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WORLD WAR ONE Europe, in the early years of the 20 th century,
was a continent facing war. Europe faced: Intense competition among
the nations. An increase in nationalism. Colonialism. An arms
race.
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ENTANGLING ALLIANCES July 23 rd : The Austrian government
issued an ultimatum threatening war against Serbia and invaded four
days later. August 1 st : As Austrias ally, Germany declared war
against Russia an ally of Serbia. August 3 rd : Germany declared
war against France, an ally of Russia and immediately began an
invasion of neutral Belgium because it offered the fastest route to
Paris. August 4 th : Great Britain, as an ally of France, declared
war against Germany.
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THE MAJOR ALLIANCES THE ALLIES: The Triple Entente: Great
Britain France Russia Japan Belgium Italy Serbia THE CENTRAL
POWERS: Germany Austria-Hungary Turkey Bulgaria
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WORLD WAR ONE In Western Europe, most of the fighting took
place in France, as German armies met British, Belgian, and French
(and later American) forces on the Western Front. During much of
the same period, Germany also faced Russian soldiers on the Eastern
Front, until the horrendous casualties helped to provoke the
Russian Revolution of 1917 and Russias exit from the war.
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THE AMERICAN REACTION When war began on the European continent,
Americans could not imagine its scope and human cost, but they
condemned its outbreak. Yet it would be very difficult for the
American public to remain neutral. Many Americans had close ties to
each side in the war.
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THE AMERICAN REACTION 1914: Nearly one-third of the population
of the USA was foreign born or the children of immigrants.
Initially, they tended to sympathize with the countries from which
their families came, while opposing any formal involvement in the
war by the USA. The majority of Americans favored GB and FR and
blamed Germany for starting hostilities.
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THE AMERICAN REACTION German Americans and Irish Americans
constituted two of the most numerous and influential of the
non-English groups in the USA. When the war broke out, German
Americans immediately defended Germanys cause against its
adversaries. In light of Irelands struggle for freedom from GB,
Irish Americans were unenthusiastic about helping GB, but generally
preferred the Allies to the Central Powers.
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PRESIDENT WILSON Wilsons decisions on international matters
often appeared idealistic, but actually combined moral diplomacy
and practicality. He opposed the old world order and wanted the
leading nations to embrace a more liberal and less imperialistic
approach to international politics.
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PRESIDENT WILSON In trying to accomplish this, however, he
distanced himself from many of his own liberal supporters. Highly
principled and often highly partisan, Wilson at times encountered
difficulties in steering a consistent course. Wilson could also be
very rigid in his thinking and unwilling to compromise.
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THE USA AND WORLD WAR ONE For the first 2 years of the war, the
USA remained neutral. Throughout this period, the Allies and
Central Powers alternately ignored, courted, or threatened the
American position. Wilson became convinced that a German victory
would pose a greater menace to US security, yet he still continued
to avoid US intervention. He was confident he could successfully
mediate between the warring camps and end the horrors that were
occurring around the world.
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THE BLOODBATH OF WAR
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The conflict of 1914-1918 was known as the Great War. An
unprecedented number of belligerent nations fought engagements
large and small on three continents, six seas, and at least two
oceans. Over 65 million military personnel were engaged, with 8
million killed in combat and more than 21 million wounded.
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THE BLOODBATH OF WAR The losses among civilians were even
higher. Additionally, countless others, both uniformed and
civilian, died from diseases made deadlier by war conditions,
especially the huge influenza-pneumonia epidemics that spread
rapidly in 1918. The war cost more than $281 billion in military
expenses and damage to civilian property.
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TRENCH WARFARE August 1914: German troops marched through
Belgian on their path to France, where British and French forces
brought the advance to a halt with huge casualties on both sides.
To defend against the deadly firepower, soldiers took up the shovel
and dug in. Oct. 1914: A line to trenches extended from the English
Channel south to the Swiss border, nearly 500 miles.
