World Ind Min

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS

PETER W. HARBEN

Once considered the dowdy country cousins of the glamorous metallics, industrial minerals are shedding their old image. They are neither common nor easy and their time has come in an age of increasing specialization. Consider that of the 45 or so industrial minerals and rocks listed in Table 1, almost three-quarters have ten or fewer significant suppliers (i.e., those individual countries con- tributing 2% or more of total world production); in more than half the cases, 85% of world production is accounted for by only five countries or fewer. Curiously, even materials that appear to be virtually ubiquitous like crushed rock and common salt have significant production vacuums. For example, there is a severe lack of sound aggregates along the US Gulf Coast and common salt production on a large scale is virtually absent in central Africa. These examples all underline the obvious, but acute truism that "The single most important fact about mineral resources is that they are not distributed equally over the world" (Flawn, 1966).

Just as significant today is that human resources are not distributed equally over the world, and so arise some interesting commercial incongruities. In certain regions raw materials are plen- tiful but consumers are not, and without a market a mineral deposit is merely a geological curiosity. Elsewhere, there may be a market but no local raw material supply. For example, despite a huge market there is no or virtually no commercial production of chromite, diamonds, and manganese in the United States and Can- ada, nor phosphate rock, diamonds, rutile, and zirconium minerals in western Europe. In contrast, Australia with its small domestic market is the world's largest supplier of bauxite, diamonds, ilmenite, natural and synthetic rutile, and zircon; the same is true for South Africa which is a leading producer of chromite, manganese, diamonds, andalusite, ilmenite, rutile, and zircon (Table 2). In the commercial world, Nature's uneven distribution is counterbalanced by deep sea international trade.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Continuing with the obvious theme, Stanton (1972) concluded that most ore deposits appear to be closely related to their geological environments, and since these geological environments vary over time, it follows that particular ores should have been conspicuously concentrated in certain places at certain times. In the metallic world, these places are known as metallogenic provinces (Govett and Govett, 1976), a concept that can be applied to a more limited degree to nonmetallics. Consequently, the basic distribution pattern of mineral resources is obviously determined by geology. However, the distribution of commercial production, that is reserves as op- posed to resources, is influenced by a diverse host of factors. These include mineral grade and consistency, amenability to mineral ben- eficiation, geographic location, demographics, latior rates, tax and investment incentives. ~olitical stabilitv. entre~reneurial skills. . . < .

transportation, market demands, research and development, price

competitiveness, economic climate, environmental regulations, government intervention, and timing. Natural and man-made factors have combined to produce the distribution pattern described below.

PRODUCTION PATTERNS

The industrial minerals may be broadly placed into geological pigeon holes (Table 3), although several find themselves residing comfortably in several slots.

IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE

Olivine, Chromite, Nepheline Syenite, Diamonds

Both olivine and chromite deposits are closely associated with ultramafic plutonic rocks. The bulk of chromite reserves occur in the large laterally extensive stratiform or Bushveld-type form OC- curring in stable shield areas as exemplified by the Bushveld Ig- neous Complex in South Africa, the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe, northern Finland, and Bahia State, Brazil. In contrast, the smaller podiform or Alpine-type deposits occur in mobile belts such as the Urals of the USSR, the Tethyian mountain chain of the Balkans, Turkey, and Iran, and in the Circum-Pacific belt. Over@, significant chromite reserves and production are restricted to less than ten countries, and nonmetallurgical grades to still fewer, namely South Africa, the Philippines, Turkey, Greece, Finland, Albania, and In- dia.

Commercial olivine and dunite deposits are common in the Alpine-type ultrabasic terrains. A limited market restricts production to Norway with 75% of world production; smaller producers are Spain, Italy, Japan, and the United States. The modest US production is from North Carolina and Washington state.

Nepheline syenite is a relatively common silica-deficient mag- matic intrusive rock. However, commercial production is limited to large operations in Canada, Norway, and the USSR due to the limited market size, competition from feldspar, and the requirement for a consistently low iron content. Production from Canada and Norway is virtually all exported; this accounts for 70 and 30% respectively of world production, excluding the USSR.

The primary geological habitat for natural diamond is kimberlite, an ultrabasic intrusive rock associated with stable shield regions. Diamondiferous kimberlites are concentrated in southern Africa, the Siberian Platform, Brazil, and Western Australia. Ages range from Precambrian in South Africa to Recent in Tanzania. Diamonds are also produced commercially from placer deposits such as in Namibia (see the sedimentary section that follows). Overall, Africa is a prime region for diamond production, in particular South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, and

INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS

Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals Production (tons)

Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals Production (tons) (cont.)

-

% % world

world production Production production cumulative

Asbestos 4 325 487 USSR 2 600 000 60 60 Canada Brazil Zimbabwe China South Africa Greece

Barite China Mexico USSR Turkey lndia Morocco United States Germany

Bauxite Australia Guinea Jamaica Brazil lndia USSR China Suriname Yugoslavia Hungary Greece

Bentonite United States USSR Greece Japan ltaly Brazil Germany Mexico Romania

Beryl 8 bertrandite United States USSR Brazil

Boron minerals Turkey United States Argentina USSR

Bromine United States Israel USSR United Kingdom France Japan

Chromite South Africa USSR lndia Finland Albania Turkey

- -

% % world

world production Production production Cumulative

Zimbabwe 570 000 5 94 Brazil 225 000 2 96

Diamond (carats) Industrial, natural

Australia Zaire USSR South Africa Botswana

Gem, natural Australia Botswana USSR South Africa Zaire Namibia Angola

Diatomite United States France Romania USSR Spain Korea Denmark Mexico Germany

Feldspar ltaly United States USSR Germany France Korea Thailand Spain Brazil Mexico South Africa Romania

Fluorspar China Mexico Mongolia USSR South Africa France Spain ltaly United Kingdom Kenya Morocco Thailand

Fuller's earth United States Senegal Spain

Garnet' United States lndia China

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS 17 Table 1. Distribution of World Industrial Minerals

Production (tons) (cont.)

