X 006 Islamic Architecture

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Islamic Architecture

Islamic Architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religiousarchitecture styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the designand construction of buildings and structures within the sphere of Islamic culture. Somedistinctive structures in Islamic architecture are mosques, tombs, palaces and forts,although Islamic architects have of course also applied their distinctive design precepts todomestic architecture.

The wide spread and long history of Islam has given rise to many local architectural styles,including Abassid, Persian, Moorish, Timurid, Ottoman, Fatimid, Mamluk, Mughal, Indo-Islamic, Sino-Islamic and Afro-Islamic architecture. Notable Islamic architectural typesinclude the early Abbasid buildings, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques ofAnatolia.- Also, Islamic architexture also discourages illustrations of anything living, such asanimals and humans, due to the belief that at death, their soul will never rest in peace.

Various regional styles of medieval Islamic architecture, as show in religious structures(from west to east)

Sudano-Sahelian: The Great Mosque of Djenné in present-day Mali, illustrating the mudconstruction of western Africa.

Moorish architecture: The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia

Ottoman architecture: Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey.

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Persian architecture: Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran.

Mughal architecture: Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan

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The interior side view of the main dome of Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey.

Si-yo-se-pol, Isfahan, Iran

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from thefoundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildingsand structures in Islamic culture. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque,the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamicarchitecture is derived and used for buildings of less importance such as public baths,fountains and domestic architecture.[1][2]

Influences

Specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad's time,inspired by Islam with addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid andByzantine models. The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem (691) is one ofthe most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine

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influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that resembles that of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, although the church itself was renovated several times in theIslamic period[3]), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphicfrieze. It featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeatingdecorative arabesque patterns. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example,Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, receptionhalls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury. The GermanicVisigoths in Spain also contributed to Islamic architecture. They invented the inward curvinghorseshoe arch in Spain and used them as one of their main architectural features, After theMoorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accentuatedthe curvature of the horseshoe.[4]

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

The Nur-Astana Mosque in Astana, Kazakhstan.

Dome of the mihrab (9th century) in the Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque ofUqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia

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Inside the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, Saudi Arabia.

Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyads, when new conceptsand new plans were put into practice. Thus, the "Arab plan", with court and hypostyleprayer hall, truly became a functional type with the construction of the Umayyad Mosque,or the Great Mosque of Damascus (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I)[5] on top of theancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. John the Baptist, the most sacredsite in the city. This building served as a point of reference for builders (and for arthistorians) for the birth of the Arab plan, as Byzantine Christian.

The Abbasid dynasty (750 A.D.- 1258[6]) witnessed the movement of the capital fromDamascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influencedpolitics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, wasbuilt for the new capital. Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include theMosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasidarchitecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the"despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but crampedliving quarters.[7]

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia), considered as the ancestor of all the mosques inthe western Islamic world,[8] is one of the best preserved and most significant examples ofearly great mosques. Founded in 670 AD, it dates in its present form largely from theAghlabid period (9th century).[9] The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a massivesquare minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos and a huge hypostyle prayer hallcovered on its axis by two cupolas.[8] The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in847 AD, combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat baseabove which a huge spiraling minaret was constructed.

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomanscaptured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque (now amuseum) and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work (e.g.domes). The Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as theShehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.

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Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiatingstructures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a keyutility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other significant features employed as motifsinclude columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences ofniches and colonnettes.[10] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable.Its usage spans centuries, first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of theRock, and recurring even up until the 17th century with the Taj Mahal. As late as the 19thcentury, Islamic domes had been incorporated into Western architecture.[11][12]

Early history

Section of the Umayyad-era Mshatta Facade, now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, from a palacenear Damascus

There are few buildings dating from the era of Prophet Muhammad, but one example is theJuatha mosque in Saudi Arabia. The Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) was the first state to useIslamic Architecture.

