World War I and Its Aftermath · PDF fileWorld War I and Its Aftermath 1914–1920. The Big Ideas , ... • Explain the causes of World War I and why the United States entered the

362

World War I andIts Aftermath

1914–1920

. The Big Ideas ,SECTION 1: The United States Enters World War I

The fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. Although the United Statestried to remain neutral, events soon pushed the nation into World War I.

SECTION 2: The Home FrontThe fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. To successfully fight

the war, the United States had to mobilize the entire nation and citizens had to assume new roles and responsibilities.

SECTION 3: A Bloody ConflictThe fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. After four years of fighting,

World War I ended in November of 1918.

SECTION 4: The War’s ImpactThe fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. As American society

moved from war to peace, turmoil in the economy and fear of communism caused a series of domestic upheavals.

The American Vision: Modern Times Video The Chapter 6 video, “Cousins:Royalty and World War I,” explains how royal marriages and complex political alliances con-tributed to the outbreak of war in Europe.

1915• The Lusitania is sunk

1913• Woodrow Wilson begins his

first presidential term

1917• U.S. enters war

1915• Italy joins Allies

in war

• Japan gainsrights in Chineseterritory

1914• Archduke Franz

Ferdinandassassinated; warbegins in Europe

1917• Bolshevik Revolution

begins in October

• Balfour Declaration favors setting up a Jewishhomeland in Palestine

1916• British suppress

Easter Rebellion in Ireland

• Battle of the Sommebegins in July

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1913 1915 1917

Wilson1913–1921

363

American soldiers in the 23rd Infantry fire on Germanpositions in the Argonne Forest.

1920• British government

creates the NorthernIreland province

▼1921• Irish Free State

established bysigned treaty

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1918• Congress passes Sedition Act

• Battle of Argonne Forestbegins in September

• Armistice ends fighting onNovember 11

1919• Treaty of Versailles

conference begins

1918• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

ends Russian-German war

1919• Race riots and strikes take place in

Northern cities

• Red Scare and Palmer raids targetCommunists in the U.S.

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1919 1921

Harding1921–1923

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American Vision:Modern Times Web site at

andclick on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 6 to preview chapterinformation.

tav.mt.glencoe.com

http://tav.mt.glencoe.com

When authors structure a text, they sometimes use problem andsolution to explain a situation and to give reasons for an outcome.

This structure is similar to the cause and effect text structure. In cause andeffect, authors usually address broader issues. In a problem solution text,authors present a specific problem and specific outcomes. Some of theseoutcomes, or solutions, are positive ones, while others can be morenegative. It is important that you learn to understand how a person,government, or society arrived at a decision. Often in history, there areseveral competing problems that require complex solutions.

Problems and solutions are often presented over the course of one ormore paragraphs. You can recognize a problem/solution structure by asking who had the problem, what may have caused the problem, andwhat its effects were. You can find the solution by identifying who solvedthe problem, what the solution was, and what the outcomes of this solution were.

Read the excerpts below and notice how the author has used problem/solution toexplain how the government addressed the problem of funding the war effort.

By the end of World War I, the United Stateswas spending about $44 million a day—leading to a total expenditure of about $32 billion for theentire conflict. To fund the war effort, Congressraised income tax rates. Congress also placed newtaxes on corporate profits and an extra tax on theprofits of arms factories.

Taxes, however, could not pay for the war. Toraise money, the government borrowed over $20billion from the American people by sellingLiberty Bonds and Victory Bonds. (p. 378)

In the excerpt, the U.S. government had theproblem of high expenses caused by World War I. The solution was for Congress to raisetaxes and sell war bonds. The outcome is notdirectly stated in these paragraphs. Since no othersolutions are listed, though, you can imply thatthe solution was enough to solve the problem.

As you read through pages 366–395, find other paragraphs that reflect a problem/solution structure. On a separate sheet of paper, write down the problem, the people who faced the problem, the cause, and the effects.Then note the people who solved the problem, the solution, and the even-tual outcome of the solution.

364

Using Problem/Solution

USINGPROBLEM/SOLUTION

Problem/solution can sometimesbe identified by signal words.Look for words like problem, difficulty, challenge, solution,improve, and response.

365

Historical Research, Evidence, and Point of View Learning to distinguish valid andfallacious arguments will help you become a critical reader who is able to separate accept-able from misleading information.

Distinguishing Valid and Fallacious Arguments

Do you remember hearing an advertisement for or listening to the campaignspeech of someone running for political office? As you know, hopeful

politicians make campaign promises. You probably also know that some of thecampaign advertisements contain fallacious, or misleading, arguments about acandidate’s position or qualifications. As a voter, you should learn to distinguishbetween valid and misleading arguments.

Historians also need to determine which arguments are valid and which are fallacious. They apply this skill when they research information, interpret history,and explain varying points of view.

Read the following quote from President Woodrow Wilson, asking Congress for a declara-tion of war against Germany.

“It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war. . . . But the right ismore precious than peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always car-ried nearest to our hearts—for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authorityto have a voice in their own governments, for the rights and liberties of smallnations. . . .” (page 374)

President Wilson faced national forces that opposed his “moral diplomacy”approach to foreign policy. Look for the arguments he uses in this quote to convinceCongress to vote for the declaration of war. Do these arguments mention concretereasons to go to war? What other reasons do you think should be mentioned?

As you read the text under “AmericanNeutrality” and “Moving Toward War” onpages 371–374, determine which informationpoliticians could have used to voice theiropinions for and against the war and con-sider whether they would be valid or falla-cious arguments.

Analysis Skill Standard HR1

Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous chapter, you learnedabout President Wilson’s reforms and theeffects of the Progressive Era. In this sec-tion, you will discover what events led tothe United States entering World War I.

• President Wilson promoted a moralapproach to diplomacy in his attemptsto bring democracy to Mexico. (p. 367)

• Old alliances and nationalist sentimentsamong European nations set the stagefor World War I. (p. 368)

• British propaganda and business inter-ests led most Americans to a pro-Britishstance on the war. (p. 371)

• Despite efforts to stay officially neutral,the United States entered the war afterGerman submarines destroyedAmerican ships. (p. 372)

Content Vocabularyguerrilla, nationalism, self-determination,propaganda, contraband, U-boat

Academic Vocabularystability, emphasis, erode

People and Terms to IdentifyPancho Villa, Franz Ferdinand, Allies,Central Powers, Sussex Pledge,Zimmermann telegram

Reading Objectives• Describe the principles that guided

President Wilson’s foreign policy.

• Discuss the causes and results ofAmerican intervention in Mexico andthe Caribbean.

• Explain the causes of World War I andwhy the United States entered the warin 1917.

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about the start

of World War I, complete a graphicorganizer similar to the one below byidentifying the factors that contributedto the conflict.

Preview of Events

The United StatesEnters World War I

✦1914 ✦1915 ✦1916 ✦1917

366 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath

April 1914U.S. Marines occupyVeracruz, Mexico

June 1914Assassination of ArchdukeFranz Ferdinand

July 1914World War I begins

May 1915Sinking of theLusitania

April 1917United Statesenters the war

Factors Contributingto World War I

. The Big Idea ,The fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events.President Wilson believed that promoting democracy around the world wouldmake the United States more stable and prosperous. These ideals led to U.S.involvement in the Mexican Revolution. In Europe, tensions following the unifica-tion of German states resulted in alliances between nations. Austria-Hungary andSerbia went to war after Serbian nationalists assassinated the heir to the Austria-Hungary throne. The system of alliances guaranteed that other nations would jointhe conflict. World War I had begun. Although the United States tried to remainneutral, it entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917.

The following are the mainHistory–Social Science Standardscovered in this section.

11.4 Students trace the rise of theUnited States to its role as a world

power in the twentieth century.

11.4.4 Explain Theodore Roosevelt’s Big Stick diplomacy, William Taft’s Dollar

Diplomacy, and Woodrow Wilson’s MoralDiplomacy, drawing on relevant speeches.

11.4.5 Analyze the political, economicand social ramifications of World War I

on the home front.

Woodrow Wilson’s Diplomacy

President Wilson promoted a moralapproach to diplomacy in his attempts to bring democ-racy to Mexico.

Reading Connection Do you know someone whoattempted to lead others by setting a good example? Read onto learn how President Wilson tried to use moral ideas in deal-ing with Mexico.

As president, Wilson resolved to “strike a newnote in international affairs” and to see that “sheerhonesty and even unselfishness . . . should prevailover nationalistic self-seeking in American foreignpolicy.” Wilson believed that democracy was essen-tial to a nation’s stability and prosperity, and that theUnited States should promote democracy in order toensure a peaceful world free of revolution and war.Other forces at work, at home, and abroad frustratedhis hope to lead the world by moral example.

Edith O’Shaughnessy could not sleep on the rainynight of April 20, 1914. Living at the American embassyin Mexico City, the wife of diplomat NelsonO’Shaughnessy was well aware of the growing crisisbetween Mexico and the United States. Earlier that day,President Wilson had asked Congress to authorize theuse of force against Mexico. In her diary, O’Shaughnessydescribed the tensions in the Mexican capital:

“I can’t sleep. National and personal potentialities[possibilities] are surging through my brain. Three stal-wart railroad men came to the Embassy this evening.They brought reports of a plan for the massacre ofAmericans in the street to-night, but, strange and wonderful thing, a heavy rain is falling. . . . Rain is aspotent as shell-fire in clearing the streets, and I don’tthink there will be any trouble.”

The next day, O’Shaughnessy reported that the conflicthad begun: “We are in Mexico, in full intervention! . . .Marines are due to-day in Vera Cruz. . . .”

—adapted from A Diplomat’s Wife in Mexico

Wilson strongly opposed imperialism. His policyof Moral Diplomacy forced him to become involvedin the Mexican revolution.

CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath 367

The Mexican Revolution From 1884 to 1911, a dic-tator, Porfirio Díaz, ruled Mexico. Díaz encouragedforeign investment in Mexico to help develop thenation’s industry. A few wealthy landowners domi-nated Mexican society. The majority of the peoplewere poor and landless, and they were increasinglyfrustrated by their circumstances. In 1911 a revolutionerupted, forcing Díaz to flee the country.

Francisco Madero, a reformer who appeared tosupport democracy, constitutional government, andland reform, replaced Díaz. Madero, however,proved to be an unskilled administrator. Frustratedwith Mexico’s continued decline, army officers plot-ted against Madero. Shortly before Wilson tookoffice, General Victoriano Huerta seized power inMexico, and Madero was murdered—presumablyon Huerta’s orders.

Huerta’s brutality repulsed Wilson, who refusedto recognize the new government. Wilson believedthe United States had the moral obligation to dis-criminate between good and bad governments andintervene to put good people in power. Wilson wasconvinced that without the support of the UnitedStates, Huerta soon would be overthrown. Wilson,therefore, tried to prevent weapons from reachingHuerta, and he permitted Americans to arm otherpolitical factions within Mexico. In a message Wilsonsent to authorities in Mexico he stated:

“Mexico is starving and without a government . . .the people and Government of the United States cannotstand indifferently by and do nothing. . . .”

Wilson’s desire to lead by moral example and pro-mote Moral Diplomacy found him deeply involvedin Mexico’s political affairs.

Raising the flag at Veracruz ➤

Wilson Sends Troops Into Mexico In April 1914,American sailors visiting the city of Tampico werearrested after entering a restricted area. Though theywere quickly released, their American commanderdemanded an apology. The Mexicans refused. Wilsonused the refusal as an opportunity to overthrowHuerta. He sent marines to seize the Mexican port ofVeracruz.

Although the president expected the Mexican peo-ple to welcome his action, anti-American riots brokeout in Mexico. Wilson then accepted internationalmediation to settle the dispute. Venustiano Carranza,whose forces had acquired arms from the UnitedStates, became Mexico’s president.

Mexican forces opposed to Carranza were notappeased, and they conducted raids into the UnitedStates hoping to force Wilson to intervene. PanchoVilla (VEE·yah) led a group of guerrillas—anarmed band that uses surprise attacks and sabotagerather than open warfare—that burned the town ofColumbus, New Mexico, and killed a number ofAmericans. Wilson responded by sending more than6,000 U.S. troops under General John J. Pershingacross the border to find and capture Villa. The expe-dition dragged on as Pershing failed to capture theguerrillas. Wilson’s growing concern over the warraging in Europe finally caused him to recallPershing’s troops in 1917.

History

Moral Imperialism President Wilson sentGeneral John Pershing (below) to stop PanchoVilla’s (right) raids into the United States. Whywas Villa conducting these raids?