% % world


Australia 14 515 1 1 93 Norway 7 257 5 98

' capacity


% % world


Lithium' 12 000 United States 5 600 47 47 Chile 1 700 14 61

Graphite China Korea USSR lndia Mexico Brazil

Australia 1 300 USSR 1 089 China 730 Zimbabwe 730 Canada 500 Brazil 290

' capacity of lithium content --

Czechoslovakia 25 000 4 86 Magnesite & N. Korea 25 000 4 90 magnesia' 10 401 000 Madagascar 14 000 2 92 USSR 2 200 000 21 Turkey 13 000 2 94 N. Korea 1 250 000 12 Zimbabwe 1 1 000 2 96 United States 1 013 000 10

Gypsum United States Canada Iran China Japan France Spain Thailand Mexico Germany Australia

China Czechoslovakia Greece Austria Japan Brazil Turkey Yugoslavia lndia Spain

capacity in MgO

Manganese* USSR South Africa Gabon Australia Brazil China lndia

metal content

1 010 000 700 000 612 000 576 000 485 000 345 000 285 000 240 000 229 000 205 000

equivalent

8 443 000 2 630 000 1 520 000 1 215 000 1 008 000 605 000 544 000 508 000

Iodine Japan Chile USSR United States China

Natural iron oxide India 145 000 United States 42 034 Spain 31 000 France 15 000 Cyprus 10 000 Austria 9 000 Chile 8 300 Brazil 6 000 Germany 5 000

reported producers only

Kaolin 25 669 083 United States 8 973 668 United Kingdom 3 140 000 USSR 2 000 000 Colombia 1 800 000 France 1 400 000 Korea 1 219 174 Brazil 846 200 Germany 825 000 India 755 000 Czechoslovakia 680 000

Kyanite and related minerals 477 000

South Africa 270 700 United States 90 000 India 53 000 France 50 000

Mica United States USSR Korea lndia Canada France

Nepheline syenite USSR Canada Norway

Nitrogen (ammonia)

USSR China United States lndia Canada Netherlands Romania Indonesia Poland Mexico

Olivine & dunite* Norway Spain

18 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS



Yo % world

world production Production ~roduction cumulative

Japan 350 000 5 94 Italy 200 000 3 97

* estimated capacity

Perlite 1 777 000 United States 580 000 USSR 544 000 Greece 160 000 Turkey 145 000 Hungary 110 000 Japan 77 000 Italy 71 000 Czechoslovakia 43 500 Mexico 36 000

Phosphate rock' 50 488 000 United States 14 893 000 USSR 10 850 000 Morocco 8 000 000 China 4 100 000 Jordan 1 800 000 Tunisia 1 800 000 Brazil 1 290 000 Israel 1 231 000 Togo 1 208 000 South Africa 1 040 000

* P,O, content - .

Potash* 29 789 000 USSR 10 500 000 Canada 7 458 000 Germany 5 440 000 United States 1 595 000 Israel 1 271 000 France 1 200 000 Jordan 790 000 Spain 745 000

* K,O equivalent

Pumice/pozzolan 10 964 348 Italy 5 225 000 Greece 1 600 000 Spain 900 000 Turkey 700 000 United States 443 000 France 400 000 Yugoslavia 400 000 Chile 290 000 Guadeloupe 220 000

Pyrophyllite 2 205 000 Japan 1 231 300 S. Korea 640 000 United States 83 301 Brazil 75 000 N. Korea 70 000 India 60 000

Rare earth minerals* 70 000

United States 26 000 China 20 350 Australia 1 1 020 Malaysia 3 900 Brazil 2 200 India 2 200 USSR 1 500

'REO; excludes production from South Afl the United States

37 29 16 6 3 3 2

rica and

37 66 82 88 91 94 96

monazite from

% % world


Salt 209 988 000 United States 38 856 000 19 19 China 30 850 000 15 34 Germany USSR Canada lndia France Mexico Australia Poland Romania United Kingdom Brazil ltaly Netherlands

Soda ash United States USSR China Germany France Japan Bulgaria lndia United Kingdom Poland Romania ltaly Spain

Sodium sulfate United States Spain USSR Mexico Germany Canada Japan Belgium Turkey France ltaly Austria Sweden United Kingdom

Silica sand United States Netherlands Argentina France Germany Peru ltaly Japan United Kingdom Venezuela lndia Canada Brazil Belgium South Africa Yugoslavia Australia Spain




% % world

world production Production Droduction cumulative

Strontium 244 300 minerals

Mexico 91 000 37 37 Turkey 59 000 24 61 Spain 40 000 16 77 United Kingdom 25 000 10 87 Iran Algeria

Sulfur United States USSR Canada Poland China Japan Germany Mexico Saudi Arabia Iraq Spain France

Talc 8 steatite United States China USSR Brazil lndia Finland France Australia S. Korea Italy Austria Canada N. Korea Norway

Titanium minerals' llmenite

Australia Canada South Africa Norway Malaysia

% % world


USSR 250 000 6 83 India 200 000 5 88 United States 210 000 5 93 China 90 000 2 95 Brazil 83 000 2 97 Sri Lanka 80 000 2 99

Rutile 520 000 Australia 260 000 50 Sierra Leone 120 000 23 South Africa 56 000 1 1 United States 26 000 5 India 19 000 4 Brazil 15 000 3 Sri Lanka 13 000 2 USSR 10 000 2

Synthetic rutile 580 000 Australia 250 000 43 lndia 138 000 24 United States 100 000 17 Japan 46 000 8 Malaysia 46 000 8

' capacity in TiO, content

Vermiculite 595 705 United States 304 000 51 South Africa 227 791 38 Argentina 22 267 4 Brazil 17 000 3 Japan 17 000 3

Zirconium minerals 993 088

Australia 546 000 55 South Africa 160 000 16 United States 118 388 12 USSR 90 000 9 Malaysia 19 700 2 Brazil 19 000 2 India 16 000 1 China 15 000 1 Thailand 5 000 Sri Lanka 4 000

Source: Industrial Minerals HandyBook, 1 992.


