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WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA
HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING
by
CAMERONJORDAN
SubmittedtotheFacultyGraduateDivisionCollegeofFineArts
TexasChristianUniversityinpartialfulfillmentofthe
requirementsforthedegreeof
MASTEROFMUSIC
December,2015
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Copyright© 2015byCameronJordanAllrightsreserved
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CONTENTS
WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA
HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING
ChapterOne:Hyperreality,Disney,andAfrica 1
ChapterTwo:AfricanMusicalElementsinMusicalNumbers 20
“CircleofLife” 20
“BePrepared” 28
ChapterThree:AfricanMusicalElementsinUnderscoring 37
Conclusion 45
Bibliography 48
iii
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LISTOFFIGURESANDEXCERPTS
WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA
HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING
Figure1:MainStreet,USAatDisneyland 5
Figure2:ThesunrisesoverMt.Kilimanjaro 13
Figure3:RafikipresentsSimbaonthetopofPrideRock 27
Figure4:Scarandoneofhisminionsinhiscavernouslair 29
Figure5:Ahyenaplaysalargeribcageasifitwereamarimba 31
Excerpt1:Themotivefrom“ThisLand”whichisusedthroughout 42 TheLionKing
iv
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LISTOFTABLES
WORLDMUSIC’SROLEINTHECONSTRUCTIONOFA
HYPERREALISTICAFRICAINDISNEY’STHELIONKING
Table1:SevenofthefirstgroupstodebutontheBillboard 13 WorldMusicCharts
Table2:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“Circle 21 ofLife”
Table3:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“Be 29 Prepared”
v
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ChapterOne:
Hyperreality,Disney,andAfrica
EarlyintheTonyAward-winningmusicalTheBookofMormon(2011),thetwomain
characters,EldersPriceandCunningham,learnthattheywillbetravelingto
Uganda.“Ohboy⎯LikeLionKing!”ElderCunninghamexclaims,onlytofindoutlater
thatTheLionKingseemstohavetaken“alotofartisticlicense.”1Likemanyjokesin
TheBookofMormon,thesereferencestoTheLionKingplayonthecharacters’
naïvetéabouttheworldaroundthem.Theirexaggerated,childlikeignorancesends
BookofMormonaudiencesintofitsoflaughter,butinrealitythetwoMormons’
Disney-basedideasarenotsodifferentfromhowAmericansoftenperceiveother
cultures⎯particularlyAfricancultures.
AfteritsJune15,1994release,theanimatedDisneyfilmTheLionKing
provedtobeabox-officepowerhousebothabroadandintheUnitedStates,grossing
over$400,000,000inthedomesticmarketalone.2Thefilmwonaccoladesduring
the1995awardsseason,winningthreeoutoffourGoldenGlobeAwardsforwhichit
wasnominated,includingBestMotionPicture,BestOriginalScore,andBestOriginal
Song(EltonJohn’s“CanYouFeeltheLoveTonight”).3TheLionKing’sscoreand
soundtrackwonrecognitionfromtheAcademyAwardsandtheGrammysaswell,
1TreyParker,RobertLopez,MattStone,TheBookofMormon(NewYork:NewmarketPressforITBooks,2011),10,44.2“TheLionKing,”BoxOfficeMojo,accessedJune20,2015,www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lionking.htm.3TheLionKing’sotherGoldenGlobesnominationwasalsointheBestOriginalSongcategory,forEltonJohn’s“CircleofLife.”
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earningOscarsforBestOriginalSong(“CanYouFeeltheLoveTonight”)andBest
OriginalScore,andGrammysforBestMalePopVocalPerformance(“CanYouFeel
theLoveTonight”),BestMusicalAlbumforChildren,andBestInstrumental
ArrangementwithAccompanyingVocals(“CircleofLife”).TheLionKinghas
continuedtobefinanciallysuccessfulandculturallyinfluentialsinceitspremiere,
spawningtwosequels(TheLionKing2[1998]andTheLionKing1½[2004]),two
subsequenttheatricalre-releases(inIMAXin2002andin3Din2011),anda
blockbusterBroadwaymusicalthathasrunsince1997withover7,300
performances.4
BecauseTheLionKing(likeDisneymoviesingeneral)issowidelypopular,it
hasplayedacriticalroleinformingandmaintainingAmericans’perceptionsof
Africasincethe1990s.EdwardBrunerhasfoundthatthe“Americanimageof
Africanculture”thatTheLionKingpresentsevenovertakesactualexperiencesof
AfricanculturefortouristsinAfricancountries.5TheSwahiliphrasehakunamatata
(“noworries,noproblems”),forexample,wasusedinUgandainthe1970sto
combatgrowingpoliticalturmoilthroughoutthecountry.6Now,however,hakuna
matatamainlyremindstouriststoUgandaofTheLionKing’sAmericanizedversion
ofAfrica⎯aversionwithwhichtheyarebothmorefamiliarandmorecomfortable.
TheLionKing,inshort,isoneofveryfewsources⎯andarguablythemost
4“TheLionKing,”InternetBroadwayDatabase,accessedJune20,2015,www.ibdb.com/production.php?id=4761.5EdwardBruner,“TheMaasaiandtheLionKing:Authenticity,Nationalism,andGlobalizationinAfricanTourism,”AmericanEthnologist28,no.4(November2001),893.6Ibid,893.
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memorable⎯ofexposuretoAfricaformanyAmericans.Intheirattemptsto
encouragetheteachingofaccurateinformationaboutAfricancountries,for
instance,BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulderfoundthatelementarystudents
andteachersalikewereexposedtoinaccurateandstereotypicalinformationabout
AfricathroughTheLionKingandothermedia.7Duetohowdeeplyengrainedthis
exampleofpopcultureisincontemporaryAmericansociety,TheLionKing’s
fictionalizedversionofAfrica(anditsmusic)essentiallybecomesthe“real”and
“true”versionofAfricaforAmericans⎯evenmorethanwhatactuallyisrealand
true.
Thisdividebetweenrealityandtheperceptionofrealitycanbeexplainedby
theconceptof“hyperreality.”JeanBaudrillardcoinedtheterm“hyperreality”inhis
1981treatiseSimulacraandSimulation,definingitas“arealwithoutoriginor
reality.”8Simplyput,thisdefinitionstatesthatanobjectorideaishyperrealifitis
designedtoemulatesomethingthatneveractuallyexisted.JohnTiffinexpanded
Baudrillard’sdefinition,suggestingthathyperrealityis“aconditioninwhichwhatis
realandwhatisfictionareseamlesslyblendedtogether,sothatthereisnoclear
distinctionbetweenwhereoneendsandtheotherbegins,”resultingin“theinability
todistinguishrealityfromasimulationofreality.”9UmbertoEcousestheCalifornia-
basedthemeparkDisneyland,viewedasamicrocosmofAmericanlife,todiscuss
7BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulder,“IDidn’tKnowThereWereCitiesinAfrica!”TeachingToleranceno.34(Fall2008),36–38.8JeanBaudrillard,SimulacraandSimulation,trans.SheilaFariaGalser(AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,1994),1.9JohnTiffin,IntroductiontoHyperreality:ParadigmfortheThirdMillennium,ed.NobuyoshiTerashimaandJohnTiffin(London:Routledge,2001),1.
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hyperreality;Ecoclaimsthatthepark“notonlyproducesillusion,but...stimulates
thedesireforit”byprovingthatthefalsifiedexperienceofDisneyland“corresponds
muchmoretoourdaydreamdemands.”10Inotherwords,actualrealitywillalways
haveitsshareofflawsanddisappointments,butthecarefullyconstructed
perfectionfoundthroughoutthethemeparkgivesaudiencesamoredesirable,more
perfectversionofreality.11
Forexample,Disneyland’s“MainStreet,USA”area,picturedinFigure1,
representsquintessentialsmall-townAmericaintheearlytwentiethcentury.Walt
Disneyhimselfsaidofthepark:
Forthoseofuswhorememberthecarefreetimeitrecreates,MainStreetwillbringbackhappymemories.Foryoungervisitors,itisanadventureinturningbackthecalendartothedaysofgrandfather’syouth.12
Therearecertainlymanyreasonstobenostalgicforthis“simpler”timeinAmerican
history.YetalthoughMainStreet,USAportrayssome(moreorless)historically
accuratepositiveaspectsfromthistimeperiod,theparkconvenientlyomitsany
mentionofthemyriadnegativeaspectsthatplaguedthefirsthalfofthetwentieth
century,fromWorldWarsandtheGreatDepressiontodivisivesocialissuesand
yet-to-be-eradicateddiseases.BycreatingavisionofMainStreet,USAseenthrough10UmbertoEco,TravelsinHyperreality,trans.WilliamWeaver(SanDiego:HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1983),44.11Disneylandevengoessofarastoexertmilitary-likestandardsforitsemployees’appearanceandbehavior;forexample,employeesmustadheretorestrictionsonhairandfingernaillength,andarenotallowedtofrownorhavebadposturewhileinfrontofparkguests.http://cp.disneycareers.com/en/about-disney-college-program/disney-look/12TravisL.Cox,“TurningBacktheCalendar:AnAnalysisofMainStreetUSA’suseofNostalgia”(M.A.Thesis,OregonStateUniversity,2008),42.
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thelensofselectivememory,Disneyland’screatorsproducedasortofalternate
reality,whichispresentedtoparkguestsasentirelyandunironicallyauthentic.This
newreality,ofcourse,doesnotquitemakehistoricalsense.Withoutthenegative
aspectsfromthistimeperiod,thepositiveaspectswouldnothavedevelopedinthe
sameway,makingMainStreet,USA’srealityimpossible.Inshort,MainStreet,USAis
basedonarealitythatdoesnotactuallyexist,orinBaudrillard’swords,“areal
withoutoriginorreality.”
Figure1:MainStreet,USAatDisneyland
Thoughmostcommonlyusedtodiscussvisualormaterialsituations,the
theoryofhyperrealityisapplicabletothetextualandauralaspectsofmusicaswell.
AaronFox,forexample,usesthedichotomyofrealandhyperrealtoexaminethe
lyricsincountrymusic.Foxarguesthatthereisno“‘authentic’countrymusictext...
