960 due to inability to compete with imported oil.

TIN

Historical Note

It is believed that both tin and gold were mined in Malaya prior to the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511. In 1641 the Dutch captured Malacca from the Portuguese and established trading stations to control the tin export trade. In 1787 the export of tin from Perak was approximately 5,000 piculs and by 1839 had increased to 8,500 and to 14,738 in 1880. In the 1850's there was a general influx of Chinese to the Kuala Lumpur Tin-fields of Selangor and the Larut Tin-field of Perak, which resulted in gang fights in Perak and eventually to British intervention. The fiist steam-engine for mining was introduced in Perak for pumping water out of mines in 1877. Up till 1882 tin-mining was entirely in the hands of Malays and Chinese, but in that year the first European enterprise was established by French interests which eventually became the Societe des Etains de Perak. British interests soon followed, and by 1910, 22 per cent of the output came from European-owned mines and by 1930 this had become 63 per cent. A development of far-reaching importance was the introduction of the first dredge in 1912. In 1921, 30 dredges were in operation, and these had increased to 105 by 1930. It is believed that the first gravel pump which was driven by a steam-engine was introduced before the first world war, but this method of mining did not become common until cheap diesel engines became available shortly after the First World War. Improvements have since been made and continue, the latest being the recent development of jig-hydrocyclone plants to replace the traditional palong, but the development of dredging and gravel-pump mining in the early 1920's set the broad pattern of the mining industry as it is known today.


grains and is usually black or brown, but seldom yellow or colourless; and it occurs in both primary deposits (i.e., as lode formation in rock) or in secondary deposits (which are alluvial). The bulk of Malaya's tin is produced from these latter deposits.

The Kinta Valley in central Perak is the world's most productive tin-field and produces almost one-third of the total domestic production. Selangor follows with a little more than a quarter of the total. The remainder-some 10 per cent—comes from Johore, Negeri Sembilan, Kedah, Perlis, Trengganu and Malacca, whilst Pahang (at Sungei Lembing) has one of the world's largest lode-tin mines which has been in operation since 1887.

The principal use of tin is the coating of sheet-iron with a very thin layer of tin, and this is known as tin-plate. Another important use is for the manufacture of bearing metals and solders. The alloy pewter contains a large percentage of tin metal. Exports of tin-concentrates at present amount to about 60,000 tons yearly.

Production and Mining Methods Table 27 at Appendix III shows the principal statistics relating to the production of tin. Until recently, dredging has been undertaken only by European companies, but, in 1961, a Malayan syndicate took over the operation of one of the smaller dredging companies. Gravel-pumping is mainly carried out by Malayan producers. Small production came from open-cast, hydraulic and underground mines.

Smelting of Tin-Ore Tin-ore is smelted at the Penang smelter of the Eastern Smelting Company Limited, at Butterworth by the Straits Trading Company Limited and at Klang by the Oriental Tin Smelters Limited.

International Tin Agreement Malaysia, accounting as it does for about a third of the world's production of tin, is the most important producer participant in the International Tin Agreement. Briefly, the Agreement aims at preventing excessive fluctuations in price, introducing greater stability in the international market for the long-term benefit of both the producers and consumers and ensuring adequate supplies of tin at reasonable prices. Malaysia takes an active interest in the implementation and operation of the Agreement and has a permanent representative in the person of the Malaysian Delegate on the International


Tin Agreement of 1960 came into force provisionally on 1st July, 1961 and definitively on 21st February, 1962. It follows closely on the lines of the first Agreement and has similar objects in view. Between December, 1957 and September 1960, the six producing member countries to the first International Tin Agreement restricted the export of the metal to maintain an economic price; after the latter date, export restrictions were wholly lifted in view of the increased world demand which now shews little sign of abating within the immediate future. Should there be such a reduction in demand, restriction could be re-imposed under the second International Tin Agreement. The extraction of tin-ore is costly in terms of capital, and, unless a reasonable price is maintained, the whole structure of the Industry could easily be imperilled.

Tin Advisory Committee Internally, the Department's relation with the tin industry is in the main effected through the Tin Advisory Committee which is an advisory body consisting of nine representatives of the industry (four nominated by the F.M.S. Chamber of Mines, three by the All-Malaya Chinese Mining Association and two appointed by the Government) and four officials. The Minister of Commerce and Industry and the Minister of Lands and Mines are joint Chairmen of the Committee. It is this Committee which advises Government on all matters pertaining to the tin industry.

Tin Research The Government is also represented on the International Tin Research Council which undertakes research and development in the uses and consumption of tin. Until recently, Malaysia used to contribute about $500,000 annually to finance the operation of the Council, which sum represents about two-fifths of the total revenue of the Council. As from 1st July, 1962 member countries have increased their contributions and Malaysia is now contributing at the rate of about $685,000 annually. Of this contribution, about $200,000 comes from the Government and the rest from the industry through a levy on the export of tin. The Council has its headquarters in London and a number of branch offices all over the industrialised countries of Europe and America.


generally promoting greater interest in the consumption of tin in the United States of America which is the world's largest consumer of tin. The Board is established under the Tin Industry (Research and Development) Fund Ordinance, 1953 and consists of six representatives of the industry nominated by the two mining associations and three Government officials including the Controller of the Export Commodities Division of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

Future of the Tin Mining Industry The immediate future of tin mining in Malaya is entirely dependent on the maintenance of world demand. In the longer term, much will depend on the availability of ore in the ground which can be mined—tin is, after all, a wasting asset. The Japanese Occupation, together with the Emergency which followed it so closely and which continued for more than twelve years, greatly impeded the possibilities of new prospecting. It is true that new methods of extraction have made possible the re-mining of old mining land by both dredging and other means, but it is of great importance that new tin-fields should be identified and prospected. The Malaysian Govern-ment attaches great importance to this. For 77 years, Malaya has remained the world's largest exporter (producing, today, some one-third of the world's consumption) and to maintain this record a vigorous mining policy has been devised and is being implemented.

O T H E R M I N E R A L S

Table 27 in Appendix III shows the principal mining statistics relating to the production of tin and other minerals up to the end of 1963.

Iron-Ore Iron-ore has been mined on a small scale in the States of Malaya for many centuries. With the expansion of the tin-mining industry, production in-creased but still only to a minor extent, largely to supply small foundries and jig-ragging for the tin mines. It was not until about thirty years ago that any significant progress was made, when the Japanese opened up a fairly large mine at Bukit Besi in Trengganu with two much smaller ones in Kelantan.

Ore occurs in irregular masses, lenses and veins (and often in boulder form) as magnetite, haematite and limonite. The iron content varies from 56


The Bukit Besi mine in Trengganu remains the largest producer. An important new mine commenced production in June 1962 in the Rompin District of South Pahang. In 1963, the production was 1.8 million tons. The development of this mine included the construction of 56 miles of railway with stock-piling and loading facilities at Kuala Rompin. In addition, there were twenty-two smaller mines in Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Johore, Pahang, Trengganu and Kelantan in operation making a total of 24 at the end of December 1963, but their individual output is relatively small.

Iron and steel form the foundation of all modern heavy industry, which has not yet been developed in Malaysia largely for the lack of coke which is necessary for the reduction of the ore. For that reason, the Malaysian iron mining industry is dependent on exports, the vast bulk of which are taken up by Japan. It is probable that new techniques simplifying the production of pig iron will enable Malaysia to produce its own iron and steel supplies in future and so reduce its present almost total dependence on imported material.

Bauxite This ore, which is the ore from which aluminium is produced, occurs in earthy granular masses, usually brown in colour: and the principal deposits occur in the vicinity of Telok Ramunia in South Johore and Sematan in Sarawak. Annual production is of the order of half-a-million tons, the bulk of which is exported to Japan with smaller quantities to Australia, Formosa and the Netherlands. The metal aluminium itself is produced in electric furnaces by the reduction of alumina obtained from bauxite, and this pre-supposes the existence of a supply of abundant and cheap industrial electricity. For that reason, no aluminium metal is produced in Malaysia at present.

Aluminium has a low specific gravity and for that reason is very light. Its principal use is in the manufacture of articles where lightness is of paramount importance—the aircraft industry being perhaps the best example of this.

Rmenite The mineral ilmenite, which is an oxide of iron and titanium, is produced in the States of Malaya as a by-product from tin mining. It has the appearance


The Miri oilfield is situated in north Sarawak. About 600 wells have been drilled in the Miri field but only about a quarter of these are now pumped. The crude oil is refined at Lutong refinery.

Gold Gold is to be found in the States of Malaya and in Sarawak, but has almost ceased to exist as a self-contained industry—the principal mine which produced two-thirds of the output in 1959 having closed down as it has worked out its economic deposits. What is produced today comes almost entirely from Sarawak and as a by-product of tin mining. All gold produced locally is sold locally for the manufacture of jewellery.

Columbite This ore, a columbium-titanium mineral, occurs as a black sand and is recovered as a by-product of tin mining principally in Johore and Kedah. Output is small, and demand varies. It is used for the production of alloys requiring an especially high temperature application, such as in rocket engines and missiles.

Coal Coal is no longer mined commercially in Malaysia, the main mine at Batu Arang in Selangor having closed down in 1960 owing to its inability to compete with imported fuel oil. The whole output was obtained by open-cast methods.

Copper Concentrates These, again, are a by-product of the tin-mining industry, and their pro-duction is relatively insignificant. These concentrates come principally from the Sungei Lembing lode mine in Pahang. Copper is used principally in the electrical industry owing to excellence as a conductor.

Tungsten Minerals This is another small source of the nation's economy which occurs as scheelite (a calcium tungstate) and wolframite (a tungstate of iron and manganese). The former is yellowish-white and occurs in tin and in gold-bearing veins, and the latter is black and is only found in association with tin. The principal use of tungsten is as a hardening agent for machine-tool



from the iron-ore, it is stock-piled. Manganese is of importance in the manufacture of ferro-manganese alloys (which are very hard) in the steel industry.

Monazite Here is another example of a by-product of the tin-mining industry. Monazite is a phosphate of cerium metals with thoria and silica, and occurs as a pale yellow sand. It is a source of thorium salts. The entire by-production is usually exported to Japan.

China Clay Almost the entire production of china clay is absorbed by local industries, although a small amount is exported to Thailand. As the name suggests, it is used principally in the manufacture of porcelain and china, but is also a filling agent in paper, rubber and paint manufacture. It occurs as a result of weathering of felspars and granite, is white when pure and is a very soft and powdery material.

Zircon Zircon is also a by-product of tin mining and occurs as a reddish-brown sand. It is used industrially. Production is small and is wholly exported.

G E O L O G I C A L S U R V E Y

Brief History The first Government Geologist, Mr J. B. Scrivenor, came to Malaya in 1903, and until 1909 his staff consisted of one non-English-speaking Malay Rock-Collector. A Malay Clerk was engaged in 1909, and in 1912 an Assistant Geologist was appointed. Meanwhile, progress was made in the geological reconnaissance of the Federated Malay States, and a regular routine was established of examining and reporting upon specimens of rocks and minerals for the mining and general public. In 1914 a second Assistant Geologist and a Chemist were appointed.

During the years succeeding the first world war the numbers of the senior staff fluctuated in sympathy with Malaya's varying economic fortunes, but the responsibilities of the Department, and demands for its services continuously


great importance of a strong Geological Survey was acknowledged; but the spread of the second world war to Malaya not only prevented further expansion of the Department, but brought all geological work to a standstill.

Rehabilitation of the Department after the second world war was not easy; equipment was hard to get and the senior staff had been depleted by resigna-tions and transfers; the Emergency seriously hindered field work, and the 40-year old wooden Headquarters buildings at Batu Gajah were dilapidated and inadequate. In spite of all this, work was pressed forward and plans were drawn up for the formation of the much-needed and long-awaited strong Geological Survey. It was not until 1950 that these plans bore fruit and a generous free grant was received under the Colonial Development and Welfare Act for an expanded and completely reorganized Geological Survey with a total establishment of 24 geologists and seven chemists. Reconnaissance geological survey for the whole of Malaya had been completed by 1931 and more than one-third of the country has now been mapped in detail on the 1:63,360 scale.

In 1949 a geologist was transferred from Malaya to Borneo to start a geological survey for the then British Territories in Borneo, now the States of Borneo in Malaysia. This autonomous Geological Survey with an establishment of seven geologists by 1963 had completed a reconnaissance geological survey for the whole of the Borneo territories and has now started detailed standard 1: 63,360 geological mapping.

Scope of Work and Responsibilities of Department—States of Malaya The duties of the Geological Survey are to make a detailed geological examination of the whole of Malaya; to locate and investigate the country's mineral deposits; to prepare geological maps showing the distribution of the rocks; to prepare mineral maps showing the distribution of the minerals; to prepare regional maps distinguishing between areas that will be required, and areas that will not be required for mining; to identify and analyse rocks, minerals, mineral concentrates, and artificial mineral products, and to give geological information and advice whenever required.

Malaya is richly endowed with certain minerals, but the mineralized areas are limited in extent (the land area alienated for mining amounts to less than two per cent of the country). It is essential that the maximum possible revenue should be obtained from the development of mineral resources which, acre for acre, generally yield a much higher return than any other


It is natural that the Geological Survey in Malaya should lay special emphasis on the discovery of mineral occurrences, the delineation of miner-alized areas, and the location of economic mineral deposits. Although general and detailed geological mapping contributes largely to an under-standing of the distribution of the mineral occurrences, and is an initial requisite, it is usually necessary to undertake more intensive investigations in order to elucidate the origin, mode of occurrence, and structure of the ore deposits.

There are many other aspects of the national economy with which the Geological Survey is either directly or indirectly concerned. In addition to collating information upon raw mineral materials for use in commerce and industry, the Department contributes to the solution of the many problems dependent upon geological features and characteristics that arise in agri-culture and forestry, in health and sanitation works, and in other allied sciences. Geological advice is given to civil engineers in matters such as water-supply problems, alignment of roads and railways, selection of quarry sites, and suitability of foundations for buildings, dams, harbours, and other constructional engineering projects.

The principal long-term objectives of the Geological Survey may be defined as:

A. To collect and collate basic geological information on Malaya, with special emphasis on mineral resources.

B. To provide increasingly efficient consultative services on (i) land utilization and development;

(ii) assessment and utilization of mineral resources; (iii) identification and analysis of rocks and minerals; (iv) assessment of underground water resources; (v) siting and ground stability problems.

C. To disseminate information on geological matters particularly concerning the mineral resources of Malaya—

(i) by maintenance of reference archives; (ii) by issue of publications as soon as practicable.


Mines Department, Malaysia, in advising the State Governments of Sarawak and Sabah on mining and prospecting. It has a staff of 10 professional officers of which the Director, three Geologists and one Assistant Geologist are stationed at the department headquarters in Kuching, Sarawak; the Deputy Director with three Geologists and one Assistant Geologist are stationed in Jesselton, Sabah. With this comparatively small staff, which only reached its present strength in 1962, the Geological Survey has a proud record of achievement, having published maps and memoirs covering the whole of Sarawak and Sabah since its inception in 1949.

When the Geological Survey started, large parts of Sarawak and Sabah were geologically unknown. The first essential, therefore, was to complete a reconnaissance coverage of the region so as to enable areas of exceptional economic interest to be selected for detailed surveying. The reconnaissance was also required to direct mining companies to areas most likely to justify capital investment in prospecting. Top priority has therefore been given to completion of a series of publications describing the results of geological mapping, and in 1964 the reconnaissance coverage of the whole Borneo Region was finished; only memoirs describing the geology of Dent Peninsula and Pensiangan areas of Sabah have still to be issued and these are now in press. With these exceptions, books, and maps in scales of 1: 250,000 and 1: 125,000, describing the geology and mineral resources of all parts of Sarawak and Sabah are now available to the public.

Now that the reconnaissance survey of the Borneo States is complete, most of the professional staff is engaged on detailed mapping in scales of 1: 50,000 in areas, revealed by the original coverage, where further work might yield results of economic importance. The results of the first of these detailed surveys, covering the bauxite and glass sand deposits of Sematan, West Sarawak, was published as Report I in 1964. Detailed work in the Bau Mining District of Sarawak is now well-advanced; field work there in a scale of 1: 10,000 is supplemented by diamond drilling aimed at stimula-ting the gold mining industry; the drill was donated by the Japanese Govern-ment under the Colombo Plan. The next most important target for detailed mapping and drilling in Sarawak is coking coal deposits near Bintulu where work is planned to start early in 1965.

In Sabah, the Geological Survey continues to support the United Nations Labuk Valley Project mineral investigation by providing laboratory and


In addition to the basic mapping tasks, the Geological Survey advises on the location of constructional materials, underground water, and on the siting of bridges and dams. To this end, 21 possible quarry sites were examined in Sabah in 1963, and more than 23 such sites were examined during 1964. In Sarawak, advice has been given on the location of roadstone and siting of bridges for a new trunk road which is to link Kuching with Sibu. Dam sites for town water supplies have been investigated in Kudat and Sandakan during 1964 and boreholes for water, sited at Sandakan, are now giving a high yield.

One of the principal administrative tasks devolving upon the Geological Survey in Sabah is advising Government on oil mining and prospecting activities and legislation. Almost the whole of the northwestern seaboard or Sarawak and Sabah is licenced to the Royal/Dutch Shell Group, which spent nearly M$ 10,000,000 on prospecting for oil there during 1963 and approximately the same amount during 1964. Prospecting licences are now being negotiated with other companies for areas on the east coast of Sabah.

Borneanisation of the Geological Survey has started and will continue in accordance with the declared policy of Government. Five local candidates are now studying for geology degrees overseas and the first fully qualified geologists from Sabah and Sarawak are expected to be appointed in 1966.

Location of Stations of the Geological Survey Apart from the Federal Headquarters of the Geological Survey for the States of Malaya at Ipoh (Perak), there are also stations at Kuala Lumpur (Selangor), Johore Bahru (Johore), Bentong and Kuala Lipis (Pahang), Kuala Trengganu (Trengganu), Kota Bharu (Kelantan), Kulim (Kedab) and Kuala Kangsar (Perak). Other stations are planned for Segamat (Johore), Seremban (Negeri Sembilan), Tapah (Perak) and Alor Star (Kedah). In the Borneo Region, in addition to the Regional Headquarters at Kuching (Sarawak), there is another station at Jesselton (Sabah).

CHAPTER XIX THE PRESS, INFORMATION

A N D BROADCASTING THE PRESS

THERE ARE forty-four newspapers published in Malaysia. Four of these are published in the national language, eight in English, 22 in Chinese, six in Tamil, one in Malayalam and two in Punjabi.

Most of the dailies have Sunday editions, either under the same or different names.

The national language dailies are the Utusan Melayu (Jawi), Berita Harlan (Rumi), both published in Kuala Lumpur, the Warta Negara (Jawi) of Penang, and the Utusan Sarawak (Rumi), published in Kuching.

The Utusan Melayu also publishes a Sunday edition in Rumi, Mingguan Malaysia, besides a Jawi edition, Utusan Zaman.

The national language dailies have a combined circulation of more than 70,000 copies per issue, the English-language papers 195,000, Chinese 300,000, and Indian-language papers 27,000, totalling in all a circulation of nearly 600,000 copies per issue.

With a population of nearly 10 million in Malaysia, this works out to 5.5 copies for every one hundred inhabitants.

The oldest existing newspaper is the Pinang Gazette, established in 1833, in Penang.

In addition to the daily and Sunday newspapers, there are various maga-zines and journals, most of them published in the Malayan mainland of Malaysia. These cater to a variety of interests, namely, trade and commerce; trade unions; student news; film, radio and television entertainment; and general interest magazines.

The following is a list of newspapers and other publications in Malaysia:

PRESS, I N F O R M A T I O N A N D B R O A D C A S T I N G 485

I N F O R M A T I O N S E R V I C E S

History This department is a post-war creation, originally styled the Department of Publicity and Printing which was set up by the British Military Adminis-tration in September 1945 immediately after the Liberation. When the civil administration took over in April 1946, it was called the Department of Public Relations but was renamed the Department of Information in 1950 when it became a permanent paît of the machinery of Government.

As with all Federal departments, its headquarters is at Kuala Lumpur, the Federal capital. There is a branch office in each State except Singapore. The State organisations vary in size, and in the major States, District Information Offices have been established.

The work, scope and responsibilities of the Department have expanded well beyond its original mandate although its basic function remains the same—the dissemination of information and explaining Government policy, plans and measures to the people, particularly those living in rural areas. Inevitably, the work of the Department reflects the kaleidoscopic activities of the Federal government at all levels. In keeping with the ex-pansion of its functions, the Department's establishment increased from 285 in 1946 to 1,052 in 1964, while the voted provision rose from $660,279 in 1946 to $8,398,464 in 1964.

When the Emergency was declared in July 1948, the Department became responsible for psychological warfare against the Communist terrorists and their supporters. At the same time the responsibility of raising the morale of the villagers, especially those living in remote areas, devolved on the Department's mobile units. These mobile units, equipped with public address systems, cinema projectors and generators, and manned by field officers proficient in public speaking in the vernacular languages, operated in remote areas, often in hazardous circumstances throughout the duration of the Emergency. These units made a significant contribution to the country's fight for survival, in recognition of which, several field officers had been awarded State and Federal honours.

Another feather in the Department's cap was its highly successful elections publicity campaigns, both prior to Merdeka (Independence) and after, as a result of which elections at all levels were carried out smoothly


The Department has participated actively in every national event, cultural festival or campaign that has taken place in the country. Other important events, such as the activities of Their Majesties, the official visits of foreign Heads of State and international conferences held at the Federal capital are also publicized by the Department.

In October 1959, the post of Assistant Minister of Information and Broadcasting was created in recognition of the important role of the Depart-ment in the affairs of the Government. In July 1961, another milestone was reached with the creation of a full Ministry of Information and Broadcasting under the personal charge of the Prime Minister. It was not until after the General Elections in 1964 that a full-time Ministry of Information and Broadcasting was appropriated to direct and co-ordinate the work of the departments of mass communications.

Headquarters Organisation The Headquarters of the Department is based at the Federal capital. It functions under the control of the Director who receives directives from the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. There are eight divisions (including the Malayan Film Unit) two junior divisions and some 29 sections each with its own defined set of duties.

The Malayan Film Unit is an integral part of the Department of Informa-tion. Housed in a separate building, the Unit receives policy guidance from the Director, Information Services, but enjoys autonomy in the production of films although its administration and finances are managed by the Adminis-tration and Finance Division at Headquarters. The main theme of M.F.U. films is nation-building, and these films are designed to promote common loyalty and understanding among the various races as well as to explain Government policy and to combat illiteracy. The Unit produces an average of 60 films a year, principally cinemagazines and documentaries, both 35 mm and 16 mm, generally in the four main languages—Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. The 16 mm films are made primarily for use by the Department's mobile units. In addition to making films for Government, the Unit also undertakes, on payment, the production of sponsored films for quasi-Govemment organisations and commercial firms. Its annual revenue, from the production of sponsored films and from fees for hiring of equipment and dark xoom facilities to film-making companies, is approxi-mately $300,000. M.F.U. films enjoy a high reputation overseas and several of these have won international awards at Film Festivals. They are screened

p r e s s , i n f o r m a t i o n a n d b r o a d c a s t i n g 487

There are altogether 102 mobile units and 95 of them (87 road and 8 river) are stationed in the States. Training of the field staff is another important function of this Division. Annual refresher courses to acquaint field officers with latest developments in Government plans and measures are organised so that the field staff may carry out their duties effectively. In co-operation with other Government departments, the Civics Section organises civics courses, normally of 3 days' duration, for selected groups of people drawn from various walks of life. The civics "students" are brought to the Federal capital to attend lectures and demonstrations given by experts from various departments. Visits to development projects, national institutions and places of interest are included in the programme. Conducting officers are provided by the Tours Section for official guests of the Federation government during their stay in the country. Another function of this Division is the promotion of cultural activities, principally folk dancing. Classes for groups of persons interested in learning folk dances are arranged by the Division. The Division also organises cultural dances and shows for royal and state functions.

As its name implies, the Administration and Finance Division is principally responsible for the administration and disbursement of the Department's funds, recruitment of staff, leave and all matters affecting the Department's establishment. Distribution of publicity material is done by the Distribution Section where annually more than 10 million copies of all types of publications are parcelled, addressed and despatched. A small Workshop is maintained for repairing mobile unit equipment sent to it for attention by the State organisations. The Transport Pool is responsible for the control and deployment of all headquarters-based vehicles.

The Press and Public Relations Division is another important division. It caters for the Nation's Press. Manned by officers with journalistic experience, the division handles the production and distribution of all government press statements, averaging 300 per month, some in the ver-nacular languages. Photographs are issued to the Press on all important events. An average of 3,500 photographs on a large variety of subjects are distributed to the Press monthly. A copy of every photograph taken is kept in the Photograph Library. Already approx. 110,000 sets of photo-graphs and negatives are indexed and filed. Their numbers increase daily. The Press Section helps visiting journalists and arranges tours or interviews


are prepared by the Art Section. The Production Section supervises the production of publicity material and liaises with the printers for the printing of all departmental publications.

The Research and Reference Division comprises the Reference Library, Monitoring Section, Reference Section and Research Section. The Reference Library has some 5,000 publications, mostly Government papers and reports, and these are available to Government officials and research students. In addition, the Library maintains a comprehensive press clipping file on a large variety of subjects. Daily monitoring of the English and Vernacular Press is another important function of this Division, and the Daily Press Summary keeps Government officials informed of Press or public criticisms so that refutation of misstatements of facts can be made or action can be taken to deal with genuine grievances. Research is conducted from time to time on certain aspects of information work and the processed material and reports are kept by the Reference Section.

The Publications Division is responsible for the collation of the text and preparation of the lay-out of all publications produced by the Department. The regular publications are the three monthly vernacular illustrated maga-zines which are distributed free of charge, while ad hoc publications are the posters, booklets, pamphlets, wall charts and Reference Papers. These ad hoc publications are also for free distribution.

External publicity is handled by the External Publicity Division. Selected films, photographs and feature articles are despatched to our various overseas missions. Enquiries from abroad are also dealt with by the Division. Foreign visitors, mostly journalists, requiring background information about the country are attended to by this Division.

The Federal Film Library handles the distribution of all M.F.U. films, both the 35 mm and 16 mm versions. There are approximately 40,000 reels of 16 mm films available for loan, free of charge, to registered borrowers— schools, clubs, societies and individuals. The 35 mm films are distributed to commercial theatres without any charge. In addition, the Section deals with sales of print copies, distribution on a commercial basis for Television and hire of 16 mm entertainment films (which are mainly cartoons and light comedies) purchased from film companies.

P R E S S , I N F O R M A T I O N A N D B R O A D C A S T I N G 489

In Sarawak and Sabah, plans for the expansion of the Information Depart-ment are now being implemented and these include the supply of more mobile cinema/public address units and the recruiting and training of more field staff.

The State Information Officer is based at the State headquarters and is responsible for the implementation at all directives issued by the Director of Information Services. He plans local campaigns and is assisted by a deputy. He has clerical staff to deal with routine administrative and financial matters, and subordinate staff (mobile units and field personnel) to carry out publicity work.

Apart from the main function of publicising Federal Government policy on main issues, the State Information Officer is entrusted with numerous localised duties by the State administration. These duties are multifarious and are carried out in collaboration with the State and district authorities or other Government departments: for example, publicity for elections, inoculation, registration, padi-planting dates and road safety campaigns.

As a Government publicity agent, the State Information Officer is unavoidably involved in all State functions and campaigns. Various media are employed, the most important being the spoken word. Mobile units and field staff are allotted according to the size of the population and area of the State. Federal Talking Points prepared by Information Services Headquarters are made available to State organisations to supplement local talking points for dissemination among the rural people through mobile units.

The State/District branches receive publicity material, such as posters, booklets, pamphlets and leaflets from the Headquarters Distribution Section and arrange for their local distribution and display in public places.

Press statements prepared by State-based officers on important events of national interest are channelled through the Headquarters Press and Public Relations Division for issue to all newspapers and Radio Malaysia.

Mobile exhibitions are organised by the State Information Office with


B R O A D C A S T I N G ( R A D I O )

RADIO MALAYSIA—MALAYA

History and Development The Department of Radio, more likely known as Radio Malaya, came into being in April 1946. This was the first step in establishing a national broad-casting service. Before the Second World War, broadcasting in Malaya was conducted on a purely amateur basis. Just before the war, a small Station was set up in Kuala Lumpur under the then United Kingdom Ministry of Information and Propaganda, and provided a limited service to the capital city. During the occupation, the Japanese set up additional small stations at Penang, Malacca and Seremban. These were later taken over by the British Military Administration. When the Malayan Government eventually took over these stations early in 1946, the newly created Department of Broad-casting (now known as Department of Radio) found itself with only a skeleton service manned by a small staff and equipped with a variety of ex-Services equipment, mostly obsolescent.

In the face of post-war difficulties slow progress was made in obtaining new equipment, but nevertheless the broadcasting service was gradually expanded. The Emergency in Malaya was a strong factor towards accom-plishing a further expansion of the Department, and indeed considerable progress in staff recruitment and technical facilities was made between the years 1950 and 1955. A new and imaginative long-term Development Plan was drawn up in 1956 and revised in 1958, and this provides for a further expansion of the service to ensure nation-wide coverage. The first phase of the Plan, which provides for new studios and offices at Penang and Malacca, is now complete. Work of the new integrated Radio Malaya Transmitter-Studio-Office complex at Kota Bharu on the East Coast was started towards the end of 1961. This two-network Station became operational in January, 1963.

Recent Development and Planning Kuala Trengganu and Kuantan (both also on the East Coast) will have their own Stations in due course. Plans for a similar station in Johore Bahru are well on the way and it is anticipated to be in operation during October, 1963.


mid-days and evenings for spot and programme sales. Good facilities are available for the production of recorded commercials in all four languages. With the wide range of short and mediumwave transmitters located through-out the country, full pan-Malayan coverage is offered. Rate cards and other date relevant to the Commercial Service are available on request to the Commercial Manager.

Operations Radio Malaysia broadcasts domestically in four languages: Malay, English, Chinese (Mandarin, Hakka, Cantonese and Amoy) and Tamil. Programmes are currently carried over 9 shortwave and 18 mediumwave transmitters situated at various centres in the country. Transmitter powers for both Domestic and Overseas Services range from 300 watts to 100 kilowatts. The centres are linked by Very High Frequency and Micro-wave circuits. Letters have been received from Singapore, the Borneo territories, Indonesia and even Vietnam, reporting favourable reception. The original aerial system, were designed to provide only Malaya-wide coverage. Special aerial arrays have however been installed recently to achieve better coverage of the Malayan territories and a proper Malaysian Service was inaugurated in September, 1963.

A limited Overseas Service called "The Voice of Malaya" was introduced in February, 1963, broadcasting programmes in English (1 hour); Mandarin (1 hour); and Indonesian (5 hours) a day.

With the formation of Malaysia on 16th September, 1963, the old call-sign "Radio Malaya" is replaced by "Radio Malaysia".

Programmes and News The News Service produces 42 news bulletins and news summaries a day—8 in the national language (Malay) totalling 70 minutes, 8 in English totalling 70 minutes, 6 in Tamil totalling 50 minutes and 12 in the four Chinese dialects totalling 115 minutes. Thus, the News Service is responsible for 6 hours 25 minutes of news broadcasts daily, besides news talks and commentaries.

As from 1st January, 1963, Regional News takes the air in the National Language, English, Chinese (Mandarin) and Tamil, for listeners to medium-wave broadcast from Kuala Lumpur station. With the advert of Malaysia, Radio Malaysia's stations at Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak, relay the


The Tamil news bulletin at 6.15 a.m. and 7.00 p.m. are relayed by Radio Singapura only. The normal overall air-time in the Domestic Service totalled 368 hours 50 minutes per week distributed as hereunder:

The Radio Malaysia Orchestra was formed in mid-1961, with an estab-lishment of 12 musicians. It has now been increased to 27. The Orchestra accompanied the multi-language popular variety show "Panggong Aneka" in a successful tour of North and South Malaya and Singapore in December 1962, and the Borneo territories (Sabah and Sarawak) in July 1964.

The programme air-time for Aborigine Broadcast has increased from two hours per month to 4 hours.

Licences and Revenue A set owner is required to take out a radio licence which costs $12 a year. The total number of licences issued in 1963 is 325,734 ($3,908,808). Gross revenue derived through the Commercial Service exceeds $3,000,000. The Department's estimated budget for 1963 is $7,832,126.


in 1952 mainly with news broadcasts and announcements. It was not until November 1955 when Radio Sabah, as it was then called, was officially inaugurated. The station broadcasts in the shortwave and mediumwave bands using a 5Kw and 250 watt transmitters respectively. The programmes were in English, Malay and Chinese and later in November 1956 Kadazan was introduced.

Development and Planning The construction of a new Broadcasting House to replace the temporary studios on Brace Hill began towards the end of 1960. During the same year considerable staff expansion took place as a preliminary step towards the provision of sufficient trained staff to meet the operational requirements of the new Broadcasting House. The technical section in particular has been heavily engaged in the detailed planning of equipment requirements for the new studios. The building was completed by the end of 1961 but it was not until May 1962 when the administrative and programme staff moved into it, with broadcasting commencing shortly afterwards after the installation of the equipment and the completion of the accostic treatment of the studios.

Apart from the work of commissioning Broadcasting House, the most important and significant task undertaken by the engineering division of the broadcasting service was the preparation of a two-channel VHF and MF broadcasting transmission scheme, designed to provide state-wide coverage. This scheme was developed from a previous report undertaken by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company Ltd, based on field surveys in which test transmissions, made from the slopes of mount Kinabalu from the site proposed for the main VHF transmitters, were highly successful. Under the new scheme, the VHF signal, fed by a link from the studios to a point 8,600 feet high on Mount Kinabalu, would be radiated to all parts of the country. Work on this scheme is progressing well and it is hoped that it would be possible to complete the project towards the end of the year. Mediumwave transmitters sited in the main centres of the population would relay the VHF signal and provide a first class service for all the main towns. Two mediumwave transmitters—one in Tenom and the other in Tawau, are now in operation at the beginning of the year.


Programme and News With the advent of Malaysia, a gradual reorientation of programme output began to take place. The World News is now relayed daily from Kuala Lumpur in English, Malay, Chinese and Indonesian, the latter from Suara Malaysia, for Indonesian listeners in the Tawau Residency.

The character of the programmes is indicated in the table of percentages below:

This excludes increased air-time during pubic holidays and outside broadcasts of important public events.

Licences The total number of wireless licences issued as at 31st December, 1963, was 26,550.

RADIO MALAYSIA—SARAWAK

Radio Malaysia, Sarawak, was inaugurated in June, 1954, broadcasting programmes in Malay, Iban, Chinese and English on the medium and short-wave bands. Ten years later, by 1964, programmes in Melanau, three dialects of the Land Dayak language (Biatah, Bau/Jagoi and Bukar/Sadong), Hakka, Foochow, Amoy, Cantonese, Teochew and Hainan, as well as


Malay Service rebroadcasts each day two bulletins, the English Service four and the Chinese Service three. Home News Bulletins in all Language Services are broadcast daily except on Sundays.

Broadcasting House, Kuching, has been considerably expanded and many additional modern technical and production facilities have been provided since the Service was inaugurated ten years ago. These are of a high profes-sional order but remain inadequate to the increasing demands made upon them. The Service is at present broadcasting three simultaneous transmis-sions using three shortwave and two mediumwave transmitters.

By the end of 1964 a very large new Transmitting Station is due to come into operation and shortwave services will be considerably strengthened by the use of four new lOKw transmitters, to be operated in parallel, each giving a basic output of 20Kw. This is designed to greatly strengthen shortwave transmissions throughout the country pending the installation of mediumwave Stations at Limbang, Sibu, Miri, Simanggang, Kapit and Bintulu, for which plans are at present under consideration. The diversi-fication of programmes and the development of Language Services will entail a further expansion of technical accommodation and production facilities of Broadcasting House, Kuching, and proposals to this effect are expected to be incorporated into development planning.

By the middle of the year under review 43,754 receiving licences had been taken out by the public, of which 37,661 covered battery sets. Revenue earned from licences by the middle of the year was $175,199. Total annual expenditure during 1964 was estimated at $1,117,361 and by the end of the year the staff employed would be over 150.

R E D I F F U S I O N

Rediffusion (Malaya) Ltd and Rediffusion (Singapore) Ltd have operated a wired broadcasting service, under Government licence, in Kuala Lumpur and Singapore since 1948 and in Penang since 1953. In 1964 the Company extended its wired service to Ipoh and Butterworth. Some 80,000 subscribers to this service receive programmes in the four main languages on two networks. The Company originates programmes in its own studios and derives revenue from commercial broadcasting. The Company also relays some 25 hours per week of programmes and news from Radio Malaysia.


Offices The temporary studios and offices are at present located in the grounds of Dewan Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Ampang, Kuala Lumpur, comprising the following departments :

(a) Administration; (b) Programmes; (c) Engineering; (d) Films; (e) Stage and Design and (f) News.

Officials

Television operation calls for a very close co-operation among the various areas of service : production, design and staging, films, and engineering. The production area is responsible for the production of "live" or recorded programmes including news and other items, and in this area alone there are at least twenty officers who are actively involved. The Design and Staging services provide facilities for designing, lettering, costuming, make-up and is responsible for set building for certain desired studio effects. The Film Division provides services in the form of film and photo coverages (silent and with sound) for news and programme purposes and is responsible for the artistic and technical quality of the films and photos. There is also a film processing and library service which is responsible for receiving, docketing, issuing and recording all film, photo and slide materials. The Engineering Division is the largest division with a provision for a hundred and forty odd staff for 1964. From this number the various crews are sprung: the Outside Broadcast crew and the studio crew, with staff to man the equipments or look after maintenance and other technical chores.

Programmes

Programmes for television are produced in four languages: the National Language, English, Mandarin and Tamil. At present the on-air hours average 5 1/2 hours per day with extra hours on Saturdays and Sundays, making a total of about 44 hours per week. About 50 per cent of the total air time is produced "live" in the studio, while the rest are taken up by syndicated films, Film Negara, Malaysia productions and other film materials supplied by foreign embassies and commissions. Provision has been made to


News Television news is also produced in four languages: English, National Language, Mandarin and Tamil. Each news slot has a duration of 10 minutes, which include world and local items, with additional items on recent world events produced daily in a separate news period called "World Round-up". There is also a late news five times a week.

Television Malaysia's own roving reporters go out extensively daily, collecting local news in sound and picture. Other sources of new items include the foreign embassies, cable agencies like Reuters and Associated Press and news film service like Visnews. News for television has to be acceptable aurally and more so visually, and as such emphasis is given to visual coverages.

Development Work on the new site at Pantai Valley is in progress. The project will take 3 years to complete.

Extension of television to other parts of Malaya outside Kuala Lumpur has priority. To date, Perak, Malacca, Penang, Kedah and Perlis served by 10 kw transmitters situated at Gunong Kledang, Gunong Tampin and Gunong Jerai respectively. Installation of transmitters in Johore Bahru (Gunong Pulai), Taiping (Maxwell Hill), Tanjong Malim, Muar and Batu Pahat are going on. Telecommunications Department is in charge of all the transmitters and Kuala Lumpur programmes are taken throughout the service.

Studios facilities may be provided in the future for the more important centres in Malaya.

Licences A licence of $24 p.a. is charged for the operation of a television set. This licence would also cover the licence of a radio set if the operator possesses a radio set.

There were 28,125 licensed TV sets as at December, 1964.


STATIONS—(cont.)

CHAPTER XX

THE SOCIAL SERVICES H E A L T H

A General Survey THE REPORT of the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, which visited Malaya in 1954, commences its chapter on Public Health with the following paragraph:

"Not long ago, Malaya was one of the unhealthiest places in the tropics. Today it is among the healthiest, comparing favourably with many countries in the sub-tropical climates. This is one of the world's outstanding achievements of public health and medicine,* a tribute to the British administrators and their medical and public health officers".

With the achievement of Independence, the nation continues to build on the firm foundations already laid. A glance at the population statistics in Chapter II and in the Statistical Appendix at the end of this volume reveals a continuing improvement in public health as a whole, and this is evidenced by the continuous decline in the death-rate and the similar decline in the infant mortality. With an average expectation of life of fifty-six years for males and fifty-eight for females, a Malayan's life-span compares more than favourably with that applicable in other parts of Asia; particularly when the privations of the last war are still noticeable amongst certain age-groups. The natural wealth of the country today makes possible a correspondingly high standard of living (a visitor will note that vagrancy is comparatively rare) and the absence of extremes of climate and temperature in turn contribute to a general physical well-being. There are, admittedly, a number of endemic diseases, notably tuberculosis, malaria and yaws, but these and others are steadily being brought under control by improved preventive measures and by the use of improved drugs. What is often called "western medicine" is now well established, and the demand for it increases annually from all sections of the population.

As the authors of the Report on the Economic Development of Malaya* pointed out, Malaya was fortunate in that its early development after 1875 coincided with the birth of bacteriology, the emergence of modern epide-miology and the effective means to control tropical disease; in short, preventive medicine was coming into its own. By the turn of the century,


Government. By 1910, the King Edward VII Medical School—now a part of the University of Malaya in Singapore—was turning out its first graduates with qualifications recognised by the British General Medical Council, and this stream has increased yearly although it is as yet still insufficient to provide practitioners to cope with Malaya's rapidly increasing population. A further impetus to increased health was the foundation in 1900 of the Institute for Medical Research at Kuala Lumpur: it was at this Institute that the cause of beri-beri was first investigated and ascertained.

The Development of the Medical Services During the early days of development, most of the public medical and health services were provided by the Government, which maintained most of the hospitals and clinics. The establishment of the rubber industry diluted this accidental monopoly to some extent with the setting-up of hospitals in the estates and the retaining by the estates of qualified practitioners to care for the staffs. By 1954, it was estimated that less than one-third of the number of hospitals were Government institutions, but the latter contained over two-thirds of the beds.