Some pegmatites are rich in lithium minerals such as spo- dumene, petalite, and lepidolite which are separated to form a lithium concentrate plus byproduct feldspar, quartz, and/or mica. The main production area is around Kings Mountain, NC, Bikita, Zimbabwe, western Canada, the USSR, and Western Australia. These pegmatitic sources of lithium, which account for over 70% of the supplies, are being strongly challenged by lithium extracted from brines (see following). Beryl is also associated with pegmatites as in Brazil, the USSR, and western Canada. Production of bertrandite in Utah has increased to account for 60% of the world's beryllium supply.

Fluorspar is a "persistent" mineral occurring in various ore deposits including Mississippi Valley (leadzinc) type deposits, hydrothermal veins, stratabound or Manto deposits, contact metamorphic terrains, and alkali rock complexes. Over 70% of world production comes from China, Mexico, Mongolia, and South Af- rica. Much of the production is exported. Mexico dominates the North American industry since mines in the midwestern United States and eastern Canada have closed. In Europe, significant production comes from Spain, Italy, France, and the United Kingdom whose combined total is 10% of world supplies. Other producers, largely for export, include Thailand, Brazil, Morocco, and Kenya.

SURFICIALLY ALTERED

Sands, Kaolin, Bauxite, Manganese, Vermiculite

Feldspar-rich deposits subject to weathering break down to form feldspathic sand deposits such as those exploited in the western United States and in Spain. Further weathering forms a mixture of feldspar, silica, and kaolin such as that mined in Bavaria. Still further decomposition through weathering and/or hydrothermal activity eliminates much of the mica and silica and yields premier quality deposits of kaolin such as those mined in Cornwall, Georgia and the Carolinas in the southeastern United States, and in the Amazon Basin of Brazil. The United States, plus the United King- dom, produce almost 50% of the world's kaolin, and more signif- icantly, virtually all the coating-grade material. Other supplie~s of quality kaolin include France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Brazil, Malaysia, and Australia.

Vermiculite is a supergene alteration product formed by the combined effects of weathering and circulating groundwater. Large-scale commercial production is confined to South Carolina and Virginia in the United States and the Palabora Complex in South Africa which contribute 90% of world supplies. Minor quantities come from Japan, Brazil, Argentina, and Kenya.

Since residual bauxite deposits result from the tropical weathering of a variety of source rocks, their distribution is based on climatology rather than lithology. Formation is encouraged by long periods of tectonic stability permitting deep and thorough weathering. Most bauxite deposits are post-Cretaceous in age and many occur in modern tropical regions. Bauxite provinces have been defined as follows:

A dozen countries contribute 95% of world production with 70% plus coming from Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, and Brazil. Nonmetallurgical grades, that is for refractories, abrasives, chem- icals, and aluminum cement, come from China, Australia, Guinea, Brazil, Guyana, and Suriname.

Manganese is found in most geological environments; the more important commercially being sedimentary and residual. Large sedimentary marine deposits of manganese are exploited in the Ukraine, the USSR, the Kalahari Basin of South Africa, Groote Eylandt, Australia, and in Mexico. Residual deposits are important in Ghana and Gabon in west Africa and in Amapri, Brazil. Over 90% of world production comes from seven countries-the USSR, South Africa, Gabon, Australia, Brazil, China, and India. Nonmetallur- gical grades constitute a relatively small percentage of output from these major suppliers, plus smaller tonnage producers such as Ghana, Morocco, and Greece.

Iron oxides are generally associated with volcanic activity and sulfide deposits combined with subsequent leaching and diagenic alteration. The world's largest supplier with over 50% of production is India, followed by the United States with an additional 15%. US production is concentrated in Georgia, Virginia, and Missouri. European production, accounting for over a fifth of world production, is centered on Spain, United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Austria (the latter being the main source of natural micaceous oxide). Cyprus is noted for its variety of iron oxides including ocher and umber.

Tripoli is a microcrystalline and friable high-silica (98 to 99%) material formed from the weathering of siliceous limestone. The only large-scale commercial producers are in the United States, specifically the southwestern Missouri-northeastern Oklahoma region, southern Illinois, and the Ouachita Mountain region of Ar- kansas. Deposits in the latter region are associated with novaculite.

Natural zeolites are formed through the reaction of pore water with volcanic glass, clay, feldspar, and a variety of other rocks and minerals. Although zeolites have been recognized in virtually all parts of the world, large-scale commercial production is restricted to the western United States, Cuba, Japan, and several eastern European countries including Bulgaria.

VOLCANIC EXTRUSIVE

Pumice and Perlite

Because of their susceptibility to devitrification and alteration. commercial deposits of extrusive volcanic rocks like perlite and pumice are generally confined to younger geological terrains. Per- lite deposits, which are rarely older than Oligocene, are exploited in the western United States, Mexico, Greece, Turkey, Italy, west- em USSR, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Japan. Between them, the United States and the USSR account for over two-thirds of world production. Pumice is common on volcanic islands such as Lipari near Sicily, Yali and Nisisros in Greece, and the Canary Islands of Spain. These three countries control over 70% of the world's pum- iie supply. In addition, large deposits are worked in the western United States, particularly California, Arizona, New Mexico, and

Guiana Shield of South America (Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, Nevada. smaller tonnages come from France, Yugoslavia, Chile,

Guiana, and parts of Brazil and Colombia) and Guadeloupe.