Wilson’s Mexican policy damaged U.S. foreignrelations abroad. The British ridiculed the president’sactions, calling it an attempt to “shoot the Mexicansinto self-government.” Latin Americans regarded his“moral imperialism” as no improvement on TheodoreRoosevelt’s “big stick” diplomacy. In fact, Wilson fol-lowed Roosevelt’s example with his actions in theCaribbean. During his first term, Wilson sent marinesinto Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic topreserve order and to set up governments that hehoped would be more stable and democratic than thecurrent regimes.

Examining Why did PresidentWilson intervene in Mexico?

The Outbreak of World War I

Old alliances and nationalist sentimentsamong European nations set the stage for World War I.

Reading Connection What stories are you familiar withthat are based on old feuds or alliances? Read on to discoverhow European nations formed political alliances that broughtmost of the continent into war.

Despite more than 40 years of general peace, ten-sions among European nations were building in 1914.Throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s, complexalliances, a naval race, and concern over nationalismcreated problems among the powers of Europe andset the stage for a monumental war.

The Alliance System The roots of World War Idate back to the 1860s. In 1864, while Americansfought the Civil War, the German kingdom of Prussialaunched the first of a series of wars to unite the vari-ous German states into one nation. By 1871 Prussiahad united Germany and proclaimed the birth of theGerman Empire. The new German nation rapidlyindustrialized and quickly became one of the mostpowerful nations in the world.

The creation of Germany transformed Europeanpolitics. In 1870, as part of their plan to unifyGermany, the Prussians had attacked and defeatedFrance. They then forced the French to give up terri-tory along the German border. From that point for-ward, France and Germany were enemies. To protectitself, Germany signed alliances with Italy and withAustria-Hungary, a huge empire that controlledmuch of southeastern Europe. This became known asthe Triple Alliance.

Reading Check


and had come to see themselves as one people. Theycalled themselves South Slavs, or Yugoslavs. Thefirst of these people to obtain independence were theSerbs, who formed a nation called Serbia betweenthe Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. Serbsbelieved their nation’s mission was to unite theSouth Slavs.

Russia supported the Serbs, while Austria-Hungary did what it could to limit Serbia’s growth.In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, which atthe time belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The Serbswere furious. They wanted Bosnia to be part of theirnation. The annexation demonstrated to the Serbsthat Austria-Hungary had no intention of letting theSlavic people in its empire become independent.

A Continent Goes to War In late June 1914, theheir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the ArchdukeFranz Ferdinand, visited the Bosnian capital ofSarajevo. As he and his wife rode through the city, aBosnian revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip rushedtheir open car and shot the couple to death. Theassassin was a member of a Serbian nationalist groupnicknamed the “Black Hand.” The assassination tookplace with the knowledge of Serbian officials whohoped to start a war that would bring down theAustro-Hungarian Empire.

The Austro-Hungarian government blamed Serbiafor the attack and decided the time had come to crushSerbia in order to prevent Slavic nationalism fromundermining its empire. Knowing an attack on Serbiamight trigger a war with Russia, the Austrians askedtheir German allies for support. Germany promisedto support Austria-Hungary if war erupted.

Austria-Hungary then issued an ultimatum to theSerbian government. The Serbs counted on Russia to

Fateful Couple Archduke Franz Ferdinand and wife Sophia visitSarajevo the day of the assassination.

The new alliance alarmed Russian leaders, whofeared that Germany intended to expand eastwardinto Russia. Russia and Austria-Hungary were alsocompeting for influence in southeastern Europe.Many of the people of southeastern Europe wereSlavs—the same ethnic group as the Russians—andthe Russians wanted to support them againstAustria-Hungary. As a result, Russia and France hada common interest in opposing Germany andAustria-Hungary. In 1894 they signed the Franco-Russian Alliance.

The Naval Race While the other major powers ofEurope divided into competing alliances, GreatBritain remained neutral. Then, in 1898, the Germansbegan to build a navy challenging Great Britain’s his-torical dominance at sea. By the early 1900s, an armsrace had begun between Great Britain and Germany,as both sides raced to build warships. The naval racegreatly increased tensions between Germany andBritain and convinced the British to establish closerrelations with France and Russia. The British refusedto sign a formal alliance, so their new relationshipwith the French and Russians became known as an“entente cordiale”—a friendly understanding.Britain, France, and Russia became known as theTriple Entente.

The Balkan Crisis By the late 1800s, nationalism,or a feeling of intense pride of one’s homeland, hadbecome a powerful idea in Europe. Nationalists placeprimary emphasis on promoting their homeland’sculture and interests above those of other countries.Nationalism was one of the reasons for the tensionsamong the European powers. Each nation viewed theothers as competitors, and many people were willingto go to war to expand their nation at the expense ofothers.

One of the basic ideas of nationalism is the right toself-determination—the idea that people whobelong to a nation should have their own countryand government. In the 1800s, nationalism led to acrisis in southeastern Europe in the region known asthe Balkans. Historically, the Ottoman Empire andthe Austro-Hungarian Empire had ruled theBalkans. Both of these empires were made up ofmany different nations. As nationalism became apowerful force in the 1800s, the different nationalgroups within these empires began to press forindependence.

Among the groups pushing for independ-ence were the Serbs, Bosnians, Croats, andSlovenes. These people all spoke similar languages


back them up, and the Russians, in turn, counted onFrance. French leaders were worried that they mightsomeday be caught alone in a war with Germany, sothey were determined to keep Russia as an ally. Theypromised to support Russia if war began.

On July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia. Russiaimmediately mobilized its army, including troopsstationed on the German border. On August 1,Germany declared war on Russia. Two days later, itdeclared war on France. World War I had begun.


Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

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ATLaNTICOCEaN

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Italy refused to honorCentral Powers allianceand joined Allied Powerson May 23, 1915.

June 28, 1914Archduke Franz Ferdinandassassinated by Serb nationalist.

Greece did not enterthe war until 1917.

Bulgaria joined the CentralPowers in 1915. Romaniajoined the Allies in 1916.

June 28Assassination of ArchdukeFranz Ferdinand

July 30Russia begins mobilizingtroops in defense of Serbia

✦July 1914

July 28Austria-Hungarydeclares war on Serbia

August 3Germany declares war on France,begins invasion of Belgium

August 6Austria-Hungary declares waron Russia

August 4Britain declareswar on Germany

August 12France and Great Britaindeclare war on Austria-Hungary

August 1Germany declareswar on Russia

European Alliances, 1914

Allied Powers

Central Powers

Neutral nations

Initial troop movementsof Central Powers

✦August 1914

1. Interpreting Maps Which nations comprised theCentral Powers in 1914?

2. Applying Geography Skills What was the name of the southeastern European region that sparked thebeginning of the war?

Germany’s Plan Fails Germany had long beenprepared for war against France and Russia. Itimmediately launched a massive invasion ofFrance, hoping to knock the French out of the war.It would then be able to send its troops east to dealwith the Russians.

The German plan had one major problem. Itrequired the German forces to advance through neu-tral Belgium in order to encircle the French troops.The British had guaranteed Belgium’s neutrality.When German troops crossed the Belgian frontier,Britain declared war on Germany.

With Britain’s declaration of war, all members ofthe Triple Entente were now involved in the war.Those fighting for the Triple Entente were called theAllies. France, Russia, and Great Britain formed thebackbone of the Allies. Italy joined them in 1915 afterthe other Allies promised to cede Austro-Hungarianterritory to Italy after the war.

Italy’s decision to join the Allies broke up theTriple Alliance. What remained of that formeralliance—Germany and Austria-Hungary—joinedwith the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria to form theCentral Powers.

The German plan seemed to work at first. Germantroops swept through Belgium and headed intoFrance, driving back the French and British forces.Then, to the great surprise of the Germans, Russiantroops invaded Germany. The Germans had notexpected Russia to mobilize so quickly and had notprepared for an immediate war in the east. Theywere forced to pull some of their troops away fromthe attack on France and send them to the easternfront to stop the Russians. This weakened theGerman forces just enough to give the Allies achance to stop them. The Germans drove to within30 miles (48 km) of Paris, but stubborn resistance byBritish and French troops at the Battle of the Marnefinally stopped the German advance. Because theswift German attack had failed to defeat the French,both sides became locked in a bloody stalematealong hundreds of miles of trenches that wouldbarely change position for the next three years.

The Central Powers had greater success on theEastern Front. German and Austrian forces stoppedthe Russian attack and then went on the offensive.They swept across hundreds of miles of territory andtook hundreds of thousands of prisoners. Russia suf-fered 2 million killed, wounded, or captured in 1915alone, but it kept fighting.

Explaining What incident triggeredthe beginning of World War I?

Reading Check

American Neutrality

British propaganda and business interestsled most Americans to a pro-British stance on the war.

Reading Connection Have you ever decided to buy aproduct based on the advertising? Read on to learn about theeffects of propaganda and U.S. efforts to stay neutral.

When the fighting began, President Wilsondeclared the United States to be neutral in an attemptto keep the country from being drawn into a foreignwar. “We must be impartial in thought as well as inaction,” Wilson stated. For many Americans, how-ever, that proved difficult to do.

Americans Take Sides Despite the president’splea, many Americans showed support for one sideor the other. This was especially true for recent immi-grants from Europe. Many of the 8 million GermanAmericans, for example, supported their homeland.The nation’s 4.5 million Irish Americans, whoseendured centuries of British rule, also sympathizedwith the Central Powers.

In general, though, American public opinionfavored the Allied cause. Many Americans valuedthe heritage, language, and political ideals theyshared with Britain. Others treasured America’s his-toric links with France, a great friend to America dur-ing the Revolutionary War.

Pro-British Sentiment One select group of Amer-icans was decidedly pro-British: President Wilson’scabinet. Only Secretary of State William JenningsBryan favored neutrality. The other cabinet members,as well as Bryan’s chief adviser, Robert Lansing, andWalter Hines Page, the American ambassador toBritain, argued forcefully on behalf of Britain.American military leaders also backed the British.They believed that an Allied victory was the only wayto preserve the international balance of power.

British officials worked diligently to win Americansupport. One method they used was propaganda, orinformation designed to influence opinion. Both theAllies and the Central Powers used propaganda, butGerman propaganda was mostly anti-Russian anddid not appeal to most Americans. British propa-ganda, on the other hand, was extremely skillful.Furthermore, Britain cut the transatlantic telegraphcable from Europe to the United States, limiting newsabout the war mainly to British reports. Stories


arrived depicting numerous German war atrocities,including the charge that Germans used corpses fromthe battlefield to make fertilizer and soap. Althoughmany such reports were questionable, enoughAmericans believed them to help sway Americansupport in favor of the Allies.

Business Links American business interests alsoleaned toward the Allies. Companies in the UnitedStates, particularly on the East Coast, had strong tieswith businesses in the Allied countries. As businessleader, Thomas W. Lamont stated, “Our firm hadnever for one moment been neutral: we did not knowhow to be. From the very start we did everything thatwe could to contribute to the cause of the Allies.”

Many American banks began to invest heavily inan Allied victory. American loans to the cash-hungry Allies skyrocketed. By 1917 such loanswould total over $2 billion. Other American banks,particularly in the Midwest, where pro-Germanfeelings were strongest, also lent some $27 millionto Germany. Even more might have been lent, butmost foreign loans required the approval of WilliamMcAdoo, the secretary of the Treasury. McAdoo wasstrongly pro-British and did what he could to limitloans to Germany. As a result, the country’s pros-

perity was intertwined with the military fortunes ofBritain, France, and Russia. If the Allies won, themoney would be paid back; if not, the money mightbe lost forever.

Evaluating How was Americanprosperity intertwined with the military fortunes of the Allies?

Moving Toward War

Despite efforts to stay officially neutral, theUnited States entered the war after German submarinesdestroyed American ships.

Reading Connection Describe a time when you tried toremain neutral during a disagreement between friends. Whatsteps did you take? Read on to discover how Germany’s actionsat sea led America to war.

Although most Americans supported the Alliesand hoped for their victory, they did not want to jointhe conflict. They still remembered the events of theCivil War. However, a series of events graduallyeroded American neutrality and drew the nation intothe war firmly on the side of the Allies.

Reading Check

i n H i s t o r y

Jeannette Rankin 1880–1973As he addressed the “Gentlemen of the Congress” on April 2, 1917, President

Woodrow Wilson actually misspoke. Sitting in the chamber listening to the pres-ident’s request for a declaration of war against Germany was RepresentativeJeannette Rankin—the first woman ever elected to Congress.