Until 1932, the Government Medical Service was divided into two distinct departments, one being maintained by the Federated Malay States, the other by the Straits Settlements. The Unfederated States drew their senior profes-sionally-qualified staff on secondment from the Straits Settlements Service. In 1932, the two services merged with a common professional head acting executively as "Director" in the Colony and in an advisory capacity as "Advisei" to the various States, both Federated and Unfederated. This system persisted until the war. In 1946, Singapore established a separate directorate, but the professional staff remained on the Malayan Establish-ment and were liable to serve in either territory. In 1948, the Federation of Malaya Agreement arrangements decentralised control to an extent; the Director in Kuala Lumpur still maintained control over the posting and transferring of professional staff and was responsible for the various federal institutions such as mental asylums and the leprosoria, but the executive control over the service became fundamentally a State matter. The cost of the service was entered in the State estimates, although in practice it was met from the general balancing grant given to all States by the Central Government. In 1955, new financial arrangements were made whereby the State was paid the estimated cost of running the medical services, but any surplus had to be more or less funded and used only for medical and health

S O C I A L SERVICES 501

The Special Diseases The post-war Annual Reports of Malaya have invariably listed malaria, tuberculosis and yaws as diseases endemic to the country. These might be examined in a little more detail.

Malaria is a disease which is widespread in humid tropical climates, and is carried by a number of vectors the principal of which is the Anopheles Maculatiis mosquito. These mosquitos breed in both running and stagnant water. A mosquito only becomes a carrier after imbibing the blood of a person suffering from malaria, and only the female of the species carries the disease. The classic system of malarial control consists of the draining of watersheds or by causing a movement of water; certain larvae will breed in stagnant water, and by lowering the level of a reservoir or lake from time to time any larvae amongst the vegetation on the surface will die. The existence of coconut-shells and empty tins in built-up areas is another fruitful breeding ground. A second method of control is by spraying the breeding areas with anti-malarial oil, but this is recurrently expensive in both money and man-power, and permanent drainage works are constructed whenever possible. A further method is the use of prophylactic tablets such as atebrin, mepacrin or paludrine, and this has been used where the security forces have been operating in the deep jungles and other remote and malarious areas. It is only effective so long as a regular prescribed dosage is maintained. In the post-war period DDT residual spray as a means of anti-malarial control was also introduced in rural areas, particularly in the new villages. In the towns there is very little danger of contracting malaria today, and the preventive measures have been so successful that few people even trouble to use mosquito nets. The following figures represent the reduction in the mortality caused by malaria, and it must be remembered that during the Japanese occupation almost all anti-malarial works were allowed to fall into complete disrepair and it took a number of years to rehabilitate them:


These figures relate to hospitalisation only and should be treated with reserve. It is likely that a large number of deaths, especially in rural areas, go unnoticed; but the improvement in the incidence trend is nonetheless unmistakable.

During 1960, a pilot scheme was initiated with the assistance of WHO to investigate the total eradication of malaria in Malaya on lines which have been successful in other countries. The initial survey has been completed, and the phase of attacking the parasites is on the way. When the results of this pilot scheme have been analysed and evaluated, it is probable that an extensive country-wide programme will be undertaken; and a centre, together with a school, will also be established in Kuala Lumpur for the co-ordination of anti-malarial work.

Yaws is a non-venereal disease somewhat akin to syphilis, and causes widespread ulceration over the whole body. It is commonly found on the east coast amongst the riverine Malays. In 1954 a full-scale control campaign was started in Kelantan and Trengganu with the assistance of WHO and this has proved successful. Surveillance continues in both these States, and the campaign teams have now moved on to Kedah, Pahang and Perak to reduce further the incidence in these areas.

Tuberculosis is another major health problem in Malaya, and made major strides during the years of Japanese occupation when food was scarce and facilities almost completely lacking to restrain its advance. The limited B.C.G. campaign which started in 1951 continues and will be accelerated in the future. A campaign to eradicate Tuberculosis as a public health problem on a national basis was launched in 1961. Preventive measures will necessarily include the construction of much new housing to replace the over-crowded and sub-standard old houses which are unfortunately so numerous in the older parts of the towns. As to hospital treatment, there is a continued demand for all the three thousand five hundred odd beds reserved for T.B. patients in the hospitals. The Lady Templer Tuberculosis Hospital in Kuala Lumpur caters exclusively for this disease; it is a private institution with 250 beds for curable patients, is highly modern and places emphasis on surgical treatment.

After prolonged consultation with expert advice afforded under the Colombo Plan (and bearing in mind our comparatively limited resources) a plan has been drawn up by the Ministry of Health to launch a National Tuberculosis Control Campaign based on the most up-to-date techniques. The plan aims firstly, to identify infectious cases and render them non-


for prevention and cure, the training of technical personnel and the gradual and steady rectification of existing deficiencies.

Other diseases, such as diphtheria, poliomyelitis, and dysentery occur from time to time, but do not constitute a serious threat to public health.

Hospitals

The greater part of the hospital services in the States of Malaya are maintained and run by the Government. Private hospitals exist on most of the larger agricultural estates for the treatment of minor ills. In addition, there are a number of private institutions, many of them exclusively maternity hospitals run by charitable institutions. These are independent of the Government, although it is not unusual for government medical officers to be honorary physicians or members of the Board of Governors.

Government hospital accommodation now in 1963 runs to over 22,560 beds. The hospitals themselves are divided into three categories—General Hospitals (which have facilities for specialist consultants), District Hospitals (which refer special cases to the General Hospitals) and Special Institutions (which are specialised—for example, leprosy or mental illness). The total number of beds available in the 59 General and District Hospitals is 14,531. All these have out-patient departments, but in the smaller towns and villages the out-patient services are provided by 217 static and 155 mobile dispensaries, operating on planned schedules and visited by professional staff by road or river.

The hospitals vary in size. The five largest and most modem are at Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Johore Bharu, Ipoh and Malacca, while those in Alor Star, Kuantan and Seremban are of the less modern pavilion-type. All are comparatively well equipped and provided with specialist clinical facilities. Teams of specialists in the general hospitals are assisted by medical officers and by resident house doctors who, are newly-qualified men, are still under-going the statutory twelve-month period of housemanship before becoming qualified for full registration as medical practitioners.

Planned hospital development in the future includes the construction of a new maternity block at Kuala Lumpur which was completed in 1962 (this is part of a phased rebuilding of the whole hospital) and a teaching hospital at Petaling Jaya which is in the designing stage. When the latter has been


Rural Health In pursuance of the present government's policy to concentrate on the welfare and development of the rural areas, the Ministry of Health has concentrated on the establishment of rural health centres, which now number 1,130. These centres cover the entire range of medical work, and embrace midwifery, preventive and curative medicine.

Each centre unit consists of a main centre with four sub-centres and twenty-five midwife clinics, and the organisation is designed to meet the needs of a rural population-group of about fifty thousand souls. The staff of a complete unit comprises a Medical and Health Officer, a Dental Officer, a Health Sister, a Public Health Inspector, a Hospital Assistant, ten Assistant Nurses, five public Health Overseers and twenty-five Midwives. Thus, in the rural areas, there now exists the nucleus of a service which hitherto only existed in the urban areas. The special aim of the Centres is to reduce infant mortality to a rate comparable with that in the towns. More generally, the centres afford training to the local people to organise their kampongs on more hygienic lines, thus preventing or at least reducing the incidence cf water-borne, fly-borne and other diseases. Preventive medicine includes ante-and post-natal care, domiciliary midwifery services and care of infants in addition to health education in various subjects. The curative section deals with the diagnosis and treatment of common ailments: where necessary, a patient can be evacuated to a district or general hospital for further treatment. Sometimes this service is performed by the Royal Malaysian Air Force, particularly in serious cases in the very remote areas. Otherwise, evacuation of patients is done by road or river.

Urban Health In the Municipalities, the local authority is both generally and financially responsible for preventive public health measures. Other types of local authority share this tesponsibility with the Medical Department.

Medical Officers of Health, who are federal officers, are to be found regionally in the more populous centres, and act as advisers to the local authorities in their area on matters under the latter's control which affect the health of the public. In this capacity, they advise the local authority, for instance, on the approval or otherwise of building plans to ensure sufficient


Outside the towns, the Medical Officer of Health supervises health and sanitation measures and employs his own staff which is paid from federal funds.

Maternity and Child Welfare The maternity and child health centres have become increasingly popular throughout Malaya, in both rural and urban areas. Attendance at these clinics is increasing rapidly, and in 1963 over 2.9 million persons sought advice. The main purpose of these clinics is educational and preventive, but minor ailments are also treated when necessary or possible.

A further and comparatively new innovation is the domiciliary midwifery system which is gaining popularity. The visiting staffs of these clinics made nearly 113,000 visits to homes during 1963.

Dental Treatment The 131 Dental Officers in the employ of the Ministry of Health concentrate their attention almost entirely on the youth of the country, and do not in the ordinary course of events treat adults (although in isolated cases, particularly in the remoter rural areas, they would gladly undertake emergency treatment). The Government dental service therefore devotes some seventy per cent of its work to school-children; in addition, it gives attention to children below school age, to ante-natal mothers and to in-patients in the Government hospitals. The service rendered is free.

Special Institutions Leprosy has long been a threat to public health, although new methods of control and treatment have greatly reduced the potential threat. The main centre for treatment is the leprosarium at Sungei Buloh, a few miles outside Kuala. Lumpur, with a present population of slightly more than 2,500 patients. This is a self-contained settlement where every attempt is made to enable the patients to lead as normal a life as possible. In addition, there are smaller leprosaria at Pulau Jerejak (an island near Penang) and Tampoi near Johore Bahru. Clinics in Kuala Lumpur and Penang exist for the treatment of cases detected at an early stage. Sulphone continues to be the principal treatment for the disease, but experiments are being carried out on a new drug in collaboration with the Research Council of Great Britain, the latter providing the services of a Research Officer to assist in the in-vestigations.


for discharged patients. It is probable that only time, publicity and education will eradicate the completely erroneous impression; once a patient is dis-charged he is most unlikely to infect others.

Mental Diseases are treated in two large hospitals, Tanjong Rambutan (in Perak near Ipoh) and Tampoi (in Johore near Johore Bahru). Between them, these hospitals have accommodation for 4,200 patients, and this is by no means sufficient to cope with the demand. Plans are thus in hand to expand the mental service, and as a first step psychiatric out-patient units have been established at certain hospitals for the treatment of the less severe cases.

Research The Institute for Medical Research was founded in Kuala Lumpur sixty years ago at the turn of the century, largely on the initiative of the then High Commissioner, the late Sir Frank Swettenham. Branch laboratories have since been established in Perak and Penang. The Institute is well equipped with up-to-date equipment, and the divisional laboratories conduct research into bacteriology, biochemistry, pathology, malariology, nutrition, virus diseases and medical zoology. Although the Institute enjoys very considerable freedom of action and initiative, it is administered as a branch of the Medical Department. Since shortly after the last war, an American Research Team financed by the United States Government has been con-ducting research into virus and other tropical diseases, and the co-operation between the team and the Institute has been both happy and fruitful.

In addition to its pure research activities, the Institute is responsible fcr the production of the various vaccines generally used in Malaya and South-East Asia. A pharmaceutical factory at Petaling Jaya near Kuala Lumpur at a cost cf $5 million is under construction and is expected to be completed at the end of 1963. This factory will then be able to take over the manu-facturing function of the Institute, and production of tablets will increase from the present 50 million to approximately 200 million tablets a year.

Training of Doctors and Nursing Staff The Medical School of the University of Singapore has an output of some eighty graduates a year, which is insufficient to provide the number of practitioners required to cope with the expanding population and the


likely that the federation will be dependent for several years on univer-sities and teaching hospitals overseas, generally in Commonwealth Countries.

Student Nurses and Probationary Hospital Assistants are trained at the general hospitals in Penang, Kuala Lumpur and Johore Bahru, the two latter being of recent establishment to help alleviate the acute shortage of trained sisters and nurses.

The extended rural health services have already made inroads on the short supply of trained personnel. It is estimated that an output of 250 Student Nurses and 50 Probationers a year will be necessary over the next five years to bring the service up to full strength. Assistant Nurses and Midwives are also being trained in all States in Malaya to supply staff for the Rural Health Scheme.

Training of Dental Staff Dental Surgeons receive professional training at the Dental School in Singapore, which is a part of the University of Singapore, but a number of Malayans go abroad each year to receive this higher education at other dental schools and faculties. Dental training in Malaya is restricted at present to the instruction of dental nurses and dental technicians at the Federal Dental School in Penang. In addition to training Malayans, the school offers facilities on behalf of the World Health Organisation to trainees from Burma, Sarawak, Brunei, Singapore and Hongkong.

Training in Public Health There exist in the States of Malaya three training schools for public health offi-cials. The first of these is the Rural Health Training School at Jitra in Kedah. This school was first conceived in 1953, when a WHO Medical Officer and a Public Health Nurse were sent to assist in establishing it: this WHO assistance continued until 1959, when that Organisation was able to hand it over entirely to Malayans. Nonetheless, WHO still continues to give technical advice as may be necessary. UNICEF's generous contribution of equipment is worthy of acknowledgement. The main function of the school is to co-ordinate the training of the assistant health nurses, the midwives and the sanitary overseers needed in the rural health work as described above. By the end of 1960, some seventy teams will have been trained.

Next is the Public Health Visitors School, which was situated in Penang


range of maternal and child health, personal and community health, dental health and public health nursing generally. In the second half of the year emphasis is placed on child development, handicapped children, elementary psychology, nutrition, tropical diseases and the like. Practical work and field observation is a feature in the course. At the end of the year successful trainees are awarded the Health Visitors and School Nurses Certificate by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health (overseas), which insists on a high standard. Apart from this qualifying course, refresher courses lasting a fortnight are held from time to time.

Lastly, there is the Public Health Inspectors' Training School at Kuala Lumpur which was established in 1959 to supplement the facilities for training which had hitherto been available only at Singapore. Much of the equipment was donated by UNICEF. The course lasts one year, and is designed (like the Singapore Course) to give training to Probationary Public Health Inspectors, whether from the Medical Department or from the local authorities. The training includes lectures on academic subjects, laboratory work and field visits, and the syllabus covers all aspects of public health activity. The examinations are set by the Singapore Examination Board and approved by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, London. On successfully passing these examinations, the trainee is awarded the Royal Society's Diploma.

The Professions To be permitted to practise as a doctor in the States of Malaya, it is necessary to be registered under the provisions of the Medical Registration Ordinance of 1952. Only persons holding the qualifications of the Medical School of the University of Malaya, or holding a qualification recognised by the General Medical Council of Great Britain, may ordinarily be registered, but the Minister of Health has. a discretion to authorise the issue of a certificate of registration to persons holding qualifications not normally recognised. Applications for registration are considered by the Medical Council, a statutory board presided over by the Director of Medical Services, who is also Registrar. This Council is also the professional disciplinary body, and has powers upon a complaint being made to order the name of practitioner to be struck off the register for infamous professional conduct. If a practi-tioner is convicted in court of an offence involving moral turpitude, the Council may act in its discretion without a complaint being made. The


practitioners is almost exactly parallel to that established for doctors. The only difference is the question of qualifications: to be eligible for registration, a person must successfully have undergone the full course at a dental school recognised by the Government before he can be registered as a "qualified" dentist. Before the present law of 1948 came into force, there existed a large number of practitioners whose qualifications fell far below the standard now imposed, but who had been permitted to practise under the previous legislation. Dentists in this category are still permitted to practise, and are termed "registered" dentists. They are not however permitted to administer certain drugs such as antibiotics, but may use local anaesthetics; apart from that, there is nothing to restrict the scope of their practice. Since the 1947 legislation, no new-comers in this category can be registered, and in time the dental profession will consist entirely of practitioners holding university or recognised dental school qualifications. At present, there are some 419 registered dentists in the States of Malaya. Of the 194 odd qualified dental surgeons, some 131 are in the Government Dental Service.

Nurses are registered by the Nursing Board before they are permitted to practise. The examinations are set locally, and conform to the same standards prevailing throughout the Commonwealth. As a result, a registered nurse is able to obtain registration in most Commonwealth countries without further examination, and the same applies reciprocally to nurses trained in other Commonwealth countries.

Foods and Drugs Various legislation exists to regulate the sale and use of food and drugs, notably the Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of 1952 and the Sale of Food and Drugs Ordinance of the same year. Further legislation exists under the Poisons Ordinance, also enacted in 1952.

These Ordinances give wide powers of inspection and control over food and drugs, whether locally manufactured or imported. Inspectors and other officers appointed by the Government may enter premises and may take samples for examination, or may even temporarily impound and foodstuff or drug which is likely to cause a threat to health. Analyses are made by the Chemistry Department, and the certificate of the analyst is conclusive evidence on which the health authorities may take further action.

Markets, eating shops and coffee houses are controlled by the local

5 1 0 M A L A Y S I A YEAR BOOK

H E A L T H I N S A R A W A K

Sarawak is a relatively healthy country by tropical standards. Bilharziasis, yellow fever, louse-borne typhus, plague and relapsing fever are not en-countered nor has there been a case of smallpox for many years. Until 1961 cholera had not been reported for many years, but in that year, and recurrently in 1962 and 1963, outbreaks of cholera "El-Tor" have occurred. Due to the poor standard of environment, sanitation, however, dysentery and enteric diseases continued to occur in distressingly large numbers. Leprosy is prevalent also, and endemic goitre occurs in the interior.

It is the Government's policy to place more emphasis on the preventive aspects of public health. Mass health campaigns, such as the Malaria Eradication Project, the Tuberculosis Control Scheme, and the Campaign against Yaws, which was successfully completed in 1956, are already having a markedly beneficial effect on the general health of the population.

In the field of curative medicine, hospital and dispensary facilities through-out the country have been steadily improved over the past five years. There are now four main general hospitals situated at Kuching, Sibu, Simanggang, Miri and Limbang, plus a forty-bed district hospital at Sarikei, in the Third Division. In addition to these Government institutions, there is a forty-six-bed general hospital at Kapit, run by the Methodist Mission. Besides, there are small mission hospitals dealing almost exclusively with maternity cases at Kanowit, Sarikei, Makah, Long San and Serian. Other special institutions run by the Government Medical Department are the Rajah Charles Brooke Memorial Hospital and the Sarawak Mental Hospital. In all, there are 954 beds in government hospitals and 129 beds in non-government hospitals in addition to 234 restbeds attached to the 33 static dispensaries run by the Sarawak Medical Department.

At the end of 1963, Sarawak had a doctor-population of only 62, including 32 Government doctors, six Shell Oilfield doctors, three Mission doctors, and one Peace Corps doctor.

Dental specialists in Sarawak numbered 143, including four government officers and 139 private dentists, of whom only four possessed degrees or diploma scheduled under the Dentists Registration Ordinance, others being registered under a special provision of the Ordinance.

In the urban areas the responsibility for the maintenance of a satisfactory standard of environmental hygiene rests with the Local Authorities through


of the department whose responsibilities include care for the preservation of the public health in Sarawak.

Protective inoculation against diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough is provided in all Maternal and Child Health Clinics. Free vaccination against smallpox, poliomyelitis and cholera, is available at all government medical centres in the country. It is also the government's practice to carry out a systematic inoculation campaign against typhoid fever during the event of a severe flood.

Iodised salt for the prevention of endemic goitre is distributed throughout the Third Division from the Salt Iodisation Plant in Sibu. Plans have also been drawn up, and the plant purchased, for a similar installation in Kuching. It is hoped that this equipment will be able to come into operation early next year.

Dysentery and diarrhoea in their many forms have continued to be the greatest cause of morbidity amongst the patients admitted to the hospitals and restbeds in the territory. Typhoid fever continues to be endemic. It is not anticipated that any significant improvement will be made in the inci-dence of these diseases until the impact of the Rural Health Improvement Scheme, now getting under way, is fully felt.

HEALTH IN SABAH After the formation of Malaysia, the Sabah Health Department underwent considerable development mainly in the field of public health, although emphasis was placed on development of curative services. The number of senior staff, including doctors, sisters and staff nurses increased. To date there are 30 doctors, 20 nursing sisters and 9 health sisters. In the field of public health services, staff increases are mainly in the more junior grades. Besides, the training school in Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jesselton, is now recognised for training State Registered Nurses. At the same time, the General Nursing Council, England, continues to produce trained male and female nurses. Health in Sabah is a state matter, under the portfolio of the Minister of Health for Sabah.

Rural Health Services The backbone of this service is the rural health nurse supervised by a

health visitor. Assistance is also given by the U.S. Peace Corps. The idea of this service is to base a small number of staff on a health centre and


when the male counterpart of the rural health nurses is trained. This service is also integrated with the Malaria Eradication Scheme and the rural health nurses have considerable responsibilities in the finding of malaria cases.

The Estate and Industrial Medical Services Three main groups make a fairly considerable contribution to the medical services available in the State, namely: Beaufort Medical Group operating mainly in the West and Interior, Sandakan Medical Group operating in the Sandakan Residency, and Borneo Abaca Estate which employs its own doctor who also helps in the supervision of health in certain adjacent estates.

Private practice flourishes in the two main cities of Jesselton and Sandakan.

Dental Services Dental treatment continues to be given by Government Dental Clinics in Jesselton and Sandakan. Elsewhere treatment is available by private dentists, most of whom however have only locally recognised qualification.

The Malaria Eradication Programme The Malaria Eradication Programme, started in 1961, reached the consoli-dation phase in Labuan in 1963 where spraying has stopped. In the rest of the State, it remains to be launched in various stages. Spraying will be discontinued in most areas of the West Coast with the exception of Kota Belud and Kudat. An extremely gratifying reduction in the endemicity of malaria has occurred following this programme. General public co-operation has been fair although the usual objections to the use of DDT have been met. This eradication scheme has assistance from the World Health Orga-nisation and the United Nations Children's Fund.

Tuberculosis Control Scheme Tuberculosis Control Scheme, with assistance from Colombo Plan, was continued in 1964. This consisted of Head-Testing of school children and BCG wheie indicated, together with district-by-district mass radiography service. Frequently, a high incidence of up to two percent is encountered. Generally, wherever possible, out-patient treatment is instituted after an initial short period of twelve to six weeks in hospital.

Development

SOCIAL SERVICES 513

population, stationed in strategic positions, together with one male rural health worker. Also in the development period mentioned is provision for the building of several cottage hospitals.

W E L F A R E S E R V I C E S

Origins and Development As in other countries, it is only comparatively recently that the Government has played any great direct part in social welfare. Before the war, the care of the aged or destitute and the protection of orphans was almost entirely provided by charitable organisations and individuals, and these efforts were financed from public and private subscription and collections. The Govern-ment itself ran no specialised welfare agency, although the Labour Departments in the various States and the Chinese Protectorates dealt with the suppression of trafficking and the protection of women and girls from exploitation; also the various problems connected with immigrant Chinese and Tamil labour.

At the end of the Japanese occupation the situation had run completely out of control: starvation or at least under-nutrition was rife, families had been broken up and a large proportion of the population was near or at the point of complete destitution. The acute shortage of food, coupled with an occupation currency which was absolutely worthless, only aggravated what was already a serious problem. It is at this point that an embryonic social welfare system, sponsored by the Government, came into existence. The British Military Administration created an ad hoc organisation which aimed at immediate relief, principally by the distribution of food, clothing and medicines; this was done partly by central agencies such as the food control and rationing organisations, and by the Civil Affairs Officers who occupied a position analogous to that of the District Officers.

This ad hoc organisation was not intended to be permanent and with the return of a civil administration in April 1946, there came into being Depart-ments of Social Welfare in Malaya and Singapore. In Malaya the Department was headed by a Chief Social Welfare Officer in Kuala Lumpur with branch offices throughout the Malay Peninsula. Under the monolithic structure of the Malayan Union, this department was (in common with everything else) centralised in control and finance; under the pre-Independent Federation of Malaya, a federal headquarters continued in existence and the senior staff became a part of an inter-State transferable Federal cadre, but the responsibility where the governments were concerned was distributed, the


retaining responsibility for general welfare services including public assis-tance and other related welfare projects.

In Sarawak, an Advisory Committee for Social Welfare with the Chief Justice as Chairman, was set up in 1948 to advise Government on social welfare policy and practice, co-ordinate welfare efforts and make recom-mendations for the extension of social services throughout Sarawak. This Committee subsequently gave way to the Sarawak Social Welfare Council in 1949. The Council is a central welfare body representatives of all the welfare organisations in Sarawak, and undertakes all welfare work in the State, by means of annual subventions from the Sarawak Government and other sources. With the advent of Malaysia, the Federal Government assumed responsibility for Probation and Approved School Services in the States of Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah, with the State Governments concerned being responsible for all other welfare work in their States.

Although Government has taken on many social welfare activities, this does not mean that the Government has assumed complete authority for all welfare projects—voluntary associations and charitable organisations have increased their activities many times over since the war, with or without governmental financial assistance or guidance. In practice, all the Govern-ment did was to recognise that the tax-payer was entitled to certain basic protection or benefits in consideration of his contribution to the general revenue, and that charitable organisations alone could no longer be expected to cope with the present-day complexities of life.

Before considering the contributions made both by the Federal and State Governments and the voluntary organisations to the welfare of Malaysia's citizens and residents, a final point must be made: "welfare" cannot be the absolute responsibility of either the Government or the charitable organisations—-it must depend on the goodwill of all who live in a civilised society. For instance, a Malay rural kampong seldom enjoys the social service amenities which are available to the town-dweller; that is the usual pattern throughout the world (but the five-year rural development programme planned by the present Government is designed in great measure to re-adjust the balance). Nevertheless, a Malay kampong has an entirely unwritten code of welfare ethics and procedure: neighbours automatically assist one another in the event of illness or death: all of them "club-together" to achieve an aim which will promote the advancement of their small community, such as the construction of a road, bridle-path or bridge. In other words,


complementary or supplementary—it can never replace the duty which one individual owes to his neighbour, and never attemps to do so.

The Federal Department of Social Welfare comes under the portfolio of the Minister of Welfare Services. Overall responsibility for the execution of ministerial policy rests with the Director of Social Welfare. At State level State Social Welfare Officers in Malaya, the Director of Social Welfare in Singapore, the Sarawak Social Welfare Council in Sarawak, and the Commissioner of Labour and Welfare in Sabah, are responsible to their respective State governments in matters within the competence of the States. There is close liaison between the Federal and State Departments and to ensure co-ordination the administration of the Federal services in the States of Malaya is delegated to the State Social Welfare Officers who exercise their delegated functions under the direction and control of the Director of Social Welfare.

Care of Children The various laws governing the care of children were consolidated under a federal law, the Children and Young Persons Ordinance, in 1947. The corresponding law in Singapore is the Children and Young Persons Ordi-nance (Chapter 128 of the 1955 Revised Edition of the Laws). This legislation recognises that the family is the best guarantee for the happiness and advancement of the child, but it makes provision for the care of children if and when, for any reason, the family system breaks down.

These Ordinances impose on the Government the duty of providing general protection for all children in need. This duty is performed by the Department of Social Welfare, although the employment of children in Malaya is regulated by the Commissioner for Labour (see page 241). When children lack a normal home background or are neglected, cruelly treated or even totally abandoned, the Director of Social Welfare and his staff may interveae. The very first line of protection is of course the elimination of the cause of distress, and every effort is made in the first instance to preserve the family unit and prevent its self-destruction. If this fails, other action is necessary; it may be possible to find a suitable foster-parent for the child, and in suitable cases a boarding-out allowance may be paid by the department to assist in this. Not all children can be so placed and for some the Children's Home is the only answer. There are eight Children's Homes in Malaya catering for the needs of nearly seven hundred children. In addition voluntary organisations subsidised by Government maintain a


for 220 children. Although every care is taken to emulate the atmosphere and conditions of a natural home, nothing can really replace normal family life. The Singapore Department of Social Welfare also operates 17 children's centres for children between five to fourteen years old who are not attending school, and 10 creches for children whose mothers go out to work. These children range from a few weeks to 6 years old.

Officers of the Department of Social Welfare in Malaya and Singapore have certain powers to tackle problems such as ill-treatment and trafficking in children and child begging. On them lies the responsibility for registering and supervising "transferred children" under 14 years of age not living wit! a member of their families. Children who are exposed to moral danger or are falling into bad association, or who are vagrants, destitute or wandering without apparent fixed abode are also cared for by the Children's Officers under provisions contained in the Juvenile Courts Ordinance in Malays, the Children and Young Persons Ordinance in Singapore, the Protection of Young Persons and Children Ordinance in Sarawak, and the Women and Girls Protection Ordinance in Sabah. Under the adoption laws in Malaya and Singapore, officers of the Department make the necessary investigations into the suitability of prospective adopters and advise the courts accordingly. They also supervise the children while adoption pro-ceedings are in progress, and are normally appointed by the courts as guardian ad litem.

Handicapped Persons Services In Malaya services for handicapped persons are operated by the Government to assist the blind, the deaf and deaf mutes, the orthopaedically handicapped and the mentally handicapped. Services are also provided for aged destitutes including the chronically ill, and beggars and vagrants. Wherever possible, the primary aim of these services if to rehabilitate these persons into a place in society compatible with their particular disability.

Services for the blind have been in existence in Malaya since 1947 but it was not until 1958 that a nation-wide service was instituted to include other groups of handicapped persons. To-day these services include ascer-tainment of the handicap through a system of registration, facilities for residential care, treatment, education and training, placement in open employment, sheltered workshops or as home-workers, provision of launching grants, and for the blind in particular—a scheme of compensatory allowance, railway travel concession, and exemption of radio licence fees—


which these facilities provide. In addition to this, a country-wide survey of handicapped persons in Malaya was made by a Mobile Team in 1958 in order to obtain useful data as a basis in planning for the needs of handicapped persons. Two further surveys were made, one to study the employment field for handicapped persons and the other to guage the nature and extent of the marketing difficulties experienced by home-workers.

Facilities for residential care and treatment, education and training are being jointly provided by the Department of Social Welfare, the Ministry of Education and voluntary organisations in Malaya. The Department runs a Unit for handicapped children in Johore Bahru where treatment in physical restoration and occupational therapy, social training, education and voca-tional training are provided for sixty children, and a Vocational Training Centre in Kota Bharu for thirty physically handicapped young adults. Two Centres for Spastic Children run by the Selangor and Penang Spastic Children Associations and sited in Kuala Lumpur and Penang provide physiotherapy treatment and special education to 60 spastic children. The Selangor Association for Retarded Children runs a class for 20 mentally retarded children in Kuala Lumpur. The Department is also building two Rehabilitation Centres under the Second Five-Year Development Plan—one in Cheras, Selangor, for 100 physically handicapped persons between 6-21 years and one in Johore Bahru for 60 mentally defective children between 6-16 years. Special equipment and transport have been supplied by UNICEF; an U.N. expert and an ILO expert on Vocational Rehabilitation of the Disabled will be coming to assist in the development and operation of services for the rehabilitation of the handicapped.

The Malayan Association for the Blind administers the Princess Elizabeth School for the Blind in Johore Bahru which together with the St. Nicholas School for the Blind in Penang (run by the Anglican Mission) provide residential primary education to about 180 blind children. Apart from this, eleven integrated classes for blind children are run by the Ministry of Education catering for sixty children, including approximately twenty blind children receiving secondary education. The Malayan Association for the Blind also maintains vocational training centres in Kuala Lumpur, Temerloh, Kuala Besut and Kuala Pilah for 90 blind adults.

In Sarawak, services for the blind are provided by the Sarawak Society for the Blind. The Society maintains the Sarawak Centre for the Blind, a


Bahru. Similar to the integrated classes for the blind the Ministry of Education is also running 30 integrated classes for the deaf throughout the country for 335 primary school students. This year has shown the largest number of blind and deaf students receiving formal education.

Welfare and rehabilitation services for sufferers of tuberculosis and Hansen's disease are provided by Government in co-operation with vo-luntary organisations in the various States of Malaysia. A number of social workers from the Department of Social Welfare in Malaya has been recently seconded for medico-social work in the National Tuberculosis Control Campaign.

Placement in employment of handicapped persons is undertaken by the Department of Social Welfare in Malaya in conjunction with voluntary organisations such as the Malayan Association for the Blind. The first aim of this service is to place handicapped persons in open employment or as home-workers. For the latter group, launching grants are provided in case of need so that the prospective home-worker may be able to purchase the necessary tools and initial raw material to start off his trade. Where the handicapped persons cannot compete in open employment work is found for him in sheltered workshops. For this purpose the Malayan Association for the Blind runs the Kinta Valley Workshop in Ipoh for 50 blind men, the Anglican Mission the St. Nicholas Occupation Centre in Penang for 30 unemployable but trained young blind women, and the Department a workshop for the aged and handicapped in Seremban for 80 old persons and handicapped adults.

A Compensatory Allowance Scheme is also administered by the Depart-ment of Social Welfare in Malaya. Under this Scheme, blind workers in employment approved by the Compensatory Allowance Committee and whose income is not adequate to secure a living wage according to the cost of living index of the area in which they reside, may be entitled to Compen-satory Allowance. The idea is to encourage the blind to be gainfully em-ployed. The Scheme is being revised.

Besides this, registered blind persons in the States of Malaya are entitled to travel on trains at concession rates. They can also be exempted from paying Radio Licence Fees. Investigation of each application is undertaken by the Department of Social Welfare.

Old People


old people. Another 99 Old Persons' Homes run by voluntary bodies and subsidised by State and Federal Government funds cater for a further 2,330 old people. The Singapore Department of Social Welfare maintains two Homes for 300 aged people, and the Sarawak Social Welfare Council subsidises 6 voluntary homes for 355 old folks. In Sabah, care of the aged is provided for from the Paupers Ordinance which is administered by the Commissioner for Labour and Welfare with the help of statutory Boards. The Ordinance provides for the maintenance of a Pauper Fund, which maintains three Homes for the aged, besides providing outdoor assistance. These three Homes have accommodation for 320 persons.

In each of the 8 Governmental Old Persons' Homes in Malaya, Boards of Visitors comprising of public-spirited men and women are appointed by the Hon'ble the Minister of Welfare Services. They ensure that the welfare of old people is not neglected and maintain Comforts Funds for extra amenities and occupational activities.

A new Old Persons' Home in Selangor, one of the projects of the Department's Second Five-Year Development Plan will be ready for occupation this year. For chronically-ill destitutes there are two Cheshire Homes run by voluntary bodies, situated in Johore Bahru and Kuala Lumpur. In addition, the Department is also planning to establish homes for this group of people, including those occupying beds in hospitals, but for whom hospital care is no longer necessary.

Old people who are destitute but have their own homes are normally assisted domiciliary relief.

Beggars and Vagrants The Department of Social Welfare in Malaya has expanded services for the care and rehabilitation of beggars and vagrants and for this purpose two Rehabilitation Centres have been established in Malacca and Johore. Plans for the establishment of other Centres are being considered.

Relief Schemes for War Victims In Malaya the Department of Social Welfare administers the Burma-Siam Relief Scheme which was set up to give assistance to the dependants of those who died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway during the Japanese occupation. The corresponding schemes in the other States of Malaysia are the Malaya War Distress (Singapore) Fund in Singapore for


Youth Services Youth Services aim to offer young people in their leisure time, opportunities of various kinds complementary to those of their homes, formal education, and work, and to discover and develop their personal resources of body, mind and spirit and thus better equip themselves to live a life of mature, creative and responsible members of society. Leisure time activities are organised by Youth Clubs and similar Youth Organisations in rural and urban areas and accordingly receive every encouragement, and do much to offer effective counter-attractions to the lure of anti-social activity, at the same time fostering a sense of community responsibility.

To assist in the development of Youth Organisations, courses for youth leaders in all types of youth work are run. Leadership training is listed as top priority not only due to the growing number of Youth Clubs throughout the country but also because of the view that sufficient working knowledge of Youth Club administration and leadership technique is vital for the running of Youth Clubs and Organisations. The Government maintains a Youth Leadership Training Centre which provides training at Federal level at which courses for initial and advanced youth leadership training and specialised courses are held. On completion of these courses the youth leaders are capable of playing a more effective part in the organisation of youth services. An up-to-date National Youth Leadership Training Centre in Kuala Kubu Bharu and a new Youth Centre in Kuala Lumpur have been constructed under the Second Five-Year Development Plan.

Financial grants may be made to Youth Clubs for special projects. Such applications are scrutinised by State Youth Officers. It sometimes happens that a useful activity is unable to get under way through lack of an experienced programme organiser or activity instructor, and the Government can where necessary make good this deficiency.

Protection of Women and Girls Provisions for the protection of women and girls are contained in a number of pre-war Women and Girls Protection Enactments under the then consti-tutional arrangements in Malaya, the Women's Charter, 1961, in Singapore, and the Women and Girls Protection Ordinance, Cap. 159, in Sabah. The Malayan legislation is obsolete and is now being consolidated and amended. These provisions are designed for the protection of women and girls from


available for 310 residents, and a Women and Girls Protection Advisory Committee meets regularly to discuss and co-ordinate activities. After-care of those discharged from the Homes is also maintained in Singapore.

Massage Establishments In Singapore registration and inspection of massage establishments is carried out by the Singapore Department of Social Welfare under the Massage Establishment Ordinance, 1959.

Departmental Training It is the policy of the Government that its permanent social welfaie staff should be trained either at the University of Malaya or through a system of "in-service training" courses to equip them with knowledge and skills to provide an efficient and effective service. Introductory courses are aimed principally at giving a grounding to newly-recruited staff by means of lectures and visits to Government and voluntary institutions. Trainees are subsequently posted to work under the supervision of a training officer. Follow-up and refresher courses are thereafter held. The Department also conducts examinations for trainees under the Schemes of Service.

House assistants' training courses provide special training for officers engaged in residential work. Guidance is always available on request from a voluntary organisation, and the Department of Social Welfare maintains a central library of books and periodicals which are available on loan and publishes a Departmental bulletin to enable welfare workers to keep abreast of the latest developments in the field of social service.

Financing Social Welfare The various Government services described above are financed by the Federal and State Governments. Generally speaking, non-domiciliary work and relief is met from State Government budgets in Malaya, while in Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah, provision for social welfare services other than those for the treatment of juvenile delinquents, is made by the State Governments concerned.

In addition to annual governmental budgets, various statutory Funds set up for charitable purposes also provide the necessary finance. Some of


Voluntary organisations maintain themselves so far as possible from subscriptions and gifts, but a number receive subventions from the Federal and State Governments. In Malaya, voluntary organisations may also apply for capital grants from the Social and Welfare Services Lotteries Trust Fund, which come from the proceeds of the periodic lotteries-draws promoted by the Social and Welfare Services Lotteries Board. In Sarawak and Sabah, voluntary organisations derive a fair amount of recurrent income from the sweepstakes and social welfare lotteries organised by the respective Turf Club in the two States.

General Welfare and Relief Public assistance is given in cash (or occasionally in kind) to a person who has fallen into poverty through ill-health or some other cause beyond his control. It is always subject to a means test during which the applicant's circumstances are closely examined. This assistance is both a means to an end and an end in itself: it tides the recipient and his family over a bad period when they might otherwise have been destitute and starving, and it assists him to re-establish himself and become self-supporting. There are however very few cases in which cash relief is all that is needed ; other help and assistance to find work or to arrange for training is almost invariably necessary. In this respect the Labour Exchange makes a significant contri-bution.

The Malayan and Singapore Departments of Social Welfare cover a wide variety of work in their family welfare programmes. These include matrimonial and domestic difficulties, problems of growing children, disputes over custody of children, requests by women for assistance in obtaining main-tenance from deserting husbands, welfare of the dependants of prisoners and detainees, and the tracing of missing persons. These are only a few examples. Social Welfare Officers maintain a close liaison with all statutory and voluntary welfare organisations in performing their duties under these heads. Persons seeking assistance are not regarded so much as individuals as members of a family, and the advice extended to them must take into account all relevant family considerations. It is worth stressing again that the family is the basis of the Malaysian society and emphasis is therefore placed on the integrity of the family unit.


form mutual benefit organisations. Assistance is also available in the settlement of disputes in connection with the payment of benefits.

Voluntary Organisations We have already seen that many voluntary organisations do invaluable work in providing much needed social welfare services. Government acts as a co-ordinator, an adviser, and (within financial limits) a subsidiser to these voluntary bodies. It would be impossible within the scope of this Year Book to give a comprehensive account of volunteer activity. The following organisations are however the principal ones :

The Malaysian Association of Youth Clubs The Malaysian Youth Council The Malayan Youth Hostels Association The Boy Scouts Association The Girl Guides Association The St. John Ambulance Brigade in Malaya and Sabah The Red Cross Society in Malaya, Sarawak and Sabah The National Association of Women's Institutes Discharged Prisoners Aid Societies in Malaya and Sarawak The Malayan Association for the Blind The Malayan Leprosy Relief Association The Malayan Association for the Prevention of Tuberculosis The Malayan Council for Child Welfare The Central Welfare Council The Singapore Seafarers Welfare Board The Singapore Council of Social Service The Sarawak Social Welfare Council The Sarawak Anti Tuberculosis Association The Sarawak Society for the Blind The Sabah Social Welfare Council The Sabah Anti Tuberculosis Association There are many others. Many of them have a medical bias, and quite a

number of maternity hospitals, financed by charitable bodies, are in existence. It cannot be too highly emphasised that without the excellent co-operation that exists between Government and the many fine voluntary bodies, that exist in Malaysia, social welfare would lose much of its significance.


of juvenile delinquency which were prevalent directly after the war arising from economic hardship and the dislocation of normal family life. Supervi-sion of juvenile offenders is achieved by virtue of the Juvenile Courts Ordinance in Malaya, the Probation of Offenders Ordinance, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Criminal Justice (Temporary Provisions) Ordinance in Singapore, and the Criminal Procedure Code in Sarawak. In Malaya and Singapore, juvenile offenders are tried in Juvenile Courts with the President of a Sessions Court as Chairman assisted by two advisers. The emphasis in dealing with offenders is more on treatment and less on punish-ment. To enable the Court to decide upon the treatment in a specific case a Probation Officer is required to submit a report on the offender giving a full case history of his home, family, economic and social circumstances. When a juvenile is placed on probation the Probation Officer is there to befriend, assist and advise. Supervision is done through a system of reports and visits. There are 77 Social Welfare Officers gazetted as Probation Officers covering Malaya, 17 Probation Officers covering Singapore, 3 Probation Officers and a lady Welfare Officer who takes on probation work for girls as the need arises in Sarawak. In Sabah probation work is done by officers of the Department of Labour and Welfare.