Northern ~ r a i i l i a n Shield Province Caribbean Shield Province (Costa Rica. Jamaica, Dominican SEDIMENTARY Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico) Guinea Shield Province (Guinea-Bissau to Togo) Silica, Ball Clays, Titanium & Zirconium Minerals, Cameroon Province (Cameroon, Zaire) Rare Earths, Diamonds Australian Province European Province (France, Greece, Hungary, and Yugoslavia) Sedimentary deposits are formed through the erosion, transpor- Others (United States, China, USSR, India, Malaysia). tation, and redeposition of minerals that can survive the rigors of


Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production (O/O World Production) (cont.)

EASTERN EUROPE Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Hungary Poland Romania USSR Yugoslavia Total

Asbestos 60 60 Barite 10 10 Bauxite 3 4 3 10 Bentonite 2 30 32 Beryl 26 26 Boron minerals 7 7 Bromine 15 15 Chromite 32 38 Diamond

industrial 13 13 gem 10 10

Diatomite 14 14 Feldspar 2 8 10 Fluorspar 7 7 Fuller's earth -

Garnet -

Graphite 13 17 Gypsum -

Iodine 13 13 Iron oxide -

Kaolin 8 11 Kyanite etc. -

Lithium 9 9 Magnesite 2 1 2 30 Manganese 31 31 Mica 19 19 Nepheline syenite 77 77 Nitrogen 20 20 Olivine 8 dunite - Perlite 31 39 Phosphate rock 21 21 Potash 31 31 Pumice 4 4 Pyrophyllite - Rare earths -

Salt 8 14 Soda ash 15 24 Sodium sulfate 13 13 Silica sand 2 2 Strontium minerals -

Sulfur 16 25 Talc 8 steatite 8 8 Titanium minerals

llmenite 6 6 Rutile 2 2 Syn. rutile -

Vermiculite -

Zirconium minerals 9 9

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Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production (% World Production) (cont.)

NORTH AMERICA Canada Mexico United States Total

Asbestos 16 16 Barite 10 5 15 Bauxite - Bentonite 2 32 34 Beryl 60 60 Boron minerals 37 37 Bromine 41 41 Chromite - Diamond

industrial - em -

Diatomite 37 Feldspar 17 Fluorspar 15 Fuller's earth 61 Garnet 48 Graphite 7 Gypsum 30 Iodine 9 Iron oxide 15 Kaolin 35 Kyanite etc. 19 Lithium 5 1 Magnesitelmagnesia 10 Manganese - Mica 50 Nepheline syenite 16 Nitrogen 15 Olivine 8 dunite - Perlite 35 Phosphate rock 29 Potash 30 Pumice 4 Pyrophyllite 4 Rare earths 37 Salt 29 Soda ash 29 Sodium sulfate 33 Silica sand 2 1 Strontium minerals 37 Sulfur 35 Talc 8 steatite 20 Titanium minerals

llmenite 24 Rutile 5 Syn. rutile 17

Vermiculite 51 Zirconium minerals 12

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS 25


SOUTH AMERICA & CARIBBEAN Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia Guadeloupe Jamaica Peru Suriname Venezuela Total

Asbestos 5 5 Barite - Bauxite 8 10 3 21 Bentonite 2 2 Beryl 12 12 Boron minerals 7 7 Bromine - Chromite 2 2 Diamond

industrial - gem -

Diatomite - Feldspar 3 3 Fluorspar - Fuller's earth - Garnet - Graphite 5 - Gypsum - Iodine 26 26 Iron oxide 2 3 5 Kaolin 3 7 10 Kyanite etc. - Lithium 2 14 16 Magnesite 3 3 Manganese 7 7 Mica - Nepheline syenite - Nitrogen - Olivine & dunite - Perlite - Phosphate rock 4 4 Potash - Pumice 3 5 Pyrophyllite 3 3 Rare earths 3 3 Salt 2 2 Soda ash - Sodium sulfate - Silica sand 8 2 3 17 Strontium minerals - Sulfur - Talc & steatite 7 7 Titanium minerals

llmenite 2 2 Rutile 3 3 Syn. rutile -

Vermiculite 4 3 7 Zirconium minerals 2 2

(cont.)


Table 2. Regional Distribution of Industrial Minerals Production ( O h World Production) (~0nt.1

AUSTRALASIA North South

Australia China India Indonesia Japan Korea Korea Malaysia Mongolia Sri Lanka Thailand Total Asbestos 4 4