Rankin was born in Missoula, Montana, in 1880. She became a social workerand participated in the woman suffrage movement. In 1916 she was elected tothe U.S. House of Representatives from Montana—one of the few states at that time that allowed women to vote. As a representative, Rankin sponsoredlegislation to grant federal voting rights for women and to provide health services for them.

Apart from her title as the first woman in Congress, Rankin is rememberedmost for her strong pacifism. She was one of 56 legislators who voted againstthe nation’s entry into World War I. “I want to stand by my country,” she said,“but I cannot vote for war.”

In 1940 Rankin ran again for Congress as a representative from Montana.She ran on an isolationist policy and won. In 1941 she was the only memberof Congress to vote against declaring war on Japan and entering World War II.

After leaving Congress in 1943, Rankin continued working for peace. In 1968,at 87 years of age, she led thousands of women in the March on Washington tooppose the Vietnam War.

372 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its AftermathCORBIS

The British Blockade Shortly after the war began,the British deployed their navy to blockade Germanyand keep it from obtaining supplies. The Britishplanted mines in the North Sea and forced neutralships into port for inspections in case they were try-ing to transport valuable materials to Germany or itsneutral neighbors. British officials also expandedtheir definition of contraband, or prohibited materi-als, to prevent neutral countries from shipping foodto Germany.

The Germans knew that the Allies depended onfood, equipment, and other supplies from both theUnited States and their overseas empires. If Germanycould strangle that trade, it could starve the Britishand French into surrendering. To get around Britain’sblockade, the Germans deployed submarines knownas U-boats—from the German word Unterseeboot(meaning “underwater boat”). In February 1915, theGermans announced that they would attempt to sinkwithout warning any ship they found in the watersaround Britain.

Germany’s announcement triggered outrage inthe United States and elsewhere. Attacking civilianvessels without warning violated an internationaltreaty stipulating that military vessels must revealtheir intentions to merchant ships and make provi-sions for the safety of the targeted ship’s crew andpassengers before sinking it. The Germans claimedthat many merchant ships were actually warships indisguise and that their U-boats would be placed atgreat risk if they revealed themselves before firing.

The issue reached a crisis on May 7, 1915. Despitewarnings from Germany, the British passenger linerLusitania entered the war zone. A submerged Germansubmarine fired on the ship, killing nearly 1,200 pas-sengers—including 128 Americans. Many Americanswere outraged and regarded the attack as an act of ter-rorism, not war. Others argued that the passengerstraveling on ships of foreign nations did so at theirown risk.

Wilson steered a middle course on the issue of theU-boats. He refused to take extreme measures againstGermany, saying that the United States was “too proudto fight.” Nevertheless, he sent several diplomaticnotes to Germany insisting that its government safe-guard the lives of noncombatants in the war zones.

Late in March 1916, Wilson’s policy was testedwhen a U-boat torpedoed the French passenger shipSussex, injuring several Americans on board.Although Wilson’s closest advisers favored breakingoff diplomatic relations with Germany immediately,the president, busy with the crisis in Mexico, chose toissue one last warning. He demanded that the

German government abandon its methods of subma-rine warfare or risk war with the United States.

Germany did not want to strengthen the Allies bydrawing the United States into the war. It promisedwith certain conditions to no longer sink merchantships without warning. The Sussex Pledge, as it wascalled, met the foreign-policy goals of both Germanyand President Wilson by keeping the United Statesout of the war a little longer.

Wilson’s efforts to keep American soldiers at homeplayed an important part in his reelection bid in 1916.Campaigning as the “peace” candidate, his campaignslogan, “He kept us out of the war,” helped leadWilson to a narrow victory over the Republican nom-inee, Charles Evans Hughes.

The United States Declares War FollowingWilson’s reelection, events quickly brought thecountry to the brink of war. In January 1917, aGerman official named Arthur Zimmermann cabledthe German ambassador in Mexico, instructing himto make an offer to the Mexican government.Zimmermann proposed that Mexico ally itself withGermany in the event of war between Germany andthe United States. In return, Mexico would regain its“lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona”after the war. Germany hoped Mexico would tiedown the American forces and prevent them frombeing sent to Europe. British intelligence inter-cepted the Zimmermann telegram. Shortly after-ward, it was leaked to American newspapers.Furious, many Americans now concluded war withGermany was necessary.

Then, on February 1, 1917, Germany resumedunrestricted submarine warfare. German militaryleaders believed that they could starve Britain intosubmission in four to six months if their U-boatscould return to a more aggressive approach of sink-ing all ships on sight.Although they recognizedthat their actions mightdraw the United States intothe war, the Germans didnot believe that theAmericans could raise anarmy and transport it toEurope in time to preventthe Allies from collapsing.

Between February 3 andMarch 21, German U-boatssank six American merchantships without warning.Finally roused to action,


Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican Vision:Modern Times Web siteatand click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 6 for an activ-ity on World War I.

HISTORY

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Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: stability, guerrilla,

nationalism, emphasis, self-determina-tion, propaganda, erode, contraband,U-boat.

2. People and Terms Identify: PanchoVilla, Franz Ferdinand, Allies, CentralPowers, Sussex Pledge, Zimmermanntelegram.

3. Name the two alliances that Europewas divided into at the start of WorldWar I.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Concluding Why did most of President

Wilson’s cabinet members support theBritish?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing

How did European nationalism con-tribute to the outbreak of World War I?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to identify theevents that led the United States toenter World War I.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Time Lines Examine the

time line on page 370. How does theorder in which countries declared warreflect the European alliance system?CA HI1

Writing About History8. Expository Writing Imagine that you

are a Mexican citizen living in Mexicobetween 1914 and 1917. Write a scriptfor a radio newscast in which you discuss American actions in Mexico.Include specific events and information.

CA 11WA2.4a

“The world mustbe made safe for

democracy.”—Woodrow Wilson, April 1917

Americans Go to War Congressvoted heavily in favor of entering theEuropean war. Here, excited Americanswave from an Army recruitment truck.What events pushed the United Statesto finally declare war?

History

President Wilson appeared before a special session ofCongress on April 2, 1917, to ask for a declaration ofwar against Germany.

“It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful peo-ple into war. . . . But the right is more precious thanpeace, and we shall fight for the things which wehave always carried nearest to our hearts—fordemocracy, for the right of those who submit toauthority to have a voice in their own governments,for the rights and liberties of small nations. . . .”

—quoted in the Congressional Record, 1917

After a spirited debate, the Senate passed the reso-lution on April 4 by a vote of 82 to 6. The House con-curred 373 to 50 on April 6, and Wilson signed theresolution. America was now at war.

Summarizing How did Germany’suse of unrestricted submarine warfare lead to American entryinto World War I?

Reading Check

U.S. Enters World War I

Events

For help with the concepts in this section of AmericanVision: Modern Times go to andclick on Study Central.

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Study CentralHISTORY

(t)Brown Brothers, (b)Picture Research Consultants


Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learned aboutthe events that led to U.S. involvement in World War I. In this section, you will discover how the United States preparedfor war at home.

• The United States instituted a draft formilitary service, and African Americansand women took on new roles. (p. 376)

• The government used Progressive ideasto manage the economy and pay forthe war. (p. 377)

• Women, African Americans, and MexicanAmericans all helped to fill labor short-ages created by the draft. (p. 378)

• Propaganda and limits on civil libertieswere part of domestic life during WorldWar I. (p. 379)

Content Vocabularyconscription, victory garden, espionage

Academic Vocabularydraft, migrate, constitute

People and Terms to IdentifyWar Industries Board, Bernard Baruch,Liberty Bond, Victory Bond, Committeeon Public Information

Reading Objectives• Analyze how the United States raised

an army and won support for WorldWar I.

• Explain how the economy was con-trolled to support the war.

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about howthe United States mobilized for war, usethe major headings of the section to cre-ate an outline similar to the one below.

Preview of Events

The Home Front

CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath 375CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath 375

1917Selective Service Act andEspionage Act passed

May 1918Sedition Act passed

September 1918Eugene Debs imprisoned

1919Schenck v. United States

✦1918 ✦1919✦1917

The Home FrontI. Building Up the Military

A.B.C.

II.A.B.

. The Big Idea ,The fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. WorldWar I brought far-reaching changes to the United States. Although many peopleenlisted in the army, the government instituted a draft to increase the number of com-bat troops. This created job vacancies and new opportunities for women and minorities.Many African Americans and Mexican Americans migrated north to work in factories,and women also took industrial jobs. Mexicans migrated to the United States to fillagricultural jobs in the Southwest. Government agencies facilitated cooperationbetween government and big business, rationed food and fuel, and sold bonds to raisemoney for the war. To ensure support for the war, Congress passed—and the SupremeCourt upheld—laws restricting antiwar activities and certain civil liberties. The SupremeCourt upheld limitations on free speech that threatened the safety of citizens or hindered the war effort.




11.4.5 Analyze the political, economic,and social ramifications of World War I

on the home front.

Building Up the Military

The United States instituted a draft for mili-tary service, and African Americans and women took onnew roles.

Reading Connection Describe a time you were required to do something that you might not have done other-wise. Read on to learn about the selective service system.

After Congress declared war on Germany in April1917, young men from across the nation swampedrecruiting offices eager to volunteer for the war.Historian William Langer, who served in World War I,recalled the enthusiasm of the young recruits:

“What strikes me most, I think, is the eagerness ofthe men to get to France and above all to reach thefront. One would think that, after almost four years ofwar, after the most detailed and realistic accounts ofthe murderous fighting . . . to say nothing of the day-to-day agony of trench warfare, it would have been allbut impossible to get anyone to serve without duress.But it was not so. We and many thousands of othersvolunteered. Perhaps we were offended by the arro-gance of the German U-boat campaign, and convincedKaiserism must be smashed, once and for all. Possiblywe already felt that, in the American interest, Westerndemocracy must not be allowed to go under. But . . .most of us, young, were simply fascinated by theprospect of adventure and heroism. . . . Here was ourone great chance for excitement and risk.”

—quoted in Doughboy War

When the United States declared war againstGermany in April 1917, progressives controlled thefederal government. They did not abandon theirideas simply because a war had begun. Instead, theyapplied progressive ideas to fighting the war.

Selective Service When the United States enteredthe war in 1917, the army and National Guardtogether had slightly more than 370,000 troops.Although many men volunteered after war wasdeclared, many felt more soldiers needed to bedrafted.

Many progressives believed that conscription—forced military service—was a violation of demo-cratic and republican principles. Realizing a draftwas necessary, however, Congress, with Wilson’ssupport, created a new system called selective serv-ice. Instead of having the military run the draft, theSelective Service Act of 1917 required all menbetween 21 and 30 to register for the draft. A lotteryrandomly determined the order they were calledbefore a local draft board in charge of selecting orexempting people from military service.

The thousands of local boards were the heart ofthe system. The members of the draft boards werecivilians from local communities. Progressivesbelieved local people, understanding communityneeds, would know which men to draft. Eventuallyabout 2.8 million Americans were drafted.

Volunteers for War Not all American soldierswere drafted. Of the approximately 2 million menwho volunteered, there were many reasons for decid-ing to enlist. Some had grown up listening to storiesof the Civil War and the Spanish-American War. Theysaw this war as a great adventure and wanted to fightfor their country’s cause. To soldiers such as JustinKlingenberger, “War consisted of following the flagover a shell-torn field, with fixed bayonet . . . push-ing the Hun back from trench to trench. . . .”Although the horrors of the war soon became clear tothe American troops, their morale remained high,helping to ensure an Allied victory.

African Americans in the War Of the nearly400,000 African Americans who were drafted, about42,000 served overseas as combat troops. AfricanAmerican soldiers encountered discrimination andprejudice in the army. They served in racially segre-gated units almost always under white officers.

Despite these challenges, many African Americansoldiers fought with distinction in the war. For exam-ple, the African American 92nd and 93rd Infantry

World War Irecruiting poster.

➤

between the federal government and private compa-nies, Congress created special boards. These boardsemphasized cooperation between big business andgovernment. Business executives, professional man-agers, and government representatives staffed theboards. Their goal was to ensure the most efficientuse of national resources to further the war effort.

The War Industries Board One of the first agen-cies established was the War Industries Board (WIB).Created in July 1917, the WIB’s job was to coordinatethe production of war materials. At first, PresidentWilson was reluctant to give the WIB much authorityover the economy, but by March 1918, he decidedindustrial production needed better coordination.The WIB was reorganized and Bernard Baruch wasappointed to run it. Under this Wall Street stockbro-ker’s supervision, the WIB told manufacturers whatto produce. It controlled the flow of raw materials,ordered the construction of new factories, and occa-sionally, with the president’s approval, set prices.