Remand Homesl Hostels Not all cases can be best dealt with by probation. Where it is in the interests of the Juvenile that he should be sent away from his natural home for a short period he may be placed on probation with a condition of residence. In this case he can be sent to a probation hostel for not more than one year. Every attempt is made to see that life in the hostel is as close as possible to that of a n a t u r a l . Outside schooling or employment is encouraged while leisure activities conducive to good character-training are an important feature. The hostel is also used as a place of remand in cases where a juvenile offender does not have anybody suitable to stand bail for him. There are now seven remand homes/hostels for boys and one for girls, each having a maximum accommodation for 25 juveniles in Malaya, two in Singapore for 80 boys, and four gazetted institutions which may be used for the purpose in Sarawak.

Juvenile Welfare Committees

SOCIAL SERVICES 525

Approved Schools In more serious cases where it is desirable that a juvenile offender should in his own interest be removed from his home or local surroundings, committal to an approved school may be ordered. The period varies from two to five years in Sarawak and Sabah, while in Malaya it is automatically three years but the offender is eligible for earlier release if response to training justifies it. In practice the juvenile is only committed to an approved school as a last resort, after exploring all other possibilities of dealing with him. Various trade training facilities such as tailoring, carpentry and agri-culture, formal classes of general education and leisure time activities both individual and group including various sports, a wide range of hobbies and cultural pursuits in accordance with the background of the main racial groups of the country, are to be found in these schools. The schools are open institutions which implies that character and social training is pursued in an atmosphere of reasonable freedom. The principal "the offender is an individual" is evident by the emphasis upon staff (house-masters) who are particularly responsible for the personal care and training of a small group of youngsters. There are three Approved Schools for 360 boys and one for 60 girls in Malaya, two for 160 boys in Singapore, and one for 40 boys in Sarawak serving both Sarawak and Sabah.

After-care Juveniles released from the Approved Schools are assisted and supervised by Probation Officers in their rehabilitation. Suitable employment is found for them while those able to continue in school are assisted financially. The period of after-care lasts from one to three years after release.

E D U C A T I O N

Origins Over the last one and a half centuries, the evolution of public education in Malaya has followed an interesting course. In the early stages, the Governments of the day stood somewhat aloof (although paternally so) and schooling facilities were considered more as private than governmental functions. The first schools were established by public spirited individuals, charitable organisations and religious missions; and these have left an indelible mark on the pattern of education to this day even though the


education, and the Malay section still survives as the Malay School at Glugor. The next milestone was the founding in Singapore of "the Institution" by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1823; after various vicissi-tudes (largely through the inertia or lack of interest of Sir Thomas's less farsighted successors) the Institution eventually flourished and still exists as a secondary school there today. Another signpost on the road of public education was the founding of the Malay College at Kuala Kangsar in 1905, a Government operated residential college organised on the lines of an English public school. The College was originally designed to prepare the sons of Malay Royalty and other high-ranking Malays for entry into the Administrative Service of the Government, and to encourage the Malays to see the advantages of a higher education. Today, entry into the College is determined by competitive examination.

Up to the first world war, the Government continued to an extent to establish schools for Malay and English vernacular education. During this period, however, the Mission schools—particularly those under the direction of the Roman Catholic Christian Brothers and the American Methodist Church—were chiefly responsible for the rapid advances in English education, and by 1914 some three-quarters of the boys receiving English language education were at these schools. The Missions were also pioneers in education for girls and fought resolutely against conservative opposition and pre-judice. Today, Convent Schools for girls may be found in many of the major centres. It is a striking tribute to the selfless service of these men and women that they should have gained the ready confidence and affection of both parents and children despite differences in religion and culture. The presence of so many Malay girls and boys in the Mission schools is in-dicative of the complete independence of religious and secular instruction. Until very recently, the culmination of the five-year course at any of the English Schools was the successful passing of the Senior Cambridge Certificate Examination; the first candidates for this examination sat in 1891.

Vernacular education for Malays originated in the Koran schools where the Arabic script was learnt through the study of the Muslim religion. In the first half of the nineteenth century these schools were partially assisted by the then East India Company and thereafter by the State Governments. Later, most of them became purely secular Schools and thereafter developed into Government Malay School financed from public funds.


adopted as the medium of instruction. The main difficulty confronting these schools was the scarcity of suitable teachers with a Malayan-Chinese as opposed to a purely Chinese outlook, and the fact that the salaries offered were small (the schools being entirely supported by voluntary contributions) militated against the recruitment of better material. As time went on, the Government afforded financial assistance to those Chinese schools which were prepared to follow a curriculum approved by the education authorities, and a more truly Malayan bias was slowly incorporated into the instruction given.

Education in the Indian language has always been confined almost entirely to Tamil and caters for the children of worker?., mostly on the rubber estates.

Until 1951, the main method of training teachers for English schools was through "Normal Classes" (the trainees taught under supervision during school hours and attended week-end lectures). In 1951, the first batch of student-teachers was sent to the United Kingdom for training, and since then other centres have been established in the States of Malaya and the "Normal Class" system gradually reduced. Training Colleges for Malay School teachers are of more ancient foundation, the first being established in Singapore in 1878; further schools were set up in Malacca and Matang respectively in 1901 and 1913 respectively, but both were amalgamated and transferred to Perak in 1922 where they became the nucleus of the Sultan Idris Training College at Tanjong Malim, an institution which lays emphasis on devising a primary curriculum attuned to the environment of the pupils. It was not until 1935 that a college was opened at Malacca for the training of teachers for Malay girls' schools.

Turning to the question of finance, it will be seen that the "private" schools—those under the direction of missionary bodies or charitable trusts, and those on the rubber estates—were maintained largely by their sponsors. As time went on, the demand for education became more than could be borne by voluntary subscription, even when augmented by the comparatively small school fees paid by the parents. A system of grants-in-aid from the Government gradually evolved, and payment was made provided the education authority was satisfied with the standard of ins-truction and accommodation offered. This, broadly, was the position until 1957, when a new Education Ordinance came into force. As the rules and conditions governing grants-in-aid before that time are now completely


The Government-operated schools were financed from public moneys, a small part of which came from an education rate imposed in the town areas. Until 1957, however, when the Federal Constitution came into force, education in general was a matter reserved to the State Governments, whose policies were comparatively loosely co-ordinated, chiefly by means of financial control (the Malayan Government for all practical purposes allocated to the State revenues sufficient funds to cover the cost of the schools and the grants-in-aid to the non-government schools). Since Independence, education has been a wholly federal matter both legislatively and executively, and the Minister of Education is answerable to the Federal Parliament for the successful working of the system.

The Educational system Today Shortly after the elections to the former Federal Legislative Council in 1955, the Government appointed a Committee to investigate and report on any changes required in the education system, particularly in view of impending independence. This Committee (known as the Razak Committee after its Chairman, the then Minister of Education) drew up certain proposals which were accepted by the Legislative Council and which became the basis of the 1957 Education Ordinance. After the general elections of 1959 and the establishment of a wholly elected House of Representatives, a further Committee was appointed under the Chairmanship of the Minister to examine the working of both policy and law in the light of experience. This Committee was known as the Abdul Rahman Talib Committee, and it made a number of recommendations which were accepted in 1960 by Parliament and incorporated in the Education Act, 1961. These recommen-dations will be discussed later in their proper place. It may here be convenient to quote the preamble of the Education Act which concisely summarises the education policy of Malaya in broad terms:

"Whereas the educational policy of the federation originally declared in the Education Ordinance 1957, is to establish a national system of education which will satisfy the needs of the nation and promote its cultural, social, economic and political development;

and whereas it is considered desirable that regard shall be had, so far as is compatible with that policy, with the provision of efficient instruction;

and with the avoidance of unreasonable public expenditure, to the general principle that pupils are to be educated in accordance with the wishes of their parents:


This policy is put into practice by providing free primary education for six years in schools using each of the country's four main languages: Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. Malay and English are compulsory subjects in all these schools. After the primary stage, assisted schools must train pupils for the public examinations which (except for language subjects) are conducted only in the official languages, Malay and English, and thus the main medium of instruction in assisted secondary schools is either Malay or English except when other languages and literatures are being taught. An additional year in a Remove Class is provided when the medium of instruction changes between primary and secondary. Fees of $5 a month are charged in English secondary schools except that 10% of the enrolment may be allowed free places. Education in Malay is free at all levels. In all these schools the same syllabuses, prescribed by the Government, must be studied.

In these ways the Government seeks to implement its policy of preserving and sustaining the four main cultures of this country while at the same time establishing a truly national system of education in which the national language, Malay, shall gradually become the main medium of instruction.

Common Content Syllabuses Common content syllabuses and standard time-tables have been promulgated for use in all schools. Different language media are permitted in assisted primary schools and the statutory common syllabuses are regarded as the crucial element in the development of a national system of education so that all pupils may study the same subjects using the same syllabuses irrespective of the language medium of instruction. In assisted secondary schools the main medium is Malay or English.

Assisted and Private Schools The law clearly recognises that a national education system must observe a measure of uniformity in the various schools, and provides accordingly; it also impliedly recognises that it would be manifestly impossible for the Government to operate directly all the multifarious educational activities of the nation. It therefore recognises two types of schooling: that given in fully assisted schools (i.e., schools whose whole cost of maintenance less any school fees collected is borne by the Government); and that given in private schools, which receive no financial assistance whatsoever from the


common syllabuses, time-tables and courses of studies, the Education (Schools Discipline) Regulations, 1959 and Statutory health requirements.

Ministerial Structure and Control On the top of the educational system is the Minister of Education, who is a statutory corporation with the right to hold property. He has a number of powers and duties, including the right to give directions to school manage-ments, if he considers they are either falling short of their duties imposed by law or, on the other hand, abusing their statutory powers. The Minister also has wide power to make subsidiary legislation regulating the registration of schools, their standards of hygiene, staffing, amenities and the like, the composition and status and authority of boards of management, the method by which teachers and pupils shall be registered, the records to be maintained, and so on. The Permanent Secretary and Chief Education Adviser are res-ponsible for the administration of the Ministry.

In each State there is a Chief Education Officer as the Ministry's represen-tative. He is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, and is a Ministry official.

Local Education Authorities and Advisory Boards The Razak Committee recommended originally that responsibility for primary and trade-school education should be vested in Local Education Authorities set up in convenient groupings. This recommendation was written into the 1957 Ordinance, and by 1959 twelve such Authorities had come into existence—one in each State, the twelfth being in the Kuala Lumpur Municipal limits. In 1960, the Abdul Rahman Talib Committee concluded that the authorities had not worked out in quite the way anti-cipated in 1957, and recommended that they should be suspended for at least some time. The Report acknowledged that much good work had been done in many fields, but suggested that this might as easily be performed by State Education Advisory Boards. Parliament duly agreed to these proposals, and now the Minister will become directly responsible for primary education. The report, however, left open the possibility of re-establishing local educational authorities if and when conditions were again opportune. Under the Education Act of 1961, a National Education Advisory Board is responsible for advising the Minister on matters pertaining to education in general.


The Minister has certain powers to regulate matters incidental to registration. Applications for registration must be made by the persons applying to be managers or governors of the schools concerned, and one of them must be nominated by the others as chairman of the board.

It is then up to the Registrar to accept or reject the application after considering it and making any other inquiries he thinks proper. Registration can be refused for various reasons, principally if the buildings are insanitary or unsuitable, the proposed classes too large, the purpose for which the school is intended is not conducive to the public interest, that the proposed chairman of the board or Headmaster is unfit to hold that position, or if there already exist other adequate educational facilities within the area. The Registrar may require any of these (and other) matters to be adjusted before he issues a certificate of registration. Registration of a school can be cancelled if the management departs from the minimum requirements stipulated by law, if it has failed to maintain discipline, or if the Chief Inspector of Schools certifies that the instruction given is sub-standard. Notice of intended cancellation must always be given together with details of the alleged shortcomings, and the school management may appeal to the Minister of Education within three weeks.

The Minister then appoints a committee of inquiry to consider all the relevant circumstances. The committee sits judicially and enjoys most of the rights and privileges of a court of law; it can compel attendance of witnesses and the production of documents, and can require evidence to be given on oath or affirmation. The report of the Committee is submitted to the Minister who may then make any order he thinks proper and his decision is final.

Registration of Managers, Governors, Teachers and Employees In much the same way, managers, governors, teachers and other employees of schools must be registered. Registration can be refused if the applicant is known to be of bad character, or if he has been convicted of any offence which would render him liable to imprisonment, or if he had already been struck off the register before. Once registered, he can be struck off the register for similar reasons or if he had obtained registration by concealing a material fact relating to his application. Appeals against refusal or can-cellation follow the same system as prevails in the registration of a school—a Committee of Inquiry on which the Minister makes a final order.


Inspectors inspect or visit schools at any time. The aim of an inspection is to assess the standard of a school while that of a visit is to offer advice. Full Inspection of a school is carried out by a panel of two or more Ins-pectors who spend about a week in that school. After inspection, a meeting is held with the Head teacher at which the Inspectors' findings are thoroughly discussed. Separate meetings are also held with teachers, when necessary, to discuss teaching methods. A report is then submitted by the Chief Inspector through the Chief Education Adviser to the Minister of Education who will publish the report at his discretion.

A school visit is usually made by a single Inspector. At the end of the visit the Inspector will offer such advice as is necessary to the Head teacher and his staff either to improve teaching methods or solve any outstanding problems. A record of visit is later sent to the Head teacher for his reference. Federal Inspectors of Schools regularly organize In-Service Courses for teachers or help in courses organized by other bodies.

Federal Inspectors also maintain very close liaison with all officers in the Ministry both at the Federal and State levels.

There are no specific Inspectors for each medium of schools. They generally are conversant in at least two or more languages and so they inspect or visit schools of more than one medium.

In addition to the Inspectorate, the Registrars of Schools have right of inspection to ensure that the conditions of registration are being observed and that the premises are maintained in suitable condition.

Finance The sum appropriated for annually recurrent expenditure on education for the year 1964 amounted to $266 million, which constituted approximately 18% of total Government's Annually Recurrent Expenditure for that year. This represented an increase of around 5 % over the sum appropriated for expenditure in 1963, as compared with an increase of slightly over 4% in total enrolment in schools for the same period. Except for a sum of $400,000 collected by way of school fees, the entire cost of providing all education services was borne by the Federal Government.

No school fees are charged in Assisted Primary Schools, whatever the medium of instruction, which may be Malay, English, Chinese or Tamil. No fees are charged in any of the Malay medium secondary schools; but in other Assisted Secondary Schools fees of $5 per month per pupil are charged, except that 10% of the enrolment of such schools may receive free places.


increasing steeply. The number of pupils in primary schools at the end of 1962 was 1,145,882 as against the estimated population of children of primary school-going age of 1,268,000. The short-fall is due to the fact that it may not be possible until 1958 to admit all children of primary school-going age into the existing schools. The number of children of primary school-going age is expected to increase fairly steadily year by year and it is estimated that the number in this age-group in 1982 will stand at 2,328,000.

The average annual cost of providing education in fully-assisted primary schools in 1963 (excluding cost of administration and teacher training) was around $130; in rural extension schools (Sekolah2 Lanjutan Kampong) it was around $650; and in fully-assisted secondary schools it was around $220. There are also in existence a number of private schools which cater mainly for over-aged children.

The cost of running all Teacher Training Institutions organised by the Ministry of Education had all along been fully met by the Federal Govern-ment, while the cost of running Higher Institutions such as the Agricultural College, Serdang, and the University of Malaya had also been largely met by the Government.

The Pattern of Education The diagram reproduced in Appendix C gives an idea of the various types of education available from primary schools to Universities and the routes along which the various categories of pupils will travel. There would be a change in the system of education from next year and the following paragraphs would give an insight of the likely change.

In April 1964, the Government decided that the promotion of pupils from primary to secondary should be abolished and that as from 1965 pupils should automatically proceed from Standard VI of Primary Schools to Form I of Secondary Schools to receive a three-year Comprehensive Education. This form of education is designed, when it comes into operation in 1965, to provide pupils with general and pre-vocational education with a view to helping them to find their own aptitudes and interests and to select the type of education, academic or otherwise, that will best need these aptitudes and interests.

The planning for the implementation of this change in the structure of education has been going on from that time and, in this connection, new syllabuses have been drawn up, new teachers are being employed and


in the past been teaching either Woodwork or Metalwork and Technical Drawing and since January, 1963, Industrial Arts has been introduced in some schools. Industrial Arts education covers basic instruction in Wood-work, Metalwork, Power Mechanics, Electricity and Brickwork. The last subject will gradually displace Woodwork and Metalwork.

Primary Schools Primary education in each of the four main languages of the country is offered to all children in schools using the language medium of their parents' choice. At the beginning of the school year, a place in a primary school is offered to every child at the age of six plus. As from the beginning of 1962 primary education has been free in all assisted schools. Common syllabuses and time-tables have been promulgated for use in all schools so that, whatever language medium is used, all pupils follow the same course with the object of fostering a national Malayan outlook.

Secondary Continuation Schools With the abolition of the Malayan Secondary School Entrance Examination in 1964, there will be no further admissions to such schools.

Secondary Schools (Academic) At the end of 1964 there were 257,827 pupils in 531 secondary academic schools, in which 70.1% or 180,819 pupils were in fully assisted schools and 29.9% or 77,008 were in private schools.

Approximately 46% or 52,554 pupils out of 114,203 who had sat for the Malayan Secondary Schools Entrance Examination in 1963 had found places in the secondary academic schools.

Audio-Visual Aids Up to date 300 regional centres in Audio-Visual Aids for national schools are in operation: One hundred new centres were established in 1964. These centres serve as basic AVA libraries to some 1,544 national schools through-out Malaya. In these libraries are deposited some basic teaching equipment and material for the use of schools which are attached to a centre (usually five to six schools) and more items of equipment are needed each year.

All eleven State AVA centres have been supplied with film projectors,


Special Education (a) Education of the Deaf in Schools for normal children:

A total of 33 classes with 355 deaf children were in schools for normal children in the year 1964.

The children have covered the work of standards I, II and III and have made good individual progress. However, future intakes may drop owing to the imposing of an age-limit for admission.

All the 33 classes have been fully equipped with special audio-acoustic equipment. With the exception of six classes, these are taught by qualified teachers of the deaf.

(b) Education for the Blind in "sighted" schools: The programme for the education of the blind children in "sighted"

schools, known as the Integrated Scheme of Education of the Blind, has made some progress this year. The children are in classes ranging from Standard I to Form III, and 7 children sat for LCE in 1964.

As most of these children have to attend schools away from their own homes, some of them are adjusting themselves well in hostels for sighted children. Up to the end of 1964 there were 11 blind children in such hostels.

All classes are taught by qualified teachers for the blind and all secondary classes have recourse rooms installed with special equipment.

Rural Extension Schools These schools provide a three-year course at lower secondary level for pupils who have completed 6 years of primary education. The curriculum includes general education, pre-apprenticeship trade training and vocational agriculture. This broad-based curriculum is designed to encourage the rural dweller to enjoy a richer and fuller life in his rural background, though avenues are open for pupils to continue their technical education in Secondary Trade Schools. In 1962 there were only 8 such schools and by 1964 an additional 12 schools were completed, 4 of which are for girls. In the girl schools, the curriculum covers General Education, Home-Economics and Agricultural Education.

Secondary Trade Schools


Secondary Technical Schools The aim of the Secondary Technical Schools is to provide initial technical education to pupils who intend to take up a technical career. Pupils are selected on the results of the Lower Certificate of Education Examination and must have obtained credits in English, Mathematics and preferably Science. The specific function of Secondary Technical Schools is to prepare students for the Malaysia Certificate of Education or the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate, with a technical bias. A good proportion of pupils from these schools generally gain admission to the Diploma and Professional Courses at the Technical College, Kuala Lumpur, while some continue their studies in the Higher School Certificate classes before seeking admission to the Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya or overseas.

The Technical College This College is for students who have completed a full secondary education though arrangements have been made to provide a special one-year pre-liminary course to facilitate admission of pupils from remote rural areas who may be at a disadvantage in competing for entry on the results of the Malaysia Certificate of Education or the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate Examination. The College provides a three-year course leading to the Technical College Diploma which qualifies students for employment as technical assistants in the Government Service. The College also provides courses leading to full professional qualifications in some branches of Engineering and in the intermediate level in Architecture and Surveying. Students who obtain a Higher School Certificate while under training may elect to join Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya.

Technical Teacher Training College A Technical Teacher Training College was set up in 1962 to train Industrial Arts teachers for Secondary Academic, Secondary Continuation and Rural Extension Schools.

Post-Secondary Education in Schools Selected pupils in the fifth year of the secondary course sit for the Sixth Form Entrance Examination, on the results of which and in conjunction with the Malaysia Certificate of Education/Overseas School Certificate Examination results, the better pupils are admitted to Sixth Forms for a two-year course leading to the Higher School Certificate examination


University Education This is available in the Universities of Malaya (in Kuala Lumpur) and of Singapore. As from the beginning of 1962 the Kuala Lumpur Division of the University of Malaya became an autonomous separate National University for Malaya and the Singapore Division similarly became the University of Singapore. In Singapore, there are Faculties of Arts, Science and Medicine, including Dentistry and Pharmacy and Law, and non-faculty Department of Education. In Kuala Lumpur, there are at present Faculties of Arts, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture and a School of Education.

In the Faculty of Arts alone there are Departments of Economics, English, Chinese Studies, History, Geography, Malay, Indian and Islamic Studies.

The Faculty of Medicine established only in 1963 has a student enrolment of 109 by 1964. Detailed planning of the teaching hospital is proceeding. The main ward block construction of which began in May, 1964 is hoped to be completed for the most part by 1965.

A breakdown of students as at the end of 1964 is given below:

It has been agreed that Malaysian students can still continue their studies in Singapore where facilities do not exist in Malaya and vice versa. The student population of the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur was 1,300 in 1962. By the end of 1964 student population was 2,300. With the view of reviewing the arrangements for higher education faculties in the States of Malaya, a Higher Education Planning Committee was recently set.

National Language Malay/National Language as a subject in the school and as a communicative medium of national life has assumed importance in Malaya since Merdeka. The Federal Constitution is committed to uphold Malay as the National/ Official Language with full effect from 1967. Likewise the National Education


strengthen the place of Malay in the education system in accordance with its national status. National Language is now a compulsory subject at all levels in the education system. Malay medium secondary schools have been launched with great vigour and determination. The National Language has also been made a compulsory subject in all Teachers' Training Courses. A "Pass" in the National Language is compulsory at all levels of National and Public Examinations.

At present nearly half of the pupils in Primary Schools are in National Schools in which the medium of instruction is Malay. The other half are in National Type Primary Schools with English, Chinese or Tamil as the medium of instruction. It is the policy of the Government to convert the National Type Primary Schools which were formerly Government English Schools into National Schools, when the time is opportune and properly-trained teachers become available. Today, in the National Type Primary Schools, all non-Malay pupils are learning the National Language and the number of these pupils stands at 608,437 in January, 1964.

Progress of the implementation of the National Language is more striking in comparison in the field of secondary education. Similar to the pupils in primary schools all the pupils in the secondary schools learn the National Language, and the number of non-Malay pupils learning the National Language is 180,863. The introduction of Malay medium secondary education in 1958 is indicative of the Government's determination to give the Malay Language the importance and the status which are its due. In the same year, some six hundred students were admitted to Form One Malay medium classes. These classes were attached to various National Type English Secondary Schools. Today the total enrolment in the Malay medium secondary classes is in the region of 30,000. These classes range from Form I to first year pre-University classes (Arts and Science) and second year pre-University classes (Arts). In 1960, 3,237 Malay medium students took their first equivalent of the Lower Certificate of Education and this number was trebled in 1963. The Federation of Malaya Certificate of Education Examination in the Malay medium was first introduced in 1962. In 1963 the number of candidates who sat for this Examination increased by 2\ times and candidates from schools increased by times. The pre-University classes are held at Sekolah 'Alam Shah, Cheras Road, Kuala Lumpur, with 83 pupils in the first year pre-University classes, 23 of them are in


way into the University of Malaya in 1965, and a beginning would thus have been made in the provision of University courses in the Malay medium.

Although there are still a number of Malay medium secondary classes attached to the National Type English Secondary Schools, it is the policy of the Government to house these classes in separate buildings. In 1964 there are 26 Malay medium secondary schools having their own buildings and a number of them are as well-equipped and provided as the best of the English medium secondary schools. The more notable among the Malay medium secondary schools are Sekolah 'Alam Shah, Cheras Road, Kuala Lumpur, Sekolah Sultan Abdul Halim, Jitra, Kedah, and Sekolah Rahman Talib, Kuantan, Pahang.

Quantitatively, expansion of the National Language has been spectacular. The whole project was out of necessity regarded as a preparatory measuie towards the full implementation of the National Language policy. This, essentially, requires greater efforts and greater expenditure for the proper provision of adequate facilities both in the form of equipment and staffing. At best the whole project must be regarded still in its infancy stage with all its attendant shortcomings and weaknesses. However, with increasing facilities and attention that are currently being accorded to it, there is not a slightest doubt that its aims and objects will ultimately be achieved.

Language and Literature Agency (The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka) The Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, popularly known as "Dewan Bahasa", was first established in 1956. In 1959, the status of this Language and Literature Agency was changed and became a corporate body administered by a Board of Control. Its day-to-day administration is carried out by a Director appointed jointly by the Board and the Minister of Education.

The Dewan Bahasa is established for the following objects—

(i) to develop and enrich the National Language ;

(ii) to develop literary talent, particularly in the National Language;

(iii) to print or publish or assist in the printing of publication of books, magazines, pamphlets and other forms of literature in the National Language and in the other languages ;

(iv) to standardize spelling and pronunciation and devise appropriate technical terms in the National Language;


Administration. Each section has its own Head who is responsible to the Director for the appropriate performance of the duties assigned to his section.

Since its establishment, the Dewan Bahasa has published large number of books on various subjects ranging from novels to books on higher learning.

Teacher Training

(a) Secondary Teacher Training There are four residential Teacher Training Colleges in the States

of Malaya (the Malayan Teachers' Colleges at Penang and Kuala Lumpur, the Language Institute and the Technical Teachers' Training College at Pantai Valley) and one College in the United Kingdom (Brinsford Lodge)* for the basic training of teachers for the lower forms of secondary schools. The basic course of training lasts two years and the four Colleges produce at a rate of approximately 600 teachers per annum.

The total number of students admitted for training in Secondary Teacher Training Colleges in 1964 is 523. No students were recruited for Brinsford Lodge in 1964; the 153 students admitted to the College in 1963 are due to graduate before the closing down of the College at the end of 1964.

As from 1964, Malayan Teachers' Training Colleges have been reorganised under an Integiated Teacher Training Programme whereby these Colleges will (a) specialise in special subjects of the secondary school curriculum, and (b) oifer a basic course of two years for student teachers and a supplementary (or specialist) course of one year for trained teachers.

(b) Primary Teacher Training To train teachers for primary schools, there are three residential

Colleges (Kota Bharu Teachers' College in Kelantan; Sultan Idris Training College, Tanjong Malim; and Malay Women's Teacher Training College at Malacca), with 2 non-residential Day Training


The 16 Primary Teacher Training Colleges and Centres produce a total rate of 2,000 teachers per annum in the four language media, namely, Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil.

The total number of students admitted for training in Primary Teacher Training Colleges/Centres in 1964 is 1,875.

The course of training lasts from two to three years depending on the type of academic qualifications of the trainees.

In addition, about 202 primary under-qualified teachers who do not qualify for admission to the Primary Teacher Training Institutions, are being trained by correspondence.

(c) Part-time Teacher Training in Secondary Continuation Schools The three-year part-time training course organised at State Level

in 1962 for 481 probationer teachers is still in progress. The course will end some time 1965.

(d) Specialist or Supplementary Courses for Serving Trained Teachers Under the Integrated Teacher Training Programme, all Malayan

Training Colleges will offer supplementary or specialist course to serving trained teachers as part of In-Service Training. Supple-mentary one-year courses (Specialist Course) are conducted at the Specialist Teachers' Training Institute, the Language Institute and Malayan Teachers' College, Penang. The Specialist Teachers' Training Institute offers courses in Physical Education, Art and Craft, Do-mestic Science, Commercial Subjects and in the teaching of Blind and Deaf and Audio-Visual Aids. The Language Institute offers specialist training in Malay Language both to Malay and non-Malay teachers whilst the Malayan Teachers' College, Penang, specialises in the teaching of Mathematics and Science, and MTC., Kuala Lumpur specialises in the teaching of English and Chinese languages and the Arts subjects including History, Geography and Music.

A total of 278 trained teachers were selected in 1964 to receive specialist training at these Colleges, i.e., 143 at the Specialist Teachers' Training Institutes, 92 at the Language Institute and 43 at the Malayan Teachers' College, Penang.


Unified Teaching Service

(a) National Joint Council of Teachers The Council met twice in 1964. The most important step taken

in the Council was the setting up of a Special Committee to deal with certain issues pertaining to the terms and conditions of service of Unified Teaching Service teachers which require urgent attention. The Special Committee was appointed by the National Joint Council of Teachers.

The Salaries Committee of the Council met in March and May, 1964 to discuss a variety of subjects concerning terms and conditions of service of teachers. The two panels have been able to reach agree-ment on many of the items discussed.

(b)Committee on Equivalent Qualifications {Unified Teaching Service) This Committee was set up by the Minister under Rule 28 of the

Education (Salaries and Appointments) Rules, 1961, to assess educa-tional and professional qualifications for the purpose of emplacement of teachers on the appropriate Unified Scale. It consists of one representative from the Ministry, one from the Establishment Office, and one from the Teachers' Panel.

It met four times since January, 1964, and discussed and made certain proposals regarding external qualifications for the purpose of the Unified Teaching Service.

(c) Ministerial Board The Ministerial Board has been set up by the Minister in accordance

with the recommendation of the E.R.C. Report (para. 237), met 7 times during 1964 and dealt with the following appointments to promotion posts in the Unified Teaching Service:


The major annual examinations sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, are:

(i) The Lower Certificate of Education and its Malay medium equivalent (Sijil Rendah Pelajaran) at the end of Form Three after at least three years of secondary education.

(ii) The Malaysia Certificate of Education in the media of English and Malay as well as the Overseas School Certificate at the end of Form Five after at least five years of secondary educa-tion.

(iii) Sixth Form Entrance Examination, which started in 1955, is held to select suitably qualified candidates from Form Five in the assisted schools for provisional admission to Lower Sixth Forms in January each year.

(iv) Qualifying Test in both Malay and English is an examination for the public to test their eligibility to enter the OSC/MCE Examinations. This test in English was started in 1956 and its counterpart in Malay from 1961.

External Examinations with the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America sponsored by the Ministry are:

(a) United Kingdom (i) Bar Examinations with the Council of Legal Education,

London, were started from 1946. (ii) London University External Examinations were started from

1946. (iii) Music Examinations with the Associated Board of the Royal

Schools of Music were started from 1948. (iv) City and Guilds of London Institute Examinations were

started from 1946. (v) London Chambers of Commerce Examinations organised by

the Commercial Education Department, London, were started from 1947.


(c) United States of America Michigan University English Proficiency Test is held throughout

the year for those members of the public who are seeking admission into certain universities in America and Canada. This Language Examination was started from 1960.

The Lower Certificate of Education are first started in 1957 while the Malay Medium counterpart (Sijil Rendah Pelajaran) was intro-duced in 1960. These LCE/SRP examinations are organised by the Examinations Syndicate, Ministry of Education, Kuala Lumpur.

The Federation of Malaya Certificate (English Medium) was started in 1957 while its counterpart in the Malay Medium was first started in 1962. The Federation of Malaya Certificate will be known in 1964 as the Malaysia Certificate of Education or the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia. New subjects have been included in the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (Malay Medium) in 1964, namely General Science, Additional General Science, Geography, English and Arabic. Plans are being made to introduce Health Science, Additional Mathematics, Cookery, Metalwork and Woodwork in and after 1966.

In addition, the Higher School Certificate Examination is held for pupils who have been admitted to the Sixth Form Secondary Schools and the Further Education Classes.

In the middle of 1963, a Joint Examination Board comprising represen-tatives of the University of Malaya and the Ministry of Education was established. This Board is responsible for the conduct of a special en-trance examination for selected Malay Medium pre-University students.

Further Education In order to cater for over-aged pupils or those who have been unable to continue their education in regular schools, or those who are in employment and wish to improve their status and raise their standard of general technical, or commercial education, a system of evening classes has been in operations since 1958.

Classes are normally held in existing schools. Full courses and single courses are provided at all levels whenever there is sufficient demand and most of these courses prepare students for public examinations. Classes have been organised for ordinary school subjects leading to Lower Certificate of


commercial subjects; 247 were studying technical subjects; 3,636 were undergoing a National Language Course for non-Malay Government Servants and 72 were attending Malay Literary Classes in urban areas.

Scholarships and Awards The Ministry awards scholarships at primary and secondary level and also pre-University Scholarships for pupils to study in Sixth Forms of secondary schools with a view to qualifying for University education. Scholarships and Bursaries at the University of Malaya and in the Univer-sities abroad are available. At present there are approximately 300 Malayan scholarship holders studying in Universities or other higher education institutions at home and overseas. Scholarships are also offered by State Governments.

Muslim Religious Instruction in Assisted Primary and Secondary Schools Religious Instruction continues to be provided in Assisted Primary and Secondary Schools as in accordance with Section (36) of the Education Act, 1961. The Ministry of Education meets half of the cost of Religious Instruction in Primary Assisted Schools incurred by the State Governments and the whole of the cost in secondary schools.

In 1964, the Ministry spent slightly more than $3.3 million on Religious Instruction in assisted schools; about $2.8 million was paid out as grants to the State Governments.

At present, there are 262 religious teachers in the secondary schools and the Ministry is considering to recruit more teachers in 1965 in view of the number of students who will be taking Muslim Religious Instruction as a subject in the Lower Certificate of Education and Malaysia Certificate of Education and also because of the number of schools coming up under the Comprehensive Schools System. As most religious teachers are un-trained in the method and presentation of the subject they are teaching, an initial step has been taken by the Ministry to give them a training course lasting for three weeks during the school term holidays.

The Ministry has been providing increasing subventions to the Muslim College and the Department of Islamic Studies in the University of Malaya. The Central Government has contributed a sum of $2.5 million to the


Non-Government Muslim Schools Non-Government Muslim schools (Sekolah Ugama Ra'ayat) were continued to be assisted by this Ministry and in 1964 a total of 445 such schools were given assistance totalling $536,213.

Quite a number of pupils from these schools was successful in the Lower Certificate of Education Examination and those who had passed Std. IV Secondary had been selected to be religious teachers in the fully assisted secondary schools.

In-Service Course for 230 secondary school religious teachers (men and women) was held during the school term holidays in December, 1964.

Statistics (i) See Appendix "A" for the detailed figures of enrolment of pupils

and the number of schools in the States of Malaya. (ii) See Appendix "B" for the number of teachers in the primary and

secondary schools in the States of Malaya.

E D U C A T I O N I N T H E S T A T E O F S A R A W A K

(a) Control Education in Sarawak is a federal subject but the State retains a certain degree of control over policy and administration.

(b) Primary education Primary education is administered by Local Authorities who have power to levy rates for education and other purposes. More than 600 schools are directly under the management of Local Authorities. Some primary schools are also managed by the church and missions, and there is a large group of schools run by Chinese committees. The course lasts six years, from the age of 6+ to 11+ inclusive. Apart from the Chinese schools, all other primary schools use English as the medium of instruction.

In 1964 the number of primary schools increased by 47 and enrolments rose by nearly 6,000. Wastage in primary schools, especially in Native areas, continued to show a very welcome decline. Good progress was made in introducing new syllabuses and methods in lower primary classes.

(c) Secondary education


secondary schools, mostly in urban areas, provide for those who are not admitted to government or aided schools and who are able to afford com-paratively high fees.

In the public system, some secondary schools are managed by Government, others are managed by church and missions or registered committees, and receive grants-in-aid from Government. Government and aided secondary schools use English as the medium. Most unaided secondary schools also use English, but a few use Mandarin.

The junior secondary course lasts three years, at the end of which public examinations are held. On the basis of these examinations, pupils are selected for promotion to senior secondary classes—Forms Four and Five. In the public, English-medium system, pupils take the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate in Form Five. A few schools have Sixth Forms where candidates are prepared for the Cambridge Higher School Certificate, and University entrance.

The increasing output of the primary schools necessitates provision for a rapid expansion of secondary school places within the next few years. The Development Plan provides for the establishment of twenty new government secondary schools.

Five new secondary schools, under Government management, opened at the beginning of the year. Six new unaided English-medium secondary schools opened under private management. Total secondary enrolments rose to a figure of 22,550, which was double the figure for 1961. The difficulty of finding teachers to cope with this rate of expansion was partly overcome in the government and aided system by the secondment of teachers from Commonwealth territories under the Colombo Plan, and by the use of volunteers from Britain under the V.S.O. Scheme, from the American Peace Corps, the Canadian University Service Overseas and other aid schemes.

The implementation of the new junior secondary curriculum continued with a series of In-Service Courses to familiarise teachers with the new syllabuses and the methods of teaching involved.

The process of changing the medium from Chinese to English in aided middle schools continued satisfactorily.

The number of pupils who were successful in the Sarawak Junior Exami-


(d) Vocational Education The first buildings of the new Trade School in Kuching, consisting of a metalwork machine shop and a carpentry and joinery workshop, were occupied in April, 1964. The school, which had previously operated in borrowed premises, produced its first output of boys from the carpentry and joinery course.

There is also a Nautical School and a Commercial Institute.

(e) University and post-secondary education There is no university in Sarawak. Scholarships to universities and colleges elsewhere in Malaysia and overseas are awarded by the Government of Sarawak, the Colombo Plan Governments and other agencies.

At the end of 1964 there were 277 students studying outside the State under various scholarship schemes, including 189 on Colombo Plan scholar-ships.

( f ) Training of teachers Teachers are trained at Batu Lintang near Kuching, and at Sibu. Under the Development Plan a new training college will be opened near Binatang.

During the year, In-Service Training Courses were held on a much larger scale than hitherto, most of the courses being concerned with the new junior secondary curriculum and the new syllabuses and methods in lower primary classes.

There are 4,478 teachers of which 1,618 are trained and 2,860 untrained.

(g) Adult education Adult education classes are organised by the Sarawak Council for Adult Education, which receives grants from Government. Classes, mostly of an academic nature, are popular in the main towns.

(h) School Broadcasting The Education Department produces a broadcast programme of lessons for schools. These were originally confined to primary schools but in 1964 programmes on history, music and language were broadcast to junior secondary schools.

(i) Book Production

SOCIAL SERVICES 549

(j) Finance All government and aided schools charge fees at rates regulated by Government. There is a system of remission of fees in necessitous cases and "local scholarships" provide assistance to Native pupils mainly to meet the cost of boarding in aided secondary schools.

Schools managed by local authorities and voluntary agencies are eligible for financial assistance from Government under a Grant Code. Teachers in aided schools receive salaries in accordance with government scales. The rate of fees is prescribed. Government pays the difference between approved expenditure and income from fees, less (in the case of primary schools) a small percentage contribution by local authorities. For approved capital projects, Government may pay a percentage grant.

The total estimated population of Sarawak in 1964 was approximately 818,000.

E D U C A T I O N I N T H E S T A T E O F S A B A H

(a) Policy Since 1956 a Board of Education has advised Government in Sabah education policy. On 16th September, 1963, the Education Department Sabah, became part of the Federal Ministry of Education, though arrange-ments were made for it to continue under State finance until 1st January,


1964. Under the Inter-Governmental Agreement on the formation of Malaysia, the State retains interests in educational policy and the Department functions under the 1961 Education Ordinance, subject to Central Govern-ment financial controls. The policy at present is to provide a place in school for every child of primary school age by 1st January, 1971. To this end a Primary School Expansion Programme was drafted and approved in 1964. This was based on existing statistics of needs in the various school areas. Each of these areas has a Local Education Committee. These Committees were asked to nominate in their area the allocated quota of classrooms to be built. The policy also is to extend secondary education, especially in the rural areas, to develop teacher training facilities, trade training, and the teaching of English as a second language. As Sabah had in 1964, 291 Malay medium primary schools and there is possibility of further growth, preli-minary consideration was given by the officers of the Department to the provision of Malay medium secondary schools so that policy on this development could be debated in 1965. The State Government, under its Rural Development Plan, in 1964, assumed responsibility for Adult Edu-cation.

(b) The Board of Education The members of the Board are drawn from all bodies interested in Education, Local Education Committees, Voluntary Agencies, representative Teachers Organizations, residents in charge of Administrative areas, and the like. The Director of Education is a Member of the Board and its executive officer. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Yang di-Pertua Negara. There is close liaison between the Board and the Minister of Social Welfare who looks after State interests in education. In 1964 the Board met twice and made recommendations on Primary VI Examinations, Private Secondary Schools, Building Grants, Assistance to the Catholic Welfare, General Educational Policy, In-Service Training for Teachers, the Educational Development Plan, Teaching of National Language, Higher Education, and the Status of Untrained Teachers, among other subjects. Between meetings of the Board, delegated business is carried on by its General Purposes Committee.

(c) Primary Education There were 527 primary schools in the State inclusive of Gove rnment ,

Aided and Non-Aided schools. Primary enrolments rose from 63,482 in


(d) Secondary Education

There were 36 secondary schools, both Government Aided and Non-Aided. Secondary enrolments were 8,384 in 1964 showing an increase of 1,809 over 1963 enrolments of 6,575.