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onewhichrepresentsthe‘real’lifeofa‘real’communitywithoutalienatednostalgia,
falseconsciousnessorkitschycommodification.”13HereFoxmakesthesame
argumentBaudrillardandEcodowithregardtoDisneyland;justasMainStreet,
USAcreatesanalternate,pristineversionoflifeintwentieth-century,small-town
America,countrymusiccreatesahyperrealisticversionofthestereotypicalcountry
lifestyle.Thisoccursthroughtheprocessofde-andre-naturalization,inwhichideas
andsubjectslosetheiroriginalmeaningandcontext,andlateracquirenewmeaning
inadifferentcontext.14Inthecaseofcountrymusiclyrics,thede-andre-
naturalizationprocessofteninvolvesremovingcommonlyusedcolloquialismsand
clichésfromtheirnormal,everydayapplicationsandelevatingthemsothatthey
serveamorepoeticandextraordinaryfunction.Thisargumentfurtherimpliesthat
allpoetrycouldbeinterpretedashyperrealistic.Foxalsotouchesontheideathat
thecommodificationofalifestyleorcultureis,initself,aformofhyperreality,
sayingthat“the‘authentic’languageofemotioniscontrastedwiththe‘false’
languageofthemarket,transformingeachinthedirectionoftheother.”15
WhileFoxfocusesonthehyperrealityofmusictexts,VytisPuronasfocuses
ontheactualsounditself,usingtheterm“sonichyperrealism.”Puronasinfact
arguesthatallrecordedsoundishyperreal,because“arecordedsoundcanbe
separatedfromreality,archivedandreanimatedlongafteritsrealcounterparthas
13AaronA.Fox,“TheJukeboxofHistory:NarrativesofLossandDesireintheDiscourseofCountryMusic,”PopularMusic11no.1(Jan,1992),53.14Ibid,53.15Ibid,58.
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disappeared.”16Puronasalsodiscussessonichyperrealismspecificallyinthecontext
offilm,saying:
Avarietyofrecorded(collected)realsoundsources…arecombinedtogetherinordertosimulateacertainsituation.Thisissoundmontage.…Thesesoniccreaturesarereshaped,repaired,andrelocatedintounnaturalcontexts,whetherinsynchronicitywithamovingimage,whichgivescluestotheirmeaning,orincompleteisolation.Thepartsthatarefoundunsuitablearereplacedorenhancedinordertomakethemappearmorepleasing.17
Here,PuronasusesanotherargumentthatissimilartoBaudrillardandEco’sclaims
aboutDisneyland:reality,asitactuallyis(orinthiscase,asitactuallysounds),is
notenough.Theoriginalsounds⎯andtheactualreality⎯aremanipulateduntil
theyresemblewhataudiencesexpectrealitytosoundlike.Becausethesoundshave
becomemoreidealthanisrealisticallypossible,however,theyhavecrossedintothe
realmofhyperreality.
VeitErlmannarguesthatthelabel“worldmusic”representsasimilarkindof
realwithoutoriginorreality⎯a“proliferationofvalueswithoutanyreferencepoint
atall.”18InMusicalExoticism:ImagesandReflections,RalphLocketracesWestern
fascinationwiththemusicalexoticbackforcenturies;intheBaroqueera,prominent
composerslikeHandelwroteoperasandoratoriosthatfeaturedexoticsettingsand
characters,thoughthemusiccomposedforthese“Easterndramas”wasofa
16VytisPuronas,“SonicHyperrealism:IllusionsofaNon-ExistentAuralReality,”TheNewSoundtrack4no.2(2014),183.17Ibid,183.18VeitErlmann,“TheAestheticsofGlobalImagination:ReflectionsonWorldMusicinthe1990s,”PublicCulture8(1996),475.
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decidedlyEuropeancharacter.19After1750,composersbegantoincorporateexotic
elementsintotheirmusic.Mozart,forexample,usedaTurkishstyleinseveralofhis
works,includinghisoperaTheAbductionoftheSeraglioandinthe“Rondoalla
turca”attheendofhisPianoSonatainAMajor,K.331.20Simpleforms,harmonies,
andkeys(i.e.keyswhichfeaturedveryfewsharpsandflats),andemphasison
percussiveinstruments,likethebassdrum,cymbal,andtriangle,often
characterizedthisTurkishstyle.21WhilecomposerslikeMozartusedtheseexotic
musicalelementsasawaytoadddistinctivecharactertotheirmusic,worldmusic
alsofunctionedasmethodofcreatingpublicspectacle.The1889World’sFairin
Paris,forexample,fedoffofthisfascinationwiththeexotic,andcontributedtoitas
well;musicfromregionsasfar-rangingasChina,Java,andtheMiddleEastbecame
partofanall-encompassing“exoticspectacle,”whichtransformedandclashedwith
“horizonsofexpectationformedthroughdecadesofmusicalexoticism.”22
ComposerslikeDebussywereinspiredbytheexoticpresentations,andbeganto
incorporatenon-WesternelementsintootherwiseEuropean-influenced
compositions.23
AlthoughAmericanandEuropeanlistenershavebeeninterestedinmusic
fromexoticlocalesforcenturies,“worldmusic,”ascontemporaryaudiencesknowit,
19RalphLocke,MusicalExoticism:ImagesandReflections(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),88–89.20Ibid,113.21Ibid,120–121.22AnnegretFauser,MusicalEncountersatthe1889ParisWorld’sFair(Rochester:UniversityofRochesterPress,2005),163.23Ibid,205.
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didnotexistuntilthelate1980sandearly1990s.24Thiscategoryineffect
originatedwithPaulSimon’shugelysuccessfulalbumGraceland(1986),which
featuredSouthAfricanensemblesLadysmithBlackMambazo,TheBoyoyoBoys,and
GeneralM.D.ShirindaandtheGazaSisters.25TheAfricanstylesusedinseveralof
Graceland’ssongs,suchas“IKnowWhatIKnow,”“Gumboots,”and“Homeless,”as
wellasotherworldmusicelementsfeaturedinsongsbyothersongwriters,suchas
PeterGabrielandRyCooder,sparkedanewfoundinterestininternationalmusics,
evenwithinmainstreamAmericanpopculture.
Withinayear,twenty-fiverepresentativesfromdifferentsectorsofthemusic
industryhadconvenedonseveraloccasionstodiscusswhattocallthisnewmusical
category,bouncingbetweenlabelslike“ethnic,”“folk,and“international”before
finallysettlingon“worldmusic.”26ByMayof1990,thestylehadsecureditsown
spotintheBillboardmagazineandcharts,andeventhoughitwaslumpedunderthe
broaderheadingof“TopAdultAlternativeAlbums”withseveralothermusical
styles,therecognitionamongtheBillboardchartsremainsasymbolofworld
music’sburgeoningpopularity.27Throughouttheearly1990s,thetermwasmainly
associatedwithmusicfromsub-SaharanAfricaandtheCaribbean,andevenwhen
24DavidBrackett,Introductionto“‘WeAretheWorld’?”inThePop,Rock,andSoulReader:HistoriesandDebates,ThirdEdition,ed.DavidBrackett(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014),479.25Ibid,480.26TimTaylor,GlobalPop:WorldMusic,WorldMarkets(London:Routledge,1997),2.27Ibid,5–6.
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thetermbecamemoreinclusiveofothermusics,AfricanandCaribbeanmusics
remainedthemostpopular.28
Thephrase“worldmusic”isofcourseambiguoustothepointof
meaninglessness,andcanindicatemanydifferentthings.JanFairleypointsoutthat
“worldmusic”couldincludemusiciansoutsideofthecircleofAnglo-American
influencewhoincorporateWesternstylesintotheirwork,orWesternmusicians
whoappropriateoradoptaspectsofglobalmusic.29Manypeopleinthemusic
industryfindthetermproblematictothepointofoffensiveness;DavidByrne,
formersingerforTalkingHeads,assertsthatthelabel“ghettoizesmostofthe
world’smusic”andactsas“adistancingmechanismthatoftenallowsfor
exploitationandracism.”30HerbertMattelart,oftheonlinemagazineTheBaffler,
complainssimilarly,claimingthattheterm“worldmusic”is“markedlyinsensitive”
and“createsseparatespheresofAnglicandnon-Anglicexistence.”31Forthe
purposesofmywork,IhavechosentoadoptJocelyneGuilbault’sbroaddefinition:
worldmusicis“theblendingofmodernandtraditionalmusics...usuallyassociated
28Brackett,Introductionto“‘WeAretheWorld’?,”481.FormoreinformationontherepresentationofdifferentregionsintheWorldMusicBillboardchart,seeAppendix1ofTaylor’sGlobalPop.29JanFairley,“The‘Local’and‘Global’inPopularMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),273.30DavidByrne,“CrossingMusic’sBorders:‘IHateWorldMusic,’”NewYorkTimes(October3,1999).31HerbertMattelart,“LifeasStyle:Puttingthe‘World’intheMusic,”Baffler5(1993),accessedJune20,2015,http://thebaffler.com/salvos/life-as-style
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with,respectively,themusicsofthefirstandthethirdworlds.”32Guilbaultgoeson,
however,tocriticizetheterm“worldmusic”aswell,sayingthat
Thelabel“worldmusic”inandbyitselfisareminderofthehierarchythedominantmusicindustriesimposeonthemusicmarketstheycontrol:byusingtheindescribableappellation“worldmusic,”theykeepatbayanymusic⎯andbyextensionitsartistsandfans⎯whichfallsoutsidetheso-calledmainstream.33
LikeByrneandMattelart,Guilbaultarguesthattheclassification“worldmusic”
distancesandseparatesanymusic,culture,orpeoplethatdonotfittheconventions
oftheAnglo-Americanmainstream.
TheLionKingappearedatatimewhenAfricancultureandsocialissueswere
prominentinbothAmericanentertainmentandnewsmedia.ThoughJeffrey
Katzenberg,RoyE.Disney,andPeterSchneider,theoriginalwritersofTheLion
King’splot,claimthattheideaforanAfricanstoryjust“cameup”oneday,the
concurrentriseininterestinAfricaatthetimemusthavehadsomeinfluenceon
theircreativedecisions,whethertheywereconsciousofitornot.34Foronething,
theworldwatchedaspoliticalunrestthathadbeenbuildingfordecadesinSouth
AfricacametoaheadwhenNelsonMandelawaselectedpresidentonApril27,
1994—ameremonthandahalfbeforeTheLionKing’sJune15premiere.