Food and Fuel Perhaps the most successful govern-ment agency was the Food Administration, run byHerbert Hoover. This agency was responsible forincreasing food production while reducing civilianconsumption. Instead of using rationing, Hooverencouraged Americans to save food on their own.Using the slogan “Food Will Win the War—Don’tWaste It,” the Food Administration encouraged fami-lies to “Hooverize” by “serving just enough” and byhaving Wheatless Mondays, Meatless Tuesdays, and

Divisions fought in bitter battles along theWestern Front. Many of them won praisefrom both the French commander,Marshal Henri Pétain, and the UnitedStates commander, General JohnPershing. The entire 369th InfantryRegiment won the highly prized Frenchdecoration, the Croix de Guerre (“warcross”), for gallantry in combat.

Women in the Military World War Iwas the first war in which women offi-cially served in the armed forces, althoughonly in noncombat positions. Womennurses had served in both the army andnavy since the early 1900s, but as auxil-iaries. Before World War I, nurses werenot assigned ranks, and the women werenot technically enlisted in the army or navy.

As the military prepared for war in1917, it faced a severe shortage of clericalworkers because so many men were assigned toactive duty. Early in 1917, the navy authorized theenlistment of women to meet its clerical needs. By theend of the war, over 11,000 women had served in thenavy. Although most performed clerical duties, oth-ers served as radio operators, electricians, pharma-cists, and photographers.

The army still did not enlist women. Instead, ithired them as temporary clerical workers. The onlywomen to actually serve in the army were in theArmy Nursing Corps. Army nurses were the onlywomen in the military sent overseas during the war.Over 20,000 nurses served in the army during thewar, including more than 10,000 overseas.

Describing How did Congressensure that the military had enough troops to fight the war?

Organizing Industry

The government used Progressive ideas tomanage the economy and pay for the war.

Reading Connection In what ways do you help con-serve food or fuel resources? Read on to learn about America’sresponse to the needs of the military in World War I.

The progressive emphasis on careful planning andscientific management shaped the federal govern-ment’s approach to mobilizing the American wareconomy. To efficiently manage the relationship

Reading Check


Women and War Although not allowed in combat, many women served in auxiliary positions,such as nursing. Here, Birmingham, Alabama, women collect money during a Red Cross parade in 1918. In what other capacities did women serve during the war?

History


Propaganda Posters George Creel’sCommittee on Public Information encouragedAmericans to do all they could to support thewar effort. What is the general theme ofthese posters? Do you think the posterswere effective?

History

Porkless Thursdays. Hoover also encouraged citizensto plant victory gardens to raise their own vegeta-bles, leaving more for the troops.

While Hoover managed food production, the FuelAdministration, run by Harry Garfield, tried to man-age the nation’s use of coal and oil. To conserveenergy, Garfield introduced daylight savings timeand shortened workweeks for factories that did notmake war materials.

Paying for the War By the end of World War I, theUnited States was spending about $44 million aday—leading to a total expenditure of about $32 bil-lion for the entire conflict. To fund the war effort,Congress raised income tax rates. Congress alsoplaced new taxes on corporate profits and an extratax on the profits of arms factories.

Taxes, however, could not pay for the war. To raisemoney, the government borrowed over $20 billionfrom the American people by selling Liberty Bondsand Victory Bonds. By buying the bonds, Americanswere loaning the government money. The govern-ment agreed to repay the money with interest in aspecified number of years. Posters, rallies, and“Liberty Loan sermons” encouraged people to buythe bonds as an act of patriotism.

Summarizing What federal agen-cies helped control American industries during the war?

Reading Check

Mobilizing the Workforce

Women, African Americans, and MexicanAmericans all helped to fill labor shortages created bythe draft.

Reading Connection How did women and AfricanAmericans assist on the home front and the military during theCivil War? Read on to learn of their contributions to World War I.

Officials knew they needed workers to cooperate ifmobilization was to succeed. To prevent strikes fromdisrupting the war effort, the government establishedthe National War Labor Board (NWLB) in March1918. Chaired by William Howard Taft and FrankWalsh, a labor attorney, the NWLB tried to mediatelabor disputes that might otherwise lead to strikes.

The NWLB frequently pressured industry to grantimportant concessions to workers, including wageincreases, an eight-hour workday, and the right ofunions to organize and bargain collectively. Inexchange, labor leaders agreed not to disrupt warproduction with strikes or other disturbances. As aresult, membership in unions increased by just overone million between 1917 and 1919.

Women Support Industry The war increasedwork opportunities for women, who filled industrial

378 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath378 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its AftermathLibrary of Congress

jobs vacated by men serving in the military. Theseincluded positions in the shipping, manufacturing,and railroad industries. These new jobs for women,however, were not permanent. After the war, whenthe servicemen returned home, most womenreturned to their previous jobs or stopped working.

The Great Migration Begins With fewer immi-grants and white workers being drafted, the war alsoopened new doors for African Americans. Wartimejob openings and high wages drew thousands ofAfrican Americans to factories producing war mate-rials. Encouraged by recruiting agents promisinghigh wages and plentiful work, between 300,000 and500,000 African Americans left the South to settle inNorthern cities. This massive population movementbecame known as the “Great Migration.” It greatlyaltered the racial makeup of such cities as Chicago,New York, Cleveland, and Detroit.

Mexican Americans Head North AfricanAmericans were not the only group to migrate north.Continued political turmoil in Mexico and thewartime labor shortage in the United States con-vinced many Mexicans to head north. Between 1917and 1920, over 100,000 Mexicans migrated into Texas,Arizona, California, and New Mexico, providinglabor for the farms and ranches of the Southwest.

Meanwhile, tens of thousands of MexicanAmericans headed north to Chicago, St. Louis,Omaha, and other cities to take wartime factory jobs.Many Mexican Americans faced hostility and dis-crimination when they arrived in American cities.Like other immigrants before them, they tended tosettle in their own separate neighborhoods, calledbarrios, where they could support each other.

Evaluating How permanent werewomen’s advances in the wartime workplace?

Ensuring Public Support

Propaganda and limits on civil liberties werepart of domestic life during World War I.

Reading Connection Under what circumstances do youbelieve the government has a right to limit civil liberties? Readon to learn about the limitations imposed during World War I.

Progressives in the government did not thinkcoordinating business and labor was enough toensure the success of the war effort. They also

Reading Check

believed that the government should take steps toshape public opinion and build support for the war.

Selling the War A new government agency, theCommittee on Public Information, had the task of“selling” the war to the American people. The headof the CPI was journalist George Creel, who recruitedadvertising executives, commercial artists, authors,songwriters, entertainers, public speakers, andmotion picture companies to help sway public opin-ion in favor of the war.

The CPI distributed pamphlets and posters, issuedpress releases, and arranged for thousands of shortpatriotic talks, called “four-minute speeches,” to bedelivered at movie theaters and public halls andgathering places. The Four-Minute Men urged audi-ences to support the war in various ways, from buy-ing war bonds to reporting draft dodgers to theproper authorities.


Agency

War IndustriesBoard

RailroadAdministration

FoodAdministration

FuelAdministration

National WarLabor Board

Committeeon PublicInformation

Purpose

Organized industry to increase efficiency, maximizing production

Assumed temporary control ofrail lines to modernize equipmentand increase operating efficiency

Supervised agricultural production,promoted food conservation andrationing

Increased production of coal and oil; maintained conservation of fuelwith such innovations as daylightsavings time

Maintained cooperation betweenindustry management and laborunions; acted as mediator to prevent and quickly settle disputes

Provided propaganda to rally citizen support for all aspects of the war effort

Federal Mobilization Agencies

1. Interpreting Charts Which agencyworked with manufacturers and laborunions?

2. Analyzing How did the Fuel Admini-stration’s daylight savings time planachieve its goal?

380 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath380 CHAPTER 6 World War I and Its Aftermath

Abrams v. United States, 1919The Espionage Act of 1917 made it a crime to “willfully

utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilousor abusive language about the government.” Although the actlimited First Amendment freedoms, many Americans believedwinning World War I was more important. ; (See page 962for more information on Abrams v. the United States.)

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., dissenting:

It is only the present danger of immediate evil or an intentto bring it about that warrants Congress in setting a limit to theexpression of opinion where private rights are not concerned.Congress certainly cannot forbid all effort to change the mindof the country. Now nobody can suppose that the surreptitiouspublishing of a silly leaflet by an unknown man, without more,would present any immediate danger that its opinions wouldhinder the success of the government arms or have any appre-ciable tendency to do so.

In this case, sentences of twenty years’ imprisonment havebeen imposed for the publishing of two leaflets that I believethe defendants had as much right to publish as theGovernment has to publish the Constitution of the UnitedStates now vainly invoked by them. . . . I regret that I cannotput into more impressive words my belief that, in their convic-tion upon this indictment, the defendants were deprived oftheir rights under the Constitution of the United States.

Justice John H. Clarke delivered the majority opinion:

It is argued, somewhat faintly, that the acts chargedagainst the defendants were not unlawful because withinthe protection of that freedom . . . of speech and of thepress . . . and that the entire Espionage Act is unconstitutional. . . .

. . . the plain purpose of their propaganda was toexcite, at the supreme crisis of the war, disaffection, sedi-tion, riots, and, as they hoped, revolution, in this countryfor the purpose of embarrassing, and, if possible, defeat-ing the military plans of the Government in Europe. . . .[T]he language of these circulars was obviously intendedto provoke and to encourage resistance to the UnitedStates in the war, as the third count runs, and the defen-dants, in terms, plainly urged and advocated a resort to ageneral strike of workers in ammunition factories for thepurpose of curtailing the production of ordnance andmunitions necessary and essential to the prosecution ofthe war. . . . Thus, it is clear not only that some evidence,but that much persuasive evidence, was before the jurytending to prove that the defendants were guilty ascharged. . . .

Amendment I—Congress shall make no law respectingan establishment of religion, or prohibiting the freeexercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech,or of the press; or the right of the people peaceablyto assemble, and to petition the Government for aredress of grievances.

C19 20C 664118

Learning From History1. What were the charges against the

defendants?2. On what key point did Holmes and

Clarke disagree?

Despite these efforts to build support for the war,several groups supported draft dodgers and theirright to object to serving in the war. Over the years,these groups developed into the American CivilLiberties Union (ACLU). Founded in 1920, the ACLUworks to protect people’s rights. It focuses on threemajor areas of civil liberties: freedom of inquiry andexpression, equality for all before the law, and dueprocess.

Civil Liberties Curtailed In addition to usingpropaganda and persuasion, the government alsorestricted some civil liberties by passing legislation tofight antiwar activities or enemies at home.Espionage, or spying to acquire secret government

information, was addressed in the Espionage Act of1917, which established penalties and prison termsfor anyone who gave aid to the enemy. This act alsopenalized disloyalty, giving false reports, or other-wise interfering with the war effort. The Post Officeeven hired college professors to translate foreignperiodicals to find out if they contained antiwarmessages.

The Sedition Act of 1918 expanded the meaningof the Espionage Act to make illegal any publicexpression of opposition to the war. In practice, itallowed officials to prosecute anyone who criti-cized the president or the government. Combined,these laws generated over 1,500 prosecutions and1,000 convictions.

A Climate of Suspicion The fear of spies andemphasis on patriotism quickly led to the mistreat-ment and persecution of German Americans. Toavoid German-sounding names, advertisers began tocall sauerkraut “Liberty cabbage” and hamburger“Salisbury steak.” Many schools dropped Germanlanguage classes from their curricula, and orchestrasstopped performing the music of Beethoven,Schubert, Wagner, and other German com-posers. Anti-German feelings some-times led to violence against innocentcitizens.

German Americans were not theonly ones under suspicion. Mobsattacked labor activists, socialists,and pacifists. Newspapers adsurged Americans to monitor theactivities of their fellow citizens.Americans even formed privateorganizations, such as the AmericanProtective League and the Boy Spiesof America, to spy on neighbors andcoworkers. Secretary of War NewtonBaker expressed concern about thegrowing intolerance:

“There is a growing frenzy of suspicion and hostilitytoward disloyalty. I am afraid we are going to have agood many instances of people roughly treated on veryslight evidence of disloyalty. Already a number of menand some women have been tarred and feathered, and a portion of the press is urging with great vehemencemore strenuous efforts at detection and punishment.”