Barite 31 7 38

Bauxite 37 4 41 -

Bentonite - Beryl - Boron minerals Bromine 3

- Chromite Diamond

industrial 34 34

41 41 gem

Diatomite 4 4

Feldspar 4 4 8

Fluorspar 30 2 36

Fuller's earth -

Garnet 11 14 20 45

Graphite 32 9 4 16 71

Gypsum 2 8 6 6 22

Iodine 3 49 51

Iron oxide 51 51

Kaolin 3 5 8

Kyanite etc. 11 11

Lithium 11 6 17

Magnesite 10 2 4 12 28

Manganese 12 6 6 24

Mica 10 21 -

Nepheline syenite Nitrogen 17 7 3 27

Olivine 8 dunite 5 5

Perlite 4 4

Phosphate rock 8 8 -

Potash - Pumice Pyrophyllite 56 3 29 88

Rare earths 16 29 3 6 54

Salt 4 15 5 24

Soda ash 9 3 4 16

Sodium sulfate 6 6

Silica sand 2 3 4 9 -

Strontium minerals Sulfur 8 4 12

Talc 8 steatite 3 12 6 2 3 26

Titanium minerals llmenite 26 2 5 Rutile 50 4 Syn. rutile 43 24

Vermiculite Zirconium minerals 55 1

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERAL DEPOSITS 27


MIDDLE EAST Cyprus Iran Iraq Israel Jordan Saudi Arabia Turkey Total

Asbestos - Barite 8 Bauxite

8 -

Bentonite - Beryl - Boron minerals 47 Bromine

47

Chromite 28

Diamond 5 5

industrial - gem -

Diatomite - Feldspar - Fluorspar - Fuller's earth - Garnet - Graphite Gypsum

2 -

Iodine - Iron oxide Kaolin

3 -

Kyanite etc. - Lithium - Magnesite 3 Manganese - Mica - Nepheline syenite - Nitrogen - Olivine & dunite - Perlite 8 Phosphate rock Potash

7

Pumice 7

Pyrophyllite 6 -

Rare earths - Salt - Soda ash - Sodium sulfate Silica sand

4 -

Strontium minerals Sulfur

33

Talc & steatite 2 -

Titanium minerals llmenite - Rutile - Syn. rutile -

Vermiculite - Zirconium minerals - Source: lndustrial Minerals HandyBook, 1992.


Table 3. Geological Classification of Industrial Minerals sedimentary deposit may undergo metamorphism and recementing (Adapted From Harben and Bates, 1984) to produce quartzite. Sand and gravel for construction use is ex-

tremely common, and production is more dependent on local mar- Primary commercial environment kets than availability. However, certain areas are noted for the

Alternative sources IGNEOUS production of industrial sand sufficiently pure to be used in the

lntrusive manufacture of glass, ceramics, sodium silicate and the like. Ex- Olivine Sedimentary (placer) amples include the midwest region of the United States, Badgeley Chromite Sedimentary (placer) Island, Ontario, Canada, Cheshire in northwest England, the Loch Nepheline syenite Aline area of Scotland, areas of Belgium and the Netherlands, Cape Granite Flattery Island, Queensland, Australia, and Sarawak, Malaysia. In

Pegmatitic & hydrothermal many cases, the use of local sand is based on price rather than Feldspar Alterationlsedimentary (sand) quality. The United States and the Netherlands are the largest Mica producers of industrial sand, each accounting for over one-fifth of Quartz crystal Synthetic world production. Production of flint is much more restricted, based Lithium minerals Evaporate largely on the chalk deposits of southern England and northern Beryllium minerals France. Fluorspar Several clays composed mainly of kaolinite are of sedimentary

Extrusive origin. Premier deposits of ball clay, the carbon content of which Basalt & related rocks indicates that it was deposited in swampy conditions, occur in the Pumice, pumicite, & scoria Perlite Kentucky-Tennessee area of the United States, Devon in southwest

SEDIMENTARY England, and in Czechoslovakia. Flint clay, as produced commer-

Clastic cially in the United States, China, Israel, Australia, and Argentina, Sand & gravel is generally derived from the weathering of soil and deposition in Sandstone shallow basins. Fire clay or refractory kaolin is a kaolinite material Clays common in many parts of the world, particularly in association with Titanium & zirconium minerals Intrusive coal deposits. A 400-km belt of kaolinite-rich rocks extends from Rare-earth minerals Intrusive Aiken, South Carolina, to Eufaula, Alabama, and includes areas Diamonds Intrusivelsynthetic supplying high- and medium-quality kaolin and refractory kaolin.

Biogenetic Another belt of kaolin, bauxite, and bauxitic and kaolinitic clays Limestone & dolomite extends from western Tennessee into northeastern Mississippi. Diatomite Other areas include southwest England and over the Channel into Phosphate Sulfur Hydrothermallbyproduct France (kaolin and ball clay), various parts of Czechoslovakia

(kaolin and ball clay), Spain, the Amazon Basin in Brazil (bauxite, Chemical

Barite kaolin), Japan (kaolin, refractory clay, roseki, and toseki), and

Alterationlsedirnentary Salt eastern Australia (bauxite, kaolin).

Sodium carbonate Synthetic Volcanic ash deposited as part of a sedimentary sequence even- Sodium sulfate Byproduct tually forms sodium or calcium bentonite. Important bentonite Nacholite & dawsonite deposits occur in the United States in the Wyoming and Montana Gypsum Byproduct region (sodium-based bentonite) and in the Mississippi-Texas re- Potassium minerals gion (calcium-based). Over 30% of the world's bentonite produc- Borates tion is from these and some smaller deposits in the United States. Celestite More modest tonnages are produced over the borders in Mexico and Nitrates Bromine

Canada. In Europe, bentonite is mined on Milos Island, Greece,

Iodine Cyprus, Turkey, Sardinia, Bavaria, southern England, and Spain. In

SURFlClALLY ALTERED Asia production is centered on Japan, India, and China. Attapulgite Vermiculite and sepiolite (fuller's earth) are more restricted, being produced in Manganese minerals Georgia and Florida in the United States, Germany, the United Bauxite Kingdom, Senegal, and Spain. Iron oxide Placer and pa lae~-~lacer mineral deposits are important sources Tripoli & novaculite of heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, and zircon. Monazite and Zeolites xenotime, rare earth sources, are invariably associated with the

METAMORPHIC mineral sands deposits. Many titanium/zirconium/rare earth min- Marble Slate era1 deposits are Tertiary and Quaternary in age since this was a