Perhapsbecauseofthecontinent’sprominenceinthenews,andthe
increasingglobalizationthataroseconcomitantlywiththeinternet,interestin32JocelyneGuilbault,“WorldMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),177.33Ibid,191.34“BonusFeatures,”TheLionKing:DiamondEdition,directedbyRogerAllersandRobMinkoff(1994;Burbank,CA:DisneyDVD,2011),DVD.
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Africanmusicwasatanall-timehighintheearly1990s.Worldmusicwasatits
mostpopularduringthistime,whichencouragedWesternmusicianstocollaborate
withinternationalmusiciansandexperimentwithglobalstyles.Acursoryglanceat
theearliestBillboardWorldMusicChartsshowsthat“thelargestpercentageof
recordsarecertainly,inmusicologicalterms,African.”35
ThenumberofAfricanmusiciansrecognizedbytheBillboardChartsisfar
higherthanthenumberofmusiciansfromanyothernon-Westernregion.Themost
popularandsuccessfuloftheseAfricanmusicians,suchasLadysmithBlack
MambazoandJohnnyClegg&Savuka,tendedtocomefromsouthernAfrica,as
showninTable1.BasedonasceneduringtheTheLionKing’sopeningsequencein
whichMountKilimanjaroisfeaturedinthebackground,seeninFigure2,thefilmis
ostensiblysetinTanzania,acountryonAfrica’seastcoast,justsouthoftheHornof
Africa.MusicalelementsfoundinsouthernAfricanculture,however,arewhat
characterizeTheLionKing’ssoundtrack,andWesternsociety’sideaof“African
music”asawhole.Thesestylisticelementsprovidethemuch-neededexoticismtoa
scoreprimarilycomposedbytwomenwhosemusicwasnormallysteepedin
Westernmusicaltradition—HansZimmerandSirEltonJohn.
35JanFairley,“The‘Local’and‘Global’inPopularMusic,”inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPopandRock,ed.SimonFrith,WillStrawandJohnStreet(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),281.
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Table1:SevenofthefirstgroupstodebutontheBillboardWorldMusicCharts
Figure2:ThesunrisesoverMt.Kilimanjaro.
AlthougheachAfricanmusicalcultureisuniqueanddistinctfromothers
throughoutthecontinent,therearemusicelementscommontomultipleAfrican
culturesandregions.ScholarsofAfricanmusicalculturescallsuchsharedelements
Artist AlbumTitle DebutDate WeeksonChart
Region
MiriamMakeba
Welela 5/19/1990 3 SouthernAfrica
JohnnyClegg&Savuka
Cruel,Crazy,BeautifulWorld
5/19/1990 43 SouthernAfrica
HughMasekela Uptownship 5/19/1990 9 SouthernAfricaThomasMapfumo
Corruption 5/19/1990 3 SouthernAfrica
various Passion-Sources 5/19/1990 7 NorthAfrica/MiddleEast
FusionLadysmithBlack
Mambazo
TwoWorldsOneHeart
6/16/1990 35 SouthernAfrica
TheBhunduBoys
Pamberi! 6/16/1990 1 SouthernAfrica
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“musicalAfricanisms.”PortiaMaultsbymaintainsthatmusicalAfricanismsarepart
ofa“conceptualframework[that]links[African]musictraditionstoeachother,”as
wellastoAfrican-Americanmusictraditions.36Thesemusicalelementsincludea
widearrayofcomplextimbres,call-and-responsestyles,andpolyrhythmic
structures.37Theterm“Africanmusic,”however,mayitselfbeindicativeofa
stereotypedviewofthecontinent.38Africaissolarge,andishometosomany
diversecultures(andthus,musicaltraditions),thattogroupallofthesemusics
underneathonevaguedescriptionisatbestignorantofthediverseintricaciesofthe
richlyvariedAfricancultures,andatworstintentionallymisleadingorexclusionary
towardsanyAfricanculturethatfallsoutsideofthemainstreamideaofwhatthe
culture“should”be.
Oneofthemostwidelyheld—andinaccurate—stereotypesaboutAfrican
musicisthattheonlyimportantelementofthemusicisrhythm.Thegeneralpublic
oftenconsiders“theconstructionofAfricanrhythm[tobe]complex,superior,yet
ultimatelyincomprehensible”toanyonewhodoesnotbelongtothisculture.39This
beliefisoftenechoedinliteratureonAfricanmusic.InKwabenaNketia’sinfluential
1974bookTheMusicofAfrica,forexample,theauthorclaimsthatbecause“African
musicispredisposedtowardspercussionandpercussivetextures,thereisan
36PortiaK.Maultsby,“AfricanismsinAfrican-AmericanMusic”inAfricanismsinAmericanCulture(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1990),185–6.37Ibid,191–3.38Ofcourse,“Africanmusic”canalsobeusedinawaythatislessimplicitlystereotypical⎯forexample,inreferencetoallofthemusicaltraditionsthatmakeupthecontinent.39KofiAgawu,RepresentingAfricanMusic(NewYork:Routledge,2003),55.
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understandableemphasisonrhythm.”40Thesameideaisequallyapparentinless
scholarlyworks,aswell;inajudges’guideforanAfricanmusicfestival,citedinKofi
Agawu’sbookRepresentingAfricanMusic,judgeswereinformedthat“complexityof
rhythmisoftenafairguidetotheauthenticityofanAfricansong.”41Unfortunately,
alltoooften,suchasweepinggeneralizationaboutAfricanmusicgiveswayto
racializedstereotypesoftheAfricanpeoplethemselves.Asearlyastheeleventh
century,scholarsfrombothWesternandnon-Westerncultureshaveclaimedthat
Africansmusthaveaninnatesenseofrhythmtobeabletocreatesuchrhythmically
complexmusic.Eleventh-centuryArabscholarIbnButlan,forexample,wrote,“Ifa
blackweretofallfromtheskytotheearth,hewouldfallinrhythm.”42
AnotherstereotypeaboutAfricanmusiccomesfromanequallyracialized
belief:thatAfricans,andpeopleofAfricandescent,havedeeperandwarmervoices
thanthoseofpeopleofEuropeandescent.Suchtimbralstereotypestracebackat
leastasfarasthelatenineteenthcentury,whenwhiteteachersanddirectorsoften
chastisedblacksingersforsinginginthechestregister,whichproduceda“thick”
and“throaty”sound.43Thebeliefthattheblackvoiceisinherentlydifferentfrom
thewhitevoicepervadesWesternthought;notableproductsofthisbeliefinclude
VirgilThompson’sinsistenceoncastingAfricanAmericansinhisoperaFourSaints
40KwabenaNketia,TheMusicofAfrica(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1974),125.41Agawu,RepresentingAfricanMusic,57.42Ibid,55.43GrantOlwage,“TheClassandColourofTone:AnEssayontheSocialHistoryofVocalTimbre,”EthnomusicologyForum13no.2(November2004),215.
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inThreeActs(1934)andtheentirelyAfricanAmericancastofGeorgeGershwin’s
PorgyandBess(1935).44
Assoonasanimatedfilmsandshortsbegantofeaturesound,thesecartoons
oftenusedmusicthatwasassociatedwithblackcommunitiesandculture.Ofthe
severalcartoonproducersintheindustryatthetime,includingWarnerBrothers
PicturesandMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer(MGM),WaltDisneywasoneofthefirsttorely
“ontheminstrelsytraditionfor[cartoon]music.”45Otherproducers,likeAmadee
VanBeuren,soonfollowedsuit,“usingbothminstrelsongsandjazztoaccompany
depictionsofAfricanAmericancharacters.”46Thispracticebecamesowidespread
that,insomecartoons,theonlyattributethatdistinguishedcharacters“fromone
anotherethnically”were“thesongsaccompanyingeachcharacter’sscenes.”47Black
stylesofmusicwerealsousedincartoonstoimplylowmoralstandardsorsocial
class;forexample,intheBettyBoopcartoons,“AfricanAmericanmusicand
suggestivecontentbecameinextricablylinked.”48Jazzspecificallycametorepresent
“sleaziness”and“subjectssuchasdrugaddiction.”49
44Formoreinformationaboutracialissuesintheseworks,seeLisaBarg’s“BlackVoices/WhiteSounds:RaceandRepresentationinVirgilThomson’sFourSaintsinThreeActs,”inAmericanMusic18no.2(Summer,2000):121–161;andRayAllen’s“AnAmericanFolkOpera?TriangulatingFolkness,Blackness,andAmericanessinGershwinandHeyward’sPorgyandBess,”inJournalofAmericanFolklore117no.465(Summer,2004):243–61.45ChristopherP.Lehman,TheColoredCartoon:BlackRepresentationinAmericanAnimatedShortFilms,1907–1954(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2007),16.46Ibid,19.47Ibid,20.48Ibid,33.49BarryKeithGrant,“‘JungleNightsinHarlem’:Jazz,Ideology,andtheAnimatedCartoon”PopularMusicandSociety13no.4(1989),49.
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TheLionKingwasthefirstDisneymovietoincorporatesignificantamounts
ofmusicwritteninanon-Westernstyle.Africanmusicalelementspermeatethe
film’ssoundtrackwithaprominencethathasyettobereplicatedinDisney’sprolific
output.50Thisconspicuousglobalizationcreatedanewanddifferentmusicalstyle
foranimatedmovie-musicals.AlthoughTheLionKingincorporatesstylisticaspects,
ofAfricanmusicsthroughoutthefilminaseeminglypositivelight⎯forexample,
throughtheuseoftraditionalinstrumentalandvocalensembles⎯theseelements
alsoreinforce(andcreate)problematicallyhyperrealaudienceexpectationsof
“African”musicinanefforttobuildaconnectionbetweenthelistenersandthe
film’ssetting.
TheLionKing’sdirectors,RogerAllersandRobMinkoff,citeShakespeare’s
HamletandtheBiblicalstoriesofMosesandJosephassourcesofinfluenceforthe
movie’splot.51Thefilm’sbeginningfocusesonthedeeplyrootedrivalryand
jealousybetweenMufasa,thekingofthePrideLands(thefictionalAfricansavanna
inwhichthefilmisset),andhisyoungerbrother,Scar.Bitterthattherecentbirthof
Mufasa’ssonSimbameansheisnolongerheirtothethrone,Scarandhishyena
cohortslureSimbaintoapotentiallyfataltrap.Mufasarescueshisson,butis
betrayedandkilledbyScar.ScarthenmanipulatestheyoungSimbaintobelieving
50OtherDisneymoviemusicalsreleasedaroundthesametimeasTheLionKing,suchasAladdin(1992),Pocahontas(1995),Mulan(1998)andTarzan(1999),featuredworldmusicelementsaswell,buttheseelementsarenotincorporatedintothefilmasthoroughlyasinTheLionKing;thesoundtrackstothesefilmsaremoreoftenstylisticallyWestern.Disney/Pixar’sBrave(2012)featuresCelticmusicthroughout,butasthefilmisnotamusical,theworldmusicelementsarenotasprominentastheyareinTheLionKing.51“BonusFeatures,”TheLionKing:PlatinumEdition,directedbyRogerAllersandRobMinkoff(1994;Burbank,CA:DisneyDVD,2003),DVD.