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) combined elements of Byzantine architecture andSassanid architecture, but Umayyad architecture introduced new combinations of thesewestern and eastern styles.[13] The horseshoe arch appears for the first time in Umayyadarchitecture, later to evolve to its most advanced form in al-Andalus.[14] Umayyadarchitecture is distinguished by the extent and variety of decoration, including mosaics, wallpainting, sculpture and carved reliefs with Islamic motifs.[15] The Umayyads introduced atransept that divided the prayer room along its shorter axis.[16] They also added the mihrabto mosque design.[16] The mosque in Medina built by al-Walid I had the first mihrab, a nicheon the qibla wall, which seems to have represented the place where the Prophet stoodwhen leading prayer. This almost immediately became a standard feature of all mosques.[16]

The Abbasid architecture of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1513) was strongly influenced bySassanid architecture, and later by Central Asian styles. The Abbasid mosques all followedthe courtyard plan. The earliest was the mosque that al-Mansur built in Baghdad. sincedestroyed. The Great Mosque of Samarra built by al-Mutawakkil was 256 by 139 metres(840 by 456 ft). A flat wooden roof was supported by columns. The mosque was decoratedwith marble panels and glass mosaics.[17] The prayer hall of the Abu Dulaf mosque atSamarra had arcades on rectangular brick piers running at right angles to the qibla wall.Both of the Samarra mosques have spiral minarets, the only examples in Iraq.[17] A mosqueat Balkh in what is now Afghanistan was about 20 by 20 metres (66 by 66 ft) square, withthree rows of three square bays, supporting nine vaulted domes.[18]

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Moorish ceiling in Alhambra

Construction of the Great Mosque at Córdoba (now a cathedral known as the Mezquita)beginning in 785 CE marks the beginning of Moorish architecture in the Iberian peninsulaand North Africa (see Moors). The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorisharchitecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificentpalace/fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue,and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, andarabesque design work, with walls covered in glazed tile. Their other, smaller, survivals suchas the Bab Mardum in Toledo, or the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. Moorish architecturehas its roots deeply established in the Arab tradition of architecture and design establishedduring the era of the first Caliphate of the Umayyads in the Levant circa 660AD with itscapital Damascus having very well preserved examples of fine Arab Islamic design andgeometrics, including the carmen, which is the typical Damascene house, opening on theinside with a fountain as the house's centre piece.

Bab al-Futuh gate built by the Fatimid vazir Badr al-Jamali

Fatimid architecture in Egypt followed Tulunid techniques and used similar materials, butalso developed those of their own. In Cairo, their first congregational mosque was al-Azharmosque ("the splendid") founded along with the city (969–973), which, together with itsadjacent institution of higher learning (al-Azhar University), became the spiritual center forIsmaili Shia. The Mosque of al-Hakim (r. 996–1013), an important example of Fatimidarchitecture and architectural decoration, played a critical role in Fatimid ceremonial andprocession, which emphasized the religious and political role of the Fatimid caliph. Besides

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elaborate funerary monuments, other surviving Fatimid structures include the AqmarMosque (1125)[19] as well as the monumental gates for Cairo's city walls commissioned bythe powerful Fatimid emir and vizier Badr al-Jamali (r. 1073–1094).

The reign of the Mamluks (1250–1517 AD) in Egypt marked a breathtaking flowering ofIslamic art which is most visible in old Cairo. Religious zeal made them generous patrons ofarchitecture and art. Trade and agriculture flourished under Mamluk rule, and Cairo, theircapital, became one of the wealthiest cities in the Near East and the center of artistic andintellectual activity. This made Cairo, in the words of Ibn Khaldun, "the center of theuniverse and the garden of the world", with majestic domes, courtyards, and soaringminarets spread across the city.

Styles

Persian styleSee also: Persian architecture

Inside the Shah Mosque in the city of Isfahan.

The Shah Mosque, constructed in 1629, in Isfahan, Iran.

Friday Mosque of Herat in Afghanistan

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Closeup of the Lotfallah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran. Completed in 1618, it became the private mosqueof the Safavid royalty.

The Shrine of Hazrat Ali in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan.

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century led early Islamic architects to borrow andadopt many traditions and ways of the fallen Persian empire. Islamic architecture thusborrows from Persian architecture and can be some what called an extension and furtherevolution of Persian architecture.

In Persia and Central Asia, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled forpower in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities werebuilt, such as Nishapur and Ghazni (Afghanistan), and the construction of the Great Mosqueof Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated.Funerary architecture was also cultivated.