In Government schools, 4 new classrooms were provided for secondary schools, allowing for an expansion of 160 pupils, and a further 10 classrooms were more than 75% complete by the end of the year. In Aided schools, 35 new classrooms, 3 laboratories, 1 library and a lecture room were com-pleted. This allows for an expansion of secondary school provision of 1,400 places.

(e) Teacher Training

The number of teachers in primary schools rose from 2,155 in 1963 to 2,687 in 1964, an increase of 532, and those in the secondary schools from 330 to 366 an increase of 36.

There are two main training establishments: Gaya College (English medium) and Kent College (Malay/Chinese medium).

A total of 380 teachers (227 men, 153 women) was trained. Gaya College produces teachers for primary and Lower Secondary

Classes, also specialist English teachers. The entry requirement is Sabah Junior Certificate or Overseas School Certificate, and the course is two years.

Kent College Malay medium course is for three years and the entry requirement is Primary VI; for Chinese course of two years, Sabah Junior Certificate. Kent College entrants are required to have at least one year's experience as a Pupil Teacher before entry.

For teachers in Native Voluntary Schools, there is a Training Centre in Jesselton. Teachers entering are normally expected to have at least five years' experience. After a six months intensive and practical course, they return to the schools from which they came.

( f ) Technical Education

The Trade School at Jesselton is the only institution offering technical education. The training is at artisan level. Entrants for the carpentry course are mainly Natives and require at least a Primary VI Certificate. For the


(g) Adult Education Adult literacy education is now the work of the Sabah Rural Development Department working under the Chief Minister. The Department of Edu-cation runs classes as and when the need arises in Commercial subjects, English and Malay, Domestic Science, Mathematics, Trade subjects and others. Voluntary agencies such as Chinese associations also run courses for literacy, Malay, Dress-making, Home Science, etc. These are inspected and assisted by the Education Department.

(h) Students Overseas A total of 733 students have gone abroad for higher education in various fields both Government sponsored (288) and private (445). Government Scholarships, Colombo Plan Awards, etc., are made by the Public Services Commission.

APPBNDIX A

E N R O L M E N T O F P U P I L S A N D N U M B E R O F S C H O O L S I N T H E S T A T E S O F M A L A Y A

APPENDIX B

NUMBER OF TEACHERS IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE STATES OF MALAYA

CHAPTER XXI

S P O R T S A G E N E R A L O U T L I N E

Malaya THE BEGINNINGS of sport in Malaya lie embedded in ancient history. It is not known exactly when sports began, but in Haji Mubin Sheppard's book "The Adventures of Hang Tuah", there is reference to a game of sepak-raga being played in 1478, during the celebration of the crowning of Sultan Alaudin of Malacca. Other indigenous pastimes such as kite-flying, top-spinning and kolek-racing have also come down through the ages and their survival until this day attests to their deeply-rooted popularity.

Imported sports contests dated from the 19th century and soccer football appears to have been first in the field. Soccer was introduced by the British in 1825 when they occupied Malacca. A ready response to the game from the local population followed and all communities all over Malaya, Singa-pore, Sabah and Sarawak have been playing soccer for more than a century.

Cricket and rugby football were fairly well-established by the close of the 19th century; and athletics, tennis, field hockey and badminton began to widen the scope of Malaya's recreational activities in the first quarter of the present century. Good progress was made in all these sports, and before long the locally-domiciled communities were not only meeting their British teachers on equal terms but beating them as well. This had become the rule with the sole exception of rugby football, the only game in which the expatriates still appear to excel.

Soon after the First World War, two combined Malayan teams (including the British) were fielded and Malayans still recall with pride the victory scored on the Kuala Lumpur padang in 1927 over an Australian team of test cricketers captained by C. G. McCartney and including other such famous players as W. M. Woodfull and W. A. Oldfield.

From 1920 onwards, Malayan sports was put on a more organised basis, and the patterns set then for various forms of domestic competition have generally remained till today. In 1921 inter-State competitions in Singapore were started for soccer and rugby for trophies donated by the officers and men of the warship "H.M.S. Malaya" and these have grown (especially in


(Singapore, Penang and Malacca) versus the Federated Malay States were also instituted in the period between the two world wars for athletics, tennis, badminton, hockey and cricket. Most of these events continue to hold an important place in the annual sporting calendar. The Colony versus the Federated Malay States series, of course, was not resumed after 1945.

With so many sports being played by a large cross section of the people, seasons were laid down at about this time. Cricket, athletics and tennis are played from March to September. Rugby and hockey have their season from mid-September to the end of February. Soccer, however, is played from March to October and although, officially, this still remains the match season, soccer has become one of the national games and is now played throughout the year.

As badminton did not clash for playing space with other sports, it was never confined to a season; indeed, any attempt to do so would have met with failure, so intense was the enthusiasm for the game among vast numbers of Malayans. Thus the progress made in badminton was rapid and spec-tacular, and it was to bring Malaya its first world championship in the Thomas Cup competition in 1949 together with many other triumphs which are recorded more fully later on.

The return of peace, after September 1945, ushered in a new phase and three factors had a profound influence on the future structure of Malayan sports.

Firstly, the political separation of the then Federation of Malaya from Singapore brought about a gradual breaking up of the Pan-Malayan controlling bodies, and it was necessary to enable these controlling bodies to become separately affiliated to their respective international organisations and so compete in such international events as the Olympic and Asian Games. An exception to this rule was possible in badminton, as the International Bad-minton Federation allows closely related territories to enter as one unit; and in cricket and rugby too, Pan-Malayan control has continued because neither of these sports is an Olympic event.

Secondly, Malaya's success in the 1949 Thomas Cup aroused hitherto dormant ambitions especially in weightlifting, soccer and hockey. In 1950 two Malayan weightlifters, competing in the British Commonwealth Games at Auckland, New Zealand, won the first gold medals in international competition.

Thirdly, when in 1952 the International Olympic Committee selected Melbourne for the 1956 Olympic Games, Malayans decided that the time

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The Federation of Malaya Amateur Athletic Union, which was to take over control of athletics in the Federation from the Pan-Malayan Amateur Athletic Association, envisaged the need to form a national Olympic Council and in fact did the work of an Olympic Council in 1952. In the following year, the Malayan Hockey Federation, which had replaced the former Pan-Malayan Hockey Council, joined the F.M.A A.U. to establish the Federation of Malaya Olympic Council in August 1953.

As this Council was in future to direct and co-ordinate the entry and participation of Malayan teams in the Olympic and Asian Games, and other regional games, all other controlling bodies set about organising themselves anew and seeking affiliation with their respective international federations as a necessary preliminary step to becoming members of the F.M.O.C. Thus, in 1955 the weighthfting, swimming and tennis associations joined the Council. The football and shooting associations followed in 1956; wrestling and basketball in 1957; and badminton, cycling and boxing in 1960. The Gymnastics Association was accepted as a provisional member in 1957 and the Table Tennis Association on the same basis in 1959. The Rugby Union, although rugby is not a scheduled event for the Olympic or Asian Games, had joined the F.M.O.C. in 1955 in order to contribute its share to an overall direction of Malayan sports.

By the end of 1953 the F.M.O.C. had become fully operational and it was able to send a token team of athletes to the Second Asian Games at Manila in 1954. Then followed Malaya's first participation in the Olympic Games when a team of 45 was sent to Melbourne in 1956. Two years later a team of 96 represented Malaya at the Third Asian Games at Tokyo; in the same year a team of four competed in the Commonwealth Games at Cardiff; in 1959 a team of 90 travelled to Bangkok for the inaugural South-East Asian Peninsula Games; and in 1960 came Malaya's second Olympic Games participation with a team of 15. Malaya has not yet succeeded in winning an Olympic medal but in 1956 a weightlifter had the distinction of finishing sixth in his division. In the same year the hockey team recorded a fine achievement by drawing 2-2 with Britain, the 1952 Olympic bronze medal-lists, and beating Kenya, the United States, Afghanistan and losing only to Australia to finish ninth in the competition.

This period of expansion was marked by two more important landmarks in 1957, the year of Independence. The Merdeka Stadium, the country's first national stadium, is a magnificent arena built at a cost of over $2 million


invited, and the Merdeka International Football Festival was born. It was such a huge success that it was repeated as an anniversary tournament the following year and has now become an annual event.

During these Merdeka Anniversary Tournaments, Malaya has won three times, in 1958, 1959 and in 1960 when they tied with Korea.

They have also won the seven-nation South-East Asia Peninsula Games Football Tournament at Rangoon in 1961 and were third in the Jakarta Games Tournament in 1962.

In Hockey, Malaya placed third behind Pakistan and India in the Jakarta Games. Pakistan and India lead the world in hockey.

Athletics showed much improvement in the year 1962 when M. Jegathesan ran 10.4 sec. for the 100 meters and 21.1 sec. for the 200 meters. In tbe Jakarta Games he placed first in the 200 meters and second in the 100 meters. He then joined the Malayan 4 x 100 meters quartette and clocked 41.5 sec. for the 400 meters race to place second behind the Philippines.

Another important landmark in Malayan sports development was the completion of the 10,000-seat indoor sports arena, Stadium Negara in April 1962.

Sabah In Sabah the first organised sports match took place in Sandakan on 6th April, 1899. Governor Sir Earnest Birch organised the first football match. Later, he was to inspire the establishment of the Malayan Athletic Cham-pionships at Ipoh in 1906.

Today there are thirteen district functioning sports bodies in Sabah. They

Tawau Sports Association, Sandakan Sports Association, Beaufort Sports Association, Kota Belud Sports and Pony Club, Keningau Recreation Club, Jesselton Sports Association, Papar Recreation and Pony Club, Kudat Recreation Clubs, Labuan Sports Association Lahad Datu Sports Club, Kuda and Recreation Club, Semporna Sports Association, and Tuaran Sports Association.

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body for all sports in Sabah is the Sports Council which co-ordinates the development of such sports as soccer, hockey, basketball, athletics, table-tennis, tennis, badminton, sepak-raga, boxing and volleyball.

The Third Borneo Games were held in July 1957. Since then North Borneo has won the games both in men's and women's events every time, except once in 1962 when North Borneo was defeated by Sarawak in the men's division and Brunei in the women's division.

Sabah has been well represented in international athletics by Drum Major Gabuh, who lifted Sabah sports from local obscurity to international limelight with his international standard triple jump feats, and Dalbagh Singh Kler in the long distance events.

Sarawak Sports promoted in Sarawak are soccer, hockey, basketball, athletics, table-tennis, tennis, badminton, Softball, swimming, sepak raga and horse-racing.

The all weather bitumen track and Olympic standard swimming pool built by the Municipal Council have resulted in new swimming and athletic records. The track has made all-year-round training possible and many records have been broken. The Borneo Games have been held twice in Kuching and the Sarawak athletes won for the first time in 1962. Small athletic contingents have also met in Singapore, Djakarta, and Perth. Since 1963 Sarawak athletes have joined their brothers in the other States of Malaysia and competed in national and international games, such as the Tokyo Olympic Games and a dual athletic meet against Thailand in 1964.

The Sibu Olympic standard swimming pool has been completed and schemes embodying other swimming pools and playing-fields in Simanggang and Lumbang are under way. Plans are also being considered for a Stadium and a State Cultural, Youth and Sports Centre in Kuching.

After Malaysia Following the formation of Malaysia on 16th September, 1963, sports in the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak had been merged and took on a Malaysian identity. On 16th May, 1964, the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports was established under the ministership of the Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj. Henceforth, new enthusiam for the achievement of higher standards in sports has been generated.


The performances of Tan Aik Huang and Yew Cheng Hoe, aided by Ng Boon Bee and Tan Yee Khan, in the field of badminton raised the hope of putting Malaysia back in the international badminton scene, to win more fame as Malaya did in winning the world title from 1949 to 1958.

Hockey also brought hope to Malaysian sports fans. Despite loss of form at the Tokyo Olympics, the Malaysian hockey team showed great promise in achieving world standards.

The Malaysian soccer team in the 1964 Merdeka tournament took only seventh place, but gained satisfaction by holding India to a draw (India finished second to Burma) and by beating the Republic of China 5 to 2.

Great interest for cricket was generated by the visit of E.W. Swanton's team of famous Commonwealth players and this helped Malaysian sports season towards progress for the year 1964.

The same year also saw the inclusion of sepak-raga jaring, the national game of Malaysia as one of the SEAP games scheduled to be held in Kuala Lumpur in December 1965. Laos, Cambodia, Burma, the Philippines and South Vietnam are scheduled to take part.

The pooling of talents and the joint efforts of the athletes and leaders of sports in Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore should place Malaysia in a strong position to challenge competitively all future sports champion-ships in Asia.

I N D I G E N O U S S P O R T S

Sepak-raga—Sepak-raga Jaring Sepak-raga, the original game of Malay football, or Sepak-raga jaring, the modern version, is the National game of Malaysia. It is the oldest sport in the nation. Although the origin of this game is not exactly known (owing to the fact that many of the nation's records were destroyed during the Second World War), there is mention of a Sepak-raga contest being held in 1478 during the crowning of Sultan Alaudin of Malacca. It is, therefore, presumed that the game is more than five centuries old.

During this period of ancient history, Sepak-raga was played without a net (jaring). At that time, the team consisted of five to six players, whose sole object was to pass the ball from one player to the other and keep it off the ground. The use of arms was forbidden. The team which kept the ball in the air the longest was declared the winner.

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of Trengganu. The star-player was the Raja of the Moluccas who gave an exhibition of agility and nimble footwork which held his audience spell-bound. Without ever letting the ball touch the ground, and sometimes catching it on his shoulder, at other times on his knee, he kept it in motion until it had risen and fallen over two hundred times". This was quite a feat indeed!

The modern variation of Sepak Raga was started in Penang in 1946. It is a modern development of the traditional game adapted to badminton, less the racket and the shuttlecock. It is played on a court measuring 44 feet by 22 feet with a ball or "raga" weighing about three or four tahils and about 15 inches in circumference. The game is played with three players on each side. During the game, all parts of the body may be used except the hand and the arm. The winning point is 15. This means that points are scored by the side which propels the ball successfully over the net without it being returned. Two or even three players may kick or head the ball before it passes over the net, but no one may touch the ball with hand or arm once it is in play. The game, both in its ancient and modern version, calls for agility, speed and split-second timing.

Organised Sepak-Raga in Malaya took place in 1959 with the formation of a body called the Persekutuan Sepak-Raga.

The first significant effort to unify sepak-raga organisations, however, occurred in 1961 when the MAHA (Malaysia Agri-Horticultural Association) sponsored the first Pan-Malayan National Sepak-Raga Jaring Tournament which was contested by ten States. In this tournament, Selangor beat Singapore for the championship title.

The Sepak-Raga Jaring Association of Malaysia was subsequently formed on 22nd July, 1964, thus dissolving the former Pan-Malayan Sepak-Raga Association.

The popularity of Malaysia's national game is well-recognised and hope of it being accepted as an international game is further strengthened by its inclusion as one of the major games in the Third SEAP Games, scheduled to be held in Kuala Lumpur in December 1965.

Main Gasing—Top-Spinning On the East Coast of West Malaysia, top-spinning is another sport. However, it is not as simple as it sounds. The size and weight of the top itself is extra-ordinary. The game is usually played during the rice-ripening season. According to legend, the "gasing" brings good harvest and certainly provides


master then, using only a chisel and a large pen-knife, fashions out the desired shape. Once the desired shape is attained, a broken piece of glass is used to scrape the wood into a smooth finish. This is followed by sand-papering. The art of top-making is not only in shaping or smoothening but also in selecting the right type of wood and seasoning it. This is a closely-guarded secret, passed down only from father to son.

An incredulous amount of care is taken to balance the tops. Some of the larger ones are rimmed with steel, others delicately balanced with lead, their winding spindles surrounded by silver or even gold, but in both cases efforts are made to make them decorative as well. Each top is about 8 inches in diameter and inches in thickness, weighing as much as 15 pounds. Hard as rock, the tops are a tribute to the skill of the men who make them.

Winding the one-inch diameter rope to the top itself is a ceremony. One end of the rope is tied to a tree and the other is slowly and firmly wound around the top by an assistant. Once the coil is firm, the end tied to the tree is opened and fastened to the wrist of the player. He then moves like a discus-thrower, releases the top with a jerk of his right hand, sending the top spinning at a fantastic speed. Once on the ground, a wooden spade is used to scoop the top and transfer it on to a specially-designed "lopak" (top-holder). A top can remain spinning for hours.

"Gasing" or top-spinning competitions are gala occasions with full turnout of the whole village. Top-spinning requires great accuracy of judgment. Each team consists of four players, and they start the game by spinning the tops in such a way as to keep them shoulder to shoulder without touching each other.

The four attacking players must then hit each one of the opponents' tops and knock it out without touching any other. It is seldom that all defending tops are knocked off; so owners of surviving tops are allowed to move them to smooth hard ground. If the defenders' tops cease spinning first, a point is awarded to the attackers and they continue. Should any of the defenders' tops spin longer, they then become the attackers. The defenders cannot score points while defending.

Bersilat "Bersilat" is a Malay art of self-defence. At one time, it was a necessary part of a young man's education. This art is said to have been introduced to the Malacca Court early in the 15th century by a religious teacher from

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The famous legendry hero, Hang Tuah of Malacca, with his friends, travelled great distances in the good old days to learn this art and his exploits are vividly described in the Malay classics. But young people today take to "bersilat" as an artistic form of physical exercise and often give demons-trations at weddings and ceremonies.

"Bersilat" exists in two forms. One, "Silat Pulot" is purely for exhibition, while the other, "Silat Buah" is used in serious fighting. With a graceful flourish of the demonstrator's wrists, he assumes a stance and makes obei-sance to the long dead Master of Masters from whom this art has descended. Then, with a leap he moves around keeping time with the rhythmic beats of the orchestra consisting of gongs and drums and flageolet, demonstrating his moves and techniques on an imaginary foe. He demonstrates the quick parry and counter-stroke with the arms, a wily side-step and a swift kick.

With the passing of dependence on the kris for mortal combat and with the widespread regard for the law, "bersilat" is now slowly giving way to be accepted as a sport and a technique of physical culture. But, exhibition aside, the usefulness of the art as a form of self-defence is undoubted and woe betide the attacker of any bersilat exponent.

I M P O R T E D G A M E S

Soccer Soccer football was probably the first of the imported games to reach Malaya. When the British finally occupied Malacca in 1825, the troops brought football with them and the game soon began to achieve popularity amongst the local population. The Malays were the first to play it and, as football had certain characteristics common with sepak-raga, they soon became quite adept at it.

Regular matches in many parts of Malaya between the British residents and the Malays became a feature of the sporting life of Malaya during the early days, and the various immigrant races soon joined in. For the Chinese, the transition from their traditional past-time of keeping a feathered disc airborne by kicking with the inside of the foot was simple enough—indeed, football no doubt offered a better outlet for that restless energy which is so characteristic of Chinese youngsters. The Indians almost certainly had an earlier acquaintance with the game as the British had arrived in India


Organised football on the other hand took a surprisingly long time to come into being, and it was not until 1892 that we saw the Singapore Amateur Football Association coming into being to conduct the game in the Colony on lines similar to Football Association control in England. In Malaya progress was even slower, and the Selangor Amateur Football League only came into existence in 1905. This League confined its attention to matches in and around Kuala Lumpur and made no attempt to extend its beneficial jurisdiction to other parts of the State.

The need for a controlling body with a more comprehensive outlook was not met until the foundation of the Selangor Football Association in 1926. The Association quickly extended a measure of control over all Selangor, and the League ended its days as an affiliate of the former. Curiously enough, nevertheless, the old League continued to function as the controlling body within its narrower urban confines with practically the same affiliates as the S.F.A., but with a different set of officials. The only conclusion which can be drawn from this rather anomalous state of affairs is that football had caught on so rapidly and the keenness was so great that there was room for the two controlling bodies to operate simultaneously and find still enough to do to justify their separate existence. Eventually, the Football Association of Selangor was formed in 1936 and has from that date been the sole govern-ing body for football in the State; but it is appropriate to note in passing that Selangor undoubtedly owes its present position of strength in Malaya to the early start given by the unsung pioneers of the old S.A.F.L. and S.F.A.

This primary reference to Selangor has been necessary because that State led in the field of organised football at that time. But in 1921 an event occurred which is the real milestone in the history of Malayan soccer—the visit to Malayan waters of "H.M.S. Malaya". This vast battleship was presented to the British Government by the Rulers of the F.M.S. as a contri-bution towards the prosecution of the First World War, and in recognition thereof the British Admiralty arranged that it should do a term of service in the Far East. It so happened that the ship's company contained an un-usually large number of competent athletes, particularly in soccer and rugby football, and the exciting matches which they played against local teams evoked a wave of enthusiasm—so much so that both the local population and the ship's company decided to commemorate these events by presenting cups for annual competitions in both games in Malaya. The trophies were

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the Selangor Club as being the most active in both games was charged with the task of forming a committee to organise the annual games. Thus was born the Malaya Cups Committee which staged the first tournaments in 1921 and which continued to do so very efficiently until 1935, when separate committees were organised for the two games.

The Malaya Football Cup Competition meanwhile had aroused great interest throughout the peninsula, and the formation of State football associations was a natural development. Soon after 1921, Selangor, Perak, Penang, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore each had their own asso-ciation. These States together with Singapore were the first to contest for the Malaya Cup football tournament. Later on, the armed services began to enter as separate units: after the Second World War, Pabang, Trengganu, Kelantan and Perlis formed associations, and today fifteen teams contest the Cup under the following groupings:

South—Singapore, Singapore Joint Services, Johore, Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Federation Armed Forces, Pahang and Commonwealth Combined Services; North—Selangor, Perak, Penang, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu.

Selangor has been the holders since 1961. The Cup Finals attract crowds of more than 30,000 and the gross collections top $60,000—testimony indeed to the great popularity of the game.

The Football Association of Malaysia is now the sole governing body for running the Football Cup Competition. The Association started on an ad hoc basis in 1927 to field a Malayan team against a visiting Australian side, but it existed more than somewhat in the shadows until 1936 when it emerged, reorganised more or less in its present form. Even so, it still paid little attention to attaining the desirable end of entering international contests, possibly because it was little more than a loose alliance of officials from Singapore and the Malay States who were content to organise the Malaya Cup matches and little else. It was again reorganised in 1947 on a sounder basis, and in 1952 Tunku Abdul Rahman (who is Prime Minister) was elected as President, a position he has held until today. There can be no doubt that the Tunku's life-long interest in the game has been largely the cause of the great developments it has undergone—it was he who conceived the cause of the great developments it has undergone—it was he who


entrants, so great is the clamour to compete. The entire expenses incurred in these international matches are met by the F.A.M.—an arrangement made possible only by the response to international football from the sporting public of Malaysia. To date, the champions have been Hongkong (1957), Malaya (1958 and 1959); in 1960 Malaya drew with South Korea to become joint champions with the latter team. Indonesia won the tour-nament in 1961 and 1962.

In 1958, the F.A.M. gained great distinction when its president, the Prime Minister of the then Federation of Malaya, was selected President of the Asian Football Confederation. He holds that post till this day. In 1959, he sponsored the under-twenty youth tournament and was donor of the gold Rahman Trophy. Young soccer players also have the Burnley Cup to contest. This is organised by the F.A.M. for youths between 18-19 years, and is run on a State level. Selangor has emerged the champion since its inception.

In November 1963, the Football Association of Malaya became the Football Association of Malaysia. This was to take in Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah as new affiliates. In the same year, Malaysia played as a team for the first time in the Merdeka Anniversary Football Tournament and placed fifth. Later, in February 1964, the Football Association of Malaya was officially dissolved and the Football Association of Malaysia was inaugurated.

Rugby The first recorded rugby football match of note in Malaysia was played between the Singapore Cricket Club and the Selangor Club in 1902, although there is no doubt that the game had been played in the country long before then. It is probable that the first main stimulus was given to the game by the visit in 1921 of "H.M.S. Malaya" which started with a series of matches against that battleship's redoubtable rugger team and which culminated in the presentation of the H.M.S. Malaya Cup for inter-State competition. The credit for introducing rugby, football to Asian players must go to Lt-Cdr D. E. Lander, R.N.; it was his personal effort and enthusiasm which led to the formation in 1925 of the Seremban All-Blues, the first Asian side in Malaya.

The Malayan Rugby Union was formed in 1928 to function as the parent body of all Malayan rugger, and at present all State Unions and armed

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Several overseas tours have been undertaken by the M.R.U. In 1938 a Malayan fifteen played three games in Hongkong, and since 1956 Malaya and Thailand have played an international series for the King of Siam's Cup.

The Malaysian Rugby Union was formed in July, 1964. Thailand played against Malaysia in October the same year.

In September 1964, the M.R.U. decided to discontinue the All-Blues competition and in its place to start a tournament for players under twenty-three on an inter-State basis.

There are now a great many more school, club and service fifteens in affiliation with the State unions than there were a few years back. Spectator interest has also shown a notable increase in the last five years and, for this, Malaysia is undoubtedly indebted to the Fijian Regiment. It was this Regiment's team, playing throughout the country during its three-year term of service, during the mid-fifties, which introduced the spectacle of strong, fast and open play to popularise the game as never before among local sports devotees.

Badminton Badminton originated quite accidentally in the eighteenth century and is named after the stately home of England where it was invented; owing to a downpour of rain, a tennis competition had to be cancelled, but rather than abandon all sport the protagonists took to hitting a feathered device around with their tennis rackets in the long gallery of the house. Thus came into existence a game which has won world-wide favour.

The origins of badminton in Malaya are difficult to trace beyond the conjecture that the game was brought here from India in the first quarter of this century by immigrants landing at Penang. The earliest records are of friendly matches played in Penang and Perak in 1922; thereafter, the game caught on so rapidly—particularly amongst the Chinese population that by 1930 it had spread down the peninsula to Selangor and then to Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johore.

The year 1934 saw the establishment of a central controlling body with the formation of the Badminton Association of Malaya, whose jurisdiction extended to the States of Malaya and Singapore. This arrangement still exists, with Malaya and Singapore compete as one team—thanks to a rul-


Devlin was one of England's best players and had won the all-England men's singles title from 1925 to 1929 and again in 1931; at the time of his visit, he was still in the forefront of the world's players. His defeat by some of Malaya's leading players in several matches not only proved to Malayans that the game was one they could play well, but also gave rise to a completely new enthusiasm. 1937 was another halcyon year which saw not only the start of national and inter-State championships (and the donation of the Foong Seong Cup) but the admission of the B.A.M. to the International Badminton Federation. A. S. Samuel of Selangor won the men's singles title and, with Chan Kon Leong, the men's doubles for Selangor in the first championship. In the women's events, Mrs L. M. Pennefeather of Singapore was the dominating player, winning the singles; partnered by Mrs Chionh Hiok Chor (also from Singapore) she won the doubles title. The mixed doubles title was won by Wong Peng Soon (later to become one of Malaya's greatest players) and his sister Miss Waileen Wong.

The advent of the Thomas Cup* Competition aroused a fresh wave of enthusiasm. The Malayan Championships had been in suspended animation during the war years and, when resumed in 1947, they set the stage for intensive preparations which were to precede the selection of Malaya's first international team. By 1948, all was set for the big adventure; the President of the B.A.M., Lim Chuan Geok (truly a pioneer of Malayan badminton), was appointed non-playing captain and manager of the Malayan team, which consisted of Wong Peng Soon, Ooi Teik Hock, Chan Kon Leong, Teoh Teck Chye, Teoh Seng Khoon, Ong Poh Lim, Law Teik Hock and Lim Kee Fong. The first competition was against a formidable United States team (including Dave Freeman, who has been described as probably the greatest badminton player of all time, and Martin Mendez, another player of high calibre). The match was an inter-zone final played at Glasgow in February 1949 and was won by Malaya, although Freeman beat both Malaya's leading players Wong Peng Soon (15-4 and 15-1) and Ooi Teik Hock (15-10, 10-15 and 15-4). In the finals at Preston, the Malayan team met Denmark and easily won the Thomas Cup when the Danes were beaten 8-1. To round off a Malayan victory, Ooi Teik Hock and Teoh Seng Khoon won the all-England men's doubles title in March, and thus became the first Malayan holders of a title in a tournament which is generally regarded as the world championship.

In this manner, 1949 brought Malaya its first world honours and started

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at Singapore to capacity-audiences; the gate collections from these two series each brought in some $175,000—unheard-of figures in the annals of badminton which again demonstrates the popularity and strength of the game in Malaya.

From 1950 onwards, Malayan players also dominated the men's events in the all-England Championship. Wong Peng Soon won the singles title thrice between 1950 and 1952, winning the trophy outright; Eddy Choong was champion in 1953, 1954, 1956 and 1957, Wong Peng Soon once again winning in 1955. Eddy Choong and his brother David won the doubles title in 1951, 1952 and 1953, the former being the first and the only Malayan to win both singles and doubles in one year. In 1954, Ooi Teik Hock and Ong Poh Lim formed what is regarded as one of the greatest doubles teams of all time, winning the doubles championship in the all-England, the Scottish World Invitation, the American open and the Malayan tournaments. This great feat was repeated five years later by another brilliant combination, Lim Say Hup and Teh Kew San.

1958 brought a sudden decline in Malaya's badminton fortunes. Denmark ended Malayan domination of the all-England championships, winning both doubles and singles titles. It was left to Indonesia to administer the coup-de-grace when, against all expectations and forecasts, they brilliantly beat Malaya 6-3 in the 1957-58 Thomas Cup Challenge at Singapore. This defeat caused no small dejection in badminton circles, and the gloom was not in any way dispersed when an excellent team of young and unknown Thai players beat Malaya 7-2 at Bangkok in the Asian zone semi-final round of the Thomas Cup competition in 1960. For the first time, therefore, Malaya was not in the final stages of the next Thomas Cup. It is now apparent that the only way back lies in a greater emphasis on badminton in the schools and in increased opportunities for competition at State, national and international level for young players soon after they have completed their secondary education. Inevitably, pre-occupation with higher education has reacted against badminton and has absorbed much good talent, and it is difficult to see how this deficiency can be remedied.

In 1962 the B.A.M. very successfully staged the first Asian championships at the magnificent new indoor Stadium Negara and Malayans captured the major honours from a strong international field with Teh Kew San winning the singles championship and Tan Yee Khan and Ng Boon Bee


In 1963, after the formation of Malaysia, badminton fans saw the con-tinued domination of badminton by such players as Teh Kew San, Tan Yee Khan and Ng Boon Bee, but in 1964 the emergence of such new comers as Tan Aik Huang and Yew Cheng Hoe has given hopes to Malaysia in international badminton scene.

Women's badminton in Malaysia has not yet obtained the results as men's. The Malaysian women have participated in the Uber Cup Compe-tition, the women's equivalent of the Thomas Cup, but were defeated by. India in the zonal final in 1956-57 and 1959-60.

The Badminton Association of Malaysia was formed on 26th July, 1964. During the first Malaysian open tournament held in January 1965, Billy

Ng of Johore defeated the top favourite, Tan Aik Huang.

Hockey There are no records to indicate the first introduction of hockey to Malaya, but it is probable that the game had its beginnings in 1902 when the Royal Engineers introduced it on the field of the Singapore Recreation Club. Shortly afterwards, the game spread to the Selangor Club and the Ipoh Club padangs.

The first inter-State matches date from sometime before 1924 and were mostly organised by European members of the main clubs in the federation. The first State associations were formed in that year, and today there is an association in every State, except Perlis, all of them being affiliated to the Malayan Hockey Federation (formed in 1954). The latter was a founder-member of the Federation of Malaya Olympic Council and is affiliated the Federation Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon. The M.H.F. took the place of the former Malayan Hockey Council which was formed in 1948 to control the sport in both Malaya and Singapore but which was dissolved in 1954 to conform with international regulations; today, Singapore and the States of Malaya have their separate organisation.

Following its formation, the M.H.F. addressed itself to preparing for the 1956 Olympic Games. Preparations included a visit to Malaya of the Indian and Pakistan Hockey teams, the securing of a coach from India and as many international matches as could be arranged. The Malayan team took part in the 1956 Olympic Games at Melbourne and the Asian Games in Tokyo two years later.

Since then hockey has gone from strength to strength under the inspiring

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Malaya's greatest achievement in hockey was registered in December 1961 when the world champion, Pakistan, was held to a scoreless draw in a match played at Kuala Lumpur. In January 1962 Malaya competed in a ten-nation World Invitation Hockey Championship at Ahmedabad, sponsored by India, and acquitted themselves most creditably to take fifth position behind India, Germany, Holland and Australia.

Subsequently, in the same year, Malaya lost narrowly by 1-0 to India at Madras and 2-1 at Kuala Lumpur, and, competing in the Jakarta Games in August 1962, won the bronze medal for third place behind Pakistan and India. This performance qualified Malaya for a place among the 16 nations which contested the 1964 Olympic Games hockey championship at Tokyo. To further stimulate interest in the game in Malaya, Tun Razak presented a cup bearing his name for an inter-State championship in 1963.

The First Malaysian Hockey Carnival was held in Kuala Lumpur from September 11 to 17, 1963. Selangor won the Group A title and Negeri Sembilan the Group B.

Hockey had the distinction of being the first sports body to be formed on a Malaysian basis, having been inaugurated on 12th October, 1963. The Deputy Prime Minister, Tun Abdul Razak, became its first President.

Two prominent coaches from India assisted in training the Malaysian team in 1964. R. S. Gentle coached the team for Malaysia's Tour of India in May 1964, and Krishan Lai coached the Malaysian Olympic team in August for the XVII Olympiad in Tokyo.

In the Olympic matches, Malaysia was expected to be in the medal class but finished in the second half of group B.

Cricket In the absence of authenticated records, it is not possible to pin-point with any degree of certainty the date when cricket first appeared in Malaysia. It is however known that objections were raised in 1857 to Sunday cricket on the Singapore Esplanade, and that year must be accepted for the time being as the starting point in tracing the game's development here.

It is not surprising that in the early years cricket was played principally by the British community, which imported England's summertime national game to a climate in which it could thrive. The Singapore Cricket Club was established over a hundred years ago in 1859, and was the hub from which interest soon spread to the Malay States. Two matches were played to


In the former Federated Malay States, expansion of cricket was one of smooth progression. Quality of play reached a very high standard as far back as 1884, and the importance attached to the game was such that the season's fixtures were announced in no less august a publication than the official Government Gazette.

The earliest inter-State match on record was that played at Taiping in 1844 between Perak and Penang. In the following year, a combined Perak-Selangor team travelled to Singapore and challenged the Singapore Cricket Club. Annual fixtures between Perak and Selangor date from 1889, and Singapore and Penang entered the field two years later. 1905 saw the first annual "test" between the F.M.S. and Singapore.

The Malayan teams soon began to look further afield and began to organise visits to neighbouring countries, notably Hongkong, Burma, Siam, Java and Ceylon. The first such visit was to Hongkong in 1890, Hongkong and Ceylon visiting Malaya in December of the same year. Malaya toured Burma in 1905, and during the same year, it is on record that Malayans on leave in England played a series of matches against local teams.

1909 marked the first impact of Australian on Malayan cricket when five Australian test cricketers en route home from England came to play. The next visit of importance was in 1927 by an Australian team of test players including W. M. Woodfull, C. G. McCartney and W. A. Oldfield. On this occasion the Malayan team shook the Australian and the cricketing world (and incidentally themselves too) by defeating the visitors in a three-day match at Kuala Lumpur. In 1937 Sir Julien Cahn's Empire team played a series of matches here followed by a visit during the following year by a team from Ceylon.

The controlling authority in Malaya is the Malayan Cricket Association which was formed on 4th August, 1947 at a meeting in Kuala Lumpur. Two years later the Association sent a delegate to the Asian Cricket Con-ference at Calcutta. The Association follows the rules and conventions prescribed by the Marylebone Cricket Club (M.C.C.) in London, the sporting shrine where cricketers throughout the world worship.

The game has made steady progress since the war, and the visits between Hongkong and Malaya have been revived. In 1957 the Malayan Cricket Association introduced an annual inter-State league championship. To date, the finals of this keenly-contested and widely-followed tournament have been fought out between Singapore and Selangor and Selangor is the current

S P O R T S 5 7 3

Commonwealth team, including many famous England and West Indian Test cricketers, in 1962.

In 1963, Australia again sent a cricket side to Malaysia. The Ceylon Varsity also played in Malaysia the same year. Later, in 1964, great interest for cricket was generated by the visits of the test cricket team from New Zealand and E.W. Swanton's team of famous Commonwealth players.

Volleyball Volleyball has been played in schools and recreation clubs for many years in the States of Malaysia. However, volleyball associations in the States were not formed until the late fifties.

In I960, the All-Malayan Volleyball Association Championships were held with the four States of Selangor, Penang, Perak and Malacca. Selangor emerged the champion. In 1961, Kedah joined the Second All-Malayan Championship together with the previous mentioned four States. In this tournament Malacca came out top.

In the first Malaysian volleyball tournament held in Singapore in August 1963, Sarawak became the Malaysian champion. Singapore finished runner-up with Malaya third.

The first Malaysian Inter-State Volleyball Championships were held in Bentong on 8th December, 1964, and seven Malaysian States took part. They were Singapore, Kedah, Pahang, Penang, Sarawak, Selangor and Perak. Sarawak came out the champion.

On 26th May, 1965, the touring Japanese Matsushita volleyball team scored two victories over a Malaysia invitation side at the Gay World in Singapore. The Japanese leader of the Matsushita team said this after the match, "The players (Malaysians) lacked coaching on the finer points of the game. However, they showed a lot of promise".

On 1st September, the Malaysian Amateur Volleyball Association announced that they would have the services of a Japanese expert to coach the national team for the Third SEAP Games.

Softball Softball* is not yet a very popular sport in Malaysia. A few schools, however, do play the game, and in Singapore there are some very active commercial firms and youth teams who have a highly competitive league functioning.


Softball started to be played in the States of Malacca and Sarawak in 1963. Johore began in 1964.

To give a further boost to Softball in Malaysia, in March and April, 1963, Jack Robinson, a professor of Physical Education and Baseball Coach at George Washington University, United States, visited Malaysia to promote the game.

Basketball The fast and exciting sport of basketball is unfortunately played by limited groups of Malaysians. The lack of indoor and outdoor courts has had great influence on its inability to gain widespread popularity.

The Malaysia Cup International Basketball Championship was held in September 1963, and the First Malaysia Basketball Championship was held one year later.

A number of foreign basketball teams have played in Malaysia, including the professional Harlem Globe Troters, and their visits have helped to make this game more popular with Malaysian sports fans. A few of the countries which have sent teams to Malaysia are: the U.S.A., Cambodia, New Zealand, Peru, Australia, Thailand, the Philippines and South Korea.

Malaysian basketball teams have competed abroad in the Asian Games, SEAP Games and the Asian Basketball Championships. At the 1964 Pre-Olympic Games Basketball Qualifying Tournament held at Yokohama, Japan, the Malaysian team suffered six straight defeats and were therefore eliminated from the Games events.

The Malaysia Amateur Basketball Association was formed on 17th May, 1964. It is scheduled to stage the Third Asian Basketball Championship in Kuala Lumpur in November 1965. This should do much to help boost the sport of basketball in Malaysia.

Lawn-Tennis The Lawn-Tennis Association of Malaya was first formed in 1921 to promote the game in both the Malay States and Singapore. It is affiliated to the International Lawn-Tennis Federation. Four years ago Malaya was accepted as a Davis Cup member.

The Malayan Championships were also inaugurated in 1921 with men's singles. The six champions of Singapore, Perak, Selangor, Penang, Johore and Negeri Sembilan met at the Singapore Cricket Club over the August Bank holidays to contest the championship for the cup presented by Mr

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Singapore, Ipoh, Seremban and Penang. In addition, the Chua Choon Leong Cup for inter-State competition was introduced in 1953 on Davis Cup lines, and for this competition Malaya is divided into three zones— North, South and East. The North versus South match, which decided the winners of the Guillemard Cup (men) and the McCabe Reay Cup (women), was discontinued in 1958 and the Singapore versus Malaya match inaugurated.

Several leading overseas players have taken part in the Malayan champion-ships, notably Van Giap (Vietnam), Muang Roeng (Thailand), E. P. Hughes (Britain), Kho Sin Kie (Indonesia), H. G. Sansoni (Ceylon), K. H. Ip (Hongkong), and Neale Fraser (Australia). Well-known players like Lew Hoad, Ken Rosewall, Seen Davidson, Lennart Bergelin, Ramanathan Krishnan and Naresk Kumar, .have taken part in exhibitions here, while Jack Kramer's professionals performed in Malaya for the first time at Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Ipoh in December 1960.

In September 1961, five of Australia's top tennis players put on tennis exhibition matches in Malaya and Singapore. They were Bob Hewitt, Ken Fletcher, John Newcombe, Owen Davidson and Tim Clayton. In 1962, 12 nations took part in the Malayan open championship.

The Lawn-Tennis Association of Malaysia was formed on 18th January, 1964 and the First Malaysian Open Championship was held in September, 1964.

Table-Tennis Table-tennis had been played in the various States of Malaysia for a few decades, but mainly independently in the States of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. There has been, however, keen competition between Singapore and Malaya for a number of years.

Malaya and Singapore have dominated table-tennis in Malaysia, with Singapore gaining the edge. Sarawak, however, is improving rapidly.

The First Malayan Table-Tennis Championships were held in Kuala Lumpur on December 25, 1959.

During the 6th Asian Table-Tennis Championships, held in Manila (Philippines) from 27th December, 1962 to 4th January, 1965, Malaya


Polo The Malayan Polo Association was formed at a meeting held at the Lake Club in April 1922. Fourteen years later, it boasted the active patronage of Sultan Iskandar Shah of Perak, Sultan Ibrahim of Johore, Sultan Abu Bakar of Pahang and Sir Shenton of the Malay States. Members of the Association hailed from Penang, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Kangsar and Batavia, and the list included several notable names, the greatest of them being Bob Skene, the Australian player who was Captain of the Selangor Polo Club. Skene was undoubtedly the finest exponent of the game.

