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A travel report for the Rural Industries Research and
Development
Corporation by
Carolyn Ditchfield Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture
May 1998 RIRDC Publication No 98/47
RIRDC Project No TA-978-09
World Hemp and Other Bast Fibre Manufacturing Developments
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© 1998 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved. ISBN 0 642 54067 5 ISSN 1440-6845 “World Hemp
and Other Bast Fibre Manufacturing Developments “ Project No:
TA-978-09 Publication No. 98/47 The views expressed and the
conclusions reached in this publication are those of the authors
and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be
responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in
whole, or in part, on the contents of this report. This publication
is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its
research (providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged) for
the purposes of research, study, criticism or review only as
permitted under the Copyright Act 1968. Apart from these uses, no
part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted without the prior consent of RIRDC.
For inquiries concerning reproduction, phone the Communications
Manager on (02) 6272 3186.
Researcher Contact Details Carolyn Ditchfield 15 Belmont
Crescent PADDINGTON, QLD 4064 Phone: 07 3369 5925 Fax: 07 3368
81255 RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and
Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie street
BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6272 4539
Fax: 02 6272 5877 email: [email protected] Internet:
http://www.rirdc.gov.au Published in May 1998 Printed on
environmentally friendly paper by the DPIE Copy Centre
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FOREWORD This report covers a trip taken by Carolyn Ditchfield,
of Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture, to the ‘Flax and Other
Bast Fibre Plants’ Symposium at Poznan, Poland held between 30
September – 1 October 1997. The intention of the trip was to report
back to Australia any new developments occurring in bast stalk
processing technologies around the world and to introduce an
Australian hemp industry stakeholder to leading international bast
fibre researchers.
The report sets out important world findings on harvesting and
processing technologies, textile applications of bast fibres and
how techniques developed in Poland could be considered in using
hemp to mop up contaminated land or water from mining operations or
sewerage works in Australia. The report is part of the
Corporation's New Plant Products program which facilitates the
development of new industries based on plants or plant products
that have commercial potential for Australia. Peter Core Managing
Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
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TABLE OF CONTENTS TRAVEL
REPORT................................................................................................................................1
PRIMARY
PURPOSE................................................................................................................................1
REPORT
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................1
MAJOR
FINDINGS...............................................................................................................................2
1. Industrial Systems for Preparation of Cellulose Fibres: IPZS
Experience..............................2 2. About New Technology
of Processing of Fibre
Flax................................................................3
3. Thermally –Induced On-Stem Retting – A New Harvesting System for
Flax ...........................3 4. Versatile Line for Homomorphic
Flax and Hemp Fibres (Retted and Raw Ones)...................4 5.
Modernised Hemp Mower
........................................................................................................4
6. New, High Seasonal Capacity Harvesting Machine for Hemp
................................................4 7. New Economical
Technology for Cottonised Flax Fibre
Preparation.....................................4 8. Theoretical
Principle and Development of the Method of Thermolysis Processing.
...............4 9. Integrated Commercial Production and Processing
of Kenaf in Arizona................................5 10.
Formaldehydeless Finishing of
Textile.................................................................................5
11. Analysis of Ecological Adaptation of Flax in Dry and Cool Areas
in China .......................5 12. Comprehensive Utilisation of
Flax Cultivation and Processing Techniques in Finland .....6 13.
Hemp – Cannabis
sativa.......................................................................................................6
14. Marketing of Hemp Products – The Consumer is Key
.........................................................6 15.
Combine Technology of Harvesting of Hemp Seed
Sowings................................................7 16. The
Use of Renewable Materials in Structural Design
........................................................7 17.
Compressive Strength, Solubility and Mico-Leakage of Flax
Reinforced Dental Cement ...8 18. The Use of Flax and Hemp
Materials for Insulating Buildings
...........................................8 19. Energy from Bast
Fibre Plant
Species..................................................................................8
20. Particleboards and Insulating Board on Base Hemp Shives and
Hemp Straw....................9 21. Flax and Its Wild Relatives as
Affected by Genetic and Environmental Factors ...............10 22.