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himselfresponsibleforhisfather’sdeath;ingriefandshame(andatScar’surging),
SimbafleesthePrideLands.
Withallobstacleseliminated,ScardeclareshimselfkingofthePrideLands,
whichunderhisruletransformsintoabarrenwasteland.Later,asafull-grownlion
livingfarfromthePrideLands,Simbaencountersahungrylioness,whohe
discoversishischildhoodfriend,Nala.ShetriestoconvinceSimbatoreturntothe
PrideLands,butheremainsunconvinceduntilvisitedbythecrypticmandrill,Rafiki,
wholeadshimtoMufasa’sspirit.Suitablymotivated,Simbareturnstothenow
desolatePrideLandstoconfrontandultimatelydefeathistraitorousuncle.Atthe
film’striumphantconclusion,SimbaclaimshisrightfulplaceaskingofthePride
Landsandhasacubofhisown,continuingthecircleoflife.
TheLionKingisausefulcasestudyofaudiovisualhyperrealityforseveral
reasons.Fromanentertainmentperspective,asaDisneyproduct,TheLionKing
createsclearconnectionsbetweenthefilmandtheDisneylandthemepark,often
citedasaprimeexampleofhyperrealityasdiscussedearlierinthechapter.Inmy
thesis,IexplorenewwaysinwhichthishyperrealityextendstootherDisney
products,aswell.Moreover,fromananthropologicalstandpoint,thefilm’s
significationofAfricanlandscapes,music,andcultureprovidesaperfectbackdrop
forhyperreality.ByusingTheLionKingasacasestudy,Icananalyzespecificallythe
waysmusicandsoundbothaffectandreflectsociety’sviews,andexaminethe
myriadwaysinwhichTheLionKing’screatorsconstructahyperrealisticversionof
Africathroughthefilm’smusic.AfterprovidingabriefsummaryofTheLionKing’s
plot,Iwillanalyzeboththeauralandvisualaspectsofmultiplemusicalnumbers
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andsectionsofthesoundtrackindetail.Indoingso,Iwilldeterminehowthemusic
createsandcontributestothefilm’shyperrealityandexaminewhataffectsthismay
haveonaudiences.
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ChapterTwo:
AfricanMusicalElementsinMusicalNumbers
Asamoviemusical,TheLionKingfeaturesmultiplemusicalnumbersthroughout
thefilm.Forthepurposesofthiswork,Idefineamusicalnumberasascenein
whichcharactersbreakintosonganddance,brieflykeepingtheplotfrom
advancing.TherearefivemusicalnumbersinTheLionKing:“CircleofLife,”“IJust
Can’tWaitToBeKing,”“BePrepared,”“HakunaMatata,”and“CanYouFeeltheLove
Tonight.”1WhilethestyleofeachofthesesongsischaracterizedbyAfrican
influences,hereIwillfocusmainlyon“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared,”whichoffer
themostprominentexamplesoftherhythmic,textural,andinstrumentalelements
thatAmericansoftenassociatewithAfricanmusicalcultures.Furthermore,these
songs,morethantheothers,emphasizeTheLionKing’sAfricansettingduring
severalofthefilm’smostintegralscenes,eitherthroughenhancingtheAfrican
elementsalreadyvisibleonscreen(asin“CircleofLife”),orbycompensating
musicallyforalackofvisibleAfricanelements(asin“BePrepared”).
“CircleofLife”
The“CircleofLife”scene,whichisdescribedinTable2,isintegralinestablishing
thesettingofTheLionKing.Whileobviouslycontainingelementsoffantasy,itisby
farthemostrealistically“African”sceneinthefilm;nosongcomesclosertoan
“authentic”Africanensemble,noscenefeaturesanimalsthatappearless
1Mycountdoesnotinclude“TheMorningReport,”whichwasonlyaddedtotheSpecialEditionreleasein2003afterthesong’ssuccessintheBroadwaymusical.
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anthropomorphized.Inadditiontointroducingseveralplotthemes,theopening
sceneunmistakablyestablishestheAfricansavannaasthefilm’ssetting.Because
thisfirstscenesoeffectivelysolidifiesthefilm’slocation,viewersaremoreeasily
abletosuspendtheirdisbeliefinregardtotheintroductionofWesterninstruments
suchasguitarandpiano,Englishdialogue,andadistinctlackofanyAfricanaccent
amongmostofthecharacters(nottomentionthattheanimalsaretalkingatall).
Table2:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring“CircleofLife”
“Nantsingonyamabigithibaba”—Zulufor“herecomesalion,father”⎯isthe
firstthingaudienceshearatthebeginningofTheLionKing,andhasbecomethe
film’smosticonicmusicalmoment.2SungbySouthAfricancomposerandchoral
directorLeboM,thisphraseaccompaniesthesun’sappearanceoverthehorizonof
thePrideLands.Thisbriefopeningsceneintroducesthemostimportantthemesof
thefilm:thebondbetweenfatherandchild,thesignificanceofnature,andthe
delicatebalanceoftheAfricanecosystem.Thesceneimmediatelyfeaturesseveral
2“‘CircleofLife’Lyrics,”TheLionKingUnofficialWWWArchive,accessedDecember12,2015,http://lionking.org/lyrics/OMPS/CircleOfLife.html.
Time Plot Music0:00 Thesunappearsonthe
horizonLeboMsingstheopeningphrase;callandresponse
0:27 Variousanimalsbegintheirmornings
ChoirbeginschantinginZulu
0:51 Animalscontinuetobegintheirmornings
Mainmelodyenters,sungbyCarmenTwillie
1:35 AudiencefirstseesPrideRock
Firstchorus
2:23 AudiencefirstseesSimba Instrumentalinterludewithflutesolo
3:08 RafikiliftsSimbainfrontoftheotheranimals
Secondchorus
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elementsthatWesternaudiencesoftenconsidertypicalofAfricanmusic.AfterLebo
Mintroducesthefirstphrase,achoirrespondstohim,singing“sithiumingonyama,”
or“yes,alion.”3Thistypeofcall-and-response,whichcontinuesthroughoutthe
introductionto“CircleofLife,”isatechniqueoftenfoundinmusicfromvarious
Africancultures,asseeninthepreviouschapter.Thesong’sintroductionalso
includesadistinctlyhomophonictextureinthechoir’sresponses,astylisticelement
commonlyheardinSouthAfricanmusic.Thishomophonic,acappellamusicalstyle
hasrootsinisicathamiya,a“bodyofdancedsongandsungdance”indigenoustothe
Zulu,Xhosa,andSwazipeoplesofSouthAfrica.4Isicathamiyabecamepopularwith
WesternlistenersthroughgroupssuchasLadysmithBlackMambazo,whofocused
mainlyonacappellasettingsofbothWesternandAfricanmelodies.
OnlymomentsintoTheLionKing,viewersarealreadyimmersedinDisney’s
hyperrealisticversionofAfrica.Thismostobviousexampleofhyperrealityemerges
fromtheassumptionofculturalhomogeneity⎯thecommonmisconceptionthatthe
peoples,cultures,andmusicsfoundthroughoutAfricaareidenticalor
interchangeable.Ratherthanasonicreflectionofthewidevarietyanddiversityof
musicthatonewouldactuallyexperienceinAfrica,audiencesexperiencean
amalgamationofseveralAfricanandWesternmusicalstylessimultaneously.5This
stylistichodgepodgemayseemauthentictomanyAmericans,however⎯its
3“‘CircleofLife,’”TheLionKingUnofficial,accessedDecember12,2015,http://lionking.org/lyrics/OMPS/CircleOfLife.html.4VeitErlmann,“HowBeautifulisSmall?Music,GlobalizationandtheAestheticsoftheLocalAuthor(s),”YearbookforTraditionalMusic30(1998),14. 5Africanmusicalstyles,suchasisicathamiya,arethemselvesofteninfluencedbyWesternmusicalstyles,suchasvaudevilletheatreandblackgospel,tobeginwith,resultinginmultiplelevelsofstylisticmixtureinmanyexamplesofworldmusic.
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hyperrealsoundtetheredtotheirownreferencepointsandexperienceswith
Africanperformers,whowereconnectedtoWesternmusicthemselves.6Because
manyWesternlistenersfindDisney’sversionofAfricanmusiceasilyaccessible,it
notonlybecomesanacceptableversion,butthepreferredversion.7Thispreference
towardsafalsifiedversionofrealityisreminiscentofUmbertoEco’sclaimthat
Disney“notonlyproducesillusion,but...stimulatesthedesireforit.”Daniel
Boorstinexplainsthisphenomenonthroughaconcepthecalls“extravagant
expectations”⎯usingtheword“extravagant”toimplythattheseexpectationsare
“largerthanlife,”andnotactuallyattainable.8Heclaimsthatbyholdingontothese
extravagantexpectations,Americans“createthedemandfortheillusionswith
which[they]deceive”themselves.9Becausetheseexpectationsgrowincreasingly
moreextravagant,Americanseventuallyreachapointatwhichrealitysimplyisnot
goodenough.Theonlywaytofulfilltheirexpectationsisthroughaversionofevents
thatisbetterandmorerealthanreality⎯ahyperrealisticillusion.
Duringtheintroductionto“CircleofLife,”theonlyinstrumentaccompanying
LeboMandhischoirisasoft,low-pitcheddrumduringthesecondsungphrase.
Thisinstrumentationcontributestothe“African”styleduetotheperceptionthat
Africanmusicmainly(orexclusively)consistsofdrumsandotherrhythmic
6LadysmithBlackMambazo,forexample,originallygainedcelebrityintheWestthroughtheircollaborationwithPaulSimon.7Formoreinformationaboutaudiencesandculturaltouristsseekingoutinauthenticversionsofreality,seeNicolaMacLeod’s“CulturalTourism:AspectsofAuthenticityandCommodification”inCulturalTourisminaChangingWorld:Politics,Participationand(Re)presentation(Bristol:ChannelViewPublications,2006).8DanielBoorstin,TheImage:AGuidetoPseudo-EventsinAmerica(NewYork:VintageBooks,1992),3.9Ibid,5.