—quoted in Echoes of Distant Thunder

The Supreme Court Limits Free Speech Despiteprotests against the government’s tactics, however,the courts generally upheld the principle behindthem. Although the First Amendment specificallystates that “Congress shall make no law . . . abridgingthe freedom of speech, or of the press,” the SupremeCourt decided otherwise, departing from a strict lit-

eral interpretation of the Constitution.In the landmark case of Schenck v. theUnited States (1919), the Supreme Court

ruled that an individual’s freedom ofspeech could be curbed when thewords uttered constitute a “clearand present danger.” The Courtused as an example someone yell-ing “Fire!” in a crowded theater. Itdescribed such an event as a situa-tion in which freedom of speech

would be superseded by the theater-goers’ right to safety. The Court’s

majority opinion stated, “When anation is at war, many things thatmight be said in times of peace are sucha hindrance to its effort that their utter-ance will not be endured so long as[soldiers] fight. . . .” ; (See page 1007 for

more information on Schenck v. the United States.)

Explaining Why did Congress passthe Espionage Act in 1917?

Reading Check


Writing About History

Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: draft, conscription,

victory garden, migrate, espionage,constitute.

2. People and Terms Identify: WarIndustries Board, Bernard Baruch,Liberty Bond, Victory Bond, Committeeon Public Information.

3. Describe the contributions of AfricanAmericans during the war.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Summarizing How did government

efforts to ensure support for the warconflict with democratic ideals?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing How did World War I cause

the federal government to change itsrelationship with the business world?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to identify theeffects of the war on the Americanworkforce.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Posters Examine the

posters on page 378. How do theseimages encourage support for the war?How effective do you think they wouldbe today?

8. Persuasive Writing Imagine that youare working for the Committee onPublic Information. Write text for anadvertisement or lyrics to a song inwhich you attempt to sway public opin-ion in favor of the war. CA 11WS1.5

Effects of War onU.S. Workforce

George Creel➤


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Color My WorldSome bright spots in a dark decade:

� Color newspaper supplements (1914)

� 3-D films (1915)

� Nail polish (1916)

� Three-color traffic lights (1918)

� Color photography introduced by Eastman Kodak (1914)

N O T E B O O K

V E R B A T I MV E R B A T I M

World War FirstsHuman ingenuity goes to work in the service of war:

AERIAL COMBAT, 1914. War takes to the air. Two Allied aircraft chasetwo German planes across Britain.

GAS ATTACKS, 1915. The German High Command admits to usingchlorine gas bombs and shells on the field of combat. Deadly mustardgas is used in 1917.

GAS MASKS. Issued to Allied soldiers in 1915.

DONKEY’S EARS. A new trench periscope enables soldiers to observethe battleground from the relative safety of a trench without riskingsniper fire.

BIG BERTHA. Enormous howitzer gunbombards Paris. “Big Bertha,” namedafter the wife of its manufacturer, isthought to be located nearly 63 milesbehind German lines. Moving at nighton railroad tracks, the gun is difficultfor the Allies to locate.

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“My message was one of

death for young men. How odd

to applaud that.”WOODROW WILSON,on returning to the White House

after asking Congress for a declaration of war, 1917

“Food is Ammunition—Don’t

Waste It”POSTER FROM U.S. FOODADMINISTRATION,

administered by Herbert Hoover

“I have had a hard time getting

over this war. My old world died.”RAY STANNARD BAKER,journalist

“Let us, while this war lasts,

forget our special grievances

and close our ranks shoulder

to shoulder with our own white

fellow citizens and the allied

nations that are fighting for

democracy.” W.E.B. DU BOIS,African American scholar

and leader, 1918

“America has at one bound

become a world power in a sense

she never was before.”BRITISH PRIME MINISTER DAVID LLOYD GEORGE,

on the U.S. entry into World War I, 1917

“In the camps I saw barrels

mounted on sticks on which

zealous captains were endeavoring

to teach their men how to ride

a horse.” THEODORE ROOSEVELT,on touring U.S. military training facilities, 1917

“The war was over, and it seemed

as if everything in the world were

possible, and everything was new,

and that peace was going to be all

we dreamed about.”FLORENCE HARRIMAN,Red Cross volunteer, in Paris on

Armistice Day, 1918

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American soldiers set sail for Europe.

One of the first color photographs


MilestonesREPATRIATED, APRIL 10, 1917.VLADIMIR ILYICH LENIN, toRussia, after an 11-year absence.The leader of the leftist Bolshevikparty hopes to reorganize hisrevolutionary group.

SHOT DOWN AND KILLED,APRIL 22, 1918. “THE REDBARON,” Manfred von Richthofen,Germany’s ace pilot. Von Richthofendestroyed more than 80 Alliedaircraft. On hearing of the RedBaron’s death, English fighter pilotEdward Mannock said, “I hope he roasted all the way down.”

ELECTED, NOVEMBER 7, 1916.JEANNETTE RANKIN of Montana,to the U.S. Congress. The firstwoman congressionalrepresentative explained her victoryby saying that women “got the votein Montana because the spirit ofpioneer days was still alive.”

EXECUTED, OCTOBER 15, 1917.MATA HARI, in France, forespionage. The famous Dutchdancer was sentenced to deathfor spying for the Germans.

N U M B E R S 1 9 1 5N U M B E R S 1 9 1 5

A W A R T O E N D A L L W A R S : 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 1 8

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$1,040 Average annualincome for workers in finance,insurance, and real estate

$687 Average income for industrial workers (higher for union workers, lower for nonunion workers)

$510 Average income forretail trade workers

$355 Average income forfarm laborers

$342 Average income fordomestic servants

$328 Average income forpublic school teachers

$11.95 Cost of a bicycle

$1.15 Cost of a baseball

$1 Average cost of a hotel room

39¢ Cost of one dozen eggs

5¢ Cost of a glass of cola

7¢ Cost of a large roll of toilet paper

How to Make a DoughboyTake one American infantryman.

1. Arm with 107 pieces of fighting equipment,including:� rifle � gas mask� rifle cartridges � wire cutters� cartridge belt � trench tool� steel helmet � bayonet and scabbard� clubs � grenades� knives

2. Add 50 articles of clothing, including 3 wool blankets and a bedsack.

3. Equip with eating utensils and 11 cooking implements.

4. Train well.

TOTAL COST: $156.30(not including training and transportation to Europe)

Jeannette Rankin

Vladimir Lenin

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Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learned aboutthe home front. In this section, you willfind out about World War I and its end.

• New technologies made World War Ithe first modern war. (p. 385)

• American soldiers entered the war,boosting morale and fighting coura-geously. (p. 386)

• The United States rejected Wilson’sgenerous peace plan and the League of Nations. (p. 388)

Content Vocabularyconvoy, armistice, reparations

Academic Vocabularynetwork, adequately, resolve

People and Terms to IdentifyVladimir Lenin, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,Fourteen Points, League of Nations,Treaty of Versailles

Reading Objectives• Discuss the fighting techniques used in

World War I.• Characterize the American response to

the Treaty of Versailles.

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about the bat-tles of World War I, complete a graphicorganizer similar to the one below by list-ing the kinds of warfare and technologyused in the fighting.

Preview of Events

A Bloody Conflict

Warfare and Technology

Used in World War I

July 1916Battle of theSomme begins

✦1917 ✦1919✦1915

November 1917Communists seizepower in Russia

March 1918Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends warbetween Russia and Germany

September 1918Beginning of Battle of theArgonne Forest

November 1918Armistice ends war

. The Big Idea ,The fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events.World War I changed the nature of combat. Soldiers faced trench warfare, poisongas, and tanks and airplanes in battle. Even before the end of the war, PresidentWilson had proposed a plan known as the Fourteen Points. The leaders of the vic-torious countries considered this plan too lenient toward Germany and insteadapproved the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty stripped Germany of its armed forcesand required the country to pay heavy reparations. The treaty also dissolved fourempires—Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the German Empire, and Austria-Hungary—and created nine new countries. While the Treaty of Versailles did callfor the creation of the League of Nations, the United States never joined, becauseCongress refused to approve the treaty.


11.4 Students trace the rise of theUnited States to its role as a worldpower in the twentieth century.

11.4.4 Explain Theodore Roosevelt’sBig Stick diplomacy, William Taft’sDollar Diplomacy, and WoodrowWilson’s Moral Diplomacy, drawing on relevant speeches.

Combat in World War I

New technologies made World War I thefirst modern war.

Reading Connection What new technologies havebeen developed or proposed in your lifetime? Read on to learnabout the weapons that World War I personnel faced.

By the spring of 1917, World War I had devastatedEurope. Old-fashioned strategies and new technolo-gies resulted in terrible destruction. Many Americansand Europeans, however, believed American troopswould quickly bring the war to an end.

General John J. Pershing, commander of theAmerican forces in World War I, could not help butfeel a sense of pride and excitement as he watched theSecond Battalion of the First Division’s 16th Infantrymarch through the streets of Paris on July 4, 1917:

“ . . . The battalion was joined by a great crowd,many women forcing their way into the ranks andswinging along arm in arm with the men. Withwreaths about their necks and bouquets in their hatsand rifles, the column looked like a moving flower garden. With only a semblance of military formation,the animated throng pushed its way throughavenues of people to the martial strainsof the French band and the stillmore thrilling music of cheeringvoices.”

—quoted in The Yanks Are Coming

While his men marchedthrough Paris, Pershingraced to Picpus Cemetery,the burial place of theMarquis de Lafayette, aFrench noble who hadfought in the AmericanRevolution. One of Pershing’sofficers, Colonel Charles E.Stanton, raised his hand in saluteand acknowledged the continuingAmerican-French relationship byproclaiming, “Lafayette, we are here!”

Trench Warfare The American soldiers who wentto Europe knew they would face a war differentfrom any war they had seen before. Trench warfareand technological innovations had changed the bat-tlefield. The early offensives of 1914 quickly demon-strated that the nature of warfare had changed.Troops that dug themselves in and relied upon mod-ern rifles and a new weapon—the rapidfire machinegun—could easily hold off the attacking forces. Onthe Western Front, troops dug a network of trenchesthat stretched from the English Channel to the Swissborder. The space between the opposing trencheswas known as “no man’s land,” a rough, barrenlandscape pockmarked with craters from artilleryfire. Many soldiers would lose their lives in this noman’s land as they attempted to attack enemytrenches.

To break through enemy lines, both sides beganwith massive artillery barrages. Then bayonet wield-ing soldiers would scramble out of their trenches,race across no man’s land, and hurl grenades into theenemy’s trenches. The results were often disastrous.The artillery barrages rarely destroyed the enemydefenses, leaving the enemy with ample artillery tofire at attacking troops. The troops crossing no man’sland were easily stopped by enemy machine gunsand rifle fire. This kind of assault caused staggeringlyhigh casualties. In major battles, both sides often lostseveral hundred thousand men.

These battles produced horrific scenes of death anddestruction, as one American soldier noted in

his diary:

“Many dead Germans along the road.One heap on a manure pile . . .

Devastation everywhere. Our barragehas rooted up the entire territory

like a ploughed field. Dead horsesgalore, many of them have a hindquarter cut off—the Huns[Germans] need food. Dead menhere and there.”

—quoted inThe American Spirit

New Technology As it be-came clear that charging enemy

trenches could bring only limitedsuccess at great cost, both sides began

to develop new technologies to helpthem break through enemy lines. In April

1915, the Germans first used poison gas in the


John J. Pershing➤

EasternFront

WesternFront

PalestinianCampaign

CaucasusCampaign

MesopotamianCampaign

Balkan Campaign

ItalianFront

Lusitania sunkMay 7, 1915

Battle of the SommeJuly–Nov. 1916

First Battleof the MarneSept. 1914

Battles of YpresOct.–Nov. 1914Apr.–May 1915

Battle of VerdunFeb.–Dec. 1916

TannenbergAug. 1914

CaporettoOct.–Dec. 1917

GallipoliApr. 1915–Jan. 1916

1

2

34

5

7

8

9

6

N

SE

W

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection500 kilometers0

500 miles0

20°W

50°N

60°N

40°N

10°W 0° 20°E

AtlanticOcean

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Black Sea CaspianSea

Baltic

SeaNorthSea

Adriatic Sea

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

ITALY

SWITZ.

UN I T EDK INGDOM

BELG.

NETH.