Analysis of Vegetable Oils Obtained from Plants Grown on
Heavy-Metal Polluted Areas 10 23. Phytoremediation of Soils
Contaminated by Copper Smelter Activity. Part
I...................10 24. Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated
by Copper Smelter Activity. Part II .................11 25. Three
Year Results on Utilisation of Soil Polluted by Copper-Producing
Industry...........11
SIGNIFICANCE TO AHRM
..............................................................................................................13
BENEFITS TO RURAL INDUSTRY
................................................................................................14
RECOMMENDATIONS
.....................................................................................................................16
APPENDIX 1
........................................................................................................................................17
FLAX AND OTHER BAST PLANTS SYMPOSIUM PROGRAM
....................................................................17
Session
I..........................................................................................................................................17
Harvesting and Processing of Flax and Other Bast Plants
..........................................................................
17 Session II
........................................................................................................................................18
Non-Textile Application of Flax and Other Bast Plants
.............................................................................
18 Session III
.......................................................................................................................................18
The Role of the Bast Fiber Plants in Recultivation of Polluted
Areas ........................................................ 18
FLAX AND OTHER BAST PLANTS POSTER
SESSION..............................................................................18
Session
I..........................................................................................................................................18
Harvesting and Processing of Flax and Other Bast Plants
..........................................................................
18
Session II
........................................................................................................................................19
Non-Textile Applications of Flax and Other Bast
Plants............................................................................
19
Session III
.......................................................................................................................................19
The Role of the Bast Fibre Plants in Recultivation of Polluted
Areas ........................................................
19
Session IV
.......................................................................................................................................20
Other Topics
...............................................................................................................................................
20
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TRAVEL REPORT Primary Purpose Past reports on hemp have
suggested that improvements to traditional bast stalk fibre
processing must occur within Australian before the industry can
become economically viable. Many countries around the world have
established bast fibre industries and continue to develop new
technologies for processing their crops. This particular symposium
was convened to bring together all those interested in, or involved
with, stalk processing. It was anticipated that it would provide an
insight into new directions or options that Australia could
consider for its emerging bast fibre industry. Report Summary The
symposium attracted worldwide interest. Delegates from Western and
Eastern Europe, the Middle and Far East, America and Australia were
present. Although English was the official language for the
symposium, not all delegates were fluent in the language, often
making comprehension difficult. Session 1 concentrated on
harvesting and processing technologies. Unfortunately very few of
the papers could be said to be innovative. The overriding theme
throughout the day was finding improvements in mechanical
performances, rather than changes in stalk handling.
Simplistically, attention had been given to reducing labour inputs
and speeding up processing times of traditional stalk production
systems. Developments presently evolving in Australia hold more
promise of revolutionising the production system. Session 2
concentrated on non-textile applications of bast fibres. The range
of products being developed and, in some cases, commercialised was
very novel and exciting. Products included: structural materials,
composites, insulation, energy, as well as reinforced dental
cement, to name a few. The Australian manufacturer, who attended
the symposium and also sponsored Australian Hemp Resource and
Manufacture to the event, had a particular interest in fibre-based
composites. A new composite material being developed by a New
Zealand/Australian consortium overcomes many of the problems
described by the symposium researchers, as well as having better
strength, fire and aesthetic properties. Session 3 concluded the
symposium and included some papers that highlighted the benefits of
using hemp in soils contaminated with heavy metals, such as found
around copper smelters scattered throughout Poland. Using the
results in these papers, there appears to be scope for considering
the use of hemp in mopping-up contaminated land or water due to
mining operations or sewerage works in Australia. The symposium
provided unexpected confirmation that industry attitudes and
developments underway in Australia hold the most promise for
revolutionising the bast fibre industry and pushing it toward the
21st century. Australia has the potential, and enviable position of
supplying the best in fibre technology, equipment and material to a
world that is moving rapidly towards a renewable, biodegradable,
sustainable future.