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instruments,asdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.Thelanguagechoiceforthese
firstfewphrasesalsocontributestotheoverall“African-ness”—mostobviously
becausethetextisinZulu,oneofthemanylanguagesspokeninsouthernAfrica.
Especiallynotable,however,isthephrase“siyonqoba,”“weshallconquer.”Inthe
EnglishtransliterationoftheZululanguage,theletter“q”(aswellas“c”and“x”)
representsaclick⎯aphonemeliterallyforeigntoWesternearsandthereforeeasily
recognizableas“African.”Westernearsoftenperceivetheseclicksasprimitive;
sociolinguistRobertK.Herbert,forexample,offersseveralaccountsofearly
explorersandmissionariestoSouthAfricawhodescribedlanguageswithclick
consonantsas“rough,”“wild,”“primitive,”and“wanting.”10SuchWestern
perspectivesparallelRandolphandDeMulder’sfindingsintheirresearchon
inaccurateinformationaboutAfricainschools,asexaminedinthepreviouschapter.
Astheopeningscenedevelops,themusicof“CircleofLife”mirrorstheaction
portrayedonscreen:antelope,cheetahs,elephants,andothervariousanimalsofthe
Africanplainsslowlyrisingtogreetthenewday.Thedrumming,previouslyalmost
inaudible,becomesincreasinglyforegrounded.Atthispoint,althoughthechoirisno
longerthemainfocus,itremainsanimportantelement,thecontinuingZulu
chantingprovidingaconstantbutsubtlereminderofthe“African-ness”ofthe
music.Nearlyaminuteinto“CircleofLife”themainmelodyenters,sungbyAfrican-
AmericanstudiosingerCarmenTwillie.Hervoiceisadeepalto,witharich,warm
timbre,correspondingtoracialstereotypesaboutblackvoices.WhetherTwilliewas
10RobertK.Herbert,“TheSociohistoryofClicksinSouthernBantu,”AnthropologicalLinguistics,32no.3/4(Fall–Winter,1990),295.
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chosenbecauseofhervocaltimbreisunclear,butregardless,hervoiceimpartsan
addedsenseofAfrican“Otherness”tothesong.
AccordingtoseveralstudiescollectedandanalyzedbysociolinguistsErikR.
ThomasandJeffreyReaser,AmericanscaneasilydistinguishbetweenEuropean-
AmericanandAfrican-Americanspeakingvoices,“evenintheabsenceofdiagnostic
morphosyntacticandlexicalvariables”⎯thatis,withoutthestereotypicalslangand
pronunciationdifferencesthatlistenersexpecttohearfromcertainethnicities.11
Thoughthisstudydidnotspecificallyaddresssingingvoices,thisresearchsuggests
thatlistenersareabletodetermineTwillie’sethnicity,eventhoughshedeliversthe
textinastandardmusicaltheaterstyleandinflection.MendiObadikecoinedthe
term“acousmaticblackness”tolabelthisphenomenonofascribedethnicitydespite
novisualevidencethereof.12Expandingonthisidea,NinaSunEidsheimarguesthat
acousmaticblacknessisnotamatterofwhattimbreisproduced,butratherwhat
timbreisheard,emerging“whenagiventimbrefulfillsexpectationsorideasabout
blackness.”13Theaudience’srecognitionofTwillie’sethnicityplaysanimportant
roleinestablishingtheculturalsettingofthisscene.AperceivedEuropeanor
European-Americanvoicemightriplistenersoutofthehyperrealistic,ethnically
11ErikR.ThomasandJeffreyReaser,“DelimitingPerceptualCuesUsedfortheEthnicLabelingofAfricanAmericanandEuropeanAmericanVoices,”JournalofSociolinguistics8no.1(2004),54.12MendiObadike,“LowFidelity:StereotypedBlacknessintheFieldofSound”(PhDdiss.,DukeUniversity,2005),135–177.13NinaSunEidsheim,“MarianAndersonand‘SonicBlackness’inAmericanOpera,”AmericanQuarterly63no.3(September,2011),664.
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homogenousAfricaofAmericans’imaginations.14Theimplicationsofthis
completelyhomogenousAfricaareasproblematicastheassumptionbehindthe
term“Africanmusic,”inthatitcompletelyskimsoverthevastdiversityfound
throughoutthecontinent.“CircleofLife”is,interestingly,theonlymusicalnumber
thatmakesanattemptatanaurallyhomogenous“African”sound;theothermusical
numbersincludeonlywhitesingers.Theauralhomogeneityfoundheremaybedue
toanattempttoimmerselistenersinTheLionKing’shyperrealisticAfricansetting
asquicklyaspossible.
Approximatelyhalfwaythrough“CircleofLife,”thereisashortinterlude
whichfeaturesasynthesizedfluteandthechoir’saccompanimentalchanting.The
synthesizedflutehereservesasanexampleofhyperrealityitself,sinceits
distinctivetoneoweslesstoanattempttousealegitimateAfricaninstrumentthan
toadesiretomerelysound“African.”Thisinterludeaccompaniesasceneinwhich
the“wiseman”character,Rafiki,performsamysteriousritualwithSimba.Theflute
usedinthissectionofthesonghasanearthyand“natural”(e.g.comingfromnature,
ratherthanmanmade)tone.DuringtheirstudiesofstudentperceptionsofAfrica,
RandolphandDeMulderfoundsimilarmisconceptionsaboutAfrica’ssupposed
“primitivism.”15Mostcommonly,studentsbelievethattherearenourbancentersor
actualbuildingsanywhereinthecontinent⎯inessence,Americanstudentsenvision
Africaasacontinentoftinyvillages,dirtroads,andmakeshifthuts.Theflute’s
14Thisimaginedethnichomogeneityisdisplayedinotherfilmsaswell,suchasMeanGirls(2004),inwhichonecharacterasksanewstudent,“Ifyou’refromAfrica,whyareyouwhite?”15BrendaRandolphandElizabethDeMulder,“IDidn’tKnowThereWereCitiesinAfrica!”TeachingToleranceno.34(Fall2008),36-38.
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“natural”timbremayreinforceAmericans’ideaofAfricaasprimitiveand
uncivilized;theonlyinstruments,weimagine,arethosethatcanbehastily
assembledfromwhatevermaterialsareavailable.Thefluteinconnectionwiththe
primitiveandmysteriousritualstrengthensthesebeliefs,allowingAmericans’
hyperrealisticconceptsofprimitivismtoremainunchecked.Hadadifferent
instrument,withamore“modern”timbresuchasasynth-orelectronic-based
sound,beenused,listenersmighthearitasoutofplaceforsucha“rugged”and
“primitive”setting.
Aftertheflutesolo,Twillie,thechorus,anddrumsrepeatthe“CircleofLife”
refrain.Thistime,theinstrumentsandvoicesarelouderandmoreenergetic,
signalingthegrowingexcitementamongtheanimalsasRafikihoistsSimbaaloftto
presentthenewprincetohisfuturesubjects,asshowninFigure3.
Figure3:RafikipresentsSimbaonthetopofPrideRock.
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EventhoughthereareafewWesterninstrumentsin“CircleofLife,”their
presenceishardlynoticeable.Therearepianoandsynthesizedstringsthroughout
thesong,buttheyoftenmerelydoublethemoreprominentvocalparts.Asaresult,
itseems(atleastinitially)asiftheonlyinstrumentsinthesongare“African.”Onits
own(thatis,withoutthedoublingWesterninstruments)the“African”ensemble
wouldsoundsoft,yetbecausetheseinstrumentsaredoubled,audiencesaretricked
intothinkingtheensemblesoundslouderandfullerthanitnormallywould.16Here,
theinstrumentationin“CircleofLife”createsahyperrealisticversionofAfrican
music,onethatseemsmoreexcitingandimpressivethanitsreal-world
counterpart⎯preciselythekindofembellishmentVytisPuronasreferstowhenhe
claimssoundsandmusic“thatarefoundunsuitablearereplacedorenhancedin
ordertomakethemappearmorepleasing.”17
“BePrepared”
WhiletherestofTheLionKingdoesnotpaintquiteasrealisticapicture(relatively
speaking)astheopeningscene,themajorityofthefilmisatleastvisually
reminiscentoftheeastAfricanlandscape.Onemajorexceptionisthescene
accompanyingthevillainousScar’ssong“BePrepared,”setinanimmensecavern—
notthemoststereotypically“African”locale.Dark,uninviting,andalmosttotally
emptysaveforthepilesofskeletalremainsofthehyenas’pastmeals,thisscene,
16Enhancedsoundandmusicarenotuncommoninmostsoundproduction,asshowninVytisPuronas’“SonicHyperrealism:IllusionsofaNon-ExistentAuralReality.”17Puronas,“SonicHyperrealism,”183.
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describedinTable3,seemsmoreconcernedwithconveyinganegativeandevil
setting,ratherthanremindingviewersthatthefilmissetinAfrica,asdepictedin
Figure4.Moreover,themaincharacterinthisscene,Scar,isvoicedbyJeremyIrons,
whosethickBritishaccentfurtherdetractsfromtheAfrican-nessofthescene.18
Time Plot Music26:08 Scartalkstothethree
mainhyenasTimpani,churchbell,andlowvoicesentersubtly
26:43 Scarleapsdownfromhisrock
Marimbaenterswithhighrhythmicactivity
26:50 Scarwalksthroughforebodinggreengas
Mainlineenters,“sung”byScar
27:30 Scarstrutsaroundthecavern
Scar’shighlysyncopatedline
27:53 ScardescribeshisplantokillMufasa
Instrumentalinterludefeaturingthegüiro
28:26 ScenereminiscentofTriumphoftheWill
Mainlinereturns,sungbyarmyofhyenasandScar
Table3:Analysisofvisualandauraleventsduring"BePrepared"
Figure4:Scarandoneofhisminionsinhiscavernouslair.
18JeremyIronsprovidesthevoiceforScarthroughoutmostof“BePrepared,”butafterlosinghisvoicetowardstheendofthesong,heisreplacedbyEdCummings.