Asbestos period of geological uplift which provided the correct conditions for Magnesite & magnesia Igneous/sedimentary/synthetic accumulation plus the fact that older examples have been destroyed. Graphite Synthetic Important areas include the east and west coasts of Australia, parts Corundum & emery Synthetic of Florida and Georgia in southeast United States, around Richards Garnet Sedimentary (placer) Bay, South Africa, and Sierra Leone in Africa, the coastal areas of Wollastonite Synthetic Tamil Nadu and Kerala states in southern India extending into Sillimanite minerals eastern Sri Lanka, and the coastal areas of Brazil. Consequently, Pyrophyllite supplies are dominated by Australia, South Africa, United States,

Sierra Leone, India, and Brazil. Hard-rock ilmenite deposits are exploited in Quebec, Canada, and in Norway. The sole commercial

transportation. The most common is silica which forms a number source of baddeleyite (ZrO,) is as a byproduct of phosphate and of materials including silica sand, sand and gravel, and flint. The copper production at Palabora, Transvaal, South Africa. Except for precursor is igneous quartz (for example, in granite), and then the the United States, most of the production is exported.

Synthetic

Sedimentary


Major diamondiferous beach placers extend along the southwest coast of Africa and are exploited in South Africa and Namibia.

BIOGENIC

Limestone/Dolomite, Diatomite, Phosphate Rock, Sulfur

Limestone is an extremely common rock formed as shell beds on a shallow sea floor. Purity depends on the environment of deposition and the subsequent mineralogical and tectonic history which may include metamorphism to marble. Limestone is exploited for uses ranging from construction aggregates and railroad ballast through cement and lime manufacturing, glassmaking to functional fillers in paper, plastics, and paint. The relatively modest price even for the high-calcium and high-brightness grades (less than $200/ton) means that consumption is generally close to the point of production, i.e., a local or regional market. In the United States, for example, crushed limestone is produced in all states except for Louisiana (which does produce shell), includes over 2 500 quarries, and accounts for some 66% of the nation's crushed stone output. High-quality filler-grade calcium carbonate produced in Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maryland serves the northeast, Georgia and Alabama the southeast, Illinois the midwest, Texas the south and south-central region, and California the west. In Canada production is in Ontario and British Columbia. In western Europe chalk is important in the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium, whereas crushed marble is often used in Italy and Greece.

Dolomite has many of the uses outlined for limestone, plus several others including refractories, seawater magnesia and magnesium metal production, and as a dimension stone. Although less common than limestone, dolomite production, particularly for aggregates, is extremely widespread. In the United States some 136 dolomite quanies operating in 25 states contribute 4% of the country's crushed rock output. Nonaggregate production is concentrated in California, Ohio, Michigan, Alabama, Texas, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Europe has an active dolomite industry where it is used extensively as a raw material for refractories and seawater magnesia production. The main producers are Spain, the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Fin- land.

Diatomite deposits are formed through the accumulation of the frustules of diatoms, small animals that thrived after the Cretaceous period. Diatoms require marine or freshwater rich in nutrients like phosphates, nitrates, and silica, but relatively free of sediment. In many cases the diatomite is associated with volcanic activity which may be the source of silica. Important diatomite production sites include the western United States--especially California, Nevada, Washington, and Oregon. More than three-quarters of the world's production comes from the United States, France, Romania, and the USSR, with lesser amounts from Denmark (mainly moler, an impure diatomite product), Spain, Germany, Italy, Iceland, and Korea.

The bulk of commercial phosphorus-based compounds is derived from marine sedimentary phosphate rock deposits with much of the rest derived from igneous deposits. Sedimentary phosphate deposits are concentrated in two main belts, the trade-wind belt aligned north-south from the Equator to SO0 and the Equatorial belt oriented west to east in low latitudes. Examples include: Trade-wind belt

Southeast and northwest United States Florida, North Carolina, Idaho

Baja California, Mexico Sechura Desert, Peru Caribbean Sea

Equatorial belt North Africa

Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Togo Middle East

Jordan, Israel, Syria, Senegal, Iran USSR Venezuela Colombia

Some two-thirds of the world's phosphate rock production comes from the US, the USSR, and Morocco, the latter being the leading exporter. There are a series of middle-range producers including China, Jordan, Tunisia, Brazil, Israel, Togo, and South Africa. The production in the USSR, Brazil, and South Africa is largely derived from igneous deposits which may also yield rare earths, vermiculite, andlor copper.

EVAPORITE MINERALS

Barite, Salt, Sodium Carbonate, Sodium Sulfate, Gypsum, Potassium Minerals, Borates, Celestite, Nitrates, Bromine, Iodine, Lithium, Magnesia

Certain minerals are found dissolved in seawater and various other brines; evaporite deposits form when the concentration reaches saturation and precipitation occurs. This process requires favorable conditions such as a barred basin or broad shelf environment, plus a hot dry climate that encourages evaporation. Once formed, the fragile deposit needs to be preserved through subsequent geological events such as burial. Halite, gypsum, and anhy- drite, often interbedded with limestone and dolomite, are the most common minerals present in marine evaporites which often extend over hundreds of square kilometers and attain a thickness in excess of several thousand meters. In rarer cases other evaporite minerals are present such as potassium minerals, borates, and strontium minerals.

Common salt lives up to its name by being ubiquitous in most brines and many evaporate deposits. It is exploited commercially from seawater where the modern climate allows evaporation, for example in Western Australia, Mexico, Bahamas, Netherlands An- tilles, Sri Lanka, India, Brazil, Italy, and Spain. Large buried rock salt and salt dome deposits are important in the northeastern, southern, and the midwestern areas of North America, central and northern Europe, parts of the USSR, and the Middle East. Saline lakes are worked in the western United States, for example the Great Salt Lake in Utah (which yields or has yielded sodium sulfate, potassium minerals, magnesium chloride, bromine, and lithium as well as salt) and Searles Lake in California (sodium sulfate and borates). Despite its widespread production, three-quarters of the world production is accounted for by just ten producers.