Under the Seljuqs the "Iranian plan" of mosque construction appears for the first time.Lodging places called khans, or caravanserai, for travellers and their animals, orcaravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, withrubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort.[20] Seljuq architecturesynthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering preciseattributions difficult. Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is thedevelopment of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the Gunbad-i-qabus (circa1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is thetomb of the Samanids in the city of Bukhara (circa 943).[21]

The Il-Khanate period provided several innovations to dome-building that eventuallyenabled the Persians to construct much taller structures. These changes later paved the wayfor Safavid architecture. The pinnacle of Il-Khanate architecture was reached with theconstruction of the Soltaniyeh Dome (1302–1312) in Zanjan, Iran, which measures 50 m inheight and 25 m in diameter, making it the 3rd largest and the tallest masonry dome evererected.[22] The thin, double-shelled dome was reinforced by arches between the layers.[23]

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The tomb of Öljeitü in Soltaniyeh is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments inIran, despite many later depredations.

Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee under the Timurids, inparticular with the monuments of Samarkand, marked by extensive use of exterior ceramictiles and muqarnas vaulting within.

The renaissance in Persian mosque and dome building came during the Safavid dynasty,when Shah Abbas, in 1598 initiated the reconstruction of Isfahan, with the Naqsh-e JahanSquare as the centerpiece of his new capital.[24] The distinct feature of Persian domes, whichseparates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman andMughal empires, was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes,as they would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and thedistinct, blue- colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting the light ofthe sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen from milesaway by travelers following the Silk road through Persia. This very distinct style ofarchitecture was inherited to them from the Seljuq dynasty, who for centuries had used it intheir mosque building, but it was perfected during the Safavids when they invented thehaft- rangi, or seven- colour style of tile burning, a process that enabled them to apply morecolours to each tile, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye.[25] The colours that thePersians favoured where golden, white and turquoise patterns on a dark- bluebackground.[26] The extensive inscription bands of calligraphy and arabesque on most of themajor buildings where carefully planned and executed by Ali Reza Abbasi, who wasappointed head of the royal library and Master calligrapher at the Shah's court in 1598,[27]

while Shaykh Bahai oversaw the construction projects. Reaching 53 meters in height, thedome of Masjed-e Shah (Shah Mosque) would become the tallest in the city when it wasfinished in 1629. It was built as a double- shelled dome, with 14 m spanning between thetwo layers, and resting on an octagonal dome chamber.[28]

Persian-style mosques are also characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades andarches each supported by several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture wereemployed, but were later superseded by Persian designs.[29]

Azerbaijani architecture

The Bibi-Heybat Mosque in Baku, Azerbaijan

The Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century also helped Islamic architecture to flourishin Azerbaijan.[30][31] The country became home of Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron

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architecture schools. An example of the first direction in the Azerbaijani Islamic architectureis the mausoleum of Yusuf, built in 1162.[32]

The Shirvan-Absheron school unlike Nakchivan style used stones instead of the bricks in theconstruction. At the same characteristics of this trend were the asymmetry and stonecarving, which includes famous landmarks like Palace of the Shirvanshahs.

Turkistan (Timurid) architecture

Registan is the ensemble of three madrasahs, in Samarkand, modern day Uzbekistan.

Timurid architecture is the pinnacle of Islamic art in Central Asia. Spectacular and statelyedifices erected by Timur and his successors in Samarkand and Herat helped to disseminatethe influence of the Ilkhanid school of art in India, thus giving rise to the celebrated Mughalschool of architecture. Timurid architecture started with the sanctuary of Ahmed Yasawi inpresent-day Kazakhstan and culminated in Timur's mausoleum Gur-e Amir in Samarkand.The style is largely derived from Persian architecture. Axial symmetry is a characteristic of allmajor Timurid structures, notably the Shah-e Zendah in Samarkand and the mosque ofGowhar Shad in Mashhad. Double domes of various shapes abound, and the outsides areperfused with brilliant colors.

Ottoman architectureMain article: Ottoman architecture

Selimiye Mosque, built by Sinan in 1575. Edirne, Turkey.

The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of HagiaSophia in Constantinople/Istanbul, Ilkhanid works like Oljeitu Tomb and earlier Seljuk andAnatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famousof Ottoman architects was (and remains) Mimar Sinan, who lived for approximately onehundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the most

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important are Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. Apprenticesof Sinan later built the famous Blue Mosque in Istanbul and the Taj Mahal in India.