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TRENCH WARFARE For more than two years, the frontline of the
Western Front remained static. Each side launched costly frontal
assaults while failing to move forward more than a few miles in any
direction. Trench warfare came to symbolize the Western Front to
both Europeans and Americans.
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POISON GAS AND MUSTARD GAS Another horror of the war was poison
gas, introduced by the Germans and later used by all parties. Its
effectiveness was limited by the need to rely on favorable wind
conditions to control its direction. The most hazardous was mustard
gas. Although few people were actually killed from the gases, many
were seriously injured.
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CAUSES OF AMERICAN ENTRY INTO WORLD WAR ONE Violations of
American neutrality German u-boat warfare Sinking of the Lusitania
The Sussex Pledge British Propaganda Economic ties to Great Britain
and France Unrestricted German U-boat warfare Zimmerman
Telegram
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WILSONS REACTION TO THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA At first the
president reacted cautiously. He then sent two notes to Germany
protesting the sinking and demanding protection of American lives
in the future. The second and stronger note exposed a split in the
Administration and resulted in the resignation of Sec. of State
William Jennings Bryan, who claimed that the USA was not behaving
impartially toward Germany.
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THE SUSSEX PLEDGE American negotiations with Germany proceeded
slowly, while U-boats continued to target American ships and cause
American casualties. Spring 1916: The Germans torpedoed the French
ship Sussex, which carried several Americans. This time Wilson
publicly threatened to break diplomatic relations with Germany,
which responded by temporarily ending its policy of unrestricted
submarine warfare.
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BRITISH PROPAGANDA
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Throughout the USA, the British sponsored speaking tours and
organized traveling exhibits of Allied war posters, which were
extremely effective at disseminating information and influencing
the public in an era lacking radio or TV broadcasts.
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BRITISH PROPAGANDA The British efforts were enhanced by clumsy
German actions: The invasion of Belgium Episodes of espionage and
sabotage committed by German and Austrian agents in the USA =
attempting to prevent the flow of American supplies to the Allies,
they bombed numerous factories, depots, and bridges while bungling
other attempts.
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BRITISH PROPAGANDA More annoying than substantial, German
actions eventually provoked the Wilson Admin., into ousting a
number of German and Austrian diplomats stationed across America.
These episodes contributed to American hostility toward the Central
powers.
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ECONOMIC TIES TO ALLIES The Royal Navys surface domination of
the Atlantic Ocean prevented German ships from getting to American
ports and within a year of the wars start virtually ended trade
between the Central Powers and the USA. In contrast the value of
arms and ammunition shipyards from the United States to the Allies
soared from $14.7 million in August 1915 to $74.9 million in August
1916. American banks issued loans to the Allies that amounted to
$10 billion by the end of the war. American investors purchased
$2.3 billion in British and French bonds in contrast to $20 million
in German bonds.
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ECONOMIC TIES TO THE ALLIES Besides the huge armament dealings
with the Allies, American exporters supplied increasing quantities
of wheat, corn, processed foods, factory and farm machinery,
pharmaceuticals, and countless other products that were needed by
both military forces and civilian populations.
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ECONOMIC TIES TO THE ALLIES From the perspective of the Central
Powers, the USA had, by late 1916, clearly become a belligerent on
the side of the Allies. The Central Powers considered the
increasing economic commitment to the Allies to be equally damaging
as any potential use of American forces.
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1917 GERMAN UNRESTRICTED U- BOAT WARFARE
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PEACE WITHOUT VICTORY JANUARY 22, 1917
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THE ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM
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WILSON DECLARES WAR APRIL 2, 1917
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OPPOSITION TO WAR
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AMERICAN MOBILIZATION
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THE WAR INDUSTRIES BOARD *Regulated munitions. *Oversaw
industrial growth, allocation of resources, and price-fixing.
**One-fourth of civilian production was converted to war
production.
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FOOD ADMINISTRATION Provide food for needy Allied nations as
well as for American Army and Navy units in the European war zone.
Used voluntary rather than coercive methods to increase the amount
of food available to send to Europe. Rejected the option of
rationing, campaigning instead for voluntary self-sacrifice.