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Itisuptothemusic,then,tokeepaudiencesimmersedin“African-ness.”Yet
unlike“CircleofLife,”whichcontainsnumerousexamplesofmusicalAfricanisms,
“BePrepared”hasonlytwodistinctlyAfricanelements:itsinstrumentationand
rhythmicfocus.Themostprominentinstrumentsherearerhythmicandmelodic
idiophonesandmembranophones.Theinstrumentsinthesong’sintroductionthat
offeranyrhythmicinterestaretimpaniandachurchbellwithadarktimbrethat
contributestotheominousatmosphere,andservesasatransitionfromthe
completemusicalsilenceofthepreviousscenetothequickrhythmandhighenergy
of“BePrepared.”Thissuddenincreaseinintensityismainlyduetotheuseof
marimba,whichentersdirectlyaftertheintroductionandcontinuesthroughout
mostoftherestofthesong.
Themarimbaisparticularlyremarkableherebecauseofitsabilitytosuggest
twodifferentsettingsatonce.Themarimbaisinextricablyconnectedwiththe
Africanmusicaltradition,andinfactoriginatedinsouthernAfrica.19Asamelodic
idiophone,themarimba’swoodentimbrefitsAmericans’(incorrect)ideasabout
Africancultureandlife:simple,primitive,andthird-world⎯ideasthatRandolph
andDeMulderstudiedintheirwork,asdiscussedinthepreviouschapter.Thus,the
marimbaconnectswiththeoverarchingAfricansettingoftheentirefilm.Italso
commentsmorespecificallyonthesceneathand;themyriadpilesofboneslittering
Scar’slaircouldfunctionasrudimentarysetsofmarimbas,especiallyinasetting,
likeAfrica,sooftenperceivedas“primitive.”Towardstheendof“BePrepared,”in
19JamesBlades,PercussionInstrumentsandTheirHistory(Westport,CT:BoldStrummerLtd,1992),78.
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fact,thereisahyenaplayingalargeribcageasamarimba,showninFigure5—the
onlyinstanceintheentirefilmofadiegeticmusicalsource.20
Figure5:Ahyenaplaysalargeribcageasifitwereamarimba.
Anothersourceofrhythmicinterestisthegüiro,agourd-likescraped
idiophonetypicallyheardinAfro-Cubanmusic.Thegüiroentersduringasectionof
spokentextinthemiddleofthesong,whenmanyotherinstrumentsdropoutsoas
nottodetractfromthedialogue.Theuseofthegüirohereisparticularly
noteworthy,asitistheonlypercussiveinstrumentintheentirescorethatispurely
rhythmic;unlikethemarimbaorthetimpani,itisnotapitchedinstrument.Though
thegüiroisoftenheardinmusicwithAfricaninfluences,theinstrumentitself
originatesinindigenousSouthAmericancultures⎯itsuseheremaybeduetoalack
20Thisscenealsorecallsthetropeofdepictingskeletonsorbonesasmusicalinstruments,firstseenintheDisneycartoonTheSkeletonDance(1929).Formoreinformation,seeDanielGoldmark’sTunesfor‘Toons:MusicandtheHollywoodCartoon(BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2005).
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ofunderstandingoftheinstrument’sactualorigins,orperhapsanassumptionthat
all“primitive”percussioninstrumentsarerelatedtoAfricanmusicorculture,dueto
theinaccurateandstereotypicalinformationthatRandolphandDeMulderfound
presentedbothinthemediaandinschools,asdiscussedinthefirstchapter.21The
useofthegüiroherecanbethoughtofasyetanotherlayerofhyperreality;because
WesternlistenersmainlyassociateAfricanmusicwithrhythmiccomplexity,tothese
listeners,aninstrumentthatisonlycapableofrhythmicactivity(likethegüiro)may
seemlikethemost“African”instrumentofall(regardlessofitsactualplaceof
origin).
Thevoicesin“BePrepared”—bothfromtheon-screencharactersandfrom
thechoir—provideinterestingrhythmicvarietyaswell.ManyofScar’smusical
phrases,forexample,soundclosertoSprechstimmethanmelodiclines,inviting
listenerstofocusontherhythmofhisphrasesratherthanthepitches.22Inaddition,
manyofthephrasestowardtheendofthesongarehighlysyncopated;forexample,
Scarsings“Ashiningnewera/istip-toeingnearer,”withemphasesonthefirst
syllablesof“era”and“nearer.”Bothofthesesyllablesfallontheoffbeatofthe
secondbeatoftheirrespectivemeasures—arguablytheweakestpartofa4/4
measure.Thechoir,whichmostlysingsneutralsyllables(like“ah”and“ee”),iseven
morerhythmicallyactivethanthevoicesoftheon-screencharacters.Asin“Circleof
Life,”thechoirsingshomorhythmicallyinshort,abruptsyllables,emphasizingthe
21Blades,PercussionInstruments,41–42.22Sprechstimme(Germanfor“spokenvoice”)isavocaltechniquerequiringthesingertoapproximatepitches,resultinginavocallinethatsoundslikeamixbetweenspeakingandsinging.ThetechniquewasmostfamouslyusedinArnoldSchönberg’ssongcycle,PierrotLunaire(1912).
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syncopationfeaturedthroughoutthesong,andevokestheSouthAfricanmusical
traditionofisicathamiyathataudienceshave,atthispointinthefilm,become
familiarwith.Onlyonceinthesongarethechorallinesdecidedlyunsyncopated—a
changejustifiedcontextuallybecauseitaccompaniesthehyenas’militaristic
marching(ascenevisuallyreminiscentoftheNazipropagandafilmTriumphofthe
Will).23
Althoughtheprominenttimbresin“BePrepared”arereminiscentof
“African”culture,thescorealsocallsforseveralWesterninstruments.Forexample,
short,repeatedlinesplayedbyalowbrassinstrument—perhapsatuba—
accompanyScar’sfirstverse.Thoughthetuba’sdark,rumblingtimbrewasmost
likelychosentocontinuetheevilatmosphereofScar’slair,italsoreinforcesthe
Africantendencytowardscreatingcomplex,buzzingsounds⎯anotherofthe
musicalAfricanismsdiscussedinthefirstchapter.24Synthesizedpianoandstrings
arealsopresentthroughoutthesong,butaswiththeirusein“CircleofLife,”they
merelydoublethemore“African”instruments.Thisdoublingeffect,combinedwith
theincreasedfocusonmultipleidiophonesfromearlierinthesong,builds
excitementandenergyinanticipationofthesong’sclimacticconclusion.Bymaking
thisenhancedversionofanAfricanensembleseem“better”andmoreexcitingthan
23FormoreinformationonTriumphoftheWillanditscarefullystructuredcinematography,seeMaryDevereaux’s“BeautyandEvil:TheCaseofLeniRiefenstahl’sTriumphoftheWill,”inAestheticsandEthics:EssaysattheIntersection,ed.JerroldLevinson(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998),227–56.24CorneliaFalesandStephenMcAdams,“TheFusionandLayeringofNoiseandTone:ImplicationsforTimbreinAfricanInstruments,”LeonardoMusicJournal4(1994),69.
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therealthing,“BePrepared”(and,similarly,“CircleofLife”)isagainreminiscentof
Eco’sclaimthatDisney“stimulatesthedesire”forillusionoverreality.
“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared”arebothexcellentexamplesofmusical
numbersinwhichworldmusicelementscontributetoTheLionKing’shyperrealistic
versionofAfrica.Thoughtheothermusicalnumbersalsofeaturemusicalaspects
thataudienceshave,throughoutthefilm,cometoassociatewith“African”music,
thesesongsarenotasfullydevotedtocreatinganaurallyexoticsetting.“IJustCan’t
WaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata,”forexample,bothfeatureasynthesized
electricguitarplayingamelodiclinethatcomplementsthevocalmelody.Unlike
“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared,”inwhichWestern-soundinginstrumentsmerely
doublethemoretraditionally“African”instruments,theWesternguitarsoundis
foregroundedin“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata,”whichdetracts
fromtheAfricansetting.“HakunaMatata”alsofeaturesasaxophone,which
functionssimilarlytothesynthesizedelectricguitar,playinga(seemingly
improvised)independentmelodicline.Thissongalsoincorporatesmusicalstyles
thatarenotimmediatelyrecognizableasnativetotheAfricancontinent;for
example,inthesectionfrom1:06to1:16intheversionof“HakunaMatata”onthe
film’ssoundtrack,themusictakesonamoresoulfulgospelfeel.Eventhoughgospel
musichasitsorigins“inthecontext,lyrics,music,anddanceofAfricanmusic,”it
soundsnothinglikethe“African”musicthataudienceshavebecomeacquainted
withthusfarinthefilm.25
25RobertDarden,PeopleGetReady!:ANewHistoryofBlackGospelMusic(NewYork:Continuum,2004),18.
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Thereareseveraldifferentreasonsthatmayexplainwhythesesongsseem
lessinvolvedinthehyperrealityofTheLionKing.Onepossibilityisthatthescenes
thataccompanythesesongsmaysimplynotbeasstructurallyimportanttothefilm.
Unlikethesceneaccompanying“CircleofLife,”whichisburdenedwiththeessential
taskofquicklyanddefinitivelysettingthescenefortheentirefilm,orthescene
accompanying“BePrepared,”whichdescribeswhatisarguablyoneofthefilm’s
mostimportantplotpoints,thescenesaccompanying“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”
and“HakunaMatata”aremoretrivialinnature;hadthosescenesbeendeleted,the
film’scentralnarrativewouldgoon,almostcompletelyunaffected.Similarly,these
songsmightbeviewedaslessimportantforthepurposesofupholdingTheLion
King’shyperrealisticversionofAfricabecausetheyseemtobeintendedascomic
relief.In“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing,”Simbaflauntshisroyallineageandpokesfun
atZazu,hisfather’strusted(andexceedinglyuptight)advisor,while“Hakuna
Matata”featuresthefilm’scomicreliefcharacters,TimonandPumbaa,and
discussesindecoroussubjectslikeflatulence.Alongwithprovidingrelieffromthe
film’smoredramaticplotpoints,thesesongsofferabreakfrommusicthatmainly
servestoenforceahyperrealisticversionofAfricanmusicaltraditions.