In some cases, potassium minerals are found associated with salt. During the Permian period in Europe, for example, the Zechstein Basin extended from northern Britain through the Neth- erlands, Denmark, Germany, to Poland. This was a shallow stable sea that allowed thick evaporite sequences to accumulate resulting in the large potash and salt deposits exploited today. To the east in the USSR, three basins contain vast reserves of potash-Stebnikl Kalush in the Ukraine near the border with Poland, Soligorsk near Minsk in Byelorussia, and SolikamsWBerezniki west of the Urals. In western Canada during the Silurian to mid-Devonian period, the land subsided to form a large basin stretching southward into the United States. This allowed vast thicknesses of evaporites to be formed including the potash resources of Saskatchewan, Canada. A large potasNsalt rich basin identified in Thailand has potential for commercial production. Despite its strategic importance as a fer-

INDUSTRIAL MlNERi 9LS AND ROCKS

tilizer, large-scale potash production is fairly restricted with just eight countries-the USSR, Canada, Germany, the United States, Israel, France, Jordan, and Spain-accounting for 97% of world production.

In addition to salt, other sodium-rich minerals are concentrated in modem brines or evaporate deposits. Vast deposits of natural sodium carbonate or trona around Green River, Wyoming, yield over 10 Mtpy of refined soda ash and form a soda feedstock for a variety of chemical products. Smaller deposits are known in China and Turkey. Sodium carbonate is also extracted from saline lakes in the western United States, Mexico, China, the USSR, and in Africa. Lake Magadi, Kenya, which has been producing sodium carbonate for most of this century, is one of numerous sodium-rich lakes in the 6 030-km rift valley stretching from Turkey through Arabia and East Africa to Tanzania. This valley also includes the Dead Sea (dividing Israel and Jordan) which currently produces salt and potash and has the potential to produce sodium carbonate, magnesium oxide, and bromine. Natural soda ash production con- stitutes almost 30% of total world production (virtually all from the United States) with the balance produced in Solvay plants using a salt and limestone feedstock.

Sodium sulfate is a common coproduct in brine-based operations. In addition, natural sodium sulfate is exploited on a large scale from lakes in Saskatchewan and Alberta in western Canada, Cal- ifornia and Texas in the US, Mexico, the USSR, and Turkey. Buried deposits are mined in Spain. Sodium sulfate is also a byproduct of several industrial processes including rayon manufacture. Although production is broadbased, over 50% is in the US, Spain, the USSR, and Mexico.

There are three important commercial sulfate minerals-gypsum (calcium), celestite (strontium), and barite (barium). In North America, large deposits of gypsum occur in the northeast (New York in the United States and Ontario and the Maritime Provinces in Canada), midwest (Michigan, Iowa, and Indiana), the southwest and west (Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, New Mexico, and California). In the US Gulf Coast region accumulations of salt, gypsum, and sulfur stretch into Mexico. Overall, the three countries in North America account for 30% of world gypsum production. In Aus- tralasia, China, Japan, Thailand, and Australia contribute over 22% of world production, and in Europe the large evaporate deposits outlined previously also contain gypsum with the main suppliers being France, Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Several countries such as Germany produce gypsum as a byproduct from FGD or phosphoric acid plants competing with the natural product in the marketplace. Despite its low unit value, gypsum is often exported on a large scale from coastal locations in Mexico, Canada, and Spain to the United States.

Some 98% of the world's celestite is mined in just six countries. In northern Mexico the output from several mines accounts for more than one-third of world production; Turkey contributes a further quarter, with Cyprus, Iran, and Pakistan being smaller producers in the Middle East-Asian region. Production in Europe, particularly southwest Spain (associated with barite and gypsum), southwest England (correlated with gypsum), and smaller deposits in Italy, contribute another quarter.

As outlined above, barite may be associated with evaporate minerals such as celestite and gypsum. In addition, barite is also found as a hydrothermal vein filling associated with stratiform massive sulfide deposits and as a residual deposit. China has emerged as the world leader in barite production, accounting for over 30% of the world total. In contrast, barite production in the United States has declined to 5% of world production because of the availability of imports from China, Mexico (10% of world production), and even Morocco (6%). Production is largely centered in Nevada and to a lesser extent Missouri and Georgia. In Europe

the main suppliers are Germany, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, Eire, Romania, and the USSR.

About 85% of the world's production of borates is controlled by the United States and Turkey, with Argentina and the USSR supplying most of the balance. Part of the production is based on brines and encrustations in Searles Lake, California, as well from small concentrations along a stretch of the Andes Mountains en- compassing Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. The major source of borate minerals is a buried mass of sodium borate at Boron in the Mojave Desert of California. Other buried and surface borate deposits occur in Death Valley, including the Billie colemanite deposit which was mined until the mid- 1980s. In Turkey borates are concentrated in six areas-the most important being the Emet and Kirka areas (both sodium borate) and the Bigadi~ area (calcium borates).

In addition to hard-rock deposits, lithium is found concentrated in brines. Large-scale production occurs at Silver Peak, Nevada, and there is potential from several of the western United States saline lakes already described. This output combined with the pegmatitic deposits described above contributes 47% of world production. Commercial production is being developed in the salt-encrusted playas or "salars" in South America, in particular Bolivia, Ar- gentina, and Chile. This last country is the most important with 14% of world production.

In addition to magnesite, dolomite, and olivine, magnesia is concentrated in subterranean and seawater brines. Magnesium-rich brines are exploited on a commercial scale in Michigan in the United States, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Israel. Magnesia is also extracted from seawater in Japan, South Korea, the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Eire, Norway, and the USSR.