As is the case with other snorts, records of polo are scanty. It may be noted that Sir Frank Swettenham was a member of the team which won the coveted K.O.R. Cup donated by the Royal Lancaster Regiment, whose officers imported the first polo ponies from Australia.

There are polo centres in Penang, Kuala Kangsar, Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur, Pekan and Johore Bahru, and tournaments are held yearly. One of the principal events in the Jubilee Cup, a four-chukkar match played at the Turf Club in Kuala Lumpur.

In November 1963, the Fanling Polo Club of Hongkong played in Johore. To further popularise the game, a scheme is now under way to reduce the

cost of riding and use of other facilities to encourage increased participation of Malaysians in this exciting game.

Golf Golf was first played around 1893 when the Selangor Golf Club (now the Royal Selangor Golf Club) was founded. It is now gaining increased popula-rity in Malaysia. This is no doubt due to the support the Prime Minister, Tengku Abdul Rahman, has given since he began playing and boosting this game. Today, there are a number of very fine golf courses in every State in Malaysia.

The most popular golf tournament is the Malaysia Open Golf Champion-ship inaugurated in 1962. This tournament was first won by Frank Phillips of Australia. In 1963, it was won by Bill Dunk, also of Australia, and in 1964 it was won by Tomoo Ishi of Japan.

Malaysia participates in the Far East Circuit which includes golf tour-naments in the Philippines, Japan, Thailand and Hongkong.

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under the general management of the Amateur Athletic Association of British Malaya and was open to all genuine amateurs resident in the F.M.S. and the Straits Settlements irrespective of national status.

By 1931, the Association had changed its style to the Amateur Athletic Association of Malaya and its scope widened to embrace residents of all the Malay States as well. In 1952, this Association was dissolved to comply with international sporting regulations and the Singapore Branch became a separate entity.

The governing body of athletics today is the Federation of Malaya Amateur Athletic Union, which enjoys recognition as an international body and is registered with the Olympic Council: it thus has sanction to parti-cipate in international competitions.

Annual championship meetings take place at various centres in rotation and have been a feature in Malayan life for many years, although they were suspended during the years of the two world wars. Golden Jubilee Champion-ships were held in Penang in 1956, the Annual Championships being staged in the Merdeka Stadium at Kuala Lumpur in 1957 and 1959. Perak was the host State in 1952 and 1955.

In 1953, a team of eleven athletes participated in the All-Ceylon Amateur Championships. Since then Malayan teams have competed at the Second Asian Games at Manila (1954), the Olympic Games at Melbourne (1956), the third Asian Games at Tokyo (1958), the South-East Asian Peninsular Games at Bangkok (1959) and Rangoon (1961), the Olympic Games at Rome (1960) and the Jakarta Games (1962).

Malaya's greatest success in international athletics was gained in the Jakarta Games when M. Jegathesan won the 200 metres for the gold medal and ran second in the 100 metres final. The Malayan team also took the silver medal in the 1,600 metres relay, and bronze medal performances were registered by the 400 metres relay. This also included K. Selvaratnam in the 400-metre hurdles, and Maureen Ann Lee in the women's long jump.

In the domestic sphere great improvement had been made all round. Several records were broken at the national championship held at lpoh, the best of these being M. Jegathesan's 10.4 seconds for the 100 metres and 21.4 seconds for the 200 metres.


The first Malaysian meet was held at Merdeka Stadium in September 1963. Two national records were set during this competition. Subramaniam ran the 1,500 metres in 3 min. 57.5 sec., and K. Maidin long-jumped 7.31 metres.

The Malaysian Amateur Athletic Union was inaugurated on 7th March, 1964. Significant occurences in 1964 was the announcement of a Five-Year Development Plan for athletics by the M.A.A.U. President, Dato' Moham-mad Ghazali bin Shafie; the fine sprint times of M. Jegathesan and the middle-distance running of the young Ipoh girl, M. Rajamani.

Jegathesan clocked 20.9 in a heat in the Tokyo Olympics. This effort made him the first Asian to run the 200 metres under 21 seconds. He was able to reach the semi-finals, in this race, before being eliminated.

Horse-Racing In 1842, a band of British army officers, Government officials and leaders in the commercial world founded the first horse-racing club in South-East Asia—the Singapore Sporting Club. Two years later, the first race meeting was held but it was a distinctly rustic occasion in which army draught-horses and ponies participated. Nonetheless, it found such enthusiastic support that the sport soon grew to professional status despite vigorous opposition on the part of the Government of the day, which frowned on such frivolous pursuits with all that self-righteousness which was so characteristic of the Victorian mentality.

Racing soon spread to the Federated Malay States, and in 1864 the Penaag Turf Club was formed. The Selangor Turf Club came into existence in 1896 and was in turn followed by the Perak and Taiping Turf Clubs a few years later. Before racing was placed on a proper footing, meetings were held at Klang, Seremban and Batu Gajah. At the turn of the century licensed book-makers operated on the Malayan turf but were put out of business before the First World War following widespread manipulation of a scandalous nature. Today, all betting is controlled through the "tote" by the Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh and Penang Turf Clubs which together are affiliates of the Malayan Racing Association, the controlling body. Betting, based broadly on the New Zealand system, was introduced in 1961. Rules for flat-racing and steeple-chase conform with the rules specified by the Jockey Club and National Hunt Committee, respectively, of the United Kingdom, with which bodies the M.R.A. maintains close contact.

The first highlight in Malayan racing was in 1898 when a Singapore-trained horse, Vanitas, was shipped to Calcutta to run in the Viceroy's Cup.

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Penang and Ipoh. It was revived at Bukit Timah in Singapore in the later part of 1947 and now constitutes a multi-million dollar industry. The best year to date is undoubtedly 1952 when the turf clubs paid out $5,381,000 in stakes and added money—an average of over $9,700 per race, which was higher than the United Kingdom or Australia, two countries famous for their patronage of the turf. But even if 1952 was "the golden year" of racing, the sport still makes gigantic strides. With the introduction of the latest type of mobile starting gates imported from New Zealand in 1959 and the camera patrol in 1962, the Malayan turf now has practically every scientific aid in the racing game.

The richest race is the l 1/4-mile Singapore Gold Cup worth $50,000 in stakes, plus a gold trophy to the winning owner. The Perak Derby over 1-J-miles carries $30,000 together with a gold trophy. Other principal races are the Sultan of Perak's Gold Vase over furlongs straight at Ipoh; the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Gold Cup over six furlongs at Kuala Lumpur; the Selangor and Penang Gold Cup races; and the Singapore St Leger and the Tunku's Gold Cup—all worth over $15,000 in stakes and added money.

Motor-Racing The first indication of motor sport becoming popular was the formation, in 1907, of the Perak Motor Union. This was followed later by similar organisations in Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Kedah, Penang and Singapore. Until the early thirties, these State organisations functioned on more or less parochial fines and devoted their attention more to the interests of the private motorist than to any organised sport. The rapid extension of the road system (today one of the best in Asia) gave impetus to the formation of a more "all-Malayan" organisation, and a nucleus was formed in 1932 with the formation of the Automobile Association of Malaya.

So far as is known, the first motoring competition was a reliability trial organised by the Automobile Association of Singapore in 1924. Subsequent competitions of varying kinds increased in popularity until, in about 1930, the Malayan motorists had a calendar of annual classics—the Selangor Long Distance Trial, the Selangor Scramble, the Nilai Gymkhana, the Singapore Hill Climb and the Perak Motor Union's Hill Climb, to mention only a few. The slump of the early thirties however almost extinguished these activities which could only be afforded by the comparatively wealthy.


Standard Vacuum Oil Companies. The Johore Grand Prix which was revived in 1960 but now the principal event on the Malayan Motor Sports calendar is the Malayan Grand Prix, jointly sponsored by the Singapore Government and the Singapore Motor Club and held during the Easter holidays.

In 1962, the Tunku Abdul Rahman circuit races were introduced and were held at the Diplomatic Enclave in Kuala Lumpur. They have since been transferred to Petaling Jaya and are run over a three-mile circuit in Section Thirteen.

The Malaysian Grand Prix races for cars and motor-cycles attract a strong international entry.

Cycle-Racing Cycle-racing has enjoyed considerable popularity in Malaysia for many years but the first publicised race was held only in 1926. It was a 50-mile marathon from Kuala Lumpur to Klang and back and attracted more than 80 entries. Cycle races as special items in athletic sports meetings became usual thereafter, and track-racing gained its peak pre-war popularity with the championships organised as an event in the sports programme of the Malayan Agri-Horticultural Association's annual exhibition at Kuala Lumpur. The sports had meanwhile boomed in Singapore where a cinder track at Jalan Besar enabled some lucrative and exciting "carnivals" to be held.

The highlight of these pre-war events was a match between Malaya's best and a visiting Japanese team of cyclists who were on their way to the 1932 Olympics. The result was an overwhelming victory for the visitors who literally rode circles round the Malayans.

It was not until 25 years later that overseas champions visited Malaya again, and the occasion was the Merdeka Celebration Sports Championships. This time, Malaya was host to six nations including Japan and New Zealand whose team included Olympic riders.

In the meanwhile, Malayan cycling had been placed on a sounder organi-sational basis than had existed previously with the formation of State associations and a Malayan Cyclists Federation. The latter was registered in 1956 and obtained affiliation with the International Cyclists Union in May 1960.

Four States—Selangor, Penang, Perak and Malacca—have active cycling

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The big track meet is the annual championship held in Merdeka Stadium and the grand finale of the road racing season is a series of three events held during the Christmas Holidays on successive days. These events (orga-nised by the M.C.F. as a prelude to the time when Malaysia will stage races as in Europe) consist of one race on Christmas Day from Kuala Lumpur to Ipoh, a distance of 150 miles; a second race on Boxing Day from outside Ipoh to Bukit Mertajam 100 miles north, and finally a 50-mile race on December 27 round Penang Island.

Malayan cyclists challenged successfully in the international field in the 1962 Jakarta Games where they won a bronze medal in the 180-kilometre road team event and later in the same year Malayan cyclists gained valuable experience in competition against strong international fields in the Com-monwealth Games at Perth.

In the latter part of 1963, the Malaysian Cyclists Federation was formed. The First Asian Cycling Championships, organised by the M.C.F., took place also in 1963 and Malaysia won two gold and four bronze medals. They took fourth place among the top teams from seven nations in Asia.

The first tour of Malaysia, organised by the M.C.F. to coincide with the first anniversary of Malaysia, was held from 28th August to 6th September, 1964. This event attracted 56 top Malaysian riders. The 10-day tour covered a total of 685 miles and is split into eight stages with two rest days. It was won by Ng Joo Pong of Selangor. The last stage round Singapore Island tour of Malaysia—was called off due to the unstable situation on the island at that time.

Malaysian cyclist took part in the Tokyo Olympic Games and will also compete in the third SEAP Games in Malaysia in 1965.

Wrestling

Wrestling first came to Malaysia (the then Federation of Malaya) in 1938. It was a professional event dubbed the Orient Championship sponsored by Mr George Ionesco. He came from Rangoon with about half-a-dozen wrestlers and had, according to information, arranged to stage a competition for the champion of the orient. King Kong, the giant 25-stone man-mountain Hungarian, who was reputed to be the all-in wrestling champion of the world, was to have been challenged by Harban Singh, champion of all-India. However, this bout never came off because the first bout of this wrestling


Bholu, Azlan and Akran; Ranjit Singh of India; Ricky Waldo a giant Negro from New York; George Zbisho, former amateur boxing champion of Roumania and ex-heavyweight wrestling champion; and Ajeet Singh of India; have wrestled in Malaya and Singapore, and are well-known to wrestling fans here.

Amateur wrestling in Malaysia started as an out-growth for the interest in professional wrestling. In October 1962, the Federation of Malaya Ama-teur Wrestling Association called for an effort to revive the sport on a wider scale "with a view of going places." On 15th January, 1964, the Singapore Amateur Wrestling Association was formed.

In April 1964, the Malaysian Amateur Wrestling Association was formed with Tun Abdul Razak, the Malaysian Deputy Prime Minister and President of the Olympic Council as their Patron-in-Chief.

On 17th July, 1964, the 1st Malaysian Amateur Wrestling Association Championships were held at the Gay World Stadium in Singapore. Two wrestlers, Tham Kok Cheng (Lightweight) and Liang Soon Hin (Flyweight) during this event, were recommended for inclusion in the Malaysian contin-gent to the Tokyo Olympic Games in October. Each wrestler lost his first match in these Games.

On 19th March, 1965, the MAWA made an all-out attempt to include wrestling in the 3rd SEAP Games but was unsuccessful. The SEAP Games Federation had already indicated the events which would be held several weeks before.

Boxing In 1957, the Federation of Malaya was invited to participate in the second South-East Asia Boxing Tournament held in Bangkok. It was this invitation which prompted amateur boxers to form a parent body, and the Federation of Malaya Amateur Boxing Association was registered as a sporting society on 24th February, 1958. It later became affiliated to the Association Inter-nationale de Boxe Amateur, the international governing body.

Penang was host to the inaugural international boxing match between Malaya and Singapore on 13th June, 1959, and Malaya won by seven fights to four. Another international match was held at the Chin Woo Auditorium at Kuala Lumpur on 7th November, 1959, in which Burma beat Malaya by

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David Choong Cup—scoring 24 points. Singapore was runner-up with 18 points and Penang was third with 13 points.

The Malaysian Amateur Boxing Association was formed on February 9, 1964 and the First Malaysian Championships were held in Kuala Lumpur on 16th and 17th May, 1964.

Fencing Serious fencing was started in Malaya in the early fifties. The popularity of this sport is mainly due to efforts of the founder-President and National Coach of the Malaysian Fencing Association, Mr Ronnie I. Theseria, of Malacca.

The Malayan Amateur Fencing Association was formed in 1951, with its headquarters in Malacca.

The first All-Malayan Novices Foil Championship was held in Kuala Lumpur on 8th October, 1961. The next such competition was held in the early part of 1962 at Malacca, where another Malayan fencing competition was held in December 1963.

During the holding of the Malaysian Student Fencing Competition held in Seremban, it was noted that standard was improving.

Weightlifting Malaysians have done comparatively well in international weightlifting competition. In 1958, Chung Kum Weng won a silver medal at the Common-wealth Games in Cardiff, Wales.

Tan Howe Liang of Singapore won a silver medal at the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome and then a gold medal at the Commonwealth Games at Perth in 1962.

At the Tokyo Olympics in 1964, Chung Kum Weng set up a British and Commonwealth record with a total lift of 335 kilos. Seven Malaysian lifters competed in the Games.

The Malaysia Amateur Weightlifting and Body-Building Federation was formed on 16th May, 1964.


and Penang. The Second Malaysia Judo Championship held in July 1964 was also won by Singapore.

Malaysia Judo experts took part in an international competition for the first time when they competed at the XVIII Olypiad in Tokyo.

Many Japanese Judo experts have visited Malaysia to give advice and instruction. Among those who have visited here was the man who is generally known as the founder of the Judo Movement outside Japan, Mr G. Koizumi.

In Malaysia today, there are 44 Judo experts who hold the black belt. Selangor tops the list with 17, Singapore 15, Penang 8, and Perak 4.

Gymnastics Gymnastics is still in its infancy in Malaysia. It is practised in some elemen-tary and secondary schools and by a few clubs. A move, however, has been made by schools to promote this basic sport, but there is at present a dire need for gymnasiums.

Malaysia was accepted by the International Gymnastics Union shortly after the formation of the Malaysian Amateur Gymnastics Association in May 1964.

Methodist Boys' School has one of the best school gymnastics team in Malaysia and won both the senior and junior gymnastics championships in July 1965 in a competition sponsored by the Selangor School Sports Council.

Eight top Olympic women gymnasts from New Zealand gave demonstra-tions and lectures in August 1965, and helped much to popularise this fine sport.

Shooting Organised shooting in Malaysia started around 1938. Competition at that time was mainly with shotguns.

The Federation of Malaya Shooting Association held the First Malaysia-wide shooting competition on 31st August, 1963.

The National Shooting Association of Malaysia was formed in May 1964. It brought about the unification of the major shooting clubs from Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak and Singapore.

Malaysian shooters have taken part in the SEAP Games, the Asian Games, the 1960 and 1964 Olympic Games.

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recreative approach, to swimming, the sport has not yet reached any signi-ficant achievement in comparison with present international standards. In fact, other than Selangor, Penang, Perak, Singapore and Sarawak, there is little or no organised swimming efforts in other States.

During the holding of the Second SEAP Games in Rangoon (1961), Malaysian swimmers won two gold medals.

The Amateur Swimming Union of Malaysia was formed in 1964. In the same year, a three-nation swimming competition was held in Singapore between Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia. Malaysia was also re-presented by seven swimmers at the XVIII Tokyo Olympiad.

CHAPTER XXII

THREAT OF COMMUNIST SUBVERSION

B A C K G R O U N D ON 12TH JULY, 1948, a Proclamation was issued declaring that "a state of emergency" existed in all parts of the Federation of Malaya. This Procla-mation replaced a similar one issued a month earlier which confined the area of emergency to central Perak and west-central Johore. Twelve years were to elapse before a further Proclamation was issued (on 31st July, 1960) in which His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong declared that the state of emergency had ceased to exist in the Federation as a whole.

This state of affairs was brought about by what was for all practical purposes an unannounced declaration of civil war against the people of Malaya by the Communist Party of Malaya (CPM). Its aim, which was warmly supported by international communism, was the establishment of a communist republic in Malaya. The avowed aim of International Communism is to destroy the existing political and economic systems in non-Communist countries and to replace them by a World Union of Communist Republics. This plan was conceived by the Russian Communist leader, Lenin, nearly forty years ago, and is propagated today under the guise of Marxist-Leninist theory—the gospel of Communists. The subsequent activities of the Communist Party of Malaya indicated that, even if the intention had been pure, the performance was of doubtful quality. The communists organised a reign of terror—of murder, intimidation, arson and extortion such as has seldom been seen this century outside Nazi Germany and the Iron Curtain countries. This particular system of terror has always since been referred to (perhaps somewhat euphemistically) as "The Emergency".

T H E R I S E O F C O M M U N I S M Communism was brought to this country by representatives of the Chinese Communist Party, who set up an organisation known as the Nanyang (South Seas) Communist Party in 1928. Two years later this Party was converted into a separate Communist Party of Malaya to pave the way for


Having secured a foothold in Malaya, and particularly in Singapore, the Communist agents cast around for troubled waters in which to fish. Their task was not particularly easy to begin with: the great slump of the early thirties had yet to break, and in general the Overseas Chinese were doing far too well financially to risk sanction as members of an unlawful organisation; they could sympathise with the Kuomintang, perhaps (even after it too became unlawful after 1930); but to take part in active politics was another question. In any case, any such political activity was at that time unlawful. In consequence, the communists made little impact on the Chinese community as a whole until about 1935. In the meantime, they explored the venues to see whether any particular groups of the popula-tion could be penetrated. They also made a close study of the trade guilds.

In 1948 the Communist Party of Malaya, which was then a legal organisation, judged that conditions were favourable for launching an armed revolution, which was at that time the accepted form of Communist struggle as advocated by the Russian Communist Zhdanov at the inaugural meeting of the Cominform Bureau in 1947. Events proved that the Party's judgement was wrong. Neither the workers over whom the Communists had achieved considerable control by 1948 nor the people generally gave the Party the support it expected. Its campaign of terror, murder and plunder alienated many of those who were prepared to accept on its face value the claim of the Party to lead a movement for the liberation of the people of Malaya from "colonial" domination. More over, the armed units of the Party proved inadequate for their task.

By 1955, the Party was faced with a new situation. It was influenced by another switch of World Communist tactics, and by the fact that in a short time the Federation would achieve its independence. This independence was being won—not by the Communists' armed revolution—but by the peaceful negotiations of elected political leaders. Thus the Party would no longer be able to represent itself as the champion and saviour of the Malayan people. It was necessary, therefore, for the Communists to extricate them-selves from an embarrassing political position and from their military failure.

The Party leaders felt that their position might be redeemed by reaching an agreement with the elected representatives of the people. Thereby the Party could emerge from the jungle with apparent recognition of its claims that its "armed struggle" was a contributory factor in the attainment of independence. Also, it could gain for itself the freedom necessary for it

T H R E A T O F C O M M U N I S T S U B V E R S I O N 589

of a parliamentary democracy, and that the Party subscribed to the new world Communist doctrine of peaceful co-existence. Therefore in 1955, Chin Peng, Secretary-General of the Communist Party of Malaya, suggested the holding of the Baling Talks with the Alliance Government—the object being primarily to hoodwink the latter into a temporary pact with the ultimate aim of overthrowing the Alliance Government and changing it into a "joint dictatorship of all races and strata". Even after the Baling Talks failed the Communist Party of Malaya continued its attempts to obtain "peace" terms; but the Government, aware of the duplicity under-lying these overtures, was not prepared to jeopardise the security of the newly independent nation by recognising the Communist Party of Malaya. Chin Peng then ordered his followers in the jungle to avoid contact with the Security Forces as far as possible, hoping to preserve the lives of the maximum number of trained Communists for furthering the work of subversion and also to prolong the expensive emergency.

THE PRESENT TACTICS OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY OF MALAYA

The Current programme of the Communist Party of Malaya is to offer openly to the public a political platform which in its general terms and aspirations has a popular appeal. At the same time Party executives are directed to infiltrate secretly into non-Communist organisations in order to promote agitation and to lead those organisations into a "United People's Democratic Front" which will be sympathetically disposed towards the political platform of the Communist Party of Malaya—a platform deliberately couched in deceptively unobjectionable terms. The Party is careful to conceal its ultimate aim, the neutralisation of those parties that may be its partners in the "Front" and the establishment of a "People's Democracy", in which all authority is in the hands of the Communist Party.

N O T E : —

Communist Parties regard themselves as the spear-head of the so-called "revolutionary forces" in their own countries. As such they do not attempt to convert the whole population to Communism but, instead, seek to make "temporary alliances" or "united fronts" with non-Communist elements and to collaborate on certain issues in the hope of persuading such elements to accept the political guidance of the Commu-nist Party and to support international Communist propaganda lines.


professional standing of the comrades. Communist cadres will seek ways and means to infiltrate into parties or organisations irrespective of whether they are neutral, backward or reactionary. They are further instructed to exploit programmes, policies, regulations, etc., of these parties and organisa-tions in order to gain mass support. They will also utilise places used by masses for social gatherings such as schools, factories in urban areas and fishing villages and farms in rural areas.

T H E P R A C T I C A L M A N I F E S T A T I O N S O F T H E T H R E A T O F C O M M U N I S T S U B V E R S I O N A N D C O U N T E R - M E A S U R E S

A G A I N S T T H O S E M A N I F E S T A T I O N S

Although the field of the Malayan Communist Party's subversive activities in this country is virtually unlimited, there aie certain specific targets which the Communists consider to be most important to penetrate, influence and deceive. These targets are namely the students and youth movements, labour and trade unions and political organisations.

Y O U T H The Communist organisers attach great importance to the subversion of youth in this country as an investment in the future. The Communist interest particularly in Chinese Middle Schools, sprang from a desire firstly, to indoctrinate the pupils with Communist teachings so as to prepare them to be party members and secondly, to stimulate their interest in Chinese culture and to arouse their pride and admiration in the achievements of Communist China so as to undermine their loyalty to the Federation of Malaya. While posing as the champions of Chinese culture they hope to win the support not only of school children and their parents but also that of the Chinese community in general. At the same time by exploiting the imaginary grievances of the Chinese school children and their teachers against the Government education policy, they also hope to embarrass the Government in its efforts to create a single Malayan nationality with a single National language and expect to win the sympathy of political parties and organisations which are opposed to the Government policy.

L A B O U R The capture of labour organisations in this country is also a target of prime importance to the Malayan Communist Party. Since 1955, the Malayan Communist Party has been attempting to achieve considerable

T H R E A T OF C O M M U N I S T S U B V E R S I O N 591

the Party "should strive to win seats at every election of the labour unions in this country and gain control of their directing organs. If our activities within these 'yellow' labour unions are completely successful, we ought not to transfer these 'yellow' labour unions into 'red' labour unions immediately. The outward appearance that they are 'yellow' labour unions should be preserved.' '

POLITICAL PARTIES The Malayan Communist Party aims to bring about the downfall of the Alliance which is strongly anti-Communist. They attempt to achieve this objective by making use of the election campaigns to call upon the masses executives and active elements of the public to vote in favour of those candidates who are regarded by the Party as progressive elements. They also make use of the students defiance of the Education Policy and urge their guardians not to vote for the Alliance.

Following the changes in Communist tactics about the middle of 1955, the threat to the security of this country due to increasing Communist subversive activities posed a serious problem for Government. Generally, subversion is more difficult to detect and counter than terrorism because subvertors are usually very careful to operate within the laws of the country and to take advantage of loop-holes in the Constitution or Laws of the country. There was therefore a real need for Government to set up some form of counter-subversive organisation to consider appropriate counter-measures to the Communists subversive activities.

Accordingly, the first such Counter-Subversion organisation known as the Federation Counter-Subversion Committee was established in August 1955. This was soon followed by the establishment of subordinate counter-subversion committees in all the States. The Federation Counter-Subversion Committee however, did not prove very effective as it was separated from the Federation Intelligence Organisation which appreciated the threats to the security of the country. Therefore, after an experimental period, this Federation Counter-Subversion Committee was abolished, and in its place was established the present Federation Intelligence and Counter-Subversion Committee in early 1958, following the attainment of Merdeka. Following the establishment of the F.I.C.S.C. at Federal level the former State Counter-Subversion Committees were also abolished and sub-stituted by State Intelligence and Counter-Subversion Committees The


existing laws or to introduce new laws or legislations in order to counter the subversive activities of the Communists in this country. The efforts of these Intelligence and Counter-Subversion Committees have generally been effective against the specific problem that had given rise to the recommendations.

Most of the counter-subversive measures recommended by the F.I.C.S.C. since its establishment in 1958 have been mainly concerned with schools regulations as it is realised that youth represents the most favourite target of Communist subversion in this country. The F.I.C.S.C. has also made recommendations affecting the importation and circulation of prejudicial publications, control of exhibitions and entertainments, trade union organi-sations and control of movement of persons to and from this country particularly between the Federation and China.

Most of the counter-subversive measures recommended by the F.I.C.S.C. and its subordinate organisations at State level are of a repressive nature. The F.I.C.S.C. has also within the limits of its terms of reference under-taken some constructive measures to counter subversion in this country. These constructive measures include the publication of a White Paper in 1959 entitled "The Communist Threat to the Federation" published in all languages for the education of members of the public explaining the deceptive tactics of the Communists in this country. Government fully realises the need for as many responsible Government officers as possible to be provided with a basic knowledge of the Communist methods of subversion and infiltration and how subversive activities are being carried out in this country in order that these officers may appreciate better the security problems of the Government and co-operate with the security authorities in combatting Communist subversion in this country. With this object in view, civics courses are being arranged for members of the public as well as Government officials through the Department of Information Services. Every phase and aspect of the anti-Communist war is also being extensively covered and reported to the people, including the Terrorists and their followers through various ways and means of broadcasting.

Government realises that a contented and prosperous people provide poor grounds for the seeds of subversion and that the roots of Communism can be destroyed only by constructive measures. With this object in view, Government is encouraging the growth of home ownership in the Federation both among public servants and the general members of the public. The present Rural Development Scheme, the development of a basic Malayan culture and the sending of local citizens to neighbouring countries from

T H R E A T OF C O M M U N I S T S U B V E R S I O N 593

The Federation of Malaya is at present going through an era of peace and happiness following our victory over the militant Communists in this country. Nevertheless Communist subversion still remains a threat to the peace, harmony and security of this country. The main threat to Malaya's peace and security comes from the Chinese Communist Party. The Chinese Communist Party believes that the Overseas Chinese can play an important role in the Chinese expansionist policy. There is one thing which is certain— communism in Malaya is by no means finished. The C.P.M. as a militant force is merely dormant and only awaits a propitious opportunity to start the cycle all over again. Despite the rantings—the almost vituperative abusiveness—of the leaders of world communism which gives an impression of urgency, history tells us that the Communist Party is in no particular hurry as it expects to achieve its objectives in the long run. At present, the C.P.M. has failed in its armed revolution and has undergone a stinging defeat, but this is not too material in the context of its future activities. During the present stage, the Party can be expected to strive to achieve its objectives by constitutional means through the familiar "front" organi-sations and political parties whose perfectly sincere and honest adherents may increasingly feel that the time has come for a rapprochement. However, it is always possible that the C.P.M. will revert to armed struggle at some stage in the future should the political situation in Malaya and South-East-Asia generally favour the resumption of this form of attack.

A recent statement made by Mao Tse Tung states that the mission of China in the international field is to lead a Communist revolution in Asia and the Overseas Chinese Community in South-East Asia is the best means through which to achieve this end. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) on the other hand realises that the Indonesians and the Malays of this country have strong religious ties and thereby hopes to influence the minds of the Malays through the Indonesian Communists. The subversive elements in this country are therefore adopting various tactics to disrupt the good relations existing amongst the various communities in this country instigating and poisoning the minds of the public, trade union members, youths, students and members of political parties. It is therefore essential that every loyal and responsible citizen of this country should be alive to

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

MALAYSIA YEAR BOOK, 1964

THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION AN ALPHABETICAL ANALYSIS

THE FEDERAL Constitution is the supreme law of the Federation. It is a complex document. This analysis is no more than a digest of the Constitution framed in simple language. It suffers from most if not all of the defects inherent in any digest—the twin dangers of oversimplifying and glossing the original text.

For that reason, this analysis should not be regarded as authoritative even though it appears in an official publication. It is in no sense exhaus-tive. It is merely an attempt to set out the salient points of the Federal Constitution in simple language and to provide a relatively easy system of cross-referencing.

(Marginal figures refer to Articles of the Constitution) ABORIGINES. Despite the principle of equal treatment for all citizens, 8 (l) it is lawful for special provision to be made for the protection, well-being 8 (5) (c) or advancement of the Aborigines. ACCOUNTS AND ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE. The manner in which Fin. public moneys may be collected and disbursed is prescribed by Parliament Provs. and is binding on Federal, State, Local and Public authorities. Federal and pt. vn State accounts are subject to audit by the Auditor-General, whose report ios (l) is submitted to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for presentation to Parliament. 107 The Federal Government shall consult the National Finance Council on important finance matters like loans to the States or requirements of Federal 108 Government and State Government. ACQUITTAL. A person once acquitted by a court of law cannot be retried 7 (2) on the same charge unless a retrial is ordered by an appellate court after the conviction acquitted has been quashed. ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. Federal laws are called Acts, and State laws 160 (2) Enactments. Until 1967 (and later, unless Parliament otherwise decides) 152(3) the authoritative text of Bills and Acts of Parliament must be in English. ADOPTION. Parliament's power to regulate adoption of children does state List not extend to Muslims. ADVISORY BODIES AND POWERS. Three advisory bodies are estab-lished under the Constitution—the National Finance Council, the National 108-9, 91-2 Land Council and the National Council for Local Government. In certain 95A matters, these bodies must be consulted and their advice accepted. In others, consultation only is mandatory; in the remainder, consultation is discre-tionary. In that the Federal Government is responsible for research organi-sations, it is in a position to proffer advice to State agencies. Professional 94 technical advice on matters appertaining to agriculture and forestry must be accepted by State Government and agencies. ADVOCATES AND SOLICITORS. A person arrested has the right to consult and be defended by an advocate and solicitor of his own choice. 5 (3) This does not however apply to enemy aliens. An advocate and solicitor is 5 (5) eligible for appointment to the High Court bench after ten years of practice. 123

5 9 8 m a l a y s i a y e a r b o o k

f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n

Most bills may be introduced in the first place into either House of Par- 62 (2) liament. "Money bills" which relate to revenue or expenditure must start 67 in the House of Representatives, and must be presented by a Minister. Once a bill has passed both Houses without amendment (or with amendments 66 (3) agreed by both) it is presented to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for the Royal 68 Assent, after which it becomes law. A bill originating in the Senate cannot however receive the Royal Assent until it has been agreed to by the House of Representatives. Conversely, however, a different rule applies; the Senate has only delaying powers over a bill originating from and approved by the Representatives: in the case of money bills, the period of delay is one month; in the case of non-money bills, one year. In either case, the decision of the Representatives will prevail, and the bill may. then be presented by the Speaker to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong notwithstanding the opposition of the Senate (although the Representatives are at liberty to drop or postpone the measure if they think fit).

A bill becomes law from the day it receives the Royal Assent and comes 66 (5) into force on the day of publication unless a different date is specified in the text.

For a bill to pass either House, a bare majority of the members present 62 (3) and voting is required. A bill amending the Constitution, however, must in most cases receive at least two-thirds majority of the total membership 159 of both Houses (and not, as is often thought, a mere two-thirds majority of the votes cast), and the Representatives cannot override the Senate.

BORROWING—see LOAN

BUSINESS. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong has a special responsibility for the advancement of Malays in commerce and industry. To ensure this, the 153 (1) Constitution provides that a quota of licences, permits and the like may 153 (2) be reserved for Malays, but without prejudice to the existing rights of others. 153 (7) The Conference of Rulers must be consulted. 38 (5)

CABINET AND MINISTERS. The Cabinet is a council of Ministers 43(1) appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to advise him in the exercise of his functions. It consists of the Prime Minister (as Chairman) and an unspecified number of Members of Parliament.

When for any reason (e.g. after a dissolution) there is no Government, 43

it is the duty of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to arrange for the formation of one. He does this by selecting a member of the House of Representatives who, in his opinion, commands the confidence of the majority of that House; and invites him to form a Government. If the person selected is successful in doing this, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints him Prime Minister*. The Prime Minister then advises the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as to which members of either House should be appointed as Ministers, and these the Yang di-Pertuan Agong forthwith so appoints. The Cabinet thus comes 43 (6) into being; and each Minister (after taking the oaths of allegiance and secrecy) is given responsibility for certain activities of Government. The 43(5) Ministers so appointed may resign at any time; and their appointment may be revoked by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the Prime Minister. A Minister who is at the time of his appointment a member of 43 (8) a State Legislative Assembly must resign therefrom. All Ministers and Assistant Ministers have right of audience in either House of Parliament, 61 but a vote in one House only.

If the time comes when the Prime Minister loses the confidence of the 43 (4) Representatives, he must thereupon resign and tender the resignation of the Cabinet. There are then two courses open to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong: he can either invite another member of the House of Representatives to form a new Government; or he can dissolve Parliament, in which case a 55

general election must be held within two months. In the latter eventuality, the former Cabinet continues in office on a "caretaker" basis until the 43 (2)

* The Prime Minister must be a citizen by operation of law, not by registra-tion or naturalisation. He cannot be a Senator.


election results are known, when the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is in a position to select a new Prime Minister; and the process of forming a Cabinet starts afresh.

43 (l) The Cabinet constitutionally is an advisory body, but the Constitution 40 (1) also binds the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to accept the advice it tenders in 40 (2) all save three matters: the appointment of a Prime Minister; the dissolution

of Parliament; and the calling of a meeting of the Conference of Rulers 43 (3) when the sole purpose of the meeting is to discuss the privileges, position,

honours and dignities of the Rulers. The Cabinet is said to be "collectively responsible" for the advice tendered by it or by one of its members; it must stand by that advice whatever happens. For practical purposes, a Minister

43 (6) c a n only dissociate himself from his colleagues by resigning if he radically disagrees with them; otherwise (Cabinet meetings being secret) he cannot express disagreement with the advice tendered.

43A The Yang di-Pertuan Agong may also (on the advice of the Prime Minister) appoint Assistant Ministers to assist the Cabinet Ministers in the discharge of their functions. They do not however have Cabinet rank;

57 (4) but they do have right of audience in either House of Parliament. CHIEF JUSTICE—see JUDGES CHIEF MINISTERS—see MENTRI2 BESAR

Second19 C I T I Z E N S H I P may be gained by three ways, i.e. by operation of law, by Schedule registration or by naturalisation. Al l citizens are equal irrespective of which-Part L IT ever way they have acquired their citizenship.

Operation of Law Born before Malaysia Day: (a) Citizens before Merdeka Day; (b) born in the Federation on or after Merdeka Day and before October 1962; (c) born in the Federation after September 1962 of whose parents at the time of birth one at least must either be a citizen or permanently resident in the Federation or not born a citizen of any other country: (d) born outside the Federation on or after Merdeka Day whose father was a citizen at the time of his birth and the father was either born in the Federation or was at the time of the child's birth in service under the Government of the Federa-tion or of a State; (e) born outside the Federation on or after Merdeka Day whose father was a citizen at the time of birth if such a birth was or is within one year of occurence or longer period as may be prescribed registered at a Consulate of the Federation or if occurred in Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei or North Borneo registered with the Federal Government. Born on or after Malaysia Day:—(a) Born within the Federation outside Singapore of whose parents one at least is at the time of birth either a citizen but not a Singapore citizen or permanently resident in the Federation; (b) born outside the Federation whose father is at the time of birth a citizen but not a Singapore citizen and was either born in the Federation or is at the time of birth in the service of the Federation or of a State; (c) born outside the Federation whose father is at the time of birth a citizen but not a Singapore citizen and whose birth is within one year of its occurrence or within such longer period as may be prescribed registered in the Consulate of the Federation or if it occurs in Brunei or in any territory prescribed for this purpose by order of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong registered with the Federal Government; (d) born in Singapore or of whose parent one at least at the time of birth a citizen but not a Singapore citizen and who is not born a citizen otherwise; (e) born in the Federation outside Singapore who is not born a citizen of any other country.

F E D E R A L C O N S T I T U T I O N 601


p r o c e e d a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n be tween t h e G o v e r n m e n t s c o n c e r n e d , a n d a bill in a n y legis la ture m u s t be he ld in a b e y a n c e un t i l t h i s c o n s u l t a t i o n h a s taken p lace .

C O M P U L S I O N — s e e F U N D A M E N T A L L I B E R T I E S 38(1) C O N F E R E N C E O F R U L E R S . T h i s C o n f e r e n c e i s es tab l i shed b y the 32, 38 C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d cons i s t s of t h e R u l e r s a n d G o v e r n o r s . I t s p r i m e du ty i s 33, 38 t h e e lec t ion of t h e Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g a n d h i s D e p u t y (in th i s , however,

t h e G o v e r n o r s p l ay n o p a r t ) . T h e s e e lec t ions a r e desc r ibed u n d e r Y A N G D I - P E R T U A N A G O N G .

122 T h e C o n f e r e n c e m u s t be c o n s u l t e d in t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e L o r d Pre-105, s iden t o f t h e F e d e r a l C o u r t , t h e Ch ie f Jus t i ce a n d J u d g e s , t h e Audi tor-114, 139 G e n e r a l , t h e E lec t ions C o m m i s s i o n a n d t h e P u b l i c Serv ice Commiss ion .

2 (A) 3, T h e C o n f e r e n c e m u s t l ikewise be consu l t ed a n d c o n c u r in t h e a l t e ra t ion of 38 S t a t e b o u n d a r i e s , t h e ex tens ion to t h e F e d e r a t i o n as a w h o l e of Muslim

159(5) re l ig ious ac t s a n d obse rvances , a n d i n a n y bil l t o a m e n d t h e Cons t i tu t ion . 38 C o n s u l t a t i o n is m a n d a t o r y in m a t t e r s a f fec t ing p u b l i c po l i cy or t h e special

153 pos i t i on of t h e M a l a y s . F ina l ly , t h e C o n f e r e n c e c o n s i d e r s m a t t e r s affecting 40 (2) t h e r igh ts , p re roga t ives a n d pr ivi leges of t h e R u l e r s themse lves . T h e Prime 38 (3) Min i s t e r , M e n t r i 2 Besa r a n d Ch ie f Min i s t e r s a t t e n d al l m e e t i n g o t h e r than

a m e e t i n g t o elect t h e Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g o r D e p u t y Y a n g di-Pertuan A g o n g . C O N S O L I D A T E D F U N D . T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t , a n d e a c h State

97 G o v e r n m e n t m a i n t a i n s a C o n s o l i d a t e d F u n d , wh ich is in ef fec t an account i n t o wh ich al l m o n e t a r y rece ip ts a r e p a i d ( o t h e r t h a n M u s l i m religious

104 dues ) . P a y m e n t s c a n on ly b e m a d e f r o m t h e f u n d b y p a r l i a m e n t a r y approval , 100-101 w h i c h m a y be of t w o t y p e s : by a " s u p p l y b i l l " , in w h i c h t h e legislature 102 a u t h o r i s e s t h e p a y m e n t of m a x i m a s u m s f o r specif ied p u r p o s e s ; a n d by a

g e n e r a l law wh ich p e r m i t s p a y m e n t t o be m a d e in a c c o r d a n c e wi th the 98 l aw b u t w i t h o u t specif ic o r i temised a u t h o r i t y . In t h e l a t t e r case a re found

Federal List t h e Civil Lis ts , sa la r ies of J u d g e s a n d t h e l ike (wh ich c a n n o t be altered); a n d t h e p a y m e n t o f in te res t o n l o a n s a l r eady a p p r o v e d , o r p e n s i o n s (which a r e g u a r a n t e e d by law). P a r l i a m e n t h a s t h e p o w e r t o legis late f o r t h e division o f t h e C o n s o l i d a t e d F u n d s i n t o s e p a r a t e a c c o u n t s * . C O N S T I T U T I O N . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i s t h e s u p r e m e a n d ove r r i d ing law o f

4 (1) t h e c o u n t r y . A n y law p a s s e d a f t e r M e r d e k a D a y is nu l l a n d vo id i f in conflict w i t h t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n ( b u t n o t l aws e n a c t e d b e f o r e t h a t da t e ) . I t would t h e r e f o r e be t r u e to say t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n se ts o u t a b r o a d legal frame-

Part I I w o r k wi th in w h i c h t h e c o u n t r y m u s t be r u n ; i t lays d o w n t h e r igh ts of the Part XI i nd iv idua l , a n d t h e ex ten t to w h i c h a n d in w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e executive

m a y l imi t t h e s e r i g h t s ; i t d o e s n o t a t t e m p t h o w e v e r t o legislate i n detail f o r all m a t t e r s , b u t d i s t r ibu te s t h e p o w e r o f g o v e r n a n c e ( i nc lud ing legislation) in t h e m a n n e r r e q u i r e d in a p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c y of f r e e peop le . This d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n c a n n o t b e c h a n g e d i f f o u n d want ing; b u t a c h a n g e w o u l d ref lec t a m a j o r c h a n g e in po l i t i ca l s t r uc tu r e , and as

68, 159 s u c h can on ly be m a d e by P a r l i a m e n t if a t w o - t h i r d s m a j o r i t y is secured. 159 (5) I t i s a l so necessa ry f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e of R u l e r s to a p p r o v e a n y such change.