ThoughtheWesternstylesin“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“Hakuna
Matata”aremoreprominentthaninothermusicalnumbers,the“African”styles
discussedthroughoutthischapterarenonethelesspresent,astheyarethroughout
theentiretyofthefilm’ssoundtrackandscore.Forexample,“IJustCan’tWaitToBe
King”featuresthesamefluteheardin“CircleofLife”andrhythmicactivityinthe
bongos,and“HakunaMatata”featuresrhythmicactivitythroughthemarimba,asin
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“BePrepared.”Asaresult,“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”havea
well-balancedmixtureofWesternand“African”musicalstyles⎯evenmorethan
“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared.”Ironically,usingJocelynGuilbault’sdefinitionof
“worldmusic”(“theblendingofmodernandtraditionalmusics...usually
associatedwith,respectively,themusicsofthefirstandthethirdworlds”),this
meansthatthebestexamplesofworldmusicthroughoutTheLionKing’ssoundtrack
are“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”⎯twosongsthatarenot
essentialtothefilmoraurallyestablishinganAfricansetting.
Intheirattemptstoconnecttotheincreasinglypopularworldmusic
movementoftheearly1990s,EltonJohnandthemusicproductionteamseemto
havegottenmixedup.ByportrayingasfewWesterninfluencesaspossiblein“Circle
ofLife”and“BePrepared,”andinsteadfocusingonmakingthesesongssoundas
“African”aspossible,theycompletelymissedthepointoftheworldmusic
movement:theblendingofdifferentmusicalstyles,ratherthantheerasureofoneor
more.“IJustCan’tWaitToBeKing”and“HakunaMatata”do,however,achievethis
blend,andarethereforenothyperrealistic,butinsteadrealisticportrayalsofworld
musicintheirmixtureofWesternandAfricanmusicalstyles.Incomparison,“Circle
ofLife”and“BePrepared”becomeevenmorehyperrealisticintheirseemingly
“pure”renderingofAfricanmusicalstyles.
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ChapterThree:
AfricanMusicalElementsinUnderscoring
ThemusicinTheLionKingisresponsibleforsettingthesceneasmuchasthevisual
elementsofthefilm,providing,inRoyPrendergast’swords,“musicalcolor.”1While
mostofthemusicalnumbersinTheLionKinghavesomerecognizableAfrican(or
“African”)elements,mostoftheunderscoringisclosertothestandardWestern
film-scoringtradition.BecauseAfricanmusicalelementsaresouncommoninthe
underscoring,however,theyareparticularlynoticeablewhentheydoappear.
Anotherimportantdifferencebetweenthestringsoundsintheunderscoringand
musicalnumbersistheuseofsynthesizedinstrumentsinthemusicalnumbers,and
acousticstringinstrumentsintheunderscoring.Thisdifferencemaybearesultof
differenttimbralpreferencesofEltonJohn,whocomposedtheTheLionKing’s
soundtrack,andHansZimmer,whowrotethefilm’sscore.Thesescoringchoices
mayalso,however,reflectaudienceexpectations⎯themorepopularandmodern
synthesizedsoundslendthemselvesmoreeasilytothesoundtrackofamovie
musical,whilethe“classical”soundsofrealstringsaremoretypicalofcinematic
underscoring.
ThemostobviouslyAfricanizedunderscoringappearsinseveralscenes
throughoutthemovie.BecausethelyricsinthesescenesaresointegraltoTheLion
King’splot,Iwillrefertothismusicbyitsfirstphrase—“Busalelizwebo,”aZulu
1RoyM.Prendergast,FilmMusic:ANeglectedArt(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1992),213.
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phrasewhichmeans“rulethisland.”2“Busalelizwebo”appearsinscenesthatshow
Simbaacceptinghisplaceinthecircleoflife,askingofthePrideLands.Thissection
ofhighlyrhythmicmusicbeginswithseveralpercussioninstruments,including
timpaniandmarimba,accompanyingchoralhomophony,mirroringtheAfrican
elementsfoundin“CircleofLife”and“BePrepared.”Astringsectionalsodoubles
thechoralparts,againevokingsimilarusesinearliermusicalnumbers,andagain
recallingVytisPuronas’argumentsaboutsonichyperrealism.Becauseaudiencesare
presentedwiththesestereotypically“African”musicalelementsandembellished,
hyperrealisticsoundsthroughoutboththemusicalnumbersandtheunderscoring,
theyremaintotallyimmersedinTheLionKing’shyperrealisticsoundworldforthe
entiretyofthefilm.
Thefirsttime“Busalelizwebo”occurs,onlyashortexcerptofthemusicis
featured(thetrackitselfisunderaminute),accompanyingthesceneinwhichSimba
ultimatelydecidestoreturntothePrideLands,butmoreofthetrackplaysshortly
afterward,duringamontageofSimbarunningacrossthedeserttowardshishome.
Thislongerversionof“Busalelizwebo”notonlyretainsallAfricanmusical
elementsheardafewminutesearlier,butfeaturesmanymore.LeboMreappearsas
asoloistforthefirsttimesincethebeginningofthemovie,accompaniedonceagain
bychoralhomophony.LeboM’sreturnnotonlydrawsaconnectionbetweenthis
musicand“CircleofLife,”butalsoremindslistenersofthefilm’smostrealistic⎯and
musicallyhyperrealistic⎯scene.Thefluteinmanyofthemusicalnumbersentersto
2“‘Busa’Lyrics,”TheLionKingUnofficialWWWArchive,accessedDecember12,2015,http://www.lionking.org/lyrics/ROTPL/Busa.html.
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doubleanewmelodyinthechoir,withaddeddrumsandmarimbatoheightenthe
rhythmicintensityofthepercussion.Thisincreasedrhythmicactivitycorresponds
with,andperpetuates,thecommonstereotypesofAfricanrhythms,asdiscussedin
thefirstchapter.Astheexcitementandenergyofthepiecegrow,severalfemale
singersbegintoululate,addinganew,andexotic,effect.Thoughululationplaysa
partinmanycultures,Westernlistenersoftenregarditas“primitive”and
“chaotic”⎯descriptorsthatareunfortunatelyassociatedwithAfricancountries.3
“Busalelizwebo”appearsoncemoreinthefilm—inthefinalscene,when
SimbaroarsfromatopPrideRocktosignalhisascensiontothethrone.Thistime,
theenergyandexcitementofthemusicescalaterapidly,reflectingatime-lapse
sceneofthePrideLandsrestoredtotheirformergloryunderSimba’srule.Thislast
iterationof“Busalelizwebo”blendsseamlesslyintoarepriseof“CircleofLife”—
thistime,aspartoftheunderscoring.Thereturnof“CircleofLife”bringsthefilm
andthescorefullcircle,bothneatlytyinguptheconclusionofthenarrativeand
returningtothemosthyperrealisticallyAfrican-soundingmusicinthesoundtrack.
Evenafterthemovieends,“Busalelizwebo”playsduringthecredits,helpingthe
audiencetransitionfromthemoviebacktoreallife.Thesmoothtransition
establishedherenotonlyfulfillsitspresumedintendedpurposeofprovidingamore
thoroughlyimmersiveexperience,butalsoaddsanewlayerofhyperreality.
Whenthecreditsbegintoplay,audiencemembers(whetherinamovie
theaterorelsewhere)leavethecinematicworldofTheLionKingandreturntotheir
3EugeniaLindiweZamandeluSikhosana,“ACriticalStudyoftheContemporaryPracticeofUlulation(Ukukikiza)anditsCurrentSocialandCulturalValuesAmongtheZulus”(PhDDiss,UniversityofZululand,2002).
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normallives,astheystanduptoleave,checktheirphone,turntofamilyorfriends
totalk,andsoon.Because“Busalelizwebo”isstillplaying,however,itisnowmore
thanfilmmusic;ithasbecomepartofthesoundtracktothelisteners’lives.Assuch,
theAfricanmusicalelementsthathadoncesignifiedthenewandexoticnow
representthefamiliar,comfortable,andeasilyunderstood.
Otherquasi-Africanelementsintheunderscoringmainlyaccompanyone
characterinparticular:Rafiki.HeiseasilythemoststereotypicallyAfrican
character:asamysticalfigure,mostofhisscreentimeinvolvesperforming
mysteriousritualsinvolving“primitive”materialssuchasleaves,flowers,andfruit,
andimpartingbitsofspiritualwisdomtoSimba.4Heisalsotheonlycharacterinthe
filmwhospeakswithanAfrican-soundingaccent(aswellasoneofthefew
characterswhoisvoicedbyanAfrican-Americanactor,RobertGuillaume),so
audiencesalreadyaudiblyidentifyhimasahighlyAfricanizedcharacter,reflecting
Obadike’sphenomenonofacousmaticblackness,inwhichlistenersascribeethnicity
basedonwhatisheard,ratherthanseen,asdiscussedinthefirstchapter.
ThefirsttimeAfricanelementsappearinthemusicaccompanyingRafiki
(asidefromhisbriefappearancein“CircleofLife”)iswhenhediscoversthatSimba
isstillalive,contrarytowhatScarhastoldtheinhabitantsofthePrideLands.
Rafiki’smostprominentroleinTheLionKing’splotoccursduringthesceneinwhich
heconvincesSimbatoreturntothePrideLands.WhenRafikifirstcapturesSimba’s
attention,hechantsthepart-Swahili,part-nonsensephrase“Asantesana,squash
4FormoreonWesternstereotypesaboutAfricanmagicandwitchcraft,seePeterPels’s“TheMagicofAfrica:ReflectionsonaWesternCommonplace,”AfricanStudiesReview,41no.3(December,1998):193–209.
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banana,wewenugumimihapana,”“Thankyouverymuch,squashbanana,youarea
baboonandIamnot.”Meanwhile,themusicinthissceneswitchesfromamore
typicallycinematicorchestralsoundtoachoirhumminghomophonically,
accompaniedbyamarimba.Asthescenecontinues,afluteenters,providing
accompanimentalflourishes,andseveralmorepercussioninstruments—drums
withmanydifferentpitches,andatambourine-likeinstrument—jointhemix.This
generalensembleisfamiliartotheaudience,becausetheyhavehearditseveral
timesbefore,asin“CircleofLife.”ThisconnectionwithotherhighlyAfricanized
scenesthroughoutthemoviereinforcesthescene’s—andRafiki’s—“African-ness.”
AfterpiquingSimba’sinterest,RafikiofferstoleadSimbatoMufasa,initiating
afrenziedchasethroughthetangledrootsofatreeasSimbaattemptstokeepup
withtheagileRafiki.Themusicduringthissceneemphasizesthechaosofthechase
withfast,intenselyenergeticdrummingandquick,seeminglyimprovisedshouts
andchantsfromthechoir.ThishurriedmusiccomestoanabruptendasSimba
escapesthedisorderedmazeandfindshimselfintheserenityoftheAfricanplains.