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MAJOR FINDINGS The Symposium was held at, and organised by the
Institute of Natural Fibres. This institute is also the
Co-ordination Centre of the FAO European Co-operative Research
Network on Flax and Other Bast Plants acting within ESCORENA
system. Twenty-four papers were presented at the ‘Flax and Other
Bast Plants’ symposium, as well as a number of posters (see
Appendix 1). Presentations were divided into three general topics:
• Harvesting and Processing of Flax and Other Bast Plants; •
Non-Textile Application of Flax and Other Bast Plants and • The
Role of the Bast Fibre in Plants in Recultivation of Polluted
Areas. Delegates came from around the globe with twenty-five
countries represented at the symposium. These included: United
Kingdom, Iceland, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Germany, Italy, France,
Belgium, Netherlands, Egypt, Czech Republic, Russia, Poland,
Ukraine, China, USA, and Canada. Representatives of Ministries of
Agriculture from England, Iceland, Russia, Ukraine and Poland were
also present. Although the symposium was conducted in English, not
all the papers presented were entirely comprehensible. A summary of
all the papers are presented below. 1. Industrial Systems for
Preparation of Cellulose Fibres: IPZS Experience This paper was
conducted with the support of the EC Commission. It explores ways
of utilising bast fibre crops as a means of enhancing European
agriculture by overcoming their surplus food production. Emphasis
was placed on determining the best technological means of
processing bast stalk; a non-uniform organic material made up of
bast and core fractions and a diverse array of chemical bonds. It
was agreed that steam explosion, ultrasonic, and enzymatic
treatments showed promise but were yet to become a commercial
reality. IPZS (Italy) are particularly interested in applications
for their pulp and paper division. Fibre preparation commences on
the farm with harvest, preferably when the plant is mature and
dried. Stalks are cut using machines that cut hay round bales
making it easier to sift out loose material, metal and stones. A
blade mill then cuts the material into chips of selected size
lengths, depending on its end-use. The raw material is then cleaned
and rotocompacted (rotary pressed) to compress the xylem and
increase its absorption capacity. A revolving drum separates the
core from the bast fibres. These steps help clean and standardise
the raw material ready for further processing. All of the above
machines exist, though some have been recently modified. In some
cases the raw material from the process outlined above can be
passed directly onto the consumer, e.g. as panels, webs and animal
bedding. A further process is required if the fibres are to be
reduced down to their elementary fibres. Using strong steam
injections Refiner Mechanical Pulps (RMP) can be obtained that are
ideal in paper furnish (30-50%) with wastepaper for increasing
paper bulk and stiffness using less chemicals.
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An alternative method uses a special enzyme cocktail in a
continuous process to dissolve the chemical bonds holding the
fibres together. This particular process is patented. Raw material
from this process is ideal for textiles, or non-woven and
thermocomposites where lower grade fibres are used. Fibres obtained
from these processes produced products that compared well with
traditional reference products.
(photocopy diagram p8) 2. About New Technology of Processing of
Fibre Flax This paper describes modifications to outdated fibre
separation units in the Ukraine. Although the improvements
described may be mechanically interesting, the process itself
merely imitates highly evolved systems in Western Europe. 3.
Thermally –Induced On-Stem Retting – A New Harvesting System for
Flax This paper created a lot of interest. It described an
innovative process developed in Germany that thermally-induced
on-stem retting. Heat is applied to the stalks while standing,
green, in the field, using gas burners mounted on large mobile
frames that straddle the crop. The advantage of this system is to
dry the stalks quickly and effectively, thereby preserving the
fibres against the vagaries of the weather, until harvesting can
commence. It also obviates the need for turning the crop and
contaminating it with soil, while reducing harvest to the one
passover. The project has undergone pilot testing, but is yet to
become commercially feasible. The general consensus from the
audience though was one of scepticism at the program’s commercial
future.