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FUEL ADMINISTRATION Directed efforts to save coal. Nonessential
factories were closed. Daylight saving time went into effect for
the first time.
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WAR FINANCE CORPORATION The Wilson Admin. managed to raise $33
billion in two years by a combination of loans and taxes. It
conducted four massive drives to convince Americans to put their
savings in Liberty Bonds. Congress also increased both personal and
corporate taxes and placed an excise tax on luxury goods.
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THE WAR AND PUBLIC OPINION
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THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INFORMATION Also known as the Creel
Committee. The most controversial of war agencies. Mobilizing the
mind of the world. Focused on the war will of the American people
through a massive propaganda campaign of news releases, pamphlets,
films and speeches. Championed the righteousness of the Allied
cause while depicting the Germans as nefarious, warlike people
descended from barbarians. Helped to build the wartime spirit of
national unity, but also contributed to the widespread intolerance
of dissent across the country.
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THE FOUR MINUTE MEN Some 75,000 people volunteered to give
brief patriotic talks on such topics as war bonds, draft
registration, food conservation and Maintaining Morals and Morale.
They often spoke in motion picture theaters while the silent film
reels were being changed; they also led groups in singing The Star
Spangled Banner. Others spoke at schools, civic meetings, and
various public gatherings.
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THE WAR AND CIVIL LIBERTIES THE ESPIONAGE ACT 1917: Punished
violators with prison sentences of up to 20 years and fines of
$10,000. Covered loosely defined crimes as encouraging others to be
disloyal, aiding the enemy, refusing to serve in the military and
sending treasonable materials through the mail. THE SEDITION ACT OF
1918: Prohibited disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language
about the government, the flag, the Constitution, or the armed
forces.
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SCHENCK v. THE UNITED STATES The Supreme Court upheld the
constitutionality of the Espionage Act in a case involving a man
(Charles T. Schenck) who had been imprisoned for distributing
pamphlets against the draft. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes
concluded that the right to free speech could be limited when it
represented a clear and present danger to the public safety.
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THE SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT 1917 System devised by Sec. of War
Newton D. Baker. Envisioned as a democratic method for ensuring
that all groups in the population would be called into service.
About 2.8 million men were eventually called by lottery. The
draftees provided for over half the total of 4.7 million Americans
who served during the war. More than 2 million of these were
transported overseas to join the British and French in the trenches
on the Western Front.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE
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Long before the war in Europe ended, Wilson announced his
idealistic war aims and peace program to the nation and the world.
Addressing both houses of Congress in 1/1918, the president
enunciated his Fourteen Points, most of which had been mentioned
previously by him or European leaders but never so eloquently.
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What we demand in this war is nothing peculiar to ourselves. It
is that the world be made fit and safe to live in; and particularly
that it be made safe for every- peace loving nation which, like our
own, wishes to live its own life, determine its own institutions,
be assured of justice and fair dealing, by the other peoples of the
world as against force and selfish aggression. WILSON AND THE
PEACE
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THE FOURTEEN POINTS Open covenants of peace openly arrived at;
Freedom of the seas; Abolition of international trade barriers;
Reduction of national armaments; An impartial adjustment of all
colonial claims; Self-determination for the various nationalities
within the Austro-Hungarian Empire; A general association of
nations for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political
independence and territorial integrity to great and small states
alike. This was Wilsons most valued point. The international
association he envisioned would soon be named the League of
Nations.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Reaction to Wilsons Fourteen Points was
generally favorable, even by congressmen who would later oppose the
president in his call for US membership in the LoN. In Germany,
civilians and soldiers read a translation of Wilsons words, due to
the efforts of the Creel Committee which printed the presidents
speech and distributed leaflets by plane behind enemy lines.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Wilsons Fourteen Points were printed in
newspapers around the world, even in Russia, where Lenin was said
to consider them a great step toward the peace of the world.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Acclaim for the Fourteen Points was not
universal. Prime Minister Clemenceau of France reportedly
responded: The Good Lord had only ten!