LUX.GERMANY

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

DENMARK

SWEDENNORWAY

RU S S I A

ROMANIA

BULGARIA

O T TOMANEMP I R E

PERSIA

GREECE

ALBANIA

SERBIA

EGYPTLIBYA

TUNISIA

ALGERIAMOROCCO

MONTE-NEGRO

SPANISHMOROCCO

London

Paris

Rome

Berlin

Petrograd(St. Petersburg)

ViennaBudapest

Sarajevo

Constantinople

Baghdad

Jerusalem

X

Battles of World War I, 1914–1918

Allied Powers

Central Powers

Neutral nations

German unrestrictedsubmarine warfare zoneAllied offensivesCentral Powers'offensivesFarthest advanceof Central PowersLine of trenchwarfare, 1915–1917Allied victory

Central Powers' victory

Indecisive battle


The Americans and Victory

American soldiers entered the war, boostingmorale and fighting courageously.

Personal Connection Do you recall a time in your lifewhen you had to boost someone’s morale or be courageous?Read on to learn about Americans who helped the Allies winWorld War I.

Wave upon wave of American troops marchedinto this bloody stalemate—nearly 2 million beforethe war’s end. These “doughboys,” a nickname forAmerican soldiers, were largely inexperienced, butthey were fresh, so their presence immediatelyboosted the morale of Allied forces.

Winning the War at Sea No American troop-ships were sunk on their way to Europe—an accom-plishment due largely to the efforts of American

Second Battle of Ypres. The fumes caused vomiting,blindness, and suffocation. Soon afterward the Alliesalso began using poison gas, and gas masks became anecessary part of a soldier’s equipment.

In 1916 the British introduced the tank into battle.The first tanks were very slow and cumbersome,mechanically unreliable, and fairly easy to destroy.They could roll over barbed wire and trenches, butthere were usually not enough of them to make a dif-ference. While tanks did help troops, they did notrevolutionize warfare in World War I.

World War I also saw the first use of airplanes incombat. At first, planes were used mainly to observeenemy activities. Soon, the Allies and Central Powersused them to drop small bombs. As technologyadvanced, they also attached machine guns to air-craft to engage in deadly air battles known asdogfights.

Describing What new technologieswere introduced in World War I?

Reading Check

50 kilometers0

50 miles0

Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

N

S

EW

52°N

4°E

St. MihielSept. 1918Argonne Forest

Sept.–Nov. 1918

GuiseAug. 1914

Chˆateau–ThierryMay–June 1918

First Battleof the MarneSept. 1914

Belleau WoodJune 1918

AntwerpSept. 1914

YpresOct.–Nov. 1914Apr.–May 1915July 1917

MonsAug. 1914

MorhangeAug. 1914

Le CateauAug. 1914

NeuveChapelle

Mar. 1915

SommeJuly–Nov. 1916

Somme Offensive1918

Aisne Offensive1918

VerdunFeb.-Dec. 1916

Rhine R

.Eng

lis

hChannel

SeineR

.

Somm e R.

NETHERLANDS

BELGIUMGERMANY

LUX.

F R ANC EParis

Russia1,700,000

British Empire908,400

France1,385,000

World War I Military Deaths*

Italy650,000

United States107,000

Others74,200

Germany1,773,000Austria-Hungary

1,200,000

OttomanEmpire325,000

Bulgaria87,500

Romania335,700 Allies

Central Powers

* Figures are approximate

Western Front, 1914–1918

Allied offensivesCentral Powers'offensivesFarthest advanceof Central PowersLine of trenchwarfare, 1915–1917Armistice Line, 1918

Allied victory

Central Powers' victory

Indecisive battle

Allied Powers

Central Powers

Neutral nations 1. Interpreting Maps Where did the majority of WorldWar I battles occur?

2. Interpreting Charts Which nation suffered the largestnumber of military deaths during World War I?


Admiral William S. Sims. For most of the war, theBritish preferred to fight German submarines bysending warships to find them. Meanwhile, mer-chant ships would race across the Atlantic individu-ally. The British approach had not worked well, andsubmarines had inflicted heavy losses on Britishshipping.

Sims proposed that merchant ships and trooptransports be gathered into groups, called convoys,and escorted across the Atlantic by warships. If sub-marines wanted to attack a convoy, they would haveto get past the warships protecting it. The convoysystem greatly reduced shipping losses and ensuredthat American troops arrived safely in Europe. Theyarrived during a pivotal time in late 1917.

Russia Leaves the War In March 1917, riots brokeout in Russia over the government’s handling of thewar and over the scarcity of food and fuel. On March15, Czar Nicholas II, the leader of the RussianEmpire, abdicated his throne. Political leadership in

Russia passed into the hands of a provisional, or tem-porary, government, consisting largely of moderaterepresentatives who supported Russia’s continuedparticipation in World War I. The government, how-ever, was unable to adequately deal with the majorproblems, such as food shortages, that were afflictingthe nation.

The Bolsheviks, a group of Communists, sooncompeted for power in Russia. In November 1917,Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party,overthrew the Russian government and established aCommunist government.

Germany’s military fortunes improved with theBolshevik takeover of Russia. Lenin’s first act afterseizing power was to pull Russia out of the war andconcentrate on establishing a Communist state. Heaccomplished this by agreeing to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany on March 3, 1918. Under thistreaty, Russia lost substantial territory, giving upUkraine, its Polish and Baltic territories, and Finland.However, the treaty also removed the German army

from the remaining Russian lands. With the EasternFront settled, Germany was now free to concentrateits forces in the west.

The German Offensive Falters On March 21,1918, the Germans launched a massive attack along theWestern Front. German forces, reinforced with troopsfrom the Russian front, pushed deeply into Allied lines.By early June, they were less than 40 miles (64 km)from Paris.

American troops played an important role in con-taining the German offensive. In late May, as theGerman offensive continued, the Americanslaunched their first major attack, quickly capturingthe village of Cantigny. On June 1, American andFrench troops blocked the German drive on Paris atthe town of Château-Thierry. On July 15, theGermans launched one last massive attack in a deter-mined attempt to take Paris, but American andFrench troops held their ground.

The Battle of the Argonne Forest With theGerman drive stalled, French Marshal FerdinandFoch, supreme commander of the Allied forces,ordered massive counterattacks all along the front. Inmid-September, American troops drove backGerman forces at the battle of Saint-Mihiel. Theattack was a prelude to a massive American offensivein the region between the Meuse River and theArgonne Forest. General Pershing assembled over600,000 American troops, some 40,000 tons of sup-plies, and roughly 4,000 artillery pieces for the mostmassive attack in American history.

The attack began on September 26, 1918. Slowly, theGerman positions fell to the advancing Americantroops. The Germans inflicted heavy casualties on theAmerican forces, but by early November, theAmericans had shattered the German defenses andopened a hole in the German lines.

The War Ends While fighting raged along theWestern Front, a revolution engulfed Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Turks surrendered. Facedwith the surrender of their allies and a naval mutinyat Kiel in early November, the people of Berlin rose inrebellion on November 9 and forced the Germanemperor to step down. At the 11th hour on the 11th

day of the 11th month, 1918, the fighting stopped.Germany had finally signed an armistice, or cease-fire, that ended the war.

Explaining What was VladimirLenin’s first goal after controlling Russia in 1917?

A Flawed Peace

The United States rejected Wilson’s gener-ous peace plan and the League of Nations.

Reading Connection How might your feelings toward a peace plan differ if you were a citizen of a defeated countrycompared to a victorious country? Read on to learn why theU.S. Senate would not ratify the Treaty of Versailles.

In January 1919, a peace conference began in Paristo try to resolve the complicated issues arising fromWorld War I. The principal figures in the negotiationswere the “Big Four,” the leaders of the victoriousAllied nations: President Wilson of the United States,British prime minister David Lloyd George, Frenchpremier Georges Clemenceau, and Italian prime min-ister Vittorio Orlando. Germany was not invited toparticipate.

Wilson had presented his plan, known as theFourteen Points, to Congress in January 1918. TheFourteen Points were based on “the principle of jus-tice to all peoples and nationalities.” In the first fivepoints, the president proposed to eliminate the gen-eral causes of the war through free trade, disarma-ment, freedom of the seas, impartial adjustment ofcolonial claims, and open diplomacy instead of secretagreements. The next eight points addressed the rightof self-determination. They also required the CentralPowers to evacuate all of the countries invaded dur-ing the war, including France, Belgium, and Russia.The fourteenth point, perhaps the most important oneto Wilson, called for the creation of a “general associa-tion of nations” known as the League of Nations. TheLeague’s member nations would help preserve peaceand prevent future wars by pledging to respect andprotect each other’s territory and political independ-ence. ; (See page 998 for the text of the Fourteen Points.)

Reading Check


Alvin York After takingcommand of his patrol in theBattle of Argonne Forest, Yorkreceived the Medal of Honorand French Croix de Guerre.Upon returning home, thewar hero founded a schoolfor underprivileged children.

The Treaty of Versailles As the peace talks pro-gressed in the Palace of Versailles (vehr·SY), itbecame clear that Wilson’s ideas did not coincidewith the interests of the other Allied governments.They criticized his plan as too lenient towardGermany.

The Treaty of Versailles, signed by Germany onJune 28, 1919, had weakened or discarded many ofWilson’s proposals. Under the treaty, Germany was stripped of its armed forces. It also had to payreparations, or war damages, to the Allies in theamount of $33 billion, a sum far beyond its financialmeans. Perhaps most humiliating, Germany had toacknowledge guilt for the outbreak and devastationof World War I.

The war itself resulted in the dissolution of fourempires: the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire,which lost territory in the war and fell to revolutionin 1922, the German Empire after the abdication ofthe emperor and loss of territory in the treaty, andAustria-Hungary, which was split into separatecountries. Furthermore, nine new countries wereestablished in Europe, including Yugoslavia, Poland,and Czechoslovakia.

While Wilson expressed disappointment in thetreaty, he found consolation in its call for the creationof his cherished League of Nations. He returnedhome to win approval for the treaty.

The U.S. Senate Rejects the Treaty The Treatyof Versailles, especially the League of Nations, facedimmediate opposition from numerous U.S. lawmak-ers. A key group of senators, nicknamed “theIrreconcilables” in the press because they wereunwilling to compromise, assailed the League as thekind of “entangling alliance” that Washington,

Jefferson, and Monroe had warned against. Thesecritics feared that the League might supersede thepower of Congress to declare war and thus force theUnited States to fight in numerous foreign conflicts.

A larger group of senators, known as the“Reservationists,” was led by the powerful chairmanof the Foreign Relations committee, Henry CabotLodge. This group supported the League but wouldratify the treaty only with amendments that wouldpreserve the nation’s freedom to act independently.

Convinced that he could defeat his opposition bywinning public support, Wilson took his case directlyto the American people. Starting in Ohio inSeptember 1919, he traveled 8,000 miles and madeover 30 major speeches in three weeks. The physicalstrain of his tour, however, proved too great. Wilsoncollapsed in Colorado on September 25 and returnedto the White House. There, he suffered a stroke andwas bedridden for months, isolated from even hisclosest advisers but determined not to compromisewith the Senate.

The Senate voted in November 1919 and again inMarch 1920, but it refused to ratify the treaty. AfterWilson left office in 1921, the United States negoti-ated separate peace treaties with each of the CentralPowers. The League of Nations, the foundation ofPresident Wilson’s plan for lasting world peace, tookshape without the United States.

Examining What major issues didWilson’s Fourteen Points address?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: network, convoy,

adequately, armistice, resolve,reparations.

2. People and Terms Identify: VladimirLenin, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, FourteenPoints, League of Nations, Treaty ofVersailles.

3. List the four nations that dominated theParis peace conference in 1919.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Recalling Why did President Wilson

propose his Fourteen Points?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing What impact did John J.

Pershing and the Battle of the ArgonneForest have on World War I?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer tolist the results of World War I.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Maps and Charts Examine

the map and chart on page 387.Prepare a quiz with questions based on information from both. Give the quiz to some of your classmates.

Writing About History8. Descriptive Writing Imagine that you

are an American soldier fighting in Europeduring World War I. Write a letter homedescribing your situation, and explain whyyou are there. CA 11WS1.2; 11WA2.1c

Results of World War I


tav.mt.glencoe.com




Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learned howthe war changed Europe. In this section,you will discover how the United Statesreacted to the change from war to peace.