The most numerous and largest of mosques exist in [Turkey], which obtained influence fromByzantine, Persian and Syrian-Arab designs. Turkish architects implemented their own styleof cupola domes.[29] For almost 500 years Byzantine architecture such as the church of HagiaSophia served as models for many of the Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque,the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque.

The Ottomans mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces confined by seeminglyweightless yet massive domes, and achieving perfect harmony between inner and outerspaces, as well as light and shadow. Islamic religious architecture which until then consistedof simple buildings with extensive decorations, was transformed by the Ottomans through adynamic architectural vocabulary of vaults, domes, semidomes and columns. The mosquewas transformed from being a cramped and dark chamber with arabesque-covered wallsinto a sanctuary of esthetic and technical balance, refined elegance and a hint of heavenlytranscendence.

Indo-Islamic architectureMain articles: Mughal architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture

See also: Indian architecture, Pakistani architecture, and Bangladeshi architecture

Great Mosque of Aurungzeb and the adjoining Ghats.

Another distinctive sub-style is Indo-Islamic architecture in South Asia, it is a fusion of Arab,Central Asian and Persian elements with the local Hindu architecture. The most famousexamples of Mughal architecture are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with thepivotal Tomb of Humayun, but is best known for the Taj Mahal, completed in 1648 byemperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal who died while giving birth totheir 14th child. The extensive use of precious and semiprecious stones as inlay and the vastquantity of white marble required nearly bankrupted the empire.[dubious – discuss] The Taj Mahalis completely symmetrical except for Shah Jahan's sarcophagus, which is placed off center inthe crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entiremirror mosque in red sandstone to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the westof the main structure. A famous example of the charbagh style of Mughal garden is the

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Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, where the domeless Tomb of Jahangir is also located. The RedFort in Delhi and Agra Fort are huge castle-like fortified palaces, and the abandoned city ofFatehpur Sikri, 26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, was built for Akbar in the late 16th century.[33]

Sino-Islamic architectureMain article: Chinese mosques

Hui people who have also migrated to the south such as this Darunaman Mosque, locating in ChiangRai province, Thailand shows a great mixture between Chinese and Islamic architecture.

The Great Mosque of Xi'an, China

The first Chinese mosque was established in the 7th century during the Tang Dynasty inXi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current buildings date from the Ming Dynasty, doesnot replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, itfollows traditional Chinese architecture. Some Chinese mosques in parts of western Chinawere more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while eastern Chinese mosques weremore likely to look like pagodas.[34]

An important lathan feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on symmetry, whichconnotes a sense of grandeur; this applies to everything from palaces to mosques. Onenotable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible.

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Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to createenduring flow; to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as innature herself.

Chinese buildings may be built with either red or grey bricks, but wooden structures are themost common; these are more capable of withstanding earthquakes, but are vulnerable tofire. The roof of a typical Chinese building is curved; there are strict classifications of gabletypes, comparable with the classical orders of European columns.

Most mosques have certain aspects in common with each other however as with otherregions Chinese Islamic architecture reflects the local architecture in its style. China isrenowned for its beautiful mosques, which resemble temples. However in western Chinathe mosques resemble those of the Arab World, with tall, slender minarets, curvy archesand dome shaped roofs. In northwest China where the Chinese Hui have built theirmosques, there is a combination of eastern and western styles. The mosques have flaredBuddhist style roofs set in walled courtyards entered through archways with miniaturedomes and minarets.[35]

Indonesian-Malay architectureMain article: Architecture of Indonesia

Main article: Mosques in Indonesia

The Minangkabau Royal Palace in Sumatra, Indonesia.

Model of the palace of the Islamic duchy of Mangkunegaran, Indonesia.

The predominantly-Muslim regions of South East Asia have been slow to adopt MiddleEastern architectural styles for Islamic sites. For centuries, most Javanese mosques lacked a

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dome. Instead, they had a multi-tiered roof (of Javanese or even Chinese influence)comparable with the multi-level pagodas of neighbouring Bali. The architecture of Javanesemosques had a clear influence on the design of other mosques in Indonesia, Malaysia,Brunei, and the Philippines. The minaret of the Menara Kudus Mosque, in Central Java,demonstrated further pre-Islamic influence on local Islamic architecture.

From the 1940s onwards, Indonesian mosques developed a more standard, internationalstyle, with a dome and minaret.