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(photocopy picture p.19) 4. Versatile Line for Homomorphic Flax
and Hemp Fibres (Retted and Raw
Ones) This paper describes modifications to outdated fibre
separation units in the Ukraine. Although the improvements
described may be mechanically interesting, the process itself
merely imitates highly evolved systems in Western Europe. 5.
Modernised Hemp Mower This paper describes modifications to
outdated Russian hemp mowers. It merely improves the efficiency of
the old mowers. Equipment in Western Europe holds more promise for
inclusion in Australian farming systems. 6. New, High Seasonal
Capacity Harvesting Machine for Hemp Essentially repeating the
paper above. 7. New Economical Technology for Cottonised Flax Fibre
Preparation (Boiling
and Bleaching) This describes a new process for cottonising flax
fibre that is currently under patent. Fibres were boiled and
bleached simultaneously using a silicon-organic chemical that acts
as a wetting and dispersing agent while stabilising hydrogen
peroxide decomposition. The boiling and bleaching time is reduced
and extraction of lignin and waxes more effective. The whole
process is ecologically clean. Another option uses liquid ozone
that is more effective for bleaching high lignin content materials.
Fibres processed this way are aseptic and hygroscopic making them
ideal for use in hygroscopic wadding, hygienic tampons, surgical
bandages. 8. Theoretical Principle and Development of the Method of
Thermolysis
Processing for Scutched Flax Fibre. This process was discovered
as a result of an excessive flax residue waste problem (leftover
fibres from processing stalk for textile use) in the Ukraine. The
processing plant is essentially an extruder that uses high
temperatures to convert the material into high-grade charcoal
within 55 minutes. A semi-commercial plant has been set up.
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9. Integrated Commercial Production and Processing of Kenaf in
Arizona This paper was presented by a private organisation from the
USA who had surprisingly similar objectives, strategies and goals
to Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture. They are a newly
formed company who has primarily focused on kenaf production in
Arizona. Their central objective is “vertical integration of all
participants from growers through to end-uses” which should provide
a model for agricultural, co-operative, and rural development by
enabling the development of industrial crop production, processing,
and manufacturing in rural areas, thus helping to revitalise the
economies of these communities. This company noted that, “Fib(er)
resources, principally wood, are becoming increasingly scarce. In
the United States alone, the demand for fib(er) is greater than the
combined demand for all steel and plastic products.” Identified
uses for kenaf fibre include construction materials, insulation,
pulp and paper products, textiles, livestock feed, and other
agricultural and industrial materials. They have a number of
customers who have evaluated the use of agro-based fibres, and are
currently looking for a source of processed fibres. “European auto
manufacturers are leading the way in reducing the use of
fib(er)glass in automobile manufacturing. Mercedes and Volvo are
planning to produce cars that are completely recyclable. Ford has
announced plans to phase out the use of fib(er)glass by the year
2000.” Chrysler’s policy is to build cars with completely
recyclable interiors by the year 2000. They believe that kenaf crop
yields have a potential to be increased by 60%-150% in Arizona
using irrigation and a breeding program. 10. Formaldehydeless
Finishing of Textile This process uses an ecologically clean
silicon-organic chemical (polyethylsiloxane emulsion) which is
currently under patent. Traditional formaldehyde-based treatments
are toxic to factory workers as well as those who use the fabric.
It also makes fabrics firm and heavy. This new chemical treatment
results in fabrics that are thermally stable, shrink resistant,
softer, with less friction, better dyeability, as well as having
fungicidal and aseptic properties. The dressing also reduces crease
and impurity levels in finished fabrics and resists degradation by
weather, sunlight, chemical cleaning and washing. 11. Analysis of
Ecological Adaptation of Flax in Dry and Cool Areas in China This
paper provides a general discussion about the history of flax
production in China, and particularly the current emphasis of using
‘double flax’, i.e. flax that has been specifically bred for both
stalk and oil production. It is stated that flax is a drought
tolerant plant and widely adapted to poor ecological conditions
(sandy soils, irregular water).