T h e de ta i led effects o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a r e d iscussed u n d e r t h e individual h e a d i n g s of th i s Ana lys i s . C O N T I N G E N C I E S F U N D . P a r l i a m e n t h a s t h e p o w e r t o c r ea t e a fund f r o m w h i c h t h e M i n i s t e r o f F i n a n c e m a y d r a w i n t h e even t o f unforeseen

103 a n d u r g e n t e x p e n d i t u r e a r i s ing . T h e a m o u n t d r a w n m u s t be replaced by o r d i n a r y supply-b i l l a c t i on . U n d e r s imi la r c i r cums tances , t h e Federal G o v e r n m e n t m a y a d v a n c e m o n e y s f r o m th is f u n d t o a S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t .

121, 122, C O U R T S . A n e w f e a t u r e in t h e j ud i c i a l s y s t e m is t h e F e d e r a l C o u r t consis-122A, 126, 128 t ing of t h e L o r d P r e s i d e n t of t h e F e d e r a l C o u r t t o g e t h e r wi th the three

Ch ie f Jus t ices o f t h e H i g h C o u r t s a n d t w o o t h e r j u d g e s . E a c h o f the High

F E D E R A L C O N S T I T U T I O N 6 0 3



and Federal legislatures may however provide for certain functions ordinarily 94 reserved to the one executive to be administered by the other. This applies 80 (5) in particular to the Concurrent List, where mutual agreement is mandatory. 79 EXPENDITURE of public funds can only be made if authorised by the loo Schedule legislature competent to do so. This is done in the annual estimates (q.v.) v n l

or by way of a charge against the Consolidated Fund (q.v.). All public expenditure is subject to audit by the Auditor-General. 106 EXPERIMENTAL S T A T I O N S A N D R E S E A R C H are the responsibility of the Federal Government, which has a right and a duty to propagate the 94 results therefrom arising amongst the people of the Federation. Advice in the fields of agriculture and forestry must be acted upon by the State Govern-ments. EXPORT D U T Y ON TIN. The Federal Government pays not less than ten per cent of export duty on tin to the State where it was mined. This is charged 110 (3) against the Consolidated Fund. It is open to the Federal Parliament to assign to the States similar taxes and fees. EXPRESSION, F R E E D O M OF—see F U N D A M E N T A L LIBERTIES EXPULSION—see B A N I S H M E N T A N D F U N D A M E N T A L LIBERTIES EXTERNAL A G G R E S S I O N . Parliament may declare a State of Emergency if and when this happens, and incidentally reduce some of the fundamental liberties of the citizen in the interests of national security. This is discussed 150 (l) under S U B V E R S I O N FAMILY L A W . Parliament has no power to legislate in matters relating to state List Muslim personal law. FEDERAL C A P I T A L is Kuala Lumpur, (q.v.) 154 FEDERAL G O V E R N M E N T — s e e EXECUTIVE, CABINET FEDERAL L I S T is the list of subjects on which Parliament is competent i6o (2) to legislate. Subjects not on the Federal List, the State list or the concurrent 77 list are termed "residual subjects" and are within the competence of the State Legislature. See page 88. FEES—see R E V E N U E FINANCE—see A U D I T , BILLS, C O N S O L I D A T E D F U N D , D E B T EXPENDITURE, R E V E N U E FITRAH is within the sole jurisdiction of the States. State List FORCED L A B O U R — s e e F U N D A M E N T A L LIBERTIES FORESTRY is one of the State responsibilities; the Federal Government state List is however responsible for research. Where the National Land Council 91 establishes a policy, that policy is binding on both State and Federal Govern-ments. Advice of a professional or technical nature is binding when proffered 94 by one of the Federal specialised agencies. FREEDOMS— see F U N D A M E N T A L LIBERTIES FUNDS—see C O N S O L I D A T E D F U N D F U N D A M E N T A L LIBERTIES. Part II of the Constitution entrenches a number of basic "freedoms". Some of these are absolute; others can be qualified by Parliament in certain circumstances.

M A L A Y S I A Y E A R BOOK

of the nature of the charge against them; they must be permitted to seek legal advice of their own choosing; and they must be produced before a magistrate within twenty-four hours (holidays and travelling time being excluded) if not released earlier. This does not however apply to enemy aliens in wartime or to persons held in preventive detention under any federal law relating to subversion or national emergency, unless the law so provides.

Slavery is totally prohibited, as is forced labour or compulsion of the individual in his choice of livelihood. The latter does not however apply when the law provides for compulsory national service (e.g. conscription). Convicted criminals may be required to undertake work incidental to their sentence.

Punishment of offenders may not be imposed if the act done was not punishable at the time of the offence (this principle is the prohibition of retroactive penal legislation).

Repeated trials are prohibited. Once a person has been convicted or acquitted he cannot be charged again on the same set of circumstances unless a retrial has been ordered by an appellate court on the grounds that the previous trial was a nullity.

Equality of all persons is mandatory under the law. Parliament in some cases, and the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in others, may however permit a measure of favour to be extended in certain cases, notably to ensure the advancement and welfare of the aborigines and to maintain a reasonable participation by the Malays in business and public life.

Banishment of a citizen is totally prohibited. If a citizen loses his status as a national, he may of course be deported as an alien.

Freedom of movement is generally entrenched, but is subject to laws relating to security, public order, public health and the punishment of offenders (e.g. restricted residence after imprisonment).

Freedom of speech, assembly and association (the latter meaning the right to join any lawful society, organisation, political party, trade union, etc.) is subject only to certain restrictive powers exercisable by Parliament. Freedom of speech may be restricted if essential to ensure the security of the nation, friendly international relations, public order and morality, the maintenance of parliamentary privilege, the dignity of the courts and the integrity of individuals. Freedom of assembly (persons meeting must be unarmed) and freedom of association can only be restricted on grounds of public security, order or morality. The authority for these restrictions would be an Act proclaiming an emergency or a condition of subversion, or a Proclamation by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to the same effect.

Freedom of religion is guaranteed. Subject to any State law restricting or prohibiting the proselytising of Muslims, a religion may be propagated provided no impingement on public order, health and morals takes place. Religious groups have a prescriptive right to manage their own affairs, to establish institutions for religious or charitable purposes, and to hold property and land as prescribed by law. No person can be obliged to pay taxes wholly or partly designed to finance a religion other than his own. Finally, religious groups may establish schools catering for general education and may set aside time for religious instruction; but a person not belonging to that religion cannot be obliged to attend religious classes or observances in that religion.



Sch. X

110 (3)

110 (5) 109 (3)

67(1)

109 (6)

82, 92 80 (5)

109 (6)

9th Schedule

38 (2) 9(0

149

10 (2) (a)

10 (2) (6 & c) 149

95

to vary it. The Grant is calculated by multiplying the mileage of roads maintained by the State by the average cost of maintenance per mile; the latter figure is established from taking the total mileage of State roads in the Federation, and the actual cost of maintenance, during the financial year which was completed two years previously. Tin Export Duty Grant. This grant is not less than ten per cent of the export value of tin produced in a State, and the percentage is fixed by the Federal Government after consultation with the National Finance Council; but Parliament must agree to any increase over and above ten per cent. The conditions under which the grant is made may also be specified by Parliament, The payment is charged to the Consolidated Fund. Other Grants. Parliament has the power to make other grants to States for specific purposes, and may specify the terms and conditions (but a supply bill to effect such a grant would have to be moved by a Minister). Likewise, the Government may (after consulting the National Finance Council) make unspecified special grants which are paid into the Reserve Fund: but these payments are made ad hoc and follow no empirical formula; they could be made for a special development scheme in furtherance of federal policy, or when a State undertook certain responsibilities normally shouldered by the Federal Government; on the other hand they could be made to inject fresh capital into one of the poorer States during a bad period. In every case, the merits have to be considered by the National Finance Council. GRATUITIES—see PENSIONS AND GRATUITIES HEALTH is a matter within the federal jurisdiction. It is open to Parliament to restrict certain fundamental liberties but only to the extent necessary to maintain public health. HOLDING OF LAND AND PROPERTY see LAND, PROPERTY IMMIGRATION is cited as an example of "national policy" in which the Conference of Rulers may deliberate. A citizen may not be excluded from the Federation unless an Act of Parliament is in force permitting exclusion on the grounds of national security, when certain of the fundamental liberties may temporarily be curtailed. See SUBVERSION. INCITEMENT OF OFFENCES, DISAFFECTION, etc. Parliament may restrict freedom of speech to the extent necessary to prevent licentious utterances likely to offend friendly nations, cause a breach of the peace or security, or offend against morals or reasonable behaviour as between individuals. In the latter case, Parliament by inference has the power to legislate, for example, in matters relating to libel and slander, and to deter-mine the point at which liberty becomes licence. Similar powers exist in relation to freedom of movement and assembly, but only in the interests of security and public order. INQUIRIES—see COMMISSIONS INSPECTION OF STATE ACTIVITIES BY FEDERAL GOVERNMENT The Federal Government is authorised to inquire into any activities within a State unless the activities are in respect of matters within the exclusive jurisdiction of that State. The officer conducting the investigation must be duly authorised, and his report is made to the Federal Government. The report may be transmitted to the State Government and laid before any legislature. INSTITUTIONS maintained by religious bodies may manage their own affairs, but subject to public health and morality. They are subject to any laws relating to incorporation, the holding of land and the like. INTERNAL DISTURBANCE, etc.—see SECURITY


INTERSTATE FRONTIERS—see STATE

IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF. Although the Republic of Ireland is not strictly a Commonwealth country, the Constitution confers upon it the 155(3) benefits enjoyed by members of the Commonwealth. 29 (2)

ISLAM—see MUSLIM

JUDGES (and Chief Justice) AND THE JUDICIARY see also COURTS The Judges in the Federation are totally independent of both the executive

and the legislatures. This applies equally to the officers presiding over the subordinate courts in the exercise of their Judicial functions.

The Lord President of the Federal Court, the Chief justices of the High Courts and the judges shall be appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister, after consulting the Conference of Rulers. Before tendering the advice as to the appointment of a judge other than the Lord President, the Prime Minister shall consult the Lord President.

Each of the High Courts consists of a Chief Justice and not fewer than four other judges, to a maximum of twelve for Malaya, eight for Borneo and eight for Singapore. Parliament may by ordinary law increase the number for any of the three courts.

To qualify for appointment to the High Court, a candidate must have had 123 at least ten years' practice in the law (whether at the Federation Bar or in the Legal Service) and he must be a Federal Citizen. Once appointed, no Judge can be removed from office before he reaches the retiring age of sixty-five unless he has shewn himself unfit, for any reason, to continue the discharge of his functions. Removal is effected by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the Prime Minister (or the Chief Justice after con-sulting the Prime Minister); but a tribunal consisting of not less than five persons must first be appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to inquire into and report on the disability of the Judge in question. These persons must be either Judges or ex-Judges; but, if necessary, similar persons from other Commonwealth countries may be appointed. If the Chief Justice is a member of the tribunal, he takes the Chair. To ensure judicial independence, a Judge's emoluments are charged to the Consolidated Fund, and Parliament 125 (6) cannot alter them to his disadvantage during his tenure of office.


say Canberra or Washington; the property in all land continues to vest in the Sultan of Selangor, and State laws apply.

6 LABOUR. Forced labour is prohibited, but Parliament may require citizens to undergo a period of national service such as military conscription. A convicted prisoner may be required to undertake work incidental to his prison sentence. LAND is a subject which remains, as before, a matter for the States*. The Federal Government has however certain powers over legislation and development. For this purpose the Constitution provides for the establishment of a National Land Council (q.v. as to its composition and duties).

state List Legislation. Basically, the legislative authority in land matters vests in 76 (l) (b) the State Legislative Assembly concerned. The Federal Parliament may

however enact laws to provide for uniformity between two or more States; likewise (and solely for the sake of uniformity) it may prescribe the basis of land tenure and the manner in which land can be transferred, leased, mortgaged or charged and the like. It may also regulate the relationship between landlord and tenant, compulsory acquisition, rating and valuation. Other residual powers (such as the imposition of rent and the terms and conditions on which State land may be alienated) vest in the State.

92 (l) Land Development. After consulting the State Government and the National Land Council, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may set aside an area for development and publish a plan specifying the area and the scope of planning; when this has been done, the Federal Parliament may exercise all the legislative powers of the State (the Concurrent List thereby being

92 (2) placed in abeyance). If, however, the proclamation of a development area adversely affects the revenues of the State, the Federal Government must make good the financial loss. Income from the development is applied firstly, to the provision of capita] and working expenses for the plan; secondly, to reimburse the Federal Government for any moneys expended in promoting the plan; and thirdly, the balance is made over to the State or States concerned. If the State pays all or part of the cost of development, repayment from revenue from the development is made wholly or propor-tionally as above. Federal property in land. The Federal Government is authorised by the Constitution to own land in its own right. Before Independence, land required for a federal purpose was generally "reserved", the Federal Govern-ment paying neither the capital value of the land nor the annual rent applicable to it. In all these cases, the federal reserve continues after Independence on the same basis (and this applies equally to land occupied even if not formally "reserved" but if and when the Federal Government no longer requires the land for the same purpose, the State Government resumes possession and all property in it if the cost of improvement is paid to the Federal Government; if not, the Federal Government may otherwise dispose of the land. After Independence, however, a different system applies. If the land required is State land, the Federal Government must buy it (and can require the State to sell it) at the current market rate, and the Federal Government must pay the standard annual rent; if the land is already alienated, the State Government is required to acquire it compulsorily,

83 but the Federal Government must meet all costs of acquisition and thereafter pay the annual rent. In either case, the land may be sold when no longer required, but the State Government must be given the first refusal; if the latter offer the Federal Government the improved market value of the land, they have a right to take it back. If there arises any dispute between the

85

84

FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 611

State and Federal Governments as to their respective rights over land (or its value), the problem is put before the Lands Tribunal. The Tribunal consists of three persons: one each selected by the Governments involved in the dispute, with a Chairman appointed by the Chief Justice. The latter must be a Judge, an ex-Judge or a member of the Federation Bar of not less than ten years' standing. Malay Reservations. Land may be set aside for the exclusive use of Malays, 89 (2) but land owned or occupied by a non-Malay may not be so reserved. There 89 (4) are three safeguards which work in all directions: where a block of land 89 (2) is reserved, a similar acreage must be made available for general cultivation and alienation to all and sundry: and not more than fifty per cent of the cultivable land in a State shall be so reserved. Existing Malay Reservations 89 (t) on Independence Day were continued. This also applies to Malay holdings in Trengganu. Customary land in Negeri Sembiian and Malacca is not 90 (2) affected by the Constitution, and the existing State laws remain in force. 90 (t) LANGUAGE. The National language of the Federation is Malay, and 152 Parliament has the right to decide the script in which it may be written*. Until 1967 (and later, unless Parliament otherwise decides) English will continue to be the alternate official language; and until then, it must be used in all parliamentary Bills and Acts. Similarly, both Malay and English may be spoken in Parliament and the State Assemblies, but English remains the language of the Courts until Parliament otherwise decidesf.

Apart from the above, the use, teaching and learning of other languages is permitted without restraint; and Parliament has the right to "preserve and sustain" the use and study of the language of any community in the Federation. LAW. Laws fall into two main categories so far as the Constitution is concerned: those in existence before Independence day, and those enacted thereafter. Any law passed after Merdeka Day must be in conformity with the Constitution (which is the Supreme law of the land) or else be null and void. The power to enact rests with either Federal or State legislatures, 4(1) although in some cases both have certain powers (see Concurrent List). 74

The powers of disabilities of the various legislatures are too lengthy to list in an analysis of this type, but are referred to under the various aplha-betical subject-headings. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS may not be initiated against the Yang di-Pertuan 32 (p Agong under any circumstances, nor may proceedings be instituted against ] 8 i (2) a Ruler in his personal capacity. The Federation Government may however sue or be suedj ; where there is any doubt as to whether a liability or obligation 167 (6) is a Federal or State one, a declaratory certificate from the Attorney-General is binding unless the dispute is between Federal and State Governments. LEGISLATIVE LISTS AND POWERS are set out in a Schedule to the 160 (2) Constitution, and are alphabetically listed on page 624 et seq. 74 Sch. IX LEGISLATURES FOR FEDERAL—see PARLIAMENT, FOR STATE— see STATE LIBERTY, FREEDOM OF—see FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES LIFE. No person may be deprived of his life except in accordance with s (1) law enacted by Parliament. LOANS may be raised by both Federal and State Governments. As a preliminary, consultation with the National Finance Council is mandatory. 10s In either case, the loan can only be raised under the authority of Parliament 111 (for federal loans) or the State Assembly (for a State loan). The security 98 (1) for a loan is the appropriate Consolidated Fund, and for that reason all

* Rumi script is the official script, but the use of Jawi (which is substantially the Arabic script) may be used.

t Evidence may be recorded in Malay in the courts if that language was used in the giving of evidence, and if both sides agree to it.

t State Constitutions provide for the same right of suit in relation to them-selves.

M A L A Y S I A Y E A R B O O K

loan-charges (such as interest) are charged against that fund without further Parliamentary sanction. Subject to an Act of Parliament, the Federal Government is under no restriction as to whence or how it raises a loan; but the States may only borrow from the Federal Government except in the case of a short term one-year loan, from a bank approved by the Federal Government. LOCAL AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT is principally a matter for the States, but the Federal Government has certain powers of co-ordination. The Constitution provides for the establishment of a National Council for Local Government (constitution of which q.v.) whose policy decisions are binding on both the Federation and the States. In Kuala Lumpur only has the Federal Government any direct authority. Local rates on property owned or occupied by federal, state or other public authorities are payable to the local authority, and the quantum is established by negotiation. MALACCA. Following the retrocession in 1957 of the sovereignty of the British Crown, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints a Governor (q.v.) to exercise his sovereign authority. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong however remains Head of the Muslim Religion and exercises the prerogative of clemency in respect of offences against the Muslim Religion. Rights and property vesting in the British Crown before Independence now vest in the Federation or State, depending on the use to which the property (and the concomitant rights) is put. MALAYS. What is termed "Malay Custom" is indefinable, but approximates to a kind of "common law" relating to the Malays; this varies from one part of the country to another. Parliament for that reason has no right to legislate in these matters unless the State concerned has been consulted; but in individual States, the State Assembly has full legislative powers. Land reserved exclusively for use by Malays on or before Independence Day continues so to be reserved, and further land may be reserved subject to certain safeguards for other citizens (see LAND (Malay Reservations). Recruitment to the Malay Regiment is likewise restricted to Malays. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is responsible for ensuring the welfare and advance-ment of the Malays, and may (after consultation with the Conference of Rulers) reserve a quota of posts for them in the public service, and a quota of occupational positions and licences in commerce. This may not however affect the rights of others already holding these posts or holding the licences. The Malay language will ultimately be the sole official language of the Federation but subject to certain transitional latitude and other guaranteed rights of other languages (see LANGUAGE). MARRIAGE. The federal powers of legislation do not extend to Muslim marriages, nor to property affected by such marriages. MENTRI2 BESAR AND CHIEF MINISTERS. The chief executive in each State is called the Menteri Besar (Meaning Principal minister) except in Penang and Malacca, where (for purely historical reasons) he is called "Chief Minister"; but their functions are more or less identical. All must be citizens by operation of law, and are appointed by the Ruler or Governor from the fully elected State Legislative Assembly. Their function in a state is much that of the Prime Minister of the Federation in the Cabinet, and the procedure of their selection to, and their tenure of, the office is determined on precisely the same lines (see CABINET). Mentri Besar and Chief Ministers accompany their Rulers or Governors to the Conference of Rulers, and the advice they tender to them is that which may be determined by the State Executive Council


MINES, MINING, MINERALS AND MINERAL ORES. The right to Stats permit the prospecting for and extraction of minerals lies with the State authorities, but the Federation has an interest in co-ordination. The National Land Council may define general policy which is binding on all governments. Revenue from mining leases and permits accrues to the State concerned, as do royalties on ores extracted. The latter does not apply to tin, for reasons largely historical and administrative; but the Federal Government annually remits to the State Government not less than ten per cent of the export duty paid on the tin mined in that State. An increase in the percentage payable, and the terms on which it is paid, is established by Parliament, but the Federal Government must consult the National Finance Council. MINISTERS—see CABINET and MENTRI2 BESAR MINISTRIES. There is no fixed number of Ministers or Ministries, which are established by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the Prime Minister. Whilst, generally speaking, a Ministry has jurisdiction only over matters on the Federal List, it is still open to the Federal Government to give authority to a Minister to exercise certain supervision over matters on the State List, particularly to ensure cohesion and co-ordination which would otherwise be lacking. The powers of the Ministers so appointed is principally in relation to research, investigation and statistics. CABINET A N D MINISTERS).

MORALITY. The fundamental liberties (q.v.) are at all times subject to the requirements of public morality, which are overriding and which may be specified by law. Acts or utterances of an immoral nature are not permis-sible under the cloak of freedom of speech, assembly, religion and the like. MORTGAGES—see LAND MOVEMENT, FREEDOM OF—see FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES, SUBVERSION MUNICIPALITIES—see LOCAL AUTHORITIES MUSLIM. The Muslim Religion is the religion of the Federation, but this does not detract from the liberty of the individual to practise his faith in his own way, although State laws may restrict the right to propagate a religion other than Islam amongst Muslims. The Ruler of each State (in Penang and Malacca, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) is the Head of the Muslim Religion in that State, and exercises spiritual and disciplinary authority (including the prerogative of mercy) over his subjects. For all practical purposes, Parliament has no power to legislate in relation to the Muslim religion expect to implement an international agreement, and even then the State Government must be consulted. With the concurrence of both the Conference of Rulers and the Ruler of the State concerned, however, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may be empowered to perform any act, observance or ceremony ordinarily performed by the individual Ruler in his State. In all other respects, the jurisdiction of the Ruler is absolute (or to the extent prescribed in the State Constitution). The power of the Federal Parliament to legislate as to personal or family law does not extend to Muslims, but Parliament may make special financial provision for Muslim religious foundations.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT is a matter in which the Federal authority transcends, in suitable circumstances, State rights. If the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (after consulting the State concerned and the National Finance Council) considers that an area of land should be set aside for development of a concentrated nature, he may make a declaration to that effect. There-upon, Parliament has the power to give effect to, and make financial provision for, the development plan so proclaimed. (See LAND—Development). 108

NATIONAL FINANCE COUNCIL is a body frequently referred to through-out this analysis. It consists of twelve persons—the Prime Minister (or other minister in his stead) and one representative from each State appointed


by the Ruler or Governor. It may be summoned by the Prime Minister, or on requisition of not less than three of its Members, and deliberates on any matter of financial policy put to it. It must be consulted on certain (and numerous) matters, notably the raising of loans, the issue of grants to State Governments, the assignment of taxes or fees to States and questions of National Development. It is open to Federal and State Governments to seek guidance on any other matter at their discretion. NATIONAL LAND COUNCIL. The National Land Council is a

90 constitutional body consisting of twenty-two persons. The Chairman must be a Minister appointed by the Federal Government, which also appoints a further ten members. The remaining eleven members are State represen-tatives, one from each State appointed by the Ruler or Governor. The Chairman has an original but no casting vote (which means the States cannot be outvoted by the "Federal side". The Council is required to advise on all matters relating to the natural resources—land, mining, forestry, agriculture and kindred subjects. A policy formulated by the Council is binding on both Federal and State Governments. The Council is further required to advise on any matter put to it by the Federal or State authorities. It meets once a year, at least, and more frequently if summoned by the Chairman.

95A NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT. This Council functions in a manner precisely similar to the National Land Council, and the chairmanship and numerical composition are identical. Its jurisdiction relates principally to local government policy and legislation. NATIONAL LANGUAGE—see LANGUAGE

38 (2 and 3) NATIONAL POLICY of a major nature must be referred to the Council of Rulers for consideration. In deliberating on these matters, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong acts in accord with Cabinet advice and the Rulers/Governors in accordance with the advice of their respective Executive Councils.

6 (2) NATIONAL SERVICE. Where Parliament considers it necessary to impose a form of universal national service (such as conscription in time of war) such service is not regarded as contravening the right of the individual to pursue a career or occupation of his own choosing. NATURALISATION—see CITIZENSHIP

Scb. VI OATHS OR AFFIRMATIONS. Before assuming office, oaths must be administered to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Deputy; oaths of allegiance and secrecy must be sworn by the Prime Minister and Ministers of the Cabinet; the Governors, Judges and Members of Parliament swear the oath of allegiance and office.

5, 7 OFFENCES. No person may be tried and convicted of an act which is not stated by law to be an offence; nor is any act an offence if it was performed before the act was declared to be an offence. ORDINANCES were laws enacted by the Federal Legislative Council and they remain in force until repealed. Since Parliament was constituted,

160 (2) laws made by Parliament are called Acts of Parliament. 42 PARDON, REPRIEVE, RESPITE. The "fountain of mercy" in each State

is the Ruler or Governor acting on the advice of the State Pardons Board. The latter consists of the Attorney-General (or his representative), the Mentri Besar or Chief Minister, and three persons appointed by the Ruler or Governor. The Ruler or Governor presides. The Jurisdiction of the Pardons Board does not extend to Courts-Martial. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong has jurisdiction in the matter of Muslim offences committed in

60


There are certain matters which are common to both Houses. To qualify 47 as a member (or to continue as a member), a candidate must be a citizen 48 (l) resident in the Federation; be is automatically disqualified if he is certified to be insane or becomes bankrupt, if he holds a post the salary of which is paid from public funds (but this does not apply to Ministers' salaries) or if he has been convicted of a criminal offence and been punished with more than a year's imprisonment or a fine exceeding $2,000. If he renounces his citizenship or exercises the rights of citizenship in a foreign country outside the Commonwealth he likewise disqualifies himself. If he fails to render account of his election expenses within the time prescribed by law, he is unseated automatically; he can be unseated for certain elections offences specified in election legislation, or if he is absent for a continuous 48 (2) period of six months (the latter is very discretionary—Parliament itself exercising the discretion—as an absence may not be the fault of the member and the absence may not react too unfavourably on his constituents). He 51 may resign his seat at any time, in which case there would be a by-election 54 in his constituency within 60 days. Parliament itself may provide for the 64 emoluments of its members, and prescribes its own detailed procedure 62 (see BILLS). The proceedings of Parliament are "privileged", viz., they 63 cannot be questioned in any court; nor can a member be sued for anything he says or does in Parliament itself (but what he says or does outside is a different matter in which he may be held personally liable).

THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (known often as "the Lower House") consists of 159 members (104 from the States of Malaya, 16 from 46,116(2) Sabah, 24 from Sarawak and 15 from Singapore), each member representing one constituency. To present himself for election, he must have the qualifica-tions described above, and must be at least 21 years of age; he must not be a 48, 49 member of the Senate. The "life" of the House is limited to five years, 55 (31 after which time a fresh general election must be held; but the Yang di-Pertuan Agong has a discretion to dissolve Parliament before then if the Prime Minister 40 so advises; he is not bound to, and he may not dissolve Parliament against the advice of the Prime Minister. The person who presides in the Lower 57 House is known as the Speaker, and is elected at the beginning of Parliament (or in the event of a vacancy in the post) by the members from one of their number. A Deputy Speaker is elected in a similar process, and he takes the chair in the absence of the Speaker. If both are absent, the House appoints 65 one of its members ad hoc. The permanent machinery of the House is supervised by the Clerk to the House who is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong; he holds office until the age of 60 and can only be removed from office in the manner prescribed for the removal of Judges.

THE SENATE (or Upper House) is a much smaller legislative body with considerably less power than the House of Representatives; in prestige, 45 (1) however, it is in no way inferior. Thirty-two members are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on grounds of their experience and wisdom or to represent minorities. The remaining are elected by the State Legislatures, each State returning two Senators; these may be members of the State Legislative Assembly or otherwise. To qualify for a seat in the Senate, the requirements are as stated above; but the minimum age is thirty years. A president and Deputy President are elected by the Members from their 47 number in a manner similar to the election of the Speaker and Deputy 56 Speaker in the Lower House. Likewise, the Clerk to the Senate in exactly 65 the same manner as the Clerk to the House of Representatives, and has


to the Senate (i.e., those elected by their State Assemblies with the fewer votes) were replaced in 1962 after serving three years. Similarly, half the

45 (4) nominated Senators were originally appointed only until that date. Parliament can by statute increase the number of Senators elected to three, provided that they be elected by direct vote, and decrease or abolish altogether the nominated Senators. All Senators now held office for six years. PARLIAMENTARY SECRETARIES: They are appointed by the Prime

43B Minister from among the members of either House of Parliament. They assist Ministers and Assistant Ministers in the discharge of their duties and functions. PENANG. The status of this former Crown Colony is precisely that of MALACCA (q.v.).

98 (l) PENSIONS represent what is called "a first charge" on the public funds and are payable from the Consolidated Fund. They are paid federally, and

1 1 2 for that reason it is not open for a State to create a pensionable post without the concurrence of the Federal Government. PERMITS. It is open to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, after consultation

1 5 3 with the Conference of Rulers, to specify a quota of permits for various 38 industrial undertakings to be reserved to the Malays to safeguard their

special position and to encourage their participation in commerce and industry. The rights of other persons holding permits are however safeguarded. PERSONAL LIBERTY AND LIFE—see FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES

94 PLANNING. The Federal Government has the right to tender advice to the States on the technical aspects of various types of planning, and may maintain the necessary research organisations to that end. Where a policy

91, 91A relating to natural resources or local government planning is accepted by the National Land Council and the National Council for Local Government, the "plan" is binding on both State and Federal Governments. POLICE FORCE COMMISSION—see PUBLIC SERVICE PREVENTIVE DETENTION—see SUBVERSION PRIME MINISTER—see CABINET AND MINISTERS

38, 40, 181 PRIVILEGE AND PREROGATIVE. The Rulers of the States continue to enjoy the same rights, privileges and prerogatives which they enjoyed

63 before Independence. The "privileged" proceedings of Parliament are discussed under PARLIAMENT. PRIVY COUNCIL. The judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain,

131 by arrangement, continues in effect to be the court of ultimate recourse. Where a person is aggrieved by a decision of the Court of Appeal, an appeal lies to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong who, after ascertaining the opinion of the Privy Council, makes the requisite order giving effect to that opinion. This does not affect the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's sovereignty: it is he, and not the British Queen, who receives the advice of the Judicial Committee. PROCEEDINGS AGAINST GOVERNMENT, THE YANG DI-PERTUAN AGONG OR RULERS. The Governments, whether Federal or State, may

167 (6) sue or can be sued. Where there is doubt in any proceedings whether it is the Federal Government or a State Government which is responsible, a

32 (l) certificate by the Attorney-General is conclusive proof. Neither the Yang 181 (2) di-Pertuan Agong nor the Rulers may be sued in their personal capacities.

PROPERTY, including land, may be held by both Federal and State Governments. The method by which the Federal Government may acquire

13 land is described under L A N D . No person may be deprived of his property except as prescribed by law; if his property is compulsorily acquired, he must be paid fair compensation for it. The right to hold or dispose of property


of law has come to a decision, a person cannot be retried for the same matter unless an appellate court has so ordered. PUBLIC AUTHORITIES include all governmental offices and extend even to undertakings authorised by Federal or State Law. They are all required to assist the Elections Commission in the exercise of its functions, and are liable for the payment of assessment rates to local authorities. A public authority is prohibited from discriminating between citizens in its functions or in the selection of its servants. PUBLIC HEALTH, MORALS AND ORDER. The exercise of the funda-mental rights of the individual by him may at no time override the dictates of health, morals and order. PUBLIC SERVICES AND SERVICE COMMISSIONS. The public Services of the Federation, whether civilian or military, are non-political and owe their loyalty to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Rulers, although they serve the Governments in power for the time being irrespective of the latters' political affiliations. All citizens are eligible if suitably qualified by educational standards to enter any branch of the public service, and there can be no discrimination on grounds of race, religion and the like. To ensure the impartiality of the service, and to protect it from political interference, a number of Service Commissions are established under the Constitution to select and appoint officers, to place them on the pensionable establishment, to decide as to promotion, and to maintain discipline.

The Service Commissions are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong unless the Constitution otherwise provides. No member of either House of Parliament may be appointed as a member of a Commission*, nor may a member of the public service or of a trades union. This preserves the impartiality of the Commission itself; further to safeguard its integrity, the members cannot be removed from office during its currency except 143 in the manner prescribed for the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court; and their emoluments are charged against the Consolidated Fund which is not subject to Parliamentary control. Their salaries cannot be altered to their disadvantage. The "unofficial" members of the Commissions are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for a period of five years; the Yang di-Pertuan Agong must consider the advice of the Prime Minister, but is not bound to follow it.

The composition of the Service Commissions is as follows: The Armed Forces Council consists of the Minister of Defence as 137

Chairman and between seven and nine members. Ex-officio members are the Chief of the Armed Forces Staff and the Secretary for Defence (who also acts as Secretary to the Council). Nominated are: one representative of the Rulers, who is appointed by the Conference of Rulers; two senior staff officers of the Federation Armed Forces; one senior officer from the Navy and one from the Air Force; and up to two (if any) others who may be military or civilian. Other than the representative of the Rulers, the nominated members are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

Judicial and Legal Service Commission consists of Chairman of the Public Service Commission as Chairman, the Attorney-General and one or more other members appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong after consultation with the Lord President of the Federal Court from among persons who are or have been judges of the Federal Court or High Court.

The Police Force Commission is somewhat similar to the Armed Forces Council in that it contains serving officers in the public service. The Chairman is the Minister of Internal Security (who is ministerially responsible for the Police Force), the Commissioner of Police, the


140 Secretary for Internal Security, a member of the Public Services Com-mission and two other members, appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

The Public Services Commission is the principal of the four Com-missions and deals with the entire public service other than the Forces, the Police and the Malayan Railway. It consists of a Chairman, a Deputy Chairman and between four and eight members, as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may decide after consulting the Prime Minister

139 and the Conference of Rulers. Either the Chairman or Deputy Chairman must (but both may) be ex-civil servants who left Government not more than five years previously. If a civil servant is appointed, he resigns from the service; and he is thereafter disqualified from rejoining the government service.

The Railway Service Commission consists of a Chairman and Deputy Chairman (being ex-civil servants as is the case in the Public Service Commission) and between two and six members; one member must be a member of the Public Services Commission, and two (if possible) should have had previous experience of railway administration. The

141 Commission's responsibility is the selection, appointment, promotion and discipline of persons in the Malayan Railway. The Commission is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

PUNISHMENT OF OFFENCES. No person can be punished for his 7, 9 actions unless law has prescribed them as offences before the action was

performed. Once a person has been punished he cannot again be punished for the same offence, although an appellate court could vary the sentence imposed on him. PURCHASE—see PROPERTY

(2), 136 RACE. No citizen may be discriminated against on account of his race, but the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (after consulting the Conference of Rulers) may prescribe a quota to be filled by Malays to permit a reasonable participation

153 in the business and public life of the country. Special encouragement may 8 (5) also be given to the advancement of aborigines.

RAJA PERMAISURI AGONG is the title given to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Consort. She takes precedence immediately after the Yang di-

32 Pertuan Agong; she may not hold any public office; and Parliament may 34 make provision for her emoluments in the Civil List (q.v.). These emoluments 35 cannot be decreased whilst she is Raja Permaisuri.

RATES (LOCAL RATES, ASSESSMENT) are the levies made by the local authorities by state law to cover the cost of services locally rendered; they

1 6 2 ( 2 ) are not taxes. The State Government is the final authority for legislating 154 for local rates. The Federal and State Governments, and public bodies, are 156 liable to pay an amount agreed by individual negotiation to local authorities

"in aid of rates". If the government or public body concerned is unable to reach agreement with the local authority, the problem is referred to arbitration before a tribunal of three persons—the Chairman of the National Land Council, and two members (one each being chosen by the parties to the dispute). Although rating laws are within the competence of the States, Parliament may make laws for the sole purpose of uniformity of

76 (4) law and policy; but these laws are only operative if adopted by the Legis-80 (3) lative Assembly of the State concerned. The National Council for Local

Authorities would however have to be consulted in a matter of this nature. 95A REGISTRATION—see CITIZENSHIP

F E D E R A L C O N S T I T U T I O N 6 1 9

with general law, and may operate their own institutions and schools. Dis-crimination solely on the ground of a person's religion is totally prohibited. 12 REMISSION OF SENTENCES—see PARDONS REPORTS. The Constitution provides that the reports of the Auditor-General and the Service Commissions shall be laid before the appropriate 107 legislature. 146 RESEARCH is the responsibility of the Federation Government, which is at liberty to proffer advice to the States, where technical and professional 94 (l) advice relates to agriculture or forestry, the State is obliged to follow the advice tendered. RESERVATION OF LAND—see LAND RESERVE FUND—see GRANTS TO STATES (other grants) RESIDENCE. No discrimination may be exercised against a citizen purely on account of his place of birth or residence; he is free to move around or 8 establish himself as he wishes, but in times of national emergency (or if 9 subversion is seriously threatened) Parliament may make laws to restrict 149 the freedom of residence enjoyed by a citizen. RESTRICTIONS ON FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES—see SUBVERSION REVENUE. Taxes may only be imposed by a law made by Parliament or a State Assembly. The bulk of taxation accrues in fact to the Federal Government, but the following accrue to the States: revenue from toddy shops, and from lands, mines and forests; licence fees other than in respect of mechanical vehicles, electrical installations and registration of businesses, entertainment duty, fees, fines and receipts of non-federal courts; fees for specific services rendered; local authority revenues, unless the authority has been granted financial autonomy; water supplies and water rates; rents on State property; interest on State bank balances; sale of State land and property; Muslim Revenue; and treasure trove.

All revenue must, with the exception of Muslim religious levies (such as 97

Zakat, Fitrah, Bait-ul-Mal, etc.) be paid into the Consolidated Fund of the Federation or State, as the case may be. Muslim revenues are paid into a separate account as may be prescribed by State law. Estimates of Revenue are prepared yearly by the Federal Government and must be laid before 99

Parliament. (See also GRANTS TO STATES). RIGHTS—see FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES ROADS are the financial responsibility of the States unless a roadjhas been declared to be "federal": see GRANTS TO STATES. RULERS AND GOVERNORS*. The Ruler of each of the nine former Malay States is the Sultan, who is a sovereign monarch within the framework of constitution and democracy. Each is within his State, the fountain of honour, justice and mercy, and every act of government is made on his behalf and or under his name or authority. All the rights, privileges and 42

prerogatives of the Sultans before Independence are continued and safe-guarded under the Constitution. They meet, together with the Governors and the Mentri2 Besar/Chief Ministers at the Conference of Rulers (q.v.) at which the Yang di-Pertuan Agong presidest. In exercising their sovereign functions, the Rulers have severally bound themselves under the State Constitutions to act on the advice of their Executive Councils; but the

M A L A Y S I A Y E A R B O O K

to that of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in relation to the Federation—the Ruler is a constitutional monarch acting in accord with the tenets of parliamentary democracy. A Regent (or Council of Regency) is in every sense a Ruler and exercises the Ruler's functions during the latter's absence or disability; the only exception is in the case of a Regent appointed to deputise for the Ruler elected as Yang di-Pertuan Agong during his term of office—the Yang di-Pertuan Agong still remains Head of Religion in his own State, but exercises no other function other than to appoint a new Regent if and when necessary (e.g. on the death of the Regent) or to amend the State Constitution. SALARIES paid from public funds amount to "remuneration" and disqualify a person from standing for Parliament or a State Assembly, or from certain appointments (e.g. a Government servant cannot be appointed as an Elections Commissioner or a member (in the ordinary sense) of a Service Commission). In most cases, the salaries of public officers are voted in the annual budget by the legislature of the government employing them; but some—notably the Judges and the Auditor-General—are paid from the Consolidated Fund (q.v.) and their salaries are not subject to parliamentary reduction during the tenure of office of the individual holding the appointment. SCHOLARSHIPS. It is lawful for a number of scholarships to be reserved for Malays to maintain a reasonable racial balance in education, particularly with a view to entering the public service; but apart from such quota as may be established by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, discrimination is not permitted in respect of scholarships paid from public funds. SECURITY. In the interests of national security, it is lawful for Parliament to restrict certain fundamental liberties (see SUBVERSION). SENATE—see PARLIAMENT SERVICE (NATIONAL SERVICE). Parliament has the power to require individuals to undertake duties of a national service character. This is not regarded as an infringement of the individual's right to choose his own occupation or livelihood. See also under PUBLIC SERVICE. SLAVERY is absolutely prohibited. SOIL CONSERVATION is one of the subjects in which the Federal Government may expressedly take an interest; and States are enjoined to assist in making the necessary surveys to assist the Federal authority to assess and discover the necessary remedies. SOURCES OF REVENUE FOR FEDERATION AND STATES—see REVENUE SPEECH, FREEDOM OF—see FUNDAMENTAL LIBERTIES STATES, STATE GOVERNMENTS AND STATE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES

2, 71 (5) (b) The Constitution provides that Parliament may by law admit other States to the Federation. In 1963 three new States (Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak) were admitted to the Federation on terms substantially different from those of the original States. The Federal Government remains the strongest unit in the Federal structure. In 1962, Article 159 was amended changing the requirement from a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament to the procedure for passing an Ordinary Bill for any amendment in connection with the admission of any State to the Federation, or its association with the States thereof, or any modification made as to the application of the Constitution to a State. This new provision did not alter those provisions


manner a s t h e C a b i n e t t ende r s advice t o t he Y a n g d i -Per tuan Agong . T h e Legislative a u t h o r i t y of t h e S ta te i s t he R u l e r in t h e S ta te Legislative Assembly—in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e R u l e r ac t ing on t h e advice o f the wholly elected Legis la t ive Assembly . H e r e , t h e r e is a sl ight dif ference f r o m the Federal P a r l i a m e n t : t h e r e i s on ly o n e legislative b o d y (i.e. no Sena te o r Upper H o u s e ) ; a n d bo th the Assembl ies a n d the Execut ive Counci l s inc luding three non-e lec ted official exper t s " i n a t tendance"-—the S ta te Secretary, t he State Lega l Adv i se r a n d the S ta te F inanc ia l Officer. These officials h a v e right of aud ience , b u t t hey h a v e no v o t e : in effect, their presence is as official advisers on ly , a n d the i r adv ice can be re jected.