Sahelian-Islamic architectureMain article: Sudano-Sahelian

In West Africa, Islamic merchants played a vital role in the Western Sahel region since theKingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king'ssection of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in asection which possessed 12 beautiful mosques (as described by al-bakri), one centered onFriday prayer.[36] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-sixfeet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had astaircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[37] Sahelianarchitecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosquein Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque ofDjenné.

Somali-Islamic architectureMain article: Somali architecture

Almnara Tower Somalia.

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The 13th century Fakr ad-Din Mosque in Mogadishu.

The peaceful introduction of Islam in the early medieval era of Somalia's history broughtIslamic architectural influences from Arabia and Persia, which stimulated a shift fromdrystone and other related materials in construction to coral stone, sundried bricks, and thewidespread use of limestone in Somali architecture. Many of the new architectural designssuch as mosques were built on the ruins of older structures, a practice that would continueover and over again throughout the following centuries.[38] Concordant with the ancientpresence of Islam in the Horn of Africa region, mosques in Somalia are some of the oldeston the entire continent. One architectural feature that made Somali mosques distinct fromother mosques in Africa were minarets.

For centuries, Arba Rukun (1269), the Friday mosque of Merca (1609) and Fakr ad-Din(1269) were, in fact, the only mosques in East Africa to have minarets.[39] Fakr ad-Din, whichdates back to the Mogadishan Golden Age, was built with marble and coral stone andincluded a compact rectangular plan with a domed mihrab axis. Glazed tiles were also usedin the decoration of the mihrab, one of which bears a dated inscription. The 13th century AlGami University consisted of a rectangular base with a large cylindrical tower architecturallyunique in the Islamic world.

Shrines to honor Somali patriarchs and matriarchs evolved from ancient Somali burialcustoms. In Southern Somalia the preferred medieval shrine architecture was the Pillartomb style while the North predominantly built structures consisting of domes and squareplans.

Interpretation

The Sebilj is a pseudo-Ottoman style wooden fountain in the centre of Baščaršija square in Sarajevo,Bosnia.

Common interpretations of Islamic architecture include the following: The concept of Godor Allah's infinite power is evoked by designs with repeating themes which suggest infinity.Human and animal forms are rarely depicted in decorative art as God's work is consideredto be matchless. Foliage is a frequent motif but typically stylized or simplified for the samereason. Arabic Calligraphy is used to enhance the interior of a building by providing

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quotations from the Qur'an. Islamic architecture has been called the "architecture of theveil" because the beauty lies in the inner spaces (courtyards and rooms) which are notvisible from the outside (street view). Furthermore, the use of grandiose forms such as largedomes, towering minarets, and large courtyards are intended to convey power.

Architecture Forms and Styles of mosques and buildings inMuslim countries

Main article: mosque

Forms

The interior of the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain.

Many forms of Islamic architecture have evolved in different regions of the Islamic world.Notable Islamic architectural types include the early Abbasid buildings, T-Type mosques, andthe central-dome mosques of Anatolia. The oil-wealth of the 20th century drove a great dealof mosque construction using designs from leading modern architects.

Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under theUmayyad Dynasty. These mosques are square or rectangular in plan with an enclosedcourtyard and a covered prayer hall. Historically, because of the warm Mediterranean andMiddle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number ofworshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques have flat roofs on top ofprayer halls, necessitating the use of numerous columns and supports.[40] One of the mostnotable hypostyle mosques is the Mezquita in Córdoba, Spain, as the building is supportedby over 850 columns.[41] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades so that visitorscan enjoy some shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyadand Abbasid dynasties; subsequently, however, the simplicity of the Arab plan limited theopportunities for further development, and as a result, these mosques gradually fell out ofpopularity.[40]

The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century and have a large domecentered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the center, there areoften smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of themosque, where prayer is not performed.[42] This style was heavily influenced by theByzantine religious architecture with its use of large central domes.[40]

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Sehan

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, with a large courtyard—sehan surrounded by arcades, located inKairouan, Tunisia.

The traditional Islamic courtyard, a sehan in Arabic (ar: ), is found in secular andreligious structures.