• After the war, when businesses tried todecrease wages and inflation loweredbuying power, workers went on strikeacross the nation. (p. 391)

• Race riots swept the nation as returningsoldiers competed against AfricanAmericans for jobs and housing. (p. 392)

• Fear of a Communist revolution causeda nationwide panic. (p. 393)

• Warren G. Harding won the 1920 presi-dential election with the promise of areturn to “normalcy.” (p. 395)

Content Vocabularycost of living, general strike, deport

Academic Vocabularywidespread, authorities, restoration

People and Terms to IdentifyRed Scare, A. Mitchell Palmer, J. EdgarHoover

Reading Objectives• Describe the effects of the postwar

recession on the United States.• Explain the causes of increased racial

tensions after the war.• Discuss the causes of and reaction to

the Red Scare.

• List the major issues of the 1920 presendential campaign and describethe election’s results.

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about the war’saftermath, complete a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list the effectsof the end of World War I on theAmerican economy.

Preview of Events

The War’s Impact

1917Riots erupt in EastSt. Louis, Illinois

1918House approves Nineteenth Amendmentgiving women the right to vote

1919Race riots and strikes eruptin numerous northern cities

1920Red Scare andPalmer raids

Effects of World War Ion Economy

✦1917 ✦1918 ✦1919 ✦1920

. The Big Idea ,The fate of nations is forever changed by monumental world events. Theend of rationing brought a rush to buy goods that had been limited. The demandfor products brought higher prices and inflation. Despite the cost-of-livingincreases, companies kept wages low because higher wages raised their operatingcosts. The number of unionized workers had increased during the war, and manyworkers now organized strikes to protest rising costs and low wages. The tensionincreased as soldiers returned home and began looking for jobs. Race riotserupted as minorities and returning soldiers competed for jobs and housing. A fearof communism also gripped the country during what was known as the Red Scare.Warren G. Harding was able to win the 1920 presidential election by assuringAmericans that he would return the country to “normalcy.”




11.4.5 Analyze the political, economicand social ramifications of World War I

on the home front.

An Economy in Turmoil

After the war, when businesses tried todecrease wages and inflation lowered buying power,workers went on strike across the nation.

Reading Connection How might inflation affect you oryour family’s spending habits? Read on to learn about theeffects of postwar inflation and loss of wages.

The end of World War I brought great upheaval toAmerican society. When the war ended, governmentagencies removed their controls from the Americaneconomy. This released pent-up demand in the econ-omy. People raced to buy goods that had beenrationed, while businesses rapidly raised prices theyhad been forced to keep low during the war. Theresult was rapid inflation.

On August 20, 1919, Mary Harris Jones, also knownas “Mother” Jones, was thrown in jail in Homestead,Pennsylvania. The 89-year-old had just finished deliv-ering a fiery, impassioned speech in an attempt togain support for steel unions. Referring to the ownersof the big steel companies, she said:

“Our Kaisers sit up and smoke seventy-five centcigars and have lackeys with knee pants bring themchampagne while you starve, while you grow old atforty, stoking their furnaces. You pull in your belts whilethey banquet. They have stomachs two miles long andtwo miles wide and you fill them. . . . If Gary [chair ofU.S. Steel] wants to work twelve hours a day, let him goin the blooming mill and work. What we want is a littleleisure, time for music, playgrounds, a decent home,books, and the things that make life worthwhile.”

—quoted in Labor in Crisis

Inflation rates seemed to support Mother Jones’sappeal. In 1919 prices rose at an average of more than 15 percent. Inflation greatly increased the cost ofliving—the cost of food, clothing, shelter, and otheressentials that people need to survive.

Inflation Leads to Strikes Many companies hadbeen forced to raise wages during the war, but infla-tion now threatened to wipe out all the gains workershad made. While workers wanted higher wages to

keep up with inflation, companies wanted to holddown wages because inflation was also driving uptheir operating costs.

During the war, the number of workers in unionshad increased dramatically. By the time the warended, workers were better organized and muchmore capable of organizing strikes than they had beenbefore. Many business leaders, on the other hand,were determined to break the power of the unionsand roll back the gains labor had made. These circum-stances led to an enormous wave of strikes in 1919. Bythe end of the year, more than 3,600 strikes involvingmore than 4 million workers had taken place.

The Seattle General Strike The first major striketook place in Seattle, when some 35,000 shipyardworkers demanded higher wages and shorter hours.Soon other unions in Seattle joined the shipyardworkers and organized a general strike. A generalstrike involves all workers living in a certain loca-tion, not just workers in a particular industry. TheSeattle general strike involved more than 60,000 peo-ple and paralyzed the city for five days. Although thestrikers returned to work without making any gains,their actions worried many Americans because thegeneral strike was a common tactic used in Europeby Communists and other radical groups.

The Boston Police Strike Perhaps the mostfamous strike of 1919 took place in Boston, whenroughly 75 percent of the police force walked off thejob. Riots and looting soon erupted in the city, forcingthe governor of Massachusetts, Calvin Coolidge, tosend in the National Guard. When the strikers triedto return to work, the police commissioner refused toaccept them. He hired a new police force instead.

Despite protests, Coolidge agreed the men shouldbe fired. He declared, “There is no right to strike

“Mother” Jones

➤

against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any-time.” Coolidge’s response brought him to nationalattention and earned him widespread public support.It also convinced the Republicans to make Coolidgetheir vice presidential candidate in the 1920 election.

The Steel Strike Shortly after the police strikeended, one of the largest strikes in American historybegan when an estimated 350,000 steelworkers wenton strike for higher pay, shorter hours, and recogni-tion of their union. Elbert H. Gary, the head of U.S.Steel, refused even to talk to union leaders. Instead,the company set out to break the union by using anti-immigrant feelings to divide the workers.

Many steelworkers were immigrants. The com-pany blamed the strike on foreign radicals and calledfor loyal Americans to return to work. Meanwhile, thecompany hired African Americans and Mexicans asreplacement workers and managed to keep its steelmills operating despite the strike. Clashes betweencompany guards and strikers were frequent, and inGary, Indiana, a riot left 18 strikers dead. In early

January of 1920, the strike collapsed. The failure of thestrike set back the union cause in the steel industry.Steelworkers remained unorganized until 1937.

Explaining What caused the waveof strikes in 1919?

Racial Unrest

Race riots swept the nation as returningsoldiers competed against African Americans for jobsand housing.

Reading Connection Describe your feelings during a time when you competed against someone in a game oracademic competition. Read on to learn how the returning soldiers caused racial unrest when they looked for jobs.

Adding to the nation’s economic turmoil was thereturn of hundreds of thousands of American sol-diers from Europe who needed to find employment.

Reading Check


MOMENTinHISTORYHERO’S HOMECOMINGA wounded soldier of the 369th Regiment, the Harlem“Hell-Fighters,” accepts con-gratulations during a victoryparade through New York Cityin 1919. Facing discriminationwithin their own army, AfricanAmerican soldiers at the frontreceived a warm receptionfrom their French allies.“I have never before experi-enced what it meant really tobe free, to taste real liberty,”one soldier wrote home,“in aphrase,‘to be a man.’ ” TwoAfrican American infantry divisions suffered some 6,000casualties, but at war’s end,they still came home to a segregated American society.

MOMENTinHISTORY

Many African Americans who had moved north dur-ing the war were also competing for jobs and hous-ing. Frustration and racism combined to produceviolence. In the summer of 1919, over 20 race riotsbroke out across the nation.

The worst violence occurred in Chicago. On a hotJuly day, African Americans went to a whites-onlybeach. Both sides began throwing stones at each other.Whites also threw stones at an African Americanteenager swimming near the beach to prevent himfrom coming ashore, and he drowned. A full-scale riotthen erupted in the city. Angry African Americansattacked white neighborhoods while whites attackedAfrican American neighborhoods. The riot lasted forseveral days. In the end, 38 people died—15 white and23 black—and over 500 were injured.

Analyzing Why did the end of thewar lead to race riots?

The Red Scare

Fear of a Communist revolution caused anationwide panic.

Reading Connection Why do you think people mightfear a Communist revolution? Read on to find out about theU.S. response to the Russian Revolution.

The wave of strikes in 1919 helped to fuel fearsthat Communists were conspiring to start a revolutionin the United States. Americans had been stunnedwhen Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power and

Reading Check

withdrew Russia from the war. Americans hadbecome very anti-German as the war progressed, andwhen the Communists withdrew Russia from thewar they seemed to be helping Germany. Americananger at Germany quickly expanded into anger atCommunists as well. Americans began to associatecommunism with being unpatriotic and disloyal.

Americans had long been suspicious ofCommunist ideas. Throughout the late 1800s, manyAmericans had accused immigrants of importingradical socialist and Communist ideas into theUnited States and blamed them for labor unrest andviolence. Now Communists had seized control of anentire nation, and fears surged that they would try toincite revolutions elsewhere. These fears seemed tobe confirmed in 1919, when the Soviet Union formedthe Communist International—an organization forcoordinating the activities of Communist parties inother countries.

The Red Scare Begins As strikes erupted acrossthe United States in 1919, the fear that Communists,or “reds,” as they were called, might seize power ledto a nationwide panic known as the Red Scare.Seattle’s mayor, Ole Hanson, spoke for others whenhe condemned the leaders of the Seattle generalstrike as revolutionaries who wanted to “take posses-sion of our American government and try to dupli-cate the anarchy of Russia.”

In April the postal service intercepted more than30 parcels addressed to leading businesspeople andpoliticians that were triggered to explode whenopened. In June eight bombs in eight cities explodedwithin minutes of one another, suggesting a nation-wide conspiracy. One of them damaged the home of


Effects of World War I on the United States

Developments in the War Effects on U.S.

Interpreting Why did the destruction of European economiescause an industrial boom in the United States?

World War I had profound effects on the United States.

• Boom in U.S. economy; emergence of U.S. asworld industrial leader

• “Red Scare” in postwar U.S.; suspicionof immigrants

• Internal migration in U.S., especially AfricanAmerican migration to Northern cities

• Failure to join League of Nations

• War-torn economies of Europe• Russian Revolution• Industrial demand of wartime• Sacrifices of wartime; disappointment with Versailles

Peace Treaty

Palmer’s agents often disregarded the civil liber-ties of the suspects. Officers entered homes andoffices without search warrants. People were mis-treated and jailed for indefinite periods of time andwere not allowed to talk to their attorneys.

For a while, Palmer was regarded as a nationalhero. His raids, however, failed to turn up any hardevidence of revolutionary conspiracy. When his direprediction that violence would rock the nation onMay Day 1920—a popular European celebration ofworkers—proved wrong, Palmer lost much of hiscredibility and soon faded from prominence.

The Red Scare greatly influenced people’s atti-tudes during the 1920s. Americans often linked radi-calism with immigrants, and that attitude led to a callfor Congress to limit immigration.

Examining After World War I, whywere Americans suspicious of some union leaders?

Reading Check


Terror in the Streets After the House of Morgan—a bank in New York City—was damaged by a bomb in 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer instituted raids on antigovernment activists and many immigrants, often violatingtheir civil liberties in the process. Whom did Palmer appoint to coordinate these investigations?

History

United States Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmerin Washington, D.C. Most people believed the bomb-ings were the work of Communists or other revolu-tionaries trying to destroy the American way of life.

The Palmer Raids Declaring that a “blaze of revo-lution” was “burning up the foundations of society,”Palmer took action. He established a special divisionwithin the Justice Department, the GeneralIntelligence Division, headed by J. Edgar Hoover.This division eventually became the Federal Bureauof Investigation (FBI). From late 1919 to the spring of1920, Palmer organized a series of raids on the head-quarters of various radical organizations. Althoughevidence pointed to no single group as the bombers,Palmer’s agents focused on foreign residents andimmigrants. The authorities detained thousands ofsuspects and deported, or expelled from the country,approximately 500 of them.

An End to Progressivism

Warren G. Harding won the 1920 presiden-tial election with the promise of a return to “normalcy.”

Reading Connection Compared to now, does theperiod of time before September 11, 2001, seem more “normal”to you? Read on to discover how a hope for a more normaltime gave a presidential candidate an election victory.

Economic problems, labor unrest, and racial ten-sions, as well as the fresh memories of World War I,all combined to create a general sense of disillusion-ment in the United States. By 1920 Americanswanted an end to the upheaval. During the 1920 cam-paign, Ohio Governor James M. Cox and his runningmate, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D.Roosevelt, ran on a platform of keeping aliveWoodrow Wilson’s progressive ideals. TheRepublican candidate, Warren G. Harding, called fora return to “normalcy.” He urged that what theUnited States needed was a return to the simplerdays before the Progressive Era reforms:

“[Our] present need is not heroics, but healing; notnostrums, but normalcy; not revolution, but restora-tion; not agitation, but adjustment; not surgery, butserenity; not the dramatic, but the dispassionate; . . .not submergence in internationality, but sustainmentin triumphant nationality.”