CombiningRafiki’salreadyAfricanizedcharacterwithsomeofthemostAfrican-
soundingmusicinthefilm’sunderscoringmakeshimseemalmostlikeacaricature
ofAfricancultureandcharacteristics.Here,themusicisnotnecessarily
hyperrealisticinandofitself,butratherperpetuatesstereotypesofAfricansas
“primitive”andfocusedprimarilyonnatureandtheland,bringingtomindthe
unfortunatephrase“noblesavages.”ThemusicfurtherstrengthensRafiki’s
connectiontothelandinhislastscene,whenhefinallyconvincesSimbatoreturnto
thePrideLands,and“Busalelizwebo”firstappears.Aspreviouslydiscussed,this
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sectionofmusicconnectsSimbatohisdestiny,aswellastotheAfricanecosystem,
andconnectingRafikitotheseelementsintensifiestheassociationofRafikiwith
Africa,thusfurtherencouragingthehyperrealviewthatallAfricanpeoplearelike
Rafiki:primitive.
Mostoftheunderscoringcanbeeasilycategorized—withAfricanizedmusic
accompanyingscenesinvolvingtheAfricanecosystemasitshouldbe,andWestern
musicaccompanyingscenesinvolvingnegativeaspectsoftheplotorcomicrelief.
Themostfrequentlyused,andarguablythemostimportant,musicinthefilm,
however,doesnotfitsoeasilyintothesecategories.Thesectionofmusicentitled
“ThisLand”onTheLionKing’ssoundtrackoccursmultipletimesthroughoutthe
film;thescenesoftenonlyfeaturesmallportionsofthemusic,butinafew
instances,theentirepieceappears.
Excerpt1:Themotivefrom"ThisLand"whichisusedthroughoutTheLionKing.
Themostsymbolicsectionof“ThisLand,”asshowninFigure5,lastsfrom
1:11–1:34ontheversionofthepiecefoundinthefilm’ssoundtrack.Thisleitmotif
representsseveralimportantideasthroughoutTheLionKing.Boththefirstandthe
lasttimethismusicoccurs,itrepresentstheAfricanecosysteminitsnormalstate—
atthebeginningofthemovie,asMufasaexplainstheconceptofthecircleoflifeto
Simba,andattheend,afterSimbadefeatsScarandisabouttoclaimthethrone,
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signalingareturntotheoriginalprosperityofthePrideLands.Throughouttherest
ofthefilm,thisleitmotifsymbolizesMufasa’swisdom,andthepresenceofhisspirit.
Forexample,itoccursafterthewildebeestchase,whenSimbarealizesthathis
fatherhasdied;whenMufasa’sspiritappearstoSimba,tellinghimtoreturntothe
PrideLands;andwhenSimba’smother,Sarabi,mistakeshimforMufasawhenhe
doesreturntothePrideLands.Interestingly,thismusic’spurposeissimilartothat
oftheAfricanizedmusicintheunderscoring,butitdoesnotsoundstereotypically
“African”atall.Almosteverytimeitappearsithasanorchestralscoring,with
violinsplayingtheentirelytonalmelody.Attimes,achoiraccompaniestheviolins;
yeteventhen,thechoirsoundsmoreWesternthanthechoralstyleinthe
Africanizedmusicalsections.
ThisunusualuseofWestern-soundingmusicmayserveasabridgebetween
the“African”-soundingandWestern-soundingmusicalsections.Inthisway,even
thepartsofthescorethatdonotsoundAfricanstillconnecttotheoverallsettingof
themovie,resultinginamorecohesivefilmasawhole.Thisinterestinguseof
Westernmusicfunctionsasyetanothertypeofhyperreality⎯perhapsoneofthe
mostnotableexamplesinthefilm.ThroughoutTheLionKing(andespeciallyinthe
musicalnumbersandunderscoringthatIhaveaddressedhere),Africanmusical
elementsrepresentmomentsandcharactersthatareintegraltothecentralplot;
mostoftheotherscenescouldbeleftoutwithoutsignificantchangetothestoryline
(thoughlikelytothedetrimentofthefilm’sentertainmentvalue).Themusicis
decidedlyWestern,however,inwhatarearguablythemostimportantscenes:
Simba’sinteractionswithhisfather.TheLionKing’sportrayalofthebondbetween
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fatherandsonistheonlythemethatcouldtrulybecalleduniversal,butthemusic
usedtorepresentthatbondisanythingbut.Theargumentcouldbemadethatthe
Westernstyleofmusicissowidespreadandwellknownaroundtheworldthatit
couldbeseenasuniversal,butsuchanassertionwouldfalselyassumethatallnon-
AnglicmusictraditionsshouldassimilatetotheWesternstyle.Thisistheone
instanceinthefilminwhichamixofmusicalcultureswouldbeanappropriate
accompaniment,yetitisoneofthefewmomentscharacterizedexclusivelyby
Westernmusicalstyles.Theabsenceofworldmusicstylesintherepresentationofa
universalideahere(whilemostofthefilmhasdonetheopposite)maintainsthe
hyperrealisticWesternviewthatWesterncultureandmusicisuniversal⎯thatitis
themostwidespread,andultimately,thesuperiorcultureandmusic.This
presumptionreflectstheconcernthatmanyopponentsofthelabel“world
music”⎯suchasDavidByrne,HerbertMattelart,andJocelyneGuilbault⎯share:
thatthetermonlyservestomaintainthemusicindustry’shierarchy,inwhichthe
mostfamiliarandmainstreammusic(whichisoftenWesterninorigin)risestothe
top,achievingmassivesuccess,whilenon-Westernmusicthatfailstofitthese
categoriesoftenlanguishesnearthebottom.
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Conclusion
AsthefirstDisneyfilmtothoroughlyincorporateAfricanmusicthroughoutthe
soundtrackandscore,TheLionKingbroughtAfricatotheattentionofaglobal
audience.Butwhilethefilmoccasionallyincludesaccuraterepresentationsof
Africanmusic,forthemostpartitonlyperpetuatescommon,deeplyproblematic
stereotypesoftheAfricanpeopleandculture.FromassumptionsaboutAfrica’stotal
culturalandethnichomogeneitytothecontinuationofracializedbeliefsabout
timbreandmusicalability,TheLionKingpresentsthesestereotypestotheyoung
andimpressionableaudienceswhowouldmostlikelyviewDisneyfilms,thus
ensuringthatthestereotypestranscendgenerationalboundaries.Byusingthese
stereotypes,DisneycreateshyperrealisticpicturesofAfrica,whichexposeWestern
viewerstoaversionofAfricathatisexoticandexciting,butatthesametime
familiarandnonthreatening.Becausethehyperrealisticversionissocomfortable
foraudiences,italsobecomestheversionthataudienceschoosetorepresentthe
“real”Africa,reflectingEco’sclaimaboutaudiences’preferencesforhyperreality.
TheLionKingfurtherreaffirmstheseclaimsaboutDisney’suseof
hyperrealitybynotjustportrayingthestereotypesofAfricanmusic,butactively
encouragingthem.Theclearemphasisontherhythmicelementsthroughout“Be
Prepared,”forexample,playstothewidespreadandinaccuratestereotypethat
rhythmistheonlyimportantelementofAfricanmusic.Goingforward,these
listenersmightexpectotherAfricanmusicstofeatureonlythose“African”
characteristicstowhichtheyhavealreadybeenexposed⎯andwhentheyencounter
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differentormoreaccuratedepictionsofAfricanmusic,theymaydismissthemas
inaccurateorinferiorbecauseitdoesnotmeettheirexpectations.Westernlisteners
mightnotrecognize,forexample,WestAfricankoramusicas“actual”Africanmusic,
becauseitdoesnotfittheextremelyrestrictivestereotypesthatareunceasingly
pushedonaudiences.Thisgeneralizationagainshedslightonthelargerissueof
Africa’sportrayalasonemusically,culturally,andethnicallyhomogeneousentity,
glossingoverthethousandsofvastregionaldifferences.
Intheirattemptstosimplysound“African,”TheLionKing’screatorsfellshort
ofarealisticpresentationofAfrica,insteadcreatingahyperrealisticone.While
hyperrealityisnotintrinsicallydamaging,ahyperrealitybasedonharmfuland
deep-seatedstereotypesbecomesproblematic,especiallywhenviewersand
listenersconfuseitforactualreality.BecausethehyperrealityfoundinTheLion
Kingis,infact,basedonharmfulstereotypes,itisimportantforaudiencestobe
criticalofwhattheyseeandhear.Whileitmaynothavebeenintentional,thefilm’s
creators⎯and,inextension,theDisneycompanyasawhole⎯perpetuatebigoted
viewsandideasthroughthemusicfeaturedinthefilm’sscore.BecauseTheLion
King’smusicproductionteamoftenpresentthefilm’smusicascompletelyaccurate,
audiencesmayacceptitasactualrealityinsteadofhyperreality.Whenaudiences
areawarethatDisney’sportrayalofAfricaishyperrealisticratherthanrealistic,
inaccurateandharmfulstereotypesmayspreadlessquicklyandeasily.
ExpandingthetheoryofhyperrealityfromtheDisneylandthemeparkto
otherDisneyproductsallowsustomorepreciselylocateproblematicaspectsof
theseproducts,aswellastomoreeasilydistinguishtheboundariesbetween
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inaccuratestereotypesandreality.Myresearchismosteasilyextendedintoother
Disneyfilmsthatfeatureworldmusic,suchasAladdin(1992),Pocahontas(1995),
andMulan(1998),aswellasnon-Disneyfilmsthatfeatureworldmusic,likeThe
PrinceofEgypt(1998)andTheRoadtoElDorado(2000).Ofcourse,thetheoryof
hyperrealitydoesnotnecessarilyonlyapplytoanimatedmovie-musicals;wecould
applythistheorytolive-actionfilms,stagedmusicalsandoperas,andevenvideo
games.UsingBaudrillardandEco’stheoryofhyperrealitytoexaminedifferenttypes
ofmediaoutsideofthesescholars’applicationswillallowthecreatorsofthese
mediatomaintainamoreconscientiousoutlookfortheirprojects,andinthe
process,limitthespreadofharmfulstereotypes.
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