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WILSON AND THE PEACE The govt., of Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany
subsequently requested a peace on the basis of Wilsons Fourteen
Points. Germany hoped their appeal to Wilsons principles might lead
to a softer, negotiated peace, as opposed to the vindictive
conditions the Allies sought to impose.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Instead, the Allies interpreted the
collapse of the Central Powers as a victory that did not require
them to accept a peace by compromise and negotiation. In spite of
Wilsons noble efforts to direct the postwar settlements onto a
higher ground, the conditions in the major Allied countries and on
the battlefronts of Europe dictated the harsh peace that provided
the seedbed for war again within two decades.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE By the time of the armistice on Nov. 11,
1918, Wilson was virtually obsessed with the crusade he intended to
lead personally at the upcoming Paris Peace Conference, which would
set forth the terms of peace for Germany and to formulate the
charter for the League of Nations.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE He wanted to act as a broker among the
vengeance-minded Allied leaders in obtaining a fairer, more
generous peace settlement than most of them desired. He also wanted
to create an effective international organization, led by the USA,
to ensure a postwar world that would be peaceful, free, and no
longer handicapped by secret treaties and balance-of-power
considerations.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE When Wilson traveled to Paris in
mid-December several factors severely limited his chances of
success: Election of 1918: Republicans won control of the House and
Senate Wilson failed to include a prominent Republican to his peace
delegation {Henry Cabot Lodge Chair of Sen. Foreign Relations
Committee left off commission} Wilson alienated his own party by
not including one Democratic member of Congress on the peace
delegation. Despite widespread opposition, Wilson decided to head
the peace commission.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Wilson received a tumultuous welcome in
Paris. At that time, he was the most popular American in the world
since Abraham Lincoln. Upon his arrival, he campaigned publicly for
his Fourteen Points, angering several Allied officials by appealing
directly to their citizens.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE On the eve of the peace conference,
Wilsons high visibility and his personal advocacy of his Fourteen
Points sparked unrealistic hopes in many parts of the world. Many
downtrodden peoples in many areas believed that the president could
secure for them freedom, democracy, and prosperity. {Vietnam and
Korea} Many Germans viewed him as a protector against an unjust
peace.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE When the Paris Peace Conference convened
in mid-January, thirty-two Allied and associated powers were
represented. Germany did not participate in the negotiations. The
Conference was led by the Big Four - although the major decisions
were made by Wilson, Lloyd George of England, and Clemenceau of
Paris. The Allies were out for revenge and punishment.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Most of the crucial decisions were decided
by Wilson, George and Clemenceau. They met frequently in secret,
leading to criticism by journalists, by representatives of smaller
countries, and by their own countrymen who were excluded from the
sessions. The press accused Wilson of violating his own principle
of open covenants of peace, openly arrived at by conducting such
vital negotiations in private.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE Wilson and the American delegation had
prepared to take the high road at Versailles while implementing the
Fourteen Points. To Wilson, the major accomplishment of the peace
settlement was the successful establishment of the League of
Nations. He was also pleased that, in line with his wishes, parts
of the map of Europe were redrawn along somewhat more ethnographic
lines. {Future implications} Otherwise, Wilson had to compromise on
virtually all his principles, especially regarding the severity of
the peace imposed on Germany.
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THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES Germany was disarmed and stripped of
its colonies. **Germany forced to accept the war guilt clause.
**Germany forced to pay $31 billion in war reparations. The map of
Europe was re-drawn. ***Signers of the treaty would join an
international peacekeeping organization the League of Nations.
***Article X of the League covenant called on each member nation to
stand ready to protect the independence and territorial integrity
of other nations.
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WHY DID WILSON COMPROMISE? Wilson accepted the harsh provisions
against Germany mainly to get FR and GB support for the terms of
the League Covenant and its inclusion in the peace treaties with
all the Central powers. He was supremely confidant that whatever
seeds of future discord might have been planted by the Treaty, his
League of Nations would adequately guarantee global peace and order
in decades to come.