—quoted in Portrait of a Nation

Harding’s sentiments struck a chord with voters,and he won the election by a landslide margin of

over 7 million votes. Americans were weary of morecrusades to reform society and the world. Theyhoped to put the country’s racial and labor unrestand economic troubles behind them and build a moreprosperous and stable society.

Explaining How was Harding ableto win the presidential election of 1920?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: cost of living, gen-

eral strike, widespread, authorities,deport, restoration.

2. People and Terms Identify: Red Scare,A. Mitchell Palmer, J. Edgar Hoover.

3. Describe the conditions that AfricanAmericans faced after the end of WorldWar I.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Summarizing Why did Republican

Warren G. Harding win the election of 1920?

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing Provide evidence to explain

how the Palmer raids deprived somecitizens of their civil and political rights?

6. Organizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list thecauses of the Red Scare in the UnitedStates.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Photographs Study the

photograph on page 392. How mightparades such as this one mobilizeAfrican Americans to work for an end todiscrimination?

Writing About History8. Descriptive Writing Imagine that you

are a European immigrant working in afactory in the United States in 1919.Write a letter to a relative in Europeexplaining economic conditions inAmerica and why workers are striking.

CA 11WS1.2; 11WA2.1c

Red Scare

Causes

A. Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover ➤

➤


tav.mt.glencoe.com



Source 1:Newton Baker served as secretary of war during WorldWar I. He believed that the government had the right toprosecute people opposed to the war. He also believed,however, that the government needed to be very carefulabout how it handled opposition, since anti-German feel-ings were running dangerously high. In 1917 he expressedhis concerns in a letter to Major General Tasker Bliss,chief of staff of the U.S. Army.

The spirit of the country seems unusually good,but there is a growing frenzy of suspicion and hostil-ity toward disloyalty. I am afraid we are going to havea good many instances of people roughly treated onvery slight evidence of disloyalty. Already a number ofmen and some women have been ‘tarred and feath-ered,’ and a portion of the press is urging . . . morestrenuous efforts at detection and punishment.

In Cleveland a few days ago a foreign-looking mangot into a street car and taking a seat noticed pasted inthe window next to him a Liberty Loan poster, whichhe immediately tore down, tore into small bits, andstamped under his feet. The people in the car surgedaround him with the demand that he be lynched,when a secret service man showed his badge andplaced him under arrest, taking him in a car to thepolice station, where he was searched and found tohave two Liberty Bonds in his pocket and to be anon-English-speaking Pole. When an interpreter wasprocured it was discovered that the circular which hehad destroyed had had on it a picture of the GermanEmperor, which had so infuriated the fellow that hedestroyed the circular to show his vehement hatred ofthe common enemy. As he was unable to speak a sin-gle word of English, he would undoubtedly have beenhanged but for the intervention and entirely accidentalpresence of the secret service agent.

During World War I, government leaders feared that ethnic Americans were not loyal to theUnited States. In addition, officials sought to stifle dissent in order to help the war effort. Withofficial encouragement, Americans began to lash out at all things German and to target opponents of the war. The legal system supported these actions.


Henry L. Stimson➤

➤1privation: sacrifice

Source 2:Henry Stimson had been secretary of war under PresidentWilliam Howard Taft. He spent World War I as a colonelin the U.S. Army in France. In a 1917 pamphlet, heexpressed his concern about recent immigrants and theirchildren who did not face up to their responsibility toserve in the military.

We are a composite nation. We have been inspiredby the noble hope of making this land a home of free-dom and equal opportunity for all races. And into ourland there has been pouring a great stream of immigra-tion composed largely of men who never had the lessonin loyalty to American institutions which was instilledinto our fathers by the wars, the privations1 and the com-mon experiences of our national growth. Many of thesemen have come here, not to assume, but to escape anational duty. Many of them have very imperfect notions

of responsibility towards the state, letalone the duty of sleepless vigilancerequired for the preservation of liberty.We have taken them on faith; we havegiven them everything we have, in theway of freedom and political powerand we have given them very little inthe way of care or education in theduties which went with that freedomand power. We have apparentlyexpected that they would learn the dif-ficult art of self-government by merelybreathing our free air without effort onour own part and we are beginning tolearn our mistake. We have had someugly revelations2 of the imperfect wayin which our existing institutions haveperformed the duty of assimilating such immigrants. . . .Could there be a better way found to bring home to ourforeign born citizens and their children the duty of loy-alty to this country and the fact that free government hasresponsibilies, as well as privileges, than to have theirchildren learn that lesson, shoulder to shoulder with ournative born youth?

Source 3:The 1917 Espionage Act made it a crime to cause orattempt to cause refusal of duty in the military forces of the United States. Charles Schenck sent antiwar pamphlets to two men drafted for military service. In these pamphlets he argued that no one should be forcedinto the military. Schenck was arrested and charged withconspiring to violate the Espionage Act. In 1919 ChiefJustice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote the U.S. SupremeCourt ruling against Schenck.

The document in question, upon its first printed side,recited the 1st section of the 13th Amendment, said that the idea embodied3 in it was violated by theConscription Act, and that a conscript is little better thana convict. . . . It said: “Do not submit to intimidation;” butin form at least confined itself to peaceful measures,such as a petition for the repeal of the act. The otherand later printed side of the sheet was headed, “AssertYour Rights.” It stated reasons for alleging that anyoneviolated the Constitution when he refused to recognize“your right to assert your opposition to the draft,” and

went on: “If you do not assert and sup-port your rights, you are helping todeny or disparage4 rights which it isthe solemn duty of all citizens andresidents of the United States toretain.”. . . Of course the documentwould not have been sent unless ithad been intended to have someeffect, and we do not see whateffect it could be expected to haveupon persons subject to the draftexcept to influence them to obstructthe carrying of it out. . . .

. . . We admit that in many placesand in ordinary times the defen-dants, in saying all that was said inthe circular, would have been within

their constitutional rights. But the character of every actdepends upon the circumstances in which it is done.The most stringent protection of free speech would notprotect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre, andcausing a panic. . . . The question in every case iswhether the words used are used in such circumstancesand are of such a nature as to create clear and presentdanger that they will bring about the substantive evilsthat Congress has a right to prevent. It is a question ofproximity and degree. When a nation is at war manythings that might be said in time of peace are such ahindrance to its effort that their utterance will not beendured so long as men fight, and that no court couldregard them as protected by any constitutional right. . . .

Source 1: What did Baker fear would happen withgrowing intolerance toward dissent?

Source 2: What was Stimson’s concern about theperceived attitude of immigrants toward militaryservice?

Source 3: Why did the Supreme Court decideagainst Schenck?

Comparing and Contrasting SourcesAccording to Baker, Stimson, and the Supreme Court,what are the responsibilities of citizens in wartime?


➤2revelation: discovery3embody: contain

➤4disparage: degrade

Oliver Wendell Holmes➤

CA HR4; HI1; HI2; HI3

Year Event Significance19141915191619171918

Section 330. What were the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles?

Section 431. What were the Palmer raids?

Critical Thinking32. Problem/Solution Reread the text

under the headings “Trench Warfare” and “New Technology”on pages 385–386. Create your own table identifying theproblem, the solution, and the outcome of the solution.

33. Civics Do you think government action to suppress opposi-tion to World War I was justified? Why or why not?

34. Organizing Use a table like the one below to list the signifi-cant events of each year from 1914 to 1918.

1. guerrilla2. nationalism3. self-determination4. propaganda5. contraband

6. U-boat7. conscription8. victory garden9. espionage

10. convoy

11. armistice12. reparations13. cost of living14. general strike15. deport

16. stability17. emphasis18. erode19. draft

20. migrate21. constitute22. network23. adequately

24. resolve25. widespread26. authorities27. restoration

Reviewing Key TermsOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

• Congress passed Selective Service Act which required young men ages 21–30 to register for the draft

• Employed women in non-combat roles

Armed Forces

Mobilizing for War

• War Industries Board controlled warmaterials and production

• Committee on Public Informationcreated war propaganda

• Government worked with employersand labor to ensure production

• Congress passed Espionage and Sedition Acts to limit opposition to the war

• Congress increased taxes and sold Liberty Bonds to pay for war

Domestic Front

• Cost of living greatly increased• Economic problems led to racial violence and

widespread strikes• Fear of communism led to Red Scare and Palmer raids

Postwar Problems

Reviewing Academic VocabularyOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence thatreflects the term’s meaning in the chapter.

Reviewing the Main IdeasSection 128. What factors contributed to the start of World War I in Europe?

Section 229. What role did American women play in the war effort during

World War I?

398

Standards 11.4, 11.4.4, 11.4.5

Geography and History39. The map on this page shows the geographical changes in

Europe after World War I. Study the map and answer thequestions below.a. Interpreting Maps After World War I, what new coun-

tries were formed using territory that had belonged toAustria-Hungary?

b. Applying Geography Skills What countries acquiredterritory from the former Russian Empire?

Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection500 kilometers

500 miles0

0

0° 20°E

40°N

50°N

10°E

N

SE

W

Balearic Is.Sp.

CorsicaFr.

SardiniaIt.

SicilyIt.

CreteGr.

DodecaneseIsland It.

Alsace-Lorraine Rhineland

SAARLUX.

Tirol

Bessarabia

Byelorussia

E. Prussia

ATLaNTICOCEaN

NorthSea

BalticSea

Mediterranean Sea

RUSSIA

FINLANDSWED

EN

NORW

AY

ESTONIA

LATVIALITHUANIA

POLANDGERMANY

CZECH.

AUSTRIAHUNGARY

YUGOSLAVIA

ROMANIA

BULGARIA

TURKEYGREECE

ALBANIA

ITALYSWITZ.

FRANCE

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

UNITEDKINGDOMIRELAND

NETH.

BELG.

DENMARKIndep. 1922

Helsinki

Tallinn

Riga

Kaunas

Warsaw

StockholmOslo

Copenhagen

Berlin

Prague

ViennaBudapest

Bucharest

Sofia

Belgrade

TiranaConstantinople

Athens

Danzig

Rome

Bern

Amsterdam

Brussels

Paris

Dublin

MadridLisbon

London

Europe After World War I, 1920

Former German boundary

Former Austria-Hungaryboundary

Former Russian boundary

National boundary

Capital city

Writing About History35. Distinguishing Valid and

Fallacious Arguments Write a newspaper editorial identify-ing various arguments about the Palmer Raids as valid or fallacious.

36. Both the British and the American governmentsused propaganda to garner support for the war. Use thelibrary and other resources to find examples of these propa-ganda techniques. Compile your research in an illustratedand captioned poster, and display it in the classroom.

37. Persuasive Writing Take on the role of a newspaper editorin 1919. Write an editorial favoring or opposing ratification ofthe Treaty of Versailles.

38. Interpreting Primary Sources On September 12, 1918,Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs was convicted of violating theEspionage Act. Debs later spoke to the court at his sentenc-ing. Read his speech and answer the questions that follow.

“I look upon the Espionage laws as a despoticenactment in flagrant conflict with democratic principlesand with the spirit of free institutions. . . . I am opposedto the social system in which we live. . . . I believe infundamental change, but if possible by peaceful andorderly means. . . .

I am thinking this morning of the men in the mills andfactories, . . . of the women who for a paltry wage arecompelled to work out their barren lives; of the littlechildren who in this system are robbed of theirchildhood and . . . forced into industrial dungeons. . . . In this high noon of our twentieth century Christiancivilization, money is still so much more important thanthe flesh and blood of childhood. In very truth, gold is god. . . .”

—quoted in Echoes of Distant Thunder

a. According to Debs, what were some problems inAmerican society at this time? How did he believe change should be brought about?

b. How did Debs seem to feel about the Espionage Act? Do you agree with him? Why or why not? CA 11RC2.5

CA 11RC2.5

CA 11WS1.1

CA 11WS1.1; 11WS1.6

CA HR1

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

Which of the following was an effect on the U.S. homefront from involvement in World War I?

A The League of Nations was formed

B The U.S. lost status as a world leader

C The Red Scare and Palmer Raids targeted communistsand immigrants

D The breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

40.

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Vision: Modern Times Web site at

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 6 to assess your knowledge of chapter content.

HISTORY

tav.mt.glencoe.com

Standard 11.4.5 Analyze the political, economic, and socialramifications of World War I on the home front.


Standards Practice


World War I and Its Aftermath · PDF fileWorld War I and Its Aftermath 1914–1920. The Big Ideas , ... • Explain the causes of World War I and why the United States entered the

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