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12. Comprehensive Utilisation of Flax Cultivation and Processing
Techniques in Finland
Finland commenced a three-year comprehensive program for flax
production, starting in 1995. Identifying markets was a primary
objective for both high quality foodstuffs (oil and meal) and
insulation material and potting medium (stalk). This program aimed
at: 1) producing high yielding, early maturing linseed varieties
with favourable fatty acid
compositions; 2) developing cultivation and processing
techniques for utilising both the seed and
fibre; 3) developing modern methods for exploitation of linseed
and flax straw; 4) boosting co-operation between research,
economics, regional administration and
training. This program has been deemed a success with twenty
commercial flax products entering the market to date, as well as
participating enterprises winning prizes for their innovative
activities. 13. Hemp – Cannabis sativa This paper gives a brief
history about hemp textiles. It is stated that hemp is more
difficult to wet spin than flax because speeds need to be reduced
by a third and water trough temperatures need to be higher, while
spinning reaches must be up to 4 inches. A solution to these
problems may be in the use of an enzymatic treatment of hemp prior
to boiling and rinsing. Advantages to hemp though include, low
input of fertilisers, crowding out of weeds and absence of
pesticides or agro-chemical usage. The oil content of hemp compares
in yield per hectare with rape and sunflower oils. It is said that
dioecious hemp plants can yield up to 50% more fibre than
monoecious varieties. Comparative prices per ton for pre-hackled
fibre is: Flax (dew retted) US$1,750 Hemp (dew retted) US$1,100
De-gummed Ramie US$2,000 Jute (water retted) US$ 500 Jute fibre has
severe technical limitations due to its high degree of
lignification, and flax is not suited to tropical agriculture. Hemp
could fill this gap, particularly if a cost effective enzymatic
softening and splitting process was found. 14. Marketing of Hemp
Products – The Consumer is Key Expansion of the industrial hemp
industry must take into account consumer preferences and choices,
and the model proposed for analysing this is the ‘buying hierarchy’
that takes into account exposure, awareness, knowledge, attitude
formation, intentions and purchase.
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One marketing strategy that is suggested in this paper is to
move away from niche marketing and marijuana-associated marketing,
and move towards intermingling hemp products with traditional
substitutes. This way purchases will be made on the merit of the
product itself, rather than from the fact it is made from ‘hemp’.
This method is called linking a product to a positive experience,
and should ensure that hemp continues to expand into the market
place. 15. Combine Technology of Harvesting of Hemp Seed Sowings A
film was shown to demonstrate the machine. It was a modification on
traditional Russian equipment. However, it is felt that Western
European machinery hold more promise for Australian farming
systems. 16. The Use of Renewable Materials in Structural Design
This paper describes the ambitious program being conducted in
Germany of embedding natural reinforcing fibres into a
bio-polymeric matrix made of derivatives from cellulose, starch,
lactic acid etc. These are otherwise known as biocomposites, whose
production is CO2 neutral, completely slag free, and are
biodegradable at the end of their lifetime (through decomposition
or combustion). Biocomposites are comparable in mechanical
properties to glass fibre reinforced plastics (GFRP), and can
replace them in most cases. Fibre reinforced plastics can be
enhanced by arranging long fibres in the direction of the applied
forces in order to create lightweight structures with non-isotropic
properties optimally tailored to specific requirements. Natural
fibres are attractive because of their low density, and their
hollow structures which increase the ‘weight related bending
resistance and buckling strength’ potential. Natural fibres are
remarkable in terms of specific strength compared with glass
fibres. Hemp, flax and ramie are the most promising natural fibres
for use in lightweight structural products (see diagram below).
The matrix being investigated for biocomposite construction, by
definition must be made from biologically renewable resources.
Three polymers that have been studied are polyester, modified
cellulose and modified starch.
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Problems that still need to be overcome include: matrix
strength, viscosity of matrix at processing temperature, alignment
of fibres, adhesion between fibre and matrix, flame resistance and
ease of manufacturing. Note: Every one of the problems outlined
above has already been overcome by a group of scientists based in
New Zealand and Australia. They have come up with a new material
that looks like wood, is fire proof, has deformation and tensile
strength above steel, is water proof and insect proof, can be sawed
and is manufactured efficiently and cheaply. They use hemp fibre
pulled through a matrix made from organic waste material. 17.
Compressive Strength, Solubility and Mico-Leakage of Flax
Fibres
Reinforced Zinc Oxide Eugenol Dental Cement Material Dental
cement made from zinc oxide eugenol (ZOE) tends to have low
compressive strength, solubility and micro-leakage properties. This
study found that reinforcing the cement with flax fibres (0.1% and
0.2%) resulted in improvements to all these problems. Material was
prepared by selecting homogeneous flax fibres and chopping them
into small pieces ready for grinding. The fibres are then sieved
and mixed with ZOE cement powder. Increases in compressive strength
were up to 70.83%, which may relate directly to the quantity of
fibre present, or to the inclusion of cellulosic structures that
create new chemical reactions to form more cohesive masses. 18. The
Use of Flax and Hemp Materials for Insulating Buildings Ecological
building is a rapidly growing market in Germany (6% of market in
1995). This entails minimising the use of resources and
environmental impacts during the production of building materials,
construction, use, re-use and building disposal. Flax fibre for
insulation is a commercial reality in Germany. Only fine retted
flax fibre can reduce thermal conductivity to glasswool standards.
Coarser fibres, such as linseed and hemp, require high mat
densities to reach this level (0.04W/moK). Modifications in
building practice such as thicker insulation layers, or an increase
in acceptable thermal conductivity to 0.05 W/moK, would greatly
simplify the incorporation of natural fibres. Results did show that
a simple resistance to air flow test would be sufficient to predict
mat thermal conductivity as affected by mat density for a wide
variety of fibre raw materials. 19. Energy from Bast Fibre Plant
Species – Potential and Impact on
Environment and Development Natural fibres can be converted into
a wide variety of energy carriers using existing and novel
conversion technologies, and thus have the potential to be
significant new sources of energy into the 21st century. Biomass
currently contributes almost 15% to the global primary energy
consumption. All plant species which store primarily carbohydrates
or oils are suitable for producing liquid energy sources.
Cellulose, starch, sugar and inulin can be used to
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produce ethanol. Vegetable oils can be used as fuels.
Lignocellulose can provide energy directly as solid fuels or
indirectly after conversion. Special emphasis is placed on high
yielding energy crops.
(photocopy diagram p.89) Introduction of energy crops allows a
significant quantity of renewable fuels to be consumed and energy
produced without markedly increasing the CO2 content of the
atmosphere, therefore biofuels make a positive contribution to the
“Greenhouse Effect”. 20. Particleboards and Insulating Board on
Base Hemp Shives and Hemp Straw Long, short, decorticated, green
water- and dew-retted fibre, shives and stalks (whole or
disintegrated) have exceptional advantages as a raw material for
the production of different lignocellulose-polymer composites,
particleboards, medium density fibreboards (MDF) and insulating
boards. These advantages lie in suitable bulk density, thermal
conductivity, strength, moisture, absorbency, hygroscopicity as
well as ease of processing and versatility of applications. Hemp
had the lowest water absorption capacity of a range of plant
materials, a major problem with most composite building materials.
Currently many countries make lignocellulosic particleboards using
the core fraction of bast crop stalks. Core properties do differ
depending on geographical location, fertilisation, variety etc. MDF
boards require a more homogenised form of raw material which is
possible using Sunds Defibrator. This product has higher value than
ordinary particleboard and used in furniture, moulding, veneers. It
is suggested that hemp is ideally suited for this product. Hemp has
very high insulating properties suited for producing good quality
insulating boards.
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Combustibility of these products is radically reduced with the
use of a patented product called Fobos M2L that effectively
mineralises the stalk. It also acts as a fungicide. Unlike
polystyrene and polyurethane foam boards, no toxic smoke is
released from these natural boards. The price for producing
hemp-based composite materials compares favourably with current
products on the market. 21. Elemental Composition of Flax and Its
Wild Relatives as Affected by Genetic
and Environmental Factors It was found that domesticated flax
varieties and wild types differ in their ability to accumulate
mineral elements from the soil. This may have practical
applications in solving problems of environmental pollution,
particularly in efforts to decontaminate or recultivate polluted
land. 22. Esters of Aliphatic Alcohols and Fatty Acids Present in
Vegetable Oils
Obtained from Plants Grown on Heavy-Metal Polluted Areas as
Diesel Fuels and Lubricating Base Oils
Pollution of rape, hemp and linseed plants did not significantly
affect the chemical composition of fatty acids in their oils.
Contamination of these oils with heavy metals remained below levels
permitted by Poland’s Health Ministry. Esters extracted from hemp
and linseed oils showed the poorest thermooxidation stability, and
were therefore unsuited for fuel, lubricating and/or hydraulic oil.
In contrast, rapeseed oil may be successfully used as an
alternative environmentally compatible fuel for diesel engines. 23.
Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated by Copper Smelter Activity.
Part I Agricultural areas contaminated by copper smelter residues
have been entirely excluded from agricultural production and often
reforested. Copper and lead are the main pollutants in these areas.
It was found that flax and hemp were good bio-indicators of soil
contaminated with copper or lead. Hemp uptakes heavy metals more
readily than flax and accumulates it in the leaf. A summary of
results Copper uptake cereals : leaf≥straw>grain flax :
leaf>roots≥seeds>straw rape : leaf≥roots>straw>seeds
hemp : leaf>roots>seeds>straw Lead uptake cereals :
leaf≥straw>grain flax : roots>straw>seeds>leaf rape :
leaf>straw>seeds>roots hemp :
leaf>straw>roots>seeds
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24. Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated by Copper Smelter
Activity. Part II To minimise the effects of heavily polluted soils
surrounding copper smelters, cultivation of non-food crops was
explored. This is also seen as an economical solution to the
problem. Currently is costs US$50-1,000 to clean 1 ton of soil.
There are essentially three ways in which non-food crops can
contribute to soil remediation: 1) phytoextraction – metal
accumulating plants are used to transport and concentrate
metals from the soil into the harvestable fractions of the
plant; 2) rhizofiltration – absorption, precipitation and
concentration of toxic metals by
plant roots from polluted effluent; 3) phytostabilisation –
mobility of heavy metals are reduced by accumulating in
heavy metal plants. Soil remediation is also suited to areas
found around mining industries, non-ferrous metal processing
industries, along motorways and areas of dense population. 25.
Three Year Results on Utilisation of Soil Polluted by
Copper-Producing
Industry To avoid heavy metals entering the food chain from
contaminated soils, industrial crops that could continue to provide
attractive returns to growers were considered. These crops
gradually remove metals from the soil by immobilising them in plant
material. The study determined the soil pollution level, the effect
heavy metals had on crop growth and development, and optimum
cultivation techniques that ensured high yields and harvest
quality. There were big differences in metal uptake between
species, but also between fractions of the plant within species.
Suggested rotations of non-food crops is suggested, e.g. hemp,
flax, wheat mulch, faba bean mulch, barley mulch, reed canary
grass. Flax accumulated the highest concentrations of copper and
lead in the chaff, and the highest concentration of zinc in the
seeds. Cadmium was mostly concentrated in the stems. Hemp
accumulated the highest concentration of copper in the seeds, with
lead and zinc high in the stems. Cadmium remained low throughout.
There was no evidence of a negative effect on growth and
development Reed Canary grass, artichoke and side accumulated very
high levels of copper and lead, and had very high yields that
appeared to be unaffected by the pollution. Unfortunately due to
differences in cultivation requirements it is difficult to include
artichoke and side in these in a normal crop rotation system.
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Note: In discussion after the presentation of the papers on
soils contaminated with heavy metals it became obvious that there
was no plan being undertaken to physically remove the heavy metals
off polluted lands. Rather it was a system to cope with high levels
of pollution – a way of learning to live with the problem. AHRM and
a Canadian delegate suggested that the whole plant could be removed
so that the immobilised metals could be either extracted from the
plant material for reuse, or accumulated into a safe dumping
ground. It was agreed that small amounts of metal will be removed
yearly through the sale of either fibre or oil, but could be
speeded up significantly if the whole plant was removed each year.
Suggestions of actually using this method to ‘clean’ their soils
appeared to be a very foreign concept.
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SIGNIFICANCE TO AHRM This symposium provided another opportunity
for AHRM to catch up with leaders in the field of bast fibre crops
and keep abreast of new developments occurring around the world. It
was interesting to note the inclusion of both hemp and kenaf into
the program. The Chairperson for the event highlighted the
remarkable impression hemp has made on the natural fibre market,
with predictions that it will continue to expand in market share
and product diversity. Hemp was viewed as playing a key role in
stimulating and energising new interest in the traditional fibre
market industry. Major flax companies, both engineers and textile
manufacturers, are beginning to shift some of their focus towards
hemp production systems. Fortunately only small modifications to
their highly evolved flax systems are necessary. Kenaf was viewed
with interest, especially by the many delegates who had never heard
of it before. It was pointed out though, that the crop would not
necessarily be suited to Europe, but could play an important role
in the lower latitudes. Overall there was little evidence of real
innovation, but merely modifications on old themes. AHRM was left
with the impression that developments occurring within Australia
held more promise of change and improvement in the industry.
Traditional steps of bast fibre production and processing remain
essentially the same – sow, harvest, rett, turn, dry, decorticate,
scutch and hackle. This requires many passovers of the land with a
variety of machines, it relies on favourable weather conditions,
and results in large losses of high grade fibre after
decorticating, scutching and hackling (50-60% lost as tow). There
were hints that alternatives exist (e.g. papers 2 & 13), but it
is an Australian inventor who has taken positive steps towards
putting these into action. The system being invented harvests and
decorticates the stalk in one step. Enzymes are then used to
breakdown the bonds between the bast fibres. The resulting product
is white, untangled, with no fibre loss. The other exciting
discovery made at the symposium was the confirmation that
scientists in New Zealand/Australia have developed a fibre
composite superior to any currently under development in the EU. As
well as solving many of the technical and structural problems being
encountered in Europe, the New Zealand/Australian product is
aesthetically more appealing and versatile. It is a truly organic,
renewable, biodegradable and sustainable product made of both an
annual bast fibre crop as well as a biological waste product. This
product is set to take advantage of building and structural markets
throughout the world.
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Poland appear to be the leaders in using bast fibre crops for
soil rehabilitation, although Russia is beginning to investigate
this option (paper 21), and reports claim that the Ukraine is using
hemp to mop-up Chernobyl. It came as a disappointment though that
the term ‘rehabilitation’ had been restricted to merely cultivating
formally unproductive land profitably, rather than actively
extracting pollutants from the soil for safe disposal or reuse.
Discussions with Australian scientists who have investigated heavy
metal sequestration in plant materials agree that there are ways of
safely disposing of these contaminants, and support the idea of
starting such a program in Australia. There is also mounting
interest in using these non-food type crops for wastewater disposal
systems by local Shire Councils and piggeries for similar reasons.
Further contacts were made with suppliers of bast fibre crop
harvesters and processing equipment. For more information contact
Australian Hemp Resource and Manufacture on (07) 3369 5925.
BENEFITS TO RURAL INDUSTRY The