Wi th in the i r legislat ive compe tence , t h e Sta tes m a y pass a n y law at will Sch. IX provided it does n o t mi l i t a t e aga ins t a co r re spond ing federa l competency . 111 For example , t hey m a y n o t b o r r o w to any grea t extent except f r o m the 112 federal g o v e r n m e n t a n d they m a y n o t increase the i r es tab l i shment o f pe r -sonnel i f t h e r e b y they will increase t h e federa l c o m m i t m e n t in respect of pensions; t hey a r e b o u n d to accep t a m e a s u r e of advice on purely technical 94 subjects, n o t a b l y fo res t ry a n d agr icu l tu re ; and (like t h e federa l government ) 91, 95A, 108 they are b o u n d to accep t pol icy f o r m u l a t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l Counci l s (q.v.). In all o t h e r m a t t e r s , however , t hey m a y ac t independent ly o f t h e Fede ra l authori ty, a l t h o u g h they a re a t comple t e l iberty to seek any advice which i t i s poss ib le f o r t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t to pu rvey .

The f o r m a t i o n of a G o v e r n m e n t wi th in t h e State , a n d t h e dissolut ion of the Sta te Legis la t ive Assembly , a r e exactly para l le l to t he Fede ra l a r range-ments descr ibed u n d e r C A B I N E T a n d P A R L I A M E N T i n this d iges t ; any many Sta tes h a v e a min i s te r ia l sys tem, a lbei t less rigidly c o m p o s e d t h a n the Federal C a b i n e t .

The S ta t e Legis la t ive Assembl ies closely resemble t h e H o u s e o f Represen-tatives; o n e m e m b e r i s r e t u r n e d f o r each S ta te cons t i tuency which, by a n d large, is a b o u t ha l f t h e size of a F e d e r a l cons t i tuency. T h e c o n d u c t of elections, and the de l inea t ion of cons t i tuencies , i s t h e responsibi l i ty of t h e Elect ions Commission (q.v.) . T h e r igh ts a n d p o w e r s o f t h e R u l e r to dissolve the Assembly a r e pa ra l l e l t o t h o s e o f t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g ; a n d the qualification f o r e lect ion to t h e Assembl ies a re t h e s a m e as t hose to t he House o f Represen ta t ives . ( In r e l a t ion to P e n a n g , Ma lacca , Sa rawak , Sabah and S ingapore , re fe rences to t h e R u l e r m a y general ly be cons t rued as references t o t h e G o v e r n o r , Y a n g d i -Pe r tua , a n d Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan N e g a r a , respectively).

Officials in t h e P u b l i c Service m a y be a p p o i n t e d by t h e S ta te to S ta t e appoin tments ( a n d th i s i s fa i r ly c o m m o n in t h e executive grades of t he State services), b u t m o s t o f t h e sen io r admin i s t r a t ive a n d technical officers are a p p o i n t e d f r o m t h e F e d e r a l c a d r e a n d a re seconded to t he Sta te . These officers a r e r equ i r ed to give the i r und iv ided loyal ty to t h e S ta te they serve but no t i n f r e q u e n t l y they serve t w o mas t e r s in t h a t they p e r f o r m cer ta in services f o r t h e F e d e r a l a u t h o r i t y a n d o the r s f o r t he S ta te a u t h o r i t y (e.g., a State E n g i n e e r is on t h e S ta t e E s t a b l i s h m e n t : he is t hus the servant of the State G o v e r n m e n t ; b u t he a lso acts as a F e d e r a l servant in t h a t he ma in ta ins Federal r o a d s a n d bu i ld ings u n d e r t h e direct ion o f t h e Minis te r o f Works ) . An a p p a r e n t confl ic t of loyal ty a n d in teres t i s easy to c o n j u r e up in t he imaginat ion; in p rac t i ce , i t is very s e ldom a real i ty . B o t h regu la te their activities a n d c o n d u c t themselves in a cco rdance wi th service c u s t o m a n d tradition.

S T A T I S T I C S m a y b e col lected b y b o t h Fede ra l a n d S ta te author i t ies , but State G o v e r n m e n t s a r e r equ i r ed to accord to t he Fede ra l G o v e r n m e n t all r easonable faci l i t ies in th is w o r k .

S U B J E C T S O F T H E R U L E R S . D i sc r imina t ion i n f a v o u r o f a n y person solely on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t he is t h e subjec t of a pa r t i cu la r R u l e r is p r o -hibited. Th is does n o t i nc lude reserva t ion of l and f o r Malays .

S U B V E R S I O N A N D E M E R G E N C Y P O W E R S . L ike m o s t wri t ten Consti tutions, t h e F e d e r a l C o n s t i t u t i o n tact ly admi t s t h a t t h e conduc t o f


everyday a f fa i r s m u s t necessari ly be re la ted to eve ryday circumstances; t h a t laws a r e only m o d e r a t e l y severe, b u t will be compl i ed wi th by moderately l aw-ab id ing c i t izens ; a n d t ha t legis la t ion c a n n o t fo resee every possible c i r cums tance in t h e f u t u r e . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n t h e r e f o r e recognises that ex t remes m a y be reso r t ed to by ex t remis ts ( w h o s e m e t h o d s o f coercing o the r s m a y b e u n k n o w n ) ; a n d f o r t h a t r eason , t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan Agong,

149-150 P a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e Execu t ive a r e a r m e d u n d e r t he C o n s t i t u t i o n with reserve p o w e r s to m e e t a n y cha l lenge w h e n i t i s m a d e o r c an be an t i c ipa ted .

An e m i n e n t A m e r i c a n ju r i s t o n c e sa id of his o w n c o u n t r y , " the G o v e r n m e n t , wi th in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , h a s all t h e p o w e r s g ran ted to i t which a r e necessary to p reserve its ex i s t ence . " This s a m e s t a t e m e n t c an be true o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Ma lays i a . T h e r e a re however suff icient s a f egua rds .

149 Befo re t h e reserve p o w e r s m a y be used , i t m u s t be a p p a r e n t tha t action h a s been t a k e n or i s t h r e a t e n e d " b y a subs t an t i a l b o d y of p e r s o n s " (whether h e r e o r a b r o a d ) t o d o o n e o r m o r e o f f i v e t h i n g s :

(a) to cause a subs t an t i a l n u m b e r of ci t izens to f e a r o rgan i sed violence aga ins t pe r sons o r p r o p e r t y ;

(b) to excite d isaffec t ion aga ins t t h e Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g or any of t h e G o v e r n m e n t s ;

(c) to cause in ter- racia l o r in ter-c lass s t r i f e ; (d) t o d i s loca te t h e exis t ing o r d e r ; a n d (e) to e n d a n g e r t h e n a t i o n a l secur i ty . I f P a r l i a m e n t i s satisfied as to a n y o n e or m o r e of these th rea t s existing,

i t m a y pass an A c t of P a r l i a m e n t to c o u n t e r t h e t h r e a t s specified. The Act m a y even ove r r ide p a r t s of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n — t o p ro tec t in t he long term the f u n d a m e n t a l l ibert ies, P a r l i a m e n t m a y even t e m p o r a r i l y depr ive the citizen

5 of s o m e of t h e m * . T h e l ibert ies wh ich c a n be res t r ic ted a r e : freedom of 9 l iber ty (i.e. p reven t ive d e t e n t i o n ) ; f r e e d o m of m o v e m e n t (i.e. restricted

res idence) or res idence ( b a n i s h m e n t or exc lus ion o r d e r s ) ; a n d freedom of speech as sembly a n d assoc ia t ion . B u t every ac t ion of t h e Execut ive is subject to p a r l i a m e n t a r y a p p r o v a l in t he long r u n ; an emergency Act may be re-

] 4 9 ™ pea led by P a r l i a m e n t a t a n y t ime by s imple r e so lu t ion of b o t h Houses. I t m a y s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n t h a t a s t a t e of n a t i o n a l crisis comes about

a t very s h o r t no t ice , in which case i t i s n o t p r ac t i cab l e f o r Parl iament to enac t t h e necessa ry emergency l a w s : indeed , P a r l i a m e n t m a y no t even be s i t t ing. I f such an emergency arises, t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g (acting on

1 5 0 (Q t h e adv ice of t h e Cab ine t ) m a y issue a p r o c l a m a t i o n a n d by decree authorise 1 5 0 ( 2 ) t h e execut ive to ac t as t h o u g h a law h a d been p a s s e d ; b u t he mus t as soon

as poss ib le s u m m o n P a r l i a m e n t , a n d t h e la t t e r m a y con f i rm or negative the ac t ion t a k e n . T h u s t h e f i na l decis ion res ts wi th P a r l i a m e n t .

M e n t i o n h a s been m a d e of p reven t ive de t en t i on u n d e r these emergency p o w e r s . I f a pe r son is de t a ined , he h a s no r e c o u r s e to t he Cour t s in the o r d i n a r y sense ; b u t as s o o n as poss ib le a f t e r he h a s been arres ted he must be to ld why , a n d be given a c h a n c e to a r g u e h is case. I f he contests his de t en t ion , he m u s t wi th in th ree m o n t h s be h e a r d by an advisory board and

151 (2) h is case e x a m i n e d by t h a t b o a r d . T h e B o a r d is a p p o i n t e d by the Yang di-P e r t u a n A g o n g a n d cons is ts of a C h a i r m a n (who m u s t be a ludge, an ex - Judge or a p e r s o n qual i f ied to be a J u d g e ) a n d t w o m e m b e r s ; after con-s ider ing t h e case, t h e B o a r d r e p o r t s its f indings a n d recommendat ions to t he Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g . As the n a m e implies , t h e B o a r d i s n o t a Court, a l t h o u g h a t least o n e m e m b e r m u s t h a v e legal exper ience. I t can only make r e c o m m e n d a t i o n which the G o v e r n m e n t i s u n d e r no obl iga t ion to accept.

69 (2) S U I T S . T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t in i ts c o r p o r a t e capac i ty can sue or be


S U P P L Y — s e e B I L L S S U R V E Y S — s e e S T A T I S T I C S TAX, T A X A T I O N — s e e R E V E N U E T I M B A L A N Y A N G D I - P E R T U A N A G O N G i s t he D e p u t y Sup reme Head of t h e F e d e r a t i o n a n d i s elected by his b ro ther -Rule r s in the s a m e manner a s t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g (q.v.). He exercises no powers in the o rd ina ry course , b u t i s immedia te ly avai lable to f i l l t he pos t of Y a n g di-Pertuan A g o n g a n d ca r ry o u t his func t ions in t he la t ter ' s absence o r disability. B u t he shal l n o t exercise t hose func t ions dur ing the absence of the Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g which i s expected to be less t h a n f i f teen days. He may t hus be l ikened to a p e r m a n e n t R e g e n t ; bu t in t he event of t he Yang d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g ' s d e a t h o r res ignat ion , he does n o t necessarily succeed to t h e t h r o n e — h e t a k e s over t he exercise of sovereignty unt i l the Conference of R u l e r s h a s elected a successor .

TIN i s t h e on ly mine ra l on wh ich the S ta te G o v e r n m e n t s c anno t impose a royal ty. T h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t however charges an expor t duty on t in, and m u s t a l loca te n o t less t h a n 1 0 % thereof to t he Sta te in which the o re was mined . T h e pe rcen t age payab l e m a y be increased by Pa r l i amen t ; bu t the N a t i o n a l F i n a n c e C o u n c i l m u s t f i r s t be consul ted . TRADE— see B U S I N E S S T R E A T I E S a n d A g r e e m e n t s en te red in to be fo re Independence by the British G o v e r n m e n t on beha l f o f t he Fede ra t i on shal l con t inue to r emain in force i n s o f a r as t hey affect t h e F e d e r a t i o n ; a n d t h e s a m e applies to membership of i n t e r n a t i o n a l o rgan i sa t ions . TRIALS. No p e r s o n can be t r ied m o r e t h a n once on a c r imina l charge f o r the same o f fence unless an appe l l a t e cou r t has o rde r a re t r ia l . VOTES A N D V O T I N G . In P a r l i a m e n t , a bill or resolut ion is carr ied by a simple m a j o r i t y of t h e m e m b e r s presen t . T h e only except ion is in t he case of a bill to a m e n d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , w h e r e a ma jo r i t y of n o t less t h a n two-thirds o f t h e t o t a l m e m b e r s h i p (whether present a n d vo t ing or otherwise) i s required. T h e S p e a k e r a n d t h e Pres iden t of t he Senate do n o t vote unless there is a t i ed -vo te ; t h e n they cas t a v o t e to b r e a k the dead lock .

F o r vo t i ng a t e lec t ions , see E L E C T I O N S . WAKAF. P a r l i a m e n t h a s no a u t h o r i t y to legislate in respect o f waka f . W O R S H I P . F r e e d o m of w o r s h i p i s o n e o f t he f u n d a m e n t a l l iberties (q.v.). YANG D I - P E R T U A N A G O N G , H I S M A J E S T Y T H E , i s t h e Sup reme Head of t h e F e d e r a t i o n a n d as s u c h has p recedence over all o the r pe r sons . Every ac t o f g o v e r n m e n t f lows f r o m his au tho r i t y a l t hough (excluding the few mat te r s in wh ich he re ta ins a pe r sona l discret ion) he acts on the advice of Par l i ament a n d t h e C a b i n e t . T h e a p p o i n t m e n t of a P r ime Minis ter lies within his d i sc re t ion , a n d he h a s t h e r ight to r e fuse to dissolve Pa r l i ament even agains t t h e adv ice o f t h e P r ime Minis ter . As Sup reme C o m m a n d e r of the A r m e d F o r c e s , he exercises t h e p re roga t ive of mercy in respect of court ma r t i a l of fences , a n d exercises a s imilar p re roga t ive in Malacca a n d Penang as H e a d of Re l ig ion in these Sta tes if a p a r d o n is in respect of an offence aga ins t t h e M u s l i m Rel ig ion . Elsewhere, t he preroga t ive of mercy remains ves ted in t h e R u l e r o r G o v e r n o r . As foun t a in o f Justice, t he Y a n g di-Pertuan A g o n g a p p o i n t s t he L o r d Pres ident o f t he Fede ra l C o u r t a n d Judges o f t h e F e d e r a l C o u r t a n d H i g h Cour t s on the advice o f the Pr ime Minister a f t e r consu l t i ng t h e C o n f e r e n c e of R u l e r s : the p rocedure f o r this i s described u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g J U D G E S (q.v.).

The Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g i s elected by the Confe rence of Rulers , and to qualify f o r e lect ion he m u s t be o n e of the n ine Sul tans. A Ru le r is qualified to be elected un less he is a m i n o r , has not if ied the Keepe r of t he Ru le r s ' Seal tha t he d o e s n o t wish to be elected, or t he Confe rence of Rule rs has by secret ba l lo t vo ted aga ins t h i m as be ing unsui table . He holds office f o r f ive years or un t i l his ear l ie r res igna t ion or dea th . W h e n the office falls vacant, t he C o n f e r e n c e of R u l e r s mee t s to elect a successor. T h e p r o c e d u r e


i s as f o l l o w s : each R u l e r signifies his i n t en t i on (or o the rwise ) to o f fe r himself f o r e l ec t ion : a secret ba l lo t i s t h e n t a k e n on each R u l e r in t u r n star t ing wi th t h e R u l e r nex t i n p recedence a f t e r t h e la te o r f o r m e r Y a n g d i -Per tuan A g o n g ; a n d t h e f i r s t R u l e r w h o o b t a i n s n o t less t h a n f i v e vo tes f avourab le to h i m i s t hen dec la red to be elected. W h e n th i s h a s been d o n e , a Depu ty

32 (2) S u p r e m e H e a d of S t a t e m a y be elected by a s imi la r p rocess ( the T imbalan Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g ) .

On his e lect ion, t h e Y a n g d i - P e r t u a n A g o n g re l inquishes f o r his tenure 34 (i) of off ice all h is f u n c t i o n s as R u l e r of his o w n S ta t e a n d m a y a p p o i n t a 42 (10) R e g e n t . In h is S ta te , howeve r , he r e m a i n s H e a d of t h e M u s l i m Religion

( reserving h is p r e r o g a t i v e of mercy in respec t of M u s l i m of fences) : and in 34 (8) t h e event of t h e R e g e n c y b e c o m i n g v a c a n t t he r ea f t e r , he m a y appo in t a

f r e sh R e g e n t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h a t S ta te . H e must a lso a p p r o v e a n y a m e n d m e n t t o t h e S ta t e C o n s t i t u t i o n .

T h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g a r e t o o var ied t o b e listed here , b u t will be r e fe r r ed to u n d e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h e a d i n g s o f th is alpha-bet ica l d igest .

state List Z A K A T is n o t sub jec t to legis lat ion by P a r l i a m e n t .

ANNEXURE TO APPENDIX I

L E G I S L A T I V E L I S T

Subjec ts e n d o r s e d " C " a r e o n the C o n c u r r e n t Lis t a n d t h o s e m a r k e d " S " a r e o n the S ta te L i s t . W h e r e a sub j ec t i s n o t m a r k e d , legislat ive p o w e r s res t w i th t h e Federal P a r l i a m e n t . W h e r e a n i t e m i s m a r k e d " F S " , legislat ive p o w e r s m a y r e s t i n ei ther the Fede ra l o r S ta te Leg i s la tu re d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c i r cums tances .


Business and business-name registration

S Canals Canals (inter-State) Capital issues Carriage of passengers and goods

S Cattle trespass and pounds S Cemeteries

Censorship Census

S Charge of land Charitable trusts (excluding Wakaf)

S Charitable trusts Wakaf Charities and Charitable Institutions (non Muslim) Cheques

C Children, protection of Child welfare Cinemas generally

S Cinemas licensing of Cinematographic films Citizens and citizenship Civil defence Civil law and procedure Civil List (Federal)

S Civil List (State) Clinics Coat of arms Coinage Collection of public moneys (Federal and State) Commerce Commissions of Inquiry (Federal)

S Commissions of Inquiry (State) Commodity exchanges Communications Compensation, workmen's Compensation for loss of office Conditions of Service Consolidated Fund—

borrowing on security of Federal

S borrowing on security of State Consular representation Contract Control of credit

S Control of silt Conventions with other countries Copyright Corporations (generally)

S Corporations Municipal Corporations Municipal, Federal Capital Corrupt practices

C Country Planning Courts Creation of offences (Federal list)

S Creation of offences (State list) Credit, control of

S Cremation grounds Criminal investigation Criminal law and procedure

Criminals, registration of C Cruelty to animals, prevention of

Currency Dangerous and Inflammable substances Dangerous drugs Dangerous trades Dealing in property for federal purposes Deaths, registration of Debt Debt, Federal public

S Debt, State public Declarations, statutory Decorations and Orders

S Deeds and titles to land Defence Defence, civil Defence works Designs, patents, etc. Diplomatic representation

C Diseases, prevention of Diseases of plants Dispensaries Divorce (other than Muslim)

S Divorce (Muslim) C Drainage

Drugs Easements Economic Surveys Education Elections (other than local council) Electricity Emigration Employers' liability Endowments Enemy, trading with Enemy aliens Enemy property

C Entertainment duty S Escheat

Evidence, law of Exchange, foreign Exchanges, stock and commodity Explosives Exports Expulsion from Federation Extradition Extra-territorial jurisdiction Factories

S Fairs Federal Capital—

fire brigades in Municipality Municipal rates sanitation in town planning in water supply to


Federal services Federal and State joint services Federation—

audit and accounts defence of entry into an expulsion from Armed Forces

Fees— Federal list

S State list Ferries, Federal

S Ferries, State Films, cinematograph Finance Finance Council Financial procedure Firearms

S Fire Brigades Fisheries Fishing (sea)

S Fishing (riverine) S Fitrah

Flags Food control Foodstuffs Foreign and extra-territorial jurisdiction Foreign Corporations Foreign exchange Foreshores

S Forestry and Forests Funds—

Federal Consolidated S State Consolidated S Muslim Religious

Fugitive offenders Gas and gasworks Goods, adulteration, carriage production, supply distribution and standards of quality of Government contracts—

Federal S State

Government local— in Federal Capital

S outside Federal Capital FS Government Machinery FS Government Services

Gratuities Harbours

C Hawkers, itinerant Health generally

C Health, public Health insurance High seas, navigation and shipping on Hindu endowments Historical records and monuments Holding of federal property

FS Holidays Homes, remand Hospitals

FC Housing

Housing of labourers Immigration Imports and exports

FS Improvement Trusts Incorporation of corporations

FS Indemnity in respect of Legislative Lists Industrial disputes Industrial undertakings, regulation of Industry and Industries Infants Inflammable substances Inland waters Inns and innkeepers

FS Inquiry Commissions Insanity Insolvency Insurance of every description Institutions Intelligence Service

C Interest from State balances, revenue Internal security International Agreements and Treaties International organisations Interpretation of Federal law Inter-State canals, rivers, etc. Intestate succession (non-Muslim)

S Intestate succession (Muslim) Intoxicating drugs Inventions

C Irrigation Islam (see Muslim)

C Itinerant Hawkers Judicial, terms of office appointment and privileges Judgements reciprocal enforcement of Justice, administration of Labour, disputes re, housing, welfare, safety regulation and social security of

S Land is a State matter exclusively except for—

C receipts from certain sales of C rehabilitation of mined-out

land Law and procedure, civil and criminal Lawyers

S Leases Legal tender Legislative lists, amendment of Legitimacy Lending of money


Lighthouses Limitation Liquors Literary Societies

FS Loans S Local Administration S Local Authorities (other than

Federal Capital) C Local Authorities/Council

revenues S Local Government outside Federal

Capital S Local Government Services S Local Services S Lodging houses

Loss of office, compensation for Lotteries Lunacy Machinery and boilers

FS Machinery of Government Majority, age of

S Malay custom S Malay reservations

Manoeuvres Manufactured goods, quality, etc., of

S Markets S Marriage, non-Muslim

Marriage, Muslim Marriage, registration of Married women's property and status Master and servant Maternity and maternity benefits Measures and weights, standards of Mechanically propelled vehicles Medical profession Medicine Mental deficiency Mercantile law Mercantile marks Meteorological organisations Military matters Mines—

legislation (principal) regarding S leases, etc., of S prospecting for

regulation of labour, etc., on C rehabilitation of mining land C revenue from

Minors Money-lending Moneys, accounting procedure for public Monuments, ancient and historical

S Mortgage of land Municipal Corporation (Federal Capital)

S Municipal Corporation (elsewhere) C Municipal revenues

Museums Muslim affairs are on the State list

except for the ascertainment of Muslim law for federal purposes Names, business registration National emblems

C National Parks National registration National savings National Service Naturalisation Navigation Negotiable instruments Newspapers

S Nuisances in local authority areas Oaths Obnoxious trades in local authority areas

S Offences by Muslims Offenders, juvenile Official secrets Oil, oilfields Old age pensions Orders and decorations Orders and judgements, reciprocal enforcement of Ores, mineral Orphans' pensions

C Parks, National Partnership Passengers, carriage of Passports Patents Pawnbrokers Payment of public moneys anywhere Peace and war Pensions, gratuities, etc. (other than State pensions) Permits—

S for prospecting for minerals for immigration or entry into Federation

Pests, agricultural, and control of Petroleum products Pilgrimage Places of detention for lunatics Places of detention for others Planning, in Federal Capital

C Planning, town and country Plant diseases, prevention of Poisons Police Ports


Procedure— civil and criminal financial and accounting collection and payment of public moneys

Professional occupations Promissory notes Property—

enemy of married women purchase, ets., of federal

C revenue on rents from State Property other than land—

purchase, etc., of Federal and State transfer and hypothetication of

S Prospecting for minerals Protected areas Protection of—

C wild life C women, children and young

persons Provident funds Public amusements, places of

S Public amusements, licensing of Publications

C Public health Public moneys

S Public nuisance in local authority Public order Public property other than land Public Service—

Federal or ioint Federal/State S State

FS Public works Publishers Punishment of offenders Purchase of minerals and mineral ores, property for federal purposes, and public property other than land Quarantine

C Quarantine (animal) Railways (other than Penang Hill) Rates—

in Federal Capital S local

Reciprocal enforcement of judgements and orders Records, ancient and historical Reformatories Registration of—

adoptions births and deaths business and business names criminals marriages teachers, schools and school managers

S titles and deeds to land Regulation of—

corporations industrial undertakings

l a b o u r a n d safe ty in mines and oil-fields t raf f ic by m e a n s o t h e r then on r ivers wi th in o n e single State

S loca l weight a n d speed of vehicles n o t o n fede ra l r o a d s

C R e h a b i l i t a t i o n of m i n i n g land S R e l a t i o n of l a n d l o r d a n d tenant

Re l a t i ons w i th o t h e r countr ies S Rel ig ion (Mus l im)

R e m a n d h o m e s S R e n t res t r i c t ion C R e n t s on S ta t e p r o p e r t y , revenue

f r o m R e m u n e r a t i o n of Jud ic ia l officers

S R E S I D U A L P O W E R S O F L E G I S L A T I O N (Ar t . 77) Res t r i c t i on o f —

S r e n t res idence

S Res t r i c t i on on proselyt is ing M u s l i m s , p o w e r of S ta te to impose

S R i p a r i a n r igh t s S R ive r ine fishing S Rive r s if n o t in te r -S ta te or in

e s t u a r y F S R o a d s

S R u r a l B o a r d s C R u r a l B o a r d revenues

Sa lvage S S a n i t a t i o n ou t s ide Fede ra l Capital

Savings , n a t i o n a l Savings B a n k s

C Scho la r sh ips Schools , t eache r s a n d management r eg i s t r a t ion Scientif ic r e sea rch , societies and surveys Seas , s h i p p i n g a n d navigation on h igh Secrets , official Se rvan t a n d m a s t e r Service (s)—

f o r n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s inte l l igence

S loca l g o v e r n m e n t or local c h a r a c t e r

C fees f o r , if r ende red by States C soc ia l we l fa re C ve te r ina ry

S h i p p i n g S Silt c o n t r o l

Socia l secur i ty a n d l a b o u r C Socia l services

Soc ia l surveys


States Special studies, promotion of

S Speed limits on non-federal roads State (s)—

audit of accounts S Civil List

FS holidays S inquiries for State purposes

interstate rivers, canals, etc. S loans for State purposes

loans to and borrowing by S collection of statistics in

respect of S commissions of inquiry by S creation of offences by S feesinrespectofStatelistmatters S pensions by S public debt of

services common to two or more State elections Standard of time, weights and measures Standard of quality of goods

FS Statistics Statutory declarations Stock and commodity exchanges Studies, promotion of special Subversion, control of Succession, testate and intestate non-muslims

S Muslims Superannuation Supply of goods and waterpower, and water to the Federal Capital Surveys (topographical and revenue) Surveys, social, economic and scientific Teachers, registration of Technical education Technical research Telecommunications Television

S Tenant and landlord, relations of Tender, legal

S Tenure of land Testate and intestate succession—

non-Muslim S Muslim

Theatres, control of

S licensing of Tidal waters, shipping and navigation Time, standard of Titles and deeds to land, registration of

C Toddy shops, revenue from S Town Board authorities C Town Board/Council revenues

C Town planning generally in— Federal Capital

Trade marks Trade registration Trade Unions Trades, dangerous

S Trades, noxious in local authorities Trading with the enemy Traffic, other than riverine

S Transfer of land Transfer of other property Treaties

S Treasure trove C Treasure revenues from

Trust (other than Muslim) S Turtles

Unemployment insurance Uniforms Unincorporated societies Unions, trade University education

C Vagrancy Vehicles, mechanically propelled

S Vehicles, speed, etc., on State roads

C Veterinary services Visas Visiting Forces Vocational education

S Wakaf War damage War and peace War risk insurance

S Water Water power Water, tidal and inland

S Water supplies inter-State or to Federal Capital

S Weight of vehicles on State, etc., roads

Weights and Measures, standard of Welfare, maternity and child Welfare, social, aboriginal and

labour Widows' pensions

C Wild animals, protection of Winding-up of corporations Wireless

C Women, protection of Women, married, property and status of Workmen's compensation Works, defence

SF Works, public S Works, water

APPENDIX II

MALAYSIA YEAR BOOK 1964

G E N E R A L I N F O R M A T I O N

This A p p e n d i x is des igned to p rov ide i n f o r m a t i o n which is n o t con ta ined in the Statistical A p p e n d i x ( A p p e n d i x I I I ) a n d which is, of its n a t u r e , e i ther var iab le f r o m year to year or f o r o ther r easons i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r inclusion in t h e b o d y o f t he Y e a r B o o k .

T H E N A T I O N A L A N T H E M

R e p r o d u c e d oppos i t e is t he text a n d mus ic of Negara-Ku, Ma lays i a ' s N a t i o n a l Anthem which has a lso been M a l a y a ' s N a t i o n a l A n t h e m since Independence . T h e music derives f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l A n t h e m of Pe rak—Terang Bulan—but is p layed at a slower tempo. T h e w o r d s were specially wr i t ten .

Versions of the National Anthem T h e r e a r e t h r e e vers ions o f t h e A n t h e m :

(1) F u l l / R o y a l Vers ion . Th i s is t he version which chi ldren in schools a r e t augh t to sing. I t m a y a lso be used in p u b l i c when i t i s s u n g or p l a y e d by orches t ras . When used as a salute , however , t h e fu l l vers ion m a y be p layed only f o r H i s Majes ty the Yang d i -Pe r tuan Agong , o r His Highness t h e T i m b a l a n Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan Agong while exercising t he f u n c t i o n s of t h e Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g , or a R u l e r nominated to exercise t he f u n c t i o n s o f t he Y a n g d i -Pe r tuan A g o n g , o r w h e n t he R o y a l Standard i s b r o k e n to symbol i se t h e p resence o f H i s M a j e s t y .

(2) Abr idged version cons is t ing of t he f i rs t e ight ba r s a n d the last e ight ba r s (i.e. omitting t he passage be tween A a n d B) is f o r u se as a sa lu te f o r — (a) H e r Ma je s ty t he R a j a P e r m a i s u r i A g o n g ; (b) T h e Excellencies t he G o v e r n o r s o f M a l a c c a a n d P e n a n g ; (c) T h e Official representa t ive of H i s M a j e s t y ( w h e n H i s M a j e s t y is represented

by o n e of The i r Highnesses t he Ru le r s , the a p p r o p r i a t e S ta te A n t h e m should f i r s t be p layed in f u l l f o l l owed by t h e ab r idged vers ion o f t he N a t i o n a l Anthem);

(d) H i s Ma jes ty ' s d ip lomat i c representa t ives in C o m m o n w e a l t h a n d foreign countries. Th is vers ion i s a lso to be p layed w h e n t h e T o a s t o f His M a j e s t y t h e Y a n g di-Pertuan A g o n g i s a c c o m p a n i e d by mus ic .

(3) Shor t vers ion consis t ing of t he las t 8 b a r s ( s ta r t ing j u s t be fo re B) to be played at t h e end o f pub l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d en te r t a inmen t s .

632 . M A L A Y S I A Y E A R B O O K

G E N E R A L I N F O R M A T I O N 633

MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (DEWAN RA'AY AT)

Mr Speaker, Dato' C. M. Yusuf bin Sheikh Abdul Rahman, S.P.M.P., J.P. Prime Minister, Minister of External Affairs and Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports, Y.T.M. Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj., K.O.M. (Kuala Kedah). Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Defence and Minister of National and Rural Deve-lopment, Tun Haji Abdul Razak bin Dato' Hussein, S.M.N. (Pekan). Minister of Home Affairs and Minister of Justice, Dato' Dr Ismail bin Dato' Haji Abdul Rahman, P.M.N. (Johor Timor). Minister of Finance, Enche' Tan Siew Sin, j.p. (Melaka Tengah). Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications, Dato' V. T. Sambanthan, P.M.N. (Sungei Siput). Minister of Transport, Dato' Haji Sardon bin Haji Jubir, P.M.N. (Pontian Utara). Minister of Education, Enche' Mohamed Khir Johari (Kedah Tengah). Minister of Health, Enche' Bahaman bin Samsudin (Kuala Pilah). Minister of Commerce and Industry, Dr Lim Swee Aun, J.P. (Larut Selatan). Minister for Welfare Services, Tuan Haji Abdul Hamid Khan bin Haji Sakhawat Ali Khan, J.M.N., J.P. (Batang Padang). Minister for Local Government and Housing, Enche' Khaw Kai-Boh, P.J.K. (Ulu Selangor). Minister for Sarawak Affairs, Dato' Temenggong Jugah anak Barieng, P.M.N., P.D.K, (Sarawak). Minister of Labour, Enche' V. Manickavasagam, J.M.N., P.J.K. (Klang). Minister of Information and Broadcasting, Enche' Senu bin Abdul Rahman (Kubang Pasu Barat). Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Tuan Haji Mohd. Ghazali bin Haji Jawi (Ulu Perak). Minister for Sabah Affairs and Civil Defence, Datu Donald Aloysius Stephens, P.D.K., P.N.B.s. (Sabah). Minister of Lands and Mines, Enche' Abdul-Rahman bin Ya'kub (Sarawak). Assistant Minister of Commerce and Industry, Tuan Haji Abdul Khalid bin Awang Osman (Kota Star Utara). Assistant Minister of National and Rural Development, Enche' Sulaiman bin Bulon, P.J.K, (Bagan Datoh). Assistant Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports, Engku Muhsein bin Abdul Kadir* D.P.M.T., J.M.N., P.J.K . ( T r e n g g a n u T e n g a h ) .

Assistant Minister of Education, Enche' Lee Siok Yew, A.M.N., P.J.K. (Sepang). Enche' Abdul Ghani bin Ishak, A.M.N. (Melaka Utara). Enche' Abdul Karim bin Abu, A.M.N. (Melaka Selatan). Wan Abdul Kadir bin Ismail, P.P.T. (Kuala Trengganu Utara). Enche' Abdul Rahim Ishak (Singapore). Enche' Abdul Rahman bin Haji Talib, P.J.K. (Kuantan). Wan Abdul Rahman bin Datu Tuanku Bujang (Sarawak).


m e m b e r s o f t h e h o u s e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s — i c o n t . )

Enche' Abu Bakar bin Hamzah (Bachok). Tuan Haji Ahmad bin Abdullah (Kelantan Hilir). Enche' Ahmad bin Arshad, A.M.N. (Muar Utara). Tuan Haji Ahmad bin Saaid, j.p. (Seberang Utara). Che' Ajibah binti Abol (Sarawak). Enche' Ali bin Haji Ahmad (Pontian Selatan). O. K. K. Datu Aliuddin bin Datu Harun, P.D.K. (Sabah). Dr Awang bin Hassan, S.M.J. (Muar Selatan). Enche' Aziz bin Ishak (Muar Dalam). Enche' Jonathan Bangau anak Renang, A.B.S. (Sarawak). Pengarah Banyang anak Janting, P.B.S. (Sarawak). Enche' E. W. Barker (Singapore). Enche' Chan Chong Wen, A.M.N. (Kluang Selatan). Enche' Chan Seong Yoon (Setapak). Enche' Chan Siang Sun (Bentong). Enche' Chen Wing Sum (Damansara). Enche' Chia Chin Shin, A.B.S. (Sarawak). Enche' Francis Chia Nyuk Tong (Sabah). Enche' Chia Thye Poh (Singapore). Enche' Chin Foon (Ulu Kinta). Enche' C. V. Devan Nair (Bungsar). Enche' Edwin anak Tangkun (Sarawak). Tuan Syed Esa bin Alwee, J.M.N., S.M.J., P.I.S. (Batu Pahat Dalam). Datin Fatimah binti Haji Abdul Majid (Johore Bahru Timor). Datin Fatimah binti Haji Hashim, P.M.N. (Jitra-Padang Terap). Enche' S. Fasul Rahman, A.D.K. (Sabah). Datu Ganie Gilong, P.D.K. (Sabah). Enche' Ganing bin Jangkat (Sabah). Enche' Geh Chong Keat, K.M.N. (Pulau Pinang Utara). Dr Goh Keng Swee (Singapore). Enche' Hamzah bin Alang, A.M.N., P.J.K. (Kapar). Enche' Hanafi bin Mohd. Yunus, A.M.N., J.P. (Kulim Utara). Enche' Hanafiah Hussain, A.M.N. (Jerai). Enche' Harun bin Abdullah, A.M.N. (Baling). Wan Hassan bin Wan Daud (Tumpat). Enche' Stanley Ho Ngun Khiu, A.D.K. (Sabah). Enche' Hussein bin To' Muda Hassan, A.M.N. (Raub). Enche' Hussein bin Mohd. Noordin, A.M.N., P.J.K. (Parit). Enche' Hussein bin Sulaiman (Ulu Kelantan). Tuan Haji Hussain Rahimi bin Haji Saman (Kota Bharu Hulu). Enche' Ikhwan Zaini (Sarawak). Enche' Ibrahim bin Abdul Rahman (Seberang Tengah). Enche' Ismail bin Idris (Pulau Pinang Selatan). Dato' Syed Ja'afar bin Hasan Albar, P.M.N. (Johore Tenggara). Enche' Jek Yeun Thong (Singapore).


m e m b e r s o f t h e h o u s e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s — ( c o n t . )

Penghulu Jinggut anak Attan, Q.M.C., A.B.S. (Sarawak). Enche' Kadam anak Kiai (Sarawak). Enche' Kam Woon Wah, J.P. (Sitiawan). Enche' Khoo Peng Loong, O.B.E. (Sarawak). Dato' Khoo Siak Chiew, P.D.K. (Sabah). Enche' Kow Kee Seng (Singapore). Enche' Edmund Langgu anak Saga (Sarawak). Enche' Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore). Enche' Lee San Choon, K.M.N. (Segamat Selatan). Enche' Lee Seck Fun (Tanjong Malim). Enche' Amadeus Mathew Leong, A.D.K., J.P. (Sabah). Dato' Ling Beng Siew, P.N.B.S. (Sarawak). Dr Lim Chong Eu (Tanjong). Enche' Lim Huan Boon (Singapore). Enche' Lim Kean Siew (Dato Kramat). D a t o ' L i m K i m San , D.U.T., J.M.K., D.J.M.K. (Singapore) . Enche' Lim Pee Hung, P.J.K. (Alor Star). Enche' Peter Lo Su Yin (Sabah). Dr Mahathir bin Mohamad (Kota Star Selatan). Enche' T. Mahima Singh, J.P. (Port Dickson). Enche' Joseph David Manjaji (Sabah). Dato' Dr Haji Megat Khas, D.P.M.P., J.P., P.J.K. (Kuala Kangsar). Enche' Mohd. Arif Salleh, A.D.K. (Sabah). Enche' Mohamed Asri bin Haji Muda, P.M.K. (Pasir Puteh). Orang Tua Mohammad Dara bin Langpad (Sabah). Enche' Mohd. Daud bin Abdul Samad (Besut). Enche' Mohamed Idris bin Matsil, J.M.N., P.J.K., J.P. (Jelebu-Jempol). Enche' Mohd. Tahir bin Abdul Majid, S.M.S., P.J.K. (Kuala Langat). Enche' Mohamed Yusof bin Mahmud, A.M.N. (Temerloh). Enche' Mohamed Zahir bin Haji Ismail, J.M.N. (Sungei Patani). Wan Mokhtar bin Ahmad (Kemaman). Tuan Haji Mokhtar bin Haji Ismail (Perlis Selatan). Enche' Muhammad Fakhruddin bin Haji Abdullah (Pasir Mas Hilir). Tuan Haji Muhammad Su'aut bin Haji Muhd. Tahir, A.B.S. (Sarawak). Dato' Haji Mustapha bin Haji Abdul Jabar, D.P.M.S., A.M.N., J.P. (Sabak Bernam). Enche' Mustapha bin Ahmad (Tanah Merah). Dato ' N i k A h m a d K a m i l , D.K., S.P.M.K., S.J.M.K., P.M.N., P.Y.G.P., D a t o ' Sri Setia R a j a (Kota Bharu Hilir).


m e m b e r s o f t h e h o u s e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s — i c o n t . )

Enche' Othman bin Wok (Singapore). Enche' Quek Kai Dong, J.P. (Seremban Timor). Enche' S. Rajaratnam (Singapore). Tuan Haji Rahmat bin Haji Daud, A.M.N. (Johore Bahra Barat). Enche' Ramli bin Omar (Rrian Darat). Tuan Haji Redza bin Haji Mohd. Said, P.J.K., J.P. (Rembau-Tampin). Raja Rome bin Raja Ma'amor, P.J.K., J.P. (Kuala Selangor). Enche' Sandom anak Nyuak (Sarawak). Enche' Seah Teng Ngiab, P.I.S. (Muar Pantai). Enche' D. R. Seenivasagam (Ipoh). Enche' S. P. Seenivasagam (Menglembu). Enche' Sim Boon Liang, A.B.S. (Sarawak). Enche' Siow Loong Hin, P.J.K. (Seremban Barat). Enche' Snawi bin Ismail, P.J.K. (Seberang Selatan). Enche' Sng Chin Joo (Sarawak). Enche' Soh Ah Teck (Batu Pahat). Enche' Sulaiman bin Ali (Dungun). Pengiran Tahir Petra (Sabah). Enche' Tajudin bin Ali, P.J.K. (Larut Utara). Enche' Tai Kuan Yang (Kulim-Bandar Bharu). Enche' Tama Weng Tinggang Wan (Sarawak). Dr Tan Chee Khoon (Batu). Enche' Tan Cheng Bee, J.P. (Bagan). Enche' Tan Kee Gak (Bandar Melaka). Enche' Tan Toh Hong (Bukit Bintang). Enche' Tan Tsak Yu (Sarawak). Enche' Tiah Eng Bee (Kluang Utara). Dr Toh Chin Chye (Singapore). Enche' Toh Theam Hock (Kampar). Penghulu Francis Umpau anak Empam (Sarawak). Enche' Wee Toon Boon (Singapore). Enche' Yeh Pao Tze (Sabah). Enche' Yeoh Tat Beng (Bruas). Enche' Stephen Yong Kuet Tze (Sarawak). Enche' Yong Nyuk Lin (Singapore). Tuan Haji Zakaria bin Haji Mohd. Talib, P.J.K. (Langat). Clerk to the House of Representatives, Tuan Sheikh Abdullah bin Sheikh Abu Bakar.