1. When within a residence or other secular building is a private courtyard and walled garden.It is used for: the aesthetics of plants, water, architectural elements, and natural light; forcooler space with fountains and shade, and source of breezes into the structure, duringsummer heat; and a protected and proscribed place where the women of the house neednot be covered in the hijab clothing traditionally necessary in public.

2. A sehan—courtyard is in within almost every mosque in Islamic architecture. The courtyardsare open to the sky and surrounded on all sides by structures with halls and rooms, andoften a shaded semi-open arcade. Sehans usually feature a centrally positioned ritualcleansing pool under an open domed pavilion called a howz . A mosque courtyard is used forperforming ablutions, and a 'patio' for rest or gathering.

GardensMain article: Islamic Gardens

The tomb of Hafez is a primary example of a Persian garden, with the typical, enclosed space, waterchannels and large trees that provide cooling shades.

The Qur'an uses the garden as an analogy for paradise and Islam came to have a significantinfluence on garden design. The concept of paradise garden was commonly used the Persiangardens, as well as Charbagh garden of Mughal architecture.

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ArabesqueMain article: Arabesque (Islamic art)

Complex Mosaic patterns also known as Girih are popular forms of architectural art in many Muslimcultures.

An element of Islamic art usually found decorating the walls and window screens ofmosques and Muslim homes and buildings, the arabesque is an elaborate application ofrepeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants, shapes and sometimesanimals (specifically birds). The choice of which geometric forms are to be used and howthey are to be formatted is based upon the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims, theseforms, taken together, constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyond the visiblematerial world.[43] To many in the Islamic world, they in fact symbolize the infinite, andtherefore uncentralized, nature of the creation of the one God ("Allah" in Arabic).Furthermore, the Islamic Arabesque artist conveys a definite spirituality without theiconography of Christian art. Arabesque is used in mosques and building around the Muslimworld, and it is a way of decorating using beautiful, embellishing and repetitive Islamic artinstead of using pictures of humans and animals (which is forbidden Haram in Islam).

CalligraphyMain article: Islamic calligraphy

Islamic calligraphy on large pishtaq of the Taj Mahal

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Arabic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (the Arabesque) on the walls andceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world drawon the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for theMuslim is a visible expression of spiritual concepts. Calligraphy has arguably become themost venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of theMuslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'ān, has played a vital rolein the development of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabicalphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources forIslamic calligraphy.

Elements of Islamic style

Islamic architecture may be identified with the following design elements, which wereinherited from the first mosque built byr hall (originally a feature of the Masjid al-Nabawi).

Minaret of the Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of Kairouan) regarded as the oldest standingminaret, Kairouan, Tunisia.

Plan view of Bab al-Barqiyya along Ayyubid Wall. Located close to one of Cairo's main modern trafficarteries, al-Azhar Street, the Fatimid-era Bab al-Barqiyya fortified gate was constructed withinterlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security andcontrol than typical city wall gates. Laser scan data from an Aga Khan Foundation/CyArk researchpartnership.

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Minarets or towers (these were originally used as torch-lit watchtowers, as seen in the GreatMosque of Damascus; hence the derivation of the word from the Arabic nur, meaning"light"). The minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is considered as the oldestsurviving minaret in the world.[44] It has the shape of a square massive tower of threesuperimposed sections.[44]

A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one principal one that faces towardMecca

Mihrab or prayer niche on an inside wall indicating the direction to Mecca.

Domes and Cupolas.

Pishtaq is the formal gateway to the iwan, usually the main prayer hall of a mosque, avaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian term for aportal projecting from the facade of a building, usually decorated with calligraphy bands,glazed tilework, and geometric designs.[45][46]

Iwans to intermediate between different pavilions.

The use of Islamic geometric patterns and foliage based arabesques.

The use of mocárabe and muqarnas, a unique Arabic/Islamic space-enclosing system, for thedecoration of domes, minarets and portals, as used at the Alhambra.

The use of decorative Islamic calligraphy instead of pictures which were haram (forbidden)in mosque architecture. Note that in secular architecture, human and animal representationwas indeed present.

Central fountains used for ablutions (once used as a wudu area for Muslims).

The use of bright color, if the style is Persian or Indian (Mughal); paler sandstone and greystones are preferred among Arab buildings. Compare the Registan complex of Uzbekistan tothe Al-Azhar University of Cairo.

Focus both on the interior space of a building and the exterior[cita

X 006 Islamic Architecture

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