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WILSON AND THE PEACE The Big Four summoned the rest of the
Allies and the Germans to accept their final handiwork, which in
the end consisted of 440 articles including the German Peace Treaty
and the League Covenant. With great formality, the Treaty of
Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors in
the palace of Versailles.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE
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By the conclusion of Wilsons work in Paris, Senate approval of
the treaty was already in doubt. In mid-February he had returned to
the USA for a month to promote the League of Nations. The American
public, at that time, strongly favored American participation in
the League and nearly of state legislatures endorsed the treaty.
But the US Senate, where approval of 2/3 majority was required for
ratification, was sharply divided. Democratic senators agreed with
Wilson, while the Republican majority largely opposed the League
unless major revisions were made.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Prominent among the opposition was a
group of isolationist senators from both parties, who called
themselves Irreconcilables and rejected any American participation
in the LoN, regardless of whether its charter was amended. Their
leader was Rep. Sen. William E. Borah of Idaho.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Borah had supported American entry into
the war. But now he was strongly against further American
entanglement in world politics. He charged that American membership
in the LoN would transfer the power to declare war from the
Congress of the United States to some tribunal not controlled by
the American people. {Article X} He argued that American soldiers
could be sent into battle/war that did not affect the USA at
all.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Another group of opponents were led by
Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge of MA chair of the powerful Senate Foreign
Relations Committee. This group called themselves
Reservationists.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Lodge demanded that a series of
reservations, initially fourteen in number, be added to the treaty
before he would support it. Lodges changes would substantially
restrict American participation in the League and would, in Wilsons
view, nullify the treaty.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE 3/1919: 39 Sen. Republicans declared in
a public round- robin letter that they opposed Wilsons treaty
without major revisions and that the Allies should approve peace
treaties with the Central Powers before considering any charter for
an international organization. While Wilson returned to Paris, the
Republican dominated Senate and its Foreign Relations Committee
conducted almost interminable hearings on the document, allowing
much time to anti-treaty spokesmen. Support by the public for the
treaty also started to wane.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE 9/1919: The Sen. Foreign Relations
Comm., presented 45 amendments and 4 reservations to the treaty to
the Senate for approval. The principle reservation would have
guaranteed the independence and territorial integrity of the US and
the protection of the Monroe Doctrine. Some analysts believe that
if Wilson had yielded on these changes, a 2/3 majority might have
voted for the treaty. But Wilson insisted on a treaty without
reservations. None of the 3 groups reservationists,
irreconcilables, pro- administration, could alone or in combination
command the votes to secure passage of a measure expressing their
position.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Desperately striving to save his fading
treaty support, Wilson took his case directly to the people.
Traveling by train, he undertook an extensive speaking tour across
the nation. His health, which had been weakened by the strain of
the Paris Peace Conference, worsened dramatically. 9/19: He became
seriously ill and returned to DC; a stroke soon left him an invalid
and ended his crusade. The League was left without its strongest
supporters.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE 11/19/1919: The Senate voted twice on
the Treaty. First rejecting the treaty with the Lodge Reservations
by a vote of 55-39. Then defeating the treaty in its original form
with 53 votes for and 38 against. A third vote was taken. Wilson
sent word to Democrats to stand firm for the unchanged treaty.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE 3/20/1919: The Wilson loyalists and
Borahs Irreconcilables sided with each other and downed the treaty
with the Lodge reservations: 49 for and 35 against. If 7 more
Democrats had abandoned Wilsons uncompromising position, the
necessary 2/3 for passage would have been achieved.
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THE RATIFICATION BATTLE Despite the Senate votes, Wilson
strongly believed the American people favored participation in the
LoN. He saw the Presidential Election of 1920 as a referendum on
the League. When Warren G. Harding (R) defeated Jon Cox (D) the
quest for membership in the League was dead. The USA would never
join the League of Nations. A bitter and sad Wilson declared
another world war in 20 years. The Second World War would come in
1939.