Natural nitrate production is now confined to an area of northern Chile which has an annual rainfall of less than 1 cm. In addition, iodine is coproduced from the caliche ore. Elsewhere, commercial iodine production is based on brines largely in Japan, the United States (Oklahoma), China, and the USSR. Bromine is also extracted from well brines in Arkansas and Michigan in the United States, the Dead Sea in Israel, potash brines in Germany and France, and from seawater in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Japan.

METAMORPHIC

Asbestos, Talc, Graphite, Corundum and Emery, Garnet, Wollastonite, Sillimanite Minerals, Pyrophyllite

Metamorphism produces a range of minerals, many of which have unique properties that are utilized commercially. Asbestos is found in several metamorphic environments usually associated with ultramafic rocks and serpentinization. Large deposits are exploited in Quebec and Newfoundland, eastern Canada, and over the border in Vermont, United States, in the Transvaal and Cape Province of South Africa, as well as Swaziland and Zimbabwe in Africa, the USSR, Italy and Greece in Europe, New South Wales in Australia, Brazil, and India.

The United States and Canada account for around 20% of world talc production with output from the asbestos areas of Vermont, upstate New York, Montana, Texas, and California in the United States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. In Australasia, China. India, North and South Korea, Japan, and Australia are the major suppliers, with a combined output representing some 26% of world production. In Europe significant talc producers include France, Italy, Austria, Finland, and Norway, along with the USSR. In South


America, Brazil is the largest producer and the fourth largest producer worldwide after the US, China, and the USSR.

Wollastonite is formed through the metamorphism of rocks containing silica and calcium. Major producing areas of high- quality wollastonite include the Adirondack Mountains of upstate New York in the United States, southeastern Finland, several provinces in China, India, and the USSR. Garnet is associated with some wollastonite deposits including one at Willsboro, New York. In the same area of the state a large-scale hard-rock garnet mine is in operation. Elsewhere in the United States, although there are hard- rock garnet deposits in Maine and Nevada, the most important commercially are placer deposits in Idaho. Garnet is also produced as a byproduct of mineral sand operations in Western Australia, India, and Sri Lanka.

The kyanite group of minerals occurs in aluminous metamorphic rocks and their weathered derivatives. Production is restricted to a handful of countries including South Africa, the USSR, the United States, France, India, Sweden, Spain, China, and Zimbabwe. Like garnet, some are found associated with placer mineral sand deposits-particularly in India. Weathering may form sericite or pyrophyllite, the hydrous aluminum silicate. The main pyrophyllite deposits, however, are formed through the hydrothermal alteration of acidic volcanic rocks. This is particularly well developed in areas of Japan and Korea-between them accounting for 85% of world production. Smaller producers include Canada, the United States, India, China, Thailand, Australia, Brazil, and Argentina. Natural corundum is another alumina-rich mineral formed through metamorphism. The main producers are Zimbabwe and South Africa, the USSR, and India. Production of the impure form, emery, is restricted to Turkey and Greece.

When certain organic matter is metamorphosed, deposits of graphite may form. However, world production is concentrated in fewer than 20 countries, with over 60% in Asia--China, Korea, Sri Lanka, and India. In the Americas, Mexico and Brazil are well established producers, and Canada is emerging as a major supplier. In Europe, the main producers are Germany, Austria, Czechoslo- vakia, Norway, Romania, Turkey, and the USSR, and in Africa, Zimbabwe and Madagascar.

THE EMERGING PATTERN

The uneven distribution of industrial rocks and minerals production counters the concept of a group of common, low priced commodities destined for local markets. Granted local markets are the most important for some industrial minerals, especially for

developing countries which should adopt simpler approaches to exploiting their domestic resources. Nevertheless, the overall view of industrial minerals is an international one of intriguing com- plexity.

For instance, production of borates, beryl, iodine, nepheline syenite, celestite, and vermiculite is restricted to just a handful of countries, and essential materials such as titanium, zirconium, and rare earth minerals, sulfur, graphite, phosphates, and potash are extremely active in deep sea trade. Even relatively common materials enter international trade as consumers demand higher and more consistent quality (feldspar and silica sand) or find it more cost effective to import (soda ash, salt, barite, gypsum, and fluorspar). The international supply and demand pattern is dynamic as new producers and markets come and go. A decade ago Australia's diamond industry was a kimberlite pipe dream, today it accounts for over one-third of world production. Twenty years ago celestite was used solely for pyrotechnics, today the much larger market is dominated by color TV screen glass. The pattern can be influenced by political events such as the opening up of trade with China, which promptly became a dominant force in world markets for magnesite, talc, barite, bauxite, rare earths, and graphite. This shifting pattern of supply and demand will continue to offer future opportunities and challenges to the increasingly sophisticated industrial minerals industry. The streets of this century and the next are paved with industrial minerals not gold. There will be more of them, and the traffic promises to be heavy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

Anon., 1990, US Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook Preprints, various chapters.

Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., eds., 1973, United States Mineral Resources, US Geological Survey Professional Paper 820, 722 pp (various chapters).

Flawn, P.T., 1966, Mineral Resources, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, 406 pp. Govett, G.J.S., and Govett, M.H., eds., 1976, World Mineral Supplies:

Assessment and Perspective, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 472 pp.

Harben, P.W., and Bates, R.L., 1984, Geology of the Nonmetallics, Metal Bulletin Inc., New York, 392 pp.

Harben, P.W., and Bates, R.L., 1990, Industrial Minerals Geology and World Deposits, Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin Plc, Lon- don, 3 12 pp.

Harben, P.W., 1992, Industrial Minerals HandyBook-A Guide to Markets, Specifications, and Prices. Industrial Minerals Division, Metal Bulletin Plc, London, 160 pp.

Stanton, R.L.. 1972, Ore Petrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 713 pp.

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