THE CABINET—I

Minister of Finance Minister of Works, Posts and Telecommunications Minister of Transport

Minister without Portfolio Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives Minister of Health Minister of Education

Minister of Commerce and Industry Minister for Welfare Services

Minister for Local Government and Housing Minister for Sarawak Affairs

Minister of Labour Minister of Information and Broadcasting

(cont.)

Enche' Tan Siew Sin, J.P. Dato' V. T. Sambanthan, P.M.N. Dato' Haji Sardon bin Haji Jubir, P.M.N. Dato' Ong Yoke Lin, P.M.N. Enche' Mohd. Khir Johari Enche' Bahaman bin Samsudin Enche' Abdul Rahman bin Haji Talib Dr Lim Swee Aun, j.p. Capt. Abdul Hamid Khan bin Haji Sakhawat Ali Khan, J.M.N., J.P. Enche' Khaw Kai-Boh, P.J.K. Dato' Temenggong Jugah anak Barieng, P.D.K. Enche' V. Manickavasagam, J.M.N. Enche' Senu bin Abdul Rahman

638 . M A L A Y S I A Y E A R BOOK

HIS MAJESTY'S JUDGES—(cont.)

HIGH COURT IN SINGAPORE: The Honourable Mr Justice Wee Chong Jin, Chief Justice, Singapore The Honourable Mr Justice F. A. Chua .. The Honourable Mr Justice J.W.D. Ambrose The Honourable Mr Justice A. V. Winslow The Honourable Mr Justice T. Kulasekaram The Honourable Mr Justice Choor Singh The Honourable Mr Justice M. Buttrose ..

HIGH COURTS IN SARAWAK AND SABAH: The Honourable Sir Campbell Wylie, E.D., Q.C., Chief Justice, Sarawak The Honourable Mr Justice A. H. Simpson The Honourable Mr Justice E. R. Harley The Honourable Mr Justice D. B. McGilligan

Date of appointment

5-1-63 15-2-57 15-5-58 1-10-62 28-8-63 28-8-63

24-12-56

14-1-63 5-3-62 1-4-62 9-3-63

THE LAW OFFICERS OF THE CROWN

Attorney-General

Solicitor-General

Enche' Abdul Kadir bin Yusof, P.J .K. (Barrister-at-law) Enche' H. S. Ong

DISTRIBUTION OF MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS (as on 16th May, 1964)

Departments

PRIME MINISTER'S DEPARTMENT Cabinet Division, Administration and Finance Division, Ceremonials Division, Economic Planning Unit, Malaysia Affairs Division, Federal Secretary's Department, Government Accommodation Office, Research Division, Actuary Office, Federation Establishment Office, Public Records Office, Statistics Department.


MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS— (cont.)

Departments Subjects

PRIME MINISTER'S DEPARTMENT—{cont.) General economic policy and economic advice to Ministers, National Development Plan, Economic Committee of the Cabinet, National Development Planning Committee, Economic Advisory Committee, Economic research and intelligence, Colombo Plan, ECAFE and the Commonwealth Economic Committee, Technical Assistance Policy and Programmes (including OPEX, Colombo Plan, relations with UNTAA and UN Specialised Agencies), Integration of Federal Departments, Agreements, undertakings and assurances, Federalised Public Services, Compensation schemes Emergency Executive Council Appointments, Public Services Agreements, Allocation of accommodation in Kuala Lumpur for Government officers and distinguished guests Holiday bungalows, General public services other than the Armed Forces, Terms and conditions of service, Schemes of Service, Control of establishment, Establishment Committee, Standing Committee on Pay and Con-ditions of Service, Standing Committee on Scholarships and Training, Malayanisation Committee, Staff Claims, Whitley Council, Administration of scholarships and training (in conjunction with the Ministry of Education),


MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS—(cont.)

Departments

PRIME MINISTER'S DEPARTMENT—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS Political and Information Division, Administration Division, Protocol Division, Consular Division, Malaysian Diplomatic and Consular Missions overseas, Malaysian National, Secretariat of ASA.

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE Secretarial Division, Administration Division, Finance Division, Armed Forces Joint Service Division, Joint Operations Centre, The Army Staff Division, The Naval Staff Division, The Air Staff Division, Personnel Division, Logistic Division, Defence Establishments, Department of Manpower and National Service.

Subjects

Public records, Public archives, Economic and business records, Legal deposit under the Preservation of Books Ordinance, National income estimates, Balance of payments estimates, Annual and monthly manufacturing statistics, Monthly and annual rubber statistics and estimate statistics for other crops, Foreign trade statistics, Banking statistics, Retail food prices and retail price indices, Surveys, such as the annual survey on employment and unemployment in metropolitan towns, Production of electoral rolls.

External Affairs, including treaties, agreements and conventions with other countries, and all matters which bring Malaysia into relations with any other country, Co-ordination of ASA matters and relations with member countries of ASA, Implementation of treaties, agreements and conventions with other countries, Diplomatic, consular and trade agencies.


MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS—{cont.)

Departments

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF NATIONAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT Rural and Industrial Development Authority, Land Development Authority.

MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS Police, Immigration, Pilgrimage Control, Prisons, Government Printing, Registration of Societies, Registration of Residents and Citizens, Chemistry, Anti-Corruption Agency, Psychological Warfare, Senoi Praak, Censorship, Control of Publications, Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages, Commissioner of the Federal Capital.

Subjects

Ex-Servicemen, Cadet Corps, Control and direction of manpower in time of war, National Service.


M I N I S T E R I A L F U N C T I O N S — ( c o n t . )


MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF JUSTICE Judicial, Legal, Public Trustee and Official Assignee, Custodian of Enemy Property, Official Administrator.

MINISTRY OF FINANCE The Treasury:

Finance Division, Supply Division, Administration Division, Economic Division, Organisation and Methods Division, Valuation Division, Insurance Division,

Official secrets, Police land, finances and stores, Cryptography, Commercial and industrial explosives, Passports, visas and entry permits, Pilgrimage to Mecca, Administration of prisons, Henry Gurney Schools, Detention camps, Printing of Government documents, etc., Registration of societies, Cancellation of societies, Federal citizenship and naturalisation, Deprivation of citizenship, Chemistry, Corrupt practices, Moral drive against corruption, Preventive measures against corruption, All matters concerning psychological warfare, Operations against terrorists, National Defence Council, Policy matters dealing with campaign against terrorists and infiltrators, National Operations Committee:

Day to day operational matters dealing with campaign against terrorists and infiltrators,

Cinematograph films, Control of publications, Matters concerning births, deaths and marriages, Federal Capital Act.

Legal profession, Fugitive offenders.



Departments

MINISTRY OF FINANCE—(cont.)

Stores and Contracts Division, Accountant-General's Department, Customs and Excise Department, Inland Revenue Department.

MINISTRY OF WORKS, POSTS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Posts,

Telecommunications, Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs, Borneo Region, Armed Forces Works Section, Education Works Section.

Subjects

Control of tenders and purchases, Currency, legal tender and coinage, Employees Provident Fund and Other provident funds, Establishment control, Financial and accounting procedure including procedure for the collection, custody and payment of public monies of the Federation and the States and the purchase, custody and disposal of public property other than land of the Federation and of the States, Fiscal policy, Foreign exchange, Insurance, Loans boards,

Loans to or borrowing by the States, public authorities and private enterprise, National savings and savings banks, Pensions and compensation for loss of office and retirement, Public debt of the Federation, Raising of loans, Registration of businesses, Relations with International Financial Institutions (including I.M.F., I.B.R.D., I.D.A. and I.F.C.) Relief from income tax for pioneer industries, Tariff Advisory Board, Taxation and revenue, War Damage.




MINISTRY OF WORKS, POSTS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS—(cont.)


MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS—(cont.) Departments Subjects

MINISTRY OF WORKS, POSTS AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT Civil Aviation, Marine, Marine Survey, Meteorological Services, Railway, Road Transport-.


MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS—(coni.)

Departments

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND CO-OPERATIVES

Agriculture, Veterinary, Drainage and Irrigation, Co-operative Development, Rehabilitation of Special Constables.

Subjects

Agricultural production and research, Agricultural extension, Agricultural statistics and economics, Agricultural education and training, Soil survey, Food technology, Introduction of new economic crops, Coconut replanting and rehabilitation, Plant protection and quarantine, Farmers' association, Agricultural census, Malayan Agri-Horticultural Association, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Freedom-from-Hunger Campaign, Afro-Asian Rural Reconstruction Organization, Livestock conservation, improvement and production, Control of animal diseases, quarantine and research, Meat inspection and abattoir control, Hydrology, River conservancy, Fisheries administration and development of marine and fresh water fisheries, Lights and navigational aids for fishermen, Development of fishing ports, Marine and fresh water biological stations and aquaria, Fisheries technological station, Education facilities for fishermen,



Departments

MINISTRY OF HEALTH

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

Subjects

Hospitals, clinics and dispensaries, Medical profession, Dental profession, Public health, Midwives, Maternity and child welfare, Medical research, Medical stores, Leprosy and Leprosarium, Lunacy and mental deficiency including places of reception and treatment, Quarantine, World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), Federation of Malaya Red Cross Society, Federation of Malaya St. John's Ambulance, Rural health service, Control of food, drugs and poisons, International Sanitary Regulations.



Departments

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION—{cont.)

MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

Registrar of Companies, Export Commodities Division, Government Rubber Replanting Schemes, Tourist Promotion Section, Industrial Development Division, National Productivity Centre, Trade Division, Supplies Department, Import and Export Control Office, Registrar of Trade Marks, Economic Affairs (Office Penang), Malay Secretariat.

Subjects

Registration of schools, teachers, managers and employees, Overseas students' welfare, National Joint Council for Teachers, Muslim religious instruction in secondary schools and financial aid to primary and non-Government religious schools, Educational exchange programmes—

Fulbright, Commonwealth Education Schemes, Hostels and residential schools,

Security in schools, Education rates, Teachers Provident Fund, Unified Teaching Service, Technical education, Special education, National and State Education Advisory Boards, Cadet Corps, Civics education in primary and secondary schools.




MINISTRY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY—(cont.)

Economic aspects of mining policy (including iron-ore mining), International Tin Agreement International Tin Study Group Timber trade, Natural Rubber Bureau, Malayan Pineapple Industry Board (including pineapple legislation), Tourist trade, Industrial development, Pioneer industries legislation, Tariff Advisory Committee, Industrial sites, Productivity Centre, Industrial Research Institute, Investment agreements, International trade including trade and commodity agreements and treaties, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Barter trade, Trade fairs, Anti-dumping and subsidies legislation, Weights and measures, Trade Commissioners, Food and other essential civil supplies (including rice), Internal economic controls (e.g. price control, rationing, etc.), Economic defence measures (including stockpiles of rice and other civil supplies), Guaranteed minimum price of padi, Import and export control, Registration of trade marks, patents and designs, Malay participation in commerce and industry, Central Electricity Board, Malayan Pineapple Industry Board.

MINISTRY OF WELFARE SERVICES



Departments

MINISTRY OF WELFARE SERVICES—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF CULTURE, YOUTH AND SPORTS Museums.

MINISTRY OF LANDS AND MINES Lands, Mines, Survey, Geological Survey, Forestry, Game, Aborigine Affairs.

Subjects

Assistance to voluntary bodies engaged in welfare work, Social and Welfare Services Lotteries Board, Approved schools, Remand Homes, Probation of offenders, Juvenile offenders, Women's institutes, Protection of women and children, Welfare assistance to repatriates, including foreigners stranded in Malaysia, Children and Young Persons, Ordinance enforcement co-ordinating Council in Welfare Work.

GENERAL INFORMATION 651

MINISTERIAL FUNCTIONS—(coni.)

Departments

MINISTRY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND HOUSING Commissioner of Local Government, Town and Country Planning, Fire Services Inspectorate, Commissioner of Civil Defence.

MINISTRY OF LABOUR Labour and Industrial Relations, Machinery, Central Apprenticeship Board, Registry of Trade Unions.

Subjects



Departments MINISTRY OF LABOUR—(cont.)

MINISTRY OF INFORMATION AND BROADCASTING Department of Information (including Malaysian Film Unit), Department of Radio, Department of Television.

Subjects

Industrial safety, health and welfare, Examination for engineers (land), dredge-masters and engine-drivers (land), certificates of competency, Approval of manufacture of steam boilers and unfired pressure vessels, Approval of installation of electric passenger and goods lifts, National apprenticeship scheme, Registration and inspection of trade unions.

APPENDIX I I I

MALAYSIA YEAR BOOK, 1964 STATISTICAL A P P E N D I X

NOTE

The following fifty-nine Tables of Statistics have been selected by the Chief Statistician, States of Malaya, as being fairly representative of the various activities of Malaya. They are actually for the most part extracts from the Monthly Statistical Bulletin published by the Chief Statistician, which contains many other and more deeply analysed figures. The Monthly Statis-tical Bulletin may be obtained from the Chief Statistician at $2.00 per month post free (inland), or $2.50 per month post free (abroad).

It is regretted that Malaysian Statistics are not available at the moment except Table No. 14 (A).

LIST OF TABLES TABLE

1. Population 2. Natural increase of Population 3. Births registered and crude birth rate 4. Deaths registered and crude death rate 5. 1957 total population by race, sex and State compared with 1947 6. Classification of total population by locality (size as in 1957 Census) 7. Municipalities, Town Councils, etc., with population of 10,000 or

over, as in the 1957 Census 8. Total Population by sex, age-group and State 9. Expenditure on Gross National Product

10. Industrial Origin of Gross Domestic Product at Factor Cost 11. The Finance of Gross Domestic Capital Formation 12. Composition of Gross Domestic Capital Formation 13. Summary of State Government Revenue and Expenditure 14. Balance of Payments—States of Malaya 14 (A). Balance of Payments—Malaysia 15. Gold and Foreign Exchange 16. Monetary Survey 17. Details of Duties collected on exports of rubber and tin 18. Estimated Monetary Supply in Malaya 19. Liabilities and assets of Federation Commercial Banks 20. Liabilities and assets of the Central Bank of Malaysia 21. Post Office Savings Bank Statistics 22. Company Registration and Nominal Capitals 23. Cultivated Area under Crops

n - n l D f rl I I nf 1


TABLE

25. Rice Production and Imports 26. Rubber Statistics 27. Production of Minerals 28. Principal Statistics of Selected Manufacturing Industries, 1959, 1960,

1961 and 1962 29. Manufacturing: Output of Certain Products 30. Value of Imports 31. Volume and Value of Exports 32. Imports by Country 33. Exports by Country 34. Wholesale Prices 35. Retail Prices of Foodstuffs 36. Labourers' Cost-of-Living Indices 37. Population in private households by size

the household as in the 1957 Census 38. Average Consumption of Malay, Chinese

the States of Malaya, 1957-58 39. Average Consumption of Malay, Chinese

Rural Areas, 1957-58 40. Average Consumption of Malay, Chinese

Urban Areas, 1957-58 41. Malayan Railway Statistics 42. Motor Vehicles Registered 43. Air Traffic Statistics 44. Shipping Statistics 45. Port Tonnages 46. Summary of Electricity Statistics 47. Details of Electricity Generated 48. Number of Co-operative Societies registered and membership 49. Broadcasting and Rediffusion 50. Number of Schools 51. Number of Pupils 52. Number of Teachers 53 (A). Literacy of the population as in the 1957 Census 53 (B). Literacy Rates Per Cent of Total Population in 1947 and 1957 54. Health Services 55. Employment in Selected Occupations, 1947 and 1957 56. Employment by industry, 1947 and 1957 57. Crime Statistics 58. Prison Statistics 59. Court Statistics

and racial constitution of

and Indian households in



S T A T I S T I C A L 655


TABLE 3—BIRTHS REGISTERED AND CRUDE BIRTH RATE: STATES OF MALAYA

STATISTICAL 671

TABLE 10—INDUSTRIAL ORIGIN OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AT FACTOR COST: STATES OF MALAYA—(cont.)

(S Million)


TABLE 12—COMPOSITION OF GROSS DOMESTIC CAPITAL FORMATION: STATES OF MALAYA

STATISTICAL 673

TABLE 14—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS: STATES OF MALAYA

1.1. Estimates of Recent Years This table has been revised and estimates for earlier years are not shown as the basis for computation was changed beginning with the estimates for 1960.

1960 1961 1962 1963


TABLE 15—GOLD AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE: STATES OF MALAYA

As at end ofperiod

Monetary Authorities

Currency Central Total Board ( / ) bank

Commercial Banks States Public Post

of Malaya autho- Deposits Other Total (4) Office Govern- rities (3) in Foreign sayings

ment (2) S'pore Exchange bank


T a b l e 1 7 — D e t a i l s o f D u t i e s C o l l e c t e d o n E x p o r t s o f R u b b e r a n d T i n : S t a t e s o f M a l a y a

RUBBER TIN

Tin and First Third tin-in

Period schedule Second schedule Replanting concentrate Cess on (duty, ad schedule (I) (research cess (2) (.duty, ad tin valorem) cess) valorem)

S1,000


TABLE 19—LIABILITIES AND ASSETS OF STATES OF MALAYA COMMERCIAL BANKS



TABLE 23—CULTIVATED AREA UNDER CROPS

1950 1955 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 Crop

(In thousands of acres)


T A B L E 2 8 — P R I N C I P A L STAT IST ICS O F SELECTED M A N U F A C T U R I N G INDUSTR IES , 1 9 5 9 , 1 9 6 0 , 1 9 6 1 A N D 1 9 6 2

STATES OF MALAYA

TABLE 28—PRINCIPAL STATISTICS OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1959, 1960, STATES OF MALAYA—(cont.)

1961 AND 1962

TABLE 28—PRINCIPAL STATISTICS OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1959, 1960, 1961 AND 1962 STATES OF MALAYA—(cont.)

c \ oo 4^

T a b l e 2 8 — P r i n c i p a l S t a t i s t i c s o f S e l e c t e d M a n u f a c t u r i n g I n d u s t r i e s , 1959, I 9 6 0 , 1961 a n d 1 9 6 2 S t a t e s o f M a l a y a — ( c o n t . )

TABLE 28—PRINCIPAL STATISTICS OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, 1959, 1960, STATES OF MALAYA—(cont.)

1961 AND 1962 ON oo oo

STATISTICAL 689

TABLE 29—MANUFACTURING: OUTPUT OF CERTAIN PRODUCTS STATES OF MALAYA

TABLE 30—VALUE OF IMPORTS: STATES OF MALAYA

M A L A Y S I A YEAR B O O K

T A B L E 3 2 — I M P O R T S B Y C O U N T R Y : STATES O F M A L A Y A

TJ m

O > •z >

TABLE 33—EXPORTS BY COUNTRY: STATES OF MALAYA


TABLE 37—POPULATION IN PRIVATE HOUSEHOLDS BY SIZE AND RACIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE HOUSEHOLD o\ VO

STATISTICAL 695

T a b l e 3 8 — A v e r a g e C o n s u m p t i o n o f M a l a y , C h i n e s e a n d I n d i a n H o u s e h o l d s i n t h e S t a t e s o f M a l a y a , 1957-58

T a b l e 3 9 — A v e r a g e C o n s u m p t i o n o f M a l a y , C h i n e s e a n d I n d i a n H o u s e h o l d s i n R u r a l A r e a s , 1 9 5 7 - 5 8


TABLE 40—AVERAGE CONSUMPTION OF MALAY, CHINESE AND INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS IN URBAN AREAS, 1957-58

STATISTICAL 697

TABLE 42—MOTOR VEHICLES REGISTERED: STATES OF MALAYA

TABLE 4 3 — A I R TRAFFIC STATISTICS: STATES OF MALAYA


TABLE 44—SHIPPING STATISTICS—ALL ENTRANCES AND CLEARANCES PRINCIPAL STATES OF MALAYA PORTS OR VESSELS OVER 75 NET

REGISTERED TONS IN FOREIGN TRADE


TABLE 47—DETAILS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATED : STATES OF MALAYA

TABLE 48—NUMBER OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES REGISTERED AND MEMBERSHIP: STATES OF MALAYA


TABLE 49—BROADCASTING AND REDIFFUSION: STATES OF MALAYA


TABLE 51—NUMBER OF PUPILS: STATES OF MALAYA

TABLE 52—NUMBER OF TEACHERS: STATES OF MALAYA

NUMBER OF TEACHERS

TABLE 53 (A)—TOTAL POPULATION AGED 10 YEARS AND OVER, SHOWING LITERACY IN ANY LANGUAGE, MALAY AND ENGLISH, 1957

- j o to

TABLE 53 (B)—LITERACY RATES PER CENT OF TOTAL POPULATION IN 1957 AND 1947


TABLE 54—HEALTH SERVICES: STATES OF MALAYA, 1 9 6 2

Estimated Population No. of NO. OF

State at mid registered REGISTERED NO. OF 1962 doctors DENTISTS REGISTERED



Table 56—Employment by Industry, 1947 and 1957—(cont.)


Table 57—Crime Statistics: States of Malaya


Table 59—Court Statistics: States of Malaya

APPENDIX IV

MALAYSIA OFFICIAL YEAR BOOK, 1964

POSTAL AND TELEGRAPH INFORMATION

POSTAL INFORMATION (Published by courtesy of the Postmaster-General, States of Malaya and Singapore and brought up-to-date to 16th November, 1964.

All fees and services published are liable to alteration or suspension at any time. Up-to-date information can be obtained at any Post Office).

PRINCIPAL POSTAL CHARGES

O W H > r

PRINCIPAL POSTAL CHARGES—(cortl.) -J I—I


INTERNAL AIR MAIL SERVICE All first-class mail (i.e., letters, letter packets and postcards) posted in Malaysia for destinations in Malaysia and Brunei and prepaid at the appropriate inland postage rates, is forwarded by air when-ever earlier delivery can be effected thereby. A blue air mail label is not required.

All second-class mail (i.e., Newspapers, Printed Papers, Commercial Papers, Sample Packets, Small Packets and Literature for the Blind) addressed to places within Malaysia and to Brunei, will be accepted for transmission by air mail on payment

of an air mail fee of 6 cents per 2 oz or part thereof, in addition to the ordinary inland postage rates (except on Literature for the Blind which is exempted from ordinary inland postage rates). A blue air mail label is required.

Parcels addressed to places within Malaysia will be accepted for transmission by air mail on payment of an air mail fee of 50 cents per lb or part thereof, in addition to the ordinary charges for such articles by surface route. A blue air mail label is required.

INSURANCE

Insured letters, boxes and parcels are accepted at all post offices. Insured articles are not accepted at or delivered from Postal Agencies.

The maximum amount for which a letter, box or parcel posted at or addressed to the General Post Office at Singapore, Johore Bahru, Malacca, Penang, Seremban, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Taiping, Alor Star, Kota Bharu (Kelantan) and Kuala Trengganu may be insured is $3,430. At all other post offices, the limit of insurance is $510 but the Inland insurance service has been temporarily suspended.

An insured box must not exceed 2 lb in weight and must not measure more than 12 inches in length, 8 inches in breadth and 4 inches in depth.

Letters containing valuable paper (bank notes, currency notes, bonds, coupons, securities, etc.) or valuable documents (plans, estimates, contracts, etc.) may be accepted for insurance. Postcards, news-papers, packets of printed papers or com-mercial papers, sample packets, small packets or letters containing articles other than those mentioned above cannot be insured. An article of value which cannot be forwarded by insured letter post may generally be sent by insured parcel post.

Articles of platinum, gold or silver, coin, precious stones, jewellery or other precious articles prohibited from transmission by ordinary, registered or insured letter post may be forwarded in insured boxes to the places which admit them.

The transmission of the under-mentioned articles in insured boxes is forbidden:

(o) Letters, notes or documents having the character of current and per-sonal correspondence:

(6) Bank notes, currency notes or securities of any kind payable to bearer;

(c) Coin or bullion exceeding $50 in value except coin obviously inten-ded for the purposes of ornament.

Exceptionally, an open invoice confined to the particulars which constitute an invoice and also a simple copy of the addressee's name and address and the name and address of the sender are permitted to be enclosed in an insured box.

Insured articles must be sealed. All seals must be of the same kind of wax (or lead or steel in the case of parcels), and must bear distinct impressions of the same private device. Coins are not permitted to be used for sealing nor may the device consist merely of straight, crossed or curved lines which are readily imitable.

The amount in local currency for which an article is to be insured must be written by the sender in ink or in indelible pencil on the address side of the article as shown below in words, in Roman characters md in Arabic figures without erasure correction of any kind even if certifies' "Insured for two hundred dollars ($200)".

The only declaration as to contents or value allowed on the cover of an insured article (except such declaration as may be

P E K D A N A L E A D E R S H I P

FOUNDATION Y A Y A 5 A M K E P I H P I N A N P E R O A N A


INSURANCE—(cont.) required for Customs purposes) is the value for which the contents are insured.

A parcel intended for insurance must be packed carefully and substantially with due regard to the nature of the contents and the length of the journey. The parcel must be sealed with wax, lead or steel bearing a private mark or device in such a way that it cannot be opened without either breaking

the seals or leaving obvious traces of violation.

Cash-on-Delivery parcels, but not covers containing a Railway Receipt or a Bill of Lading exceptionally admitted as Cash-on-Delivery parcels for delivery within Malaysia, may be insured under the conditions laid- down for insured parcels.

PARCEL POST

The Parcel Post service is in operation in Malaysia and with a large number of countries overseas.

The rates of postage on parcels posted in Malaysia for delivery within Malaysia are as follows :

S c. Not exceeding 2 lb in weight 80 Exceeding 2 lb but not exceeding 3 lb in weight 1 00 Exceeding 3 lb but not exceeding 7 lb in weight 1 40 Exceeding 7 lb but not exceeding 11 lb in weight 2 00 Exceeding 11 lb but not exceeding 22 lb in weight 3 00

Parcels must be securely packed having regard to the nature of the contents, the length of the journey and the conditions of transit.

Customs declarations are required for : 0a) All parcels despatched to desti-

nations outside Malaysia; (b) All parcels posted in the States of

Malaya for delivery in Singapore, Sabah or Sarawak;

(c) All parcels posted in Singapore or Penang for delivery in the States of Malaya, Sabah or Sarawak;

(d) All parcels posted in the States of Malaya mainland for delivery in Penang.

For all articles (other than private gifts) sent by post to destinations outside the Schedule Territories (Sterling Area), the value of which exceeds Malayan $20,000, an approved form C.D. 3 is required. Exceptionally, an approved form C.D. 3 is not required for goods of any value sent by post to the Republic of Indonesia unless they include gold, platinum, precious stones or cigarettes of any origin. Forms C.D. 3 are obtainable from any bank and must be approved by either an authorised Bank or the Exchange Control. The export of bullion and coins is subject to approval by the Controller of Foreign Exchange.

Certain goods may not be exported by Parcel Post from Malaysia to places outside Malaysia (in some cases except Singapore), unless an Export Licence issued by the Customs Department or the Director of Medical Services is produced by the sender.

The full range of charges to other coun-tries and particulars regarding Export and Import Prohibitions and additional parcel post conditions may be obtained at any Post Office.


SCHEDULE OF AIR MAIL POSTAGE RATES—(cont.)

T E L E G R A P H I N F O R M A T I O N 717

TELEGRAPH INFORMATION SCHEDULE OF RATES FOR TELEGRAMS FROM THE STATES OF

MALAYA AND SINGAPORE TO PRINCIPAL PLACES ABROAD

Telegraph facilities and rates to other countries are liable to change without notice. An up-to-date and comprehensive schedule is held at the principal telegraph offices and at the principal post offices.

Bona fide senders of foreign telegrams may ascertain the current rates and facilities (including Government and Press rates), applicable to any places by visit or by telephone enquiry to any Post or Telegraph Offices.

718 M A L A Y S I A . Y E A R BOOK

SCHEDULE OF FOREIGN TELEGRAM RATES—(cont.)


SCHEDULE OF FOREIGN TELEGRAM RATES—(coni.)

720 M A L A Y S I A . Y E A R B O O K














728 MALAYSIA. YEAR BOOK



FORCES SOCIAL TELEGRAMS Service available to Australia, Korea and New Zealand at $2.05 per message: Abbreviations: B.G.=British Government B.W.A.=British West Africa B,W.I.=British West Indies CAm.=Central America E.A.=East Africa F.I.=French Islands F.M.G.=Federation of Malaya Govern-

ment F.W.A.=French West Africa F.W.I.=French West Indies Indo=Indonesia

N.A.=North Africa N.Am.=North America P.I.=Pacific Islands P.W.A.=Portuguese West Africa S.A.=South Africa S.Am.=South America Thai=Thailand U.S.=United States Viet.=Vietnam W.A.=West Africa W.I.=West Indies

TELEGRAPH FACILITIES BY TELE-PHONE Subscribers may dictate a telegram by telephone at any hour of the day or night. Telegrams are accepted from all States of Malaya telephone subscribers and from Public call offices. They will be accepted to destinations overseas and to ships at sea.

Subscribers connected to Ipoh, Johore Bahru, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Penang and Seremban exchanges should dial "90" to obtain the phonogram operator. Sub-scribers on all other exchanges should obtain the operator and ask for "Telegrams".

Members of the public who wish to dictate a telegram at a call office should dial "O" and ask for "Telegrams". INLAND TELEGRAMS RATES The charges on Inland telegrams s follows:

10 words or less

Ordinary Rate $1.00 Urgent Rate .. 2.00 Meteorological Telegrams .. .35 Press 20 Press (Urgent) .70

are

Additional word each 10 cents 20 „

3} „ H „ 7 „

Collated Telegram Supplementary Fee—50 per cent of normal charge. Multiple Telegrams. Charges as for a single telegram but in addition a copy-ing fee of 20 cents per 30 chargeable words is charged in respect of each copy after the first. In the case of urgent telegrams, the copying fees are doubled.

PAYMENT OF CHARGES Except where expressly stated all charges must be prepaid.

Charges must be paid in cash or by debits to a deposit account.

Receipts are given for all telegrams handed in at Railway Telegraph Offices. Receipts are also given free of charge for telegrams handed in at principal or postal telegraph offices, provided that the sender fills up a receipt form which is then com-pleted and initialled by the counter-clerk.

ERRORS IN CHARGES The following must be made good by the sender:

(а) Under charges made in error. (б) Charges and expenses not re-

covered from the addressee in con-sequence of his refusal to pay them.

(c) Charges and expenses not re-covered from the addressee in con-sequence of the impossibility of finding him.

Amounts over-charged in error are refunded without application to the person entitled to them if the amount is at least $1.00. The repayment of a sum less than $1.00 is not made unless the sender claims


The applicant will be required to make a deposit. This deposit is returnable when the account is closed, subject to deduction in respect of any charges for telegrams remaining unpaid. The amount of the deposit will normally be equal to the value of two weeks telegrams, but this amount may be varied at the discretion of the Regional Controller or Assistant Controller of Telecommunications concerned.

All telegrams sent by the person in whose name the account stands will be debited to the account at the time such telegrams are accepted. Bills for the charges due will usually be rendered weekly but intervals by arrangement. Bills must be paid as soon as they are presented, irrespective of whether the deposit account is in credit or not. A numbered printed receipt will be issued for each payment. Telegraph Masters and Post-Masters are empowered to refuse to accept telegrams without prepayment if the charges for such telegrams would cause the total debit in the deposit account to exceed the amount of the deposit.

Where repetitions of telegrams are asked for, no charge will be debited to an account until it has seen whether an error has been made in transmission. If no error has been made in transmission the full charge for each word repeated will be debited.

FOREIGN TELEGRAMS CHARGES Details of the various rates payable are published in the Telecommunications Guide on sale at all Telegraph offices or enquiry may be made from any Telegraph Office or Post Office.

URGENT TELEGRAMS The charge for an urgent foreign tele-gram is twice the charge for an ordinary telegram of the same length between the same points and such telegrams take prece-dence over other private telegrams.

Urgent telegrams are not accepted as such by certain countries, and during transmission over the wires of those countries, they take rank with ordinary telegrams.

COLLATION (REPEATED TELE-GRAMS) Supplementary fee of 50 per cent of the normal rate is charged.

NOTIFICATION OF DELIVERY Payment as for one word for the service indicator plus the cost of a 7-word telegram at full rate.

FOREIGN MULTIPLE TELEGRAMS A multiple telegram is charged for as a single telegram, and in addition, a copying fee of 65 cents for the first 50 words or part of 50 words plus 35 cents for each addi-tional 50 words or part of 50 words is charged in respect of each copy of the telegram to be delivered. REPLY PAID TELEGRAMS Full rate for the class of telegrams between the office of origin and office of destination, plus payment as for one word for the service indication. METEOROLOGICAL TELEGRAMS Meteorological telegrams are charged at one-half of the rate applied for ordinary telegrams. PRESS TELEGRAMS—ORDINARY The rate for ordinary press telegrams to the Commonwealth countries and the Irish Republic is four cents per word. The rates to other countries may be obtained on application. PRESS TELEGRAMS—URGENT The rates per word for urgent press telegrams to each of the following places is: Burma—no service; Irish Republic 25 cents; Hongkong 20 cents; Sarawak 15 cents; N. Borneo including Labuan 15 cents; Brunei 15 cents; Christmas Island 15 cents; other Commonwealth Countries 25 cents; U.S.A. and Possessions 70 cents; for all other places, the rate is the same as for an ordinary full rate private telegram over the same route. MINIMUM CHARGES The minimum charge for an Urgent or Ordinary rate private Foreign telegram is the charge for seven words (including the address and paid service indication if any) according to the classification, i.e. "Urgent' or "Ordinary" chosen by the sender.

The minimum charge for a Foreign Letter Telegram is a charge for 22 words including the address and paid service indication "LT".

The minimum charge for a Common-wealth Social Telegram is a charge for 11 words including the address and the service ndication—GLT—.

The minimum charge for Foreign press telegrams is the charge for 14 words including the address and the paid service indication.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 731


D R Y OR CORN MEASURE SQUARE MEASURE

W E I G H T C O N V E R S I O N 733

WEIGHT CONVERSION

TABLE FOR RENDERING AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT INTO TAHILS, KATIS AND PIKULS

(1 Tahil=l 1/3 oz 16 Tahils= 1 Kati= 1 1/3 lb 100 Katis= 1 Pikul= 133 1/3 lb)


TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF TAHILS, KATIS AND PIKULS INTO TONS, CWT., QR. AND LB.

F O R E I G N E X C H A N G E 735

FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES The following list of book par exchange rates is compiled from figures supplied by the Exchange Banks'

Association of the Federation of Malaya (address: c/o the Chartered Bank Ltd, Kuala Lumpur). The rates are subject to daily fluctuation and other changes. Inquiries as to the actual (as opposed to the book par) rate may be made at any of the commercial banking houses.

Value in ~ :nn ,. . Country Currency Malayan >WU Malayan

Currency ,s 'i0r,h


D O L L A R S I N T O S T E R L I N G A T 2s. Ad.

C O N V E R S I O N T A B L E S 737


READY RECKONER

STERLING EXCHANGE FORMULAE

(at SI = 2s. Ad.)

NOTE.—There is no short cut on converting shillings and pence to decimals of a pound, but it is often useful to remember that $3/- is exactly 7/- (or 84 pence). £1 is 20 shillings (or 240 pence). Intermediate fractions which are useful are 6/8d. is £0,333 13IAd. is £0.667. The £ Australian is worth £0.15.0 sterling (or f £ St).

GENERAL INDEX

GENERAL INDEX


H—(cont.) J—(cont.)

Health - - - - - 499 Public Health Training - - 507 Rural - - - - - 499 Urban - - - - - 504

Henry Gurney School - - - 180 Herbivores - - - - 18 Hevea _ _ _ _ _ 445 High Commissioner - - - 28 High Courts - - - - 167

Registrar of - - - - 168 His Majesty's Judges - 637 Hokkien - - - - - 4 1 Holidays - 234, 243 Honey Bears - - - - 18 Hospitals - - - - - 503 House of Representatives - - 6 1 5

I

Illanuns - - - - 23, 59 Ilmenite - - - - 471, 475 Immigration - - - 152, 214

Department - - - - 115 Ordinance 1959 - - - 77

Income and Population - - 2 1 3 Independence Day - - 35, 65 Indians - - - - 51, 52 Indonesian Confrontation - 179, 226 Indonesian Communist Party - 593 Industrial Court - 255 Industrial Development Division - 335 Industrial Finance - 342 Industrial Relations - 257 Industrial Sites - - - - 338 Industrial Training - 245 Inland Revenue Department - 115 Inland Telephone Service - - 305 Information Services - 485

Headquarters Organisation - 486 State Organisation _ - - 488

Inter-Government Report - - 76 Ipoh - - - - 303, 304, 482 Iron-ore _ _ _ _ _ 474 Islam - - 21 ,23,164,172

Laws of - - - - 164, 172 Insurance - - - - - 383 International Bank Mission - 245, 499

Report - - _ - - 245 International Labour Organisa-

tion - 237, 344, 346

Japanese Occupation Java -Jelebu Jesselton -Johore Johore Bharu

28, 29, 30 - 41, 304 - - 2

270, 315, 482 - 25, 246

50, 246, 482

G E N E R A L I N D E X 745

L—(cont.)

Livestock - - - - - 432 Diseases - - - - - 441 Improvement of - - - 435 Pigs - - - - - 438 Poultry - - - - - 440

Loans - - - - - 611 Local Advisory Committees - - 247 Local Authorities Elections

Ordinance - 133, 137 Local Councils - 137, 330 Local Government - - - 132

Commissioner of - - - 119 Local Government Elections Act - 138 Local Government Finance - - 139 Low Cost Housing - 140 Luton g Refinery - - - - 476

M

Machinery Department - - 116 Magistrates - - - - 169 Mail Services - - - - 302 Majapahit - - - - 21, 23 Malacca - - -22 , 23, 30, 612 Malaria - - - - - 501 Malay - - - - 37, 612 Malay College - - - - 526 Malay Officers Scheme - - 100 Malay Peninsula - - - - 21 Malay Reservations - - - 130 Malay Secretariat - - 349, 350 Malayan Chinese Association - 34 Malayan Communist Party - 33, 258 Malayan Establishment - - 100 Malayan Film Unit - - - 486 Malayan Indian Association - 34 Malayan Railway Adminis-

tration - _ _ - 265, 282 Facilities - - - - 285 Finances - 283 History - - - - - 281 Rolling Stock - - - - 284 Traffic - - - - - 285

Malayan Rubber Fund Board 447, 448 Malayan Trades Union Congress - 260 Malayan Trades Union Council - 238 Malayan Union - - - 31, 64

Companies Ordinance - - 339 Malaysia Agreement - - - 77 Malaysia Solidarity Consultative

Committee - - - - 70 Malaysian Airways Limited - 286, 302 Malaysian Citizens Abroad, Welfare

of - - - - - - 152 Malaysian Forest - - - 14 Malaysian Industrial Development

Finance Limited - - 343, 344 Malaysian Meteorological Services- 116 Malaysian Passports - - - 115 Manganese - - - - 476


M—(cont.)

Monazite - - - - - 478 Monetary Policy - 360 Money Supply - 360 Monsoon, North-East - - - 2

South-West - 2 Motor Vehicles Registered - - 277 Mount Murud - 3, 8 Mouse-deer - - - - 18 Mukim Register - - - - 131 Municipal, Councils - - - 134

Services - - - - - 325 Municipalities - - - 133, 138 Museums - - - - - 117 Muslim - - - - - 613

Religious Court - - - 172

N

Native Chief - - - - 170 NativeCourt - - - - 1 7 0 National Anthem - - 630,631 National Archives - - - 118 National Development - - 213 National Economy - 213 National Joint Labour Advisory

Council - - - - - 237 National Land Council - 128, 130 National Land Use - - - 148 National Whitley Council - - 1 0 5 Natural Resources - - - 215 Natural Rubber - - - - 2 1 8 Negeri Sembilan - - 23, 25 Niah Caves - - - - 21 Nomination for Elections - - 93 North Borneo - 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 North-East Monsoon 2, 272 North Klang Straits - - - 266

O

Odgers, K.C. Dr V. Blake - 161, 163 Offenders, Classification of - - 1 7 6 Official Administrator - - - 1 1 9 Official Assignee - - - 119 Oil Palm - - - - - 394 Omnibus Services - 281 Omnivores - - - - 18 Ordinary Budget - 370

Pahang - - - 8, 61, 63, 190 River 2

Palembang - - - - 21 Pan-Malayan Islamic Party - - 71 Pangkor Island - - - - 4 1 7 Parameswara - - - - 22 Parliament - 84, 85, 86, 614, 615



S— (cont . ) S—(cont.)


SEROANA • ADEft$HlP

Survey Department Malaya No. 86-190QUNDATtON Y A Y A S A M tEPIWPINAN P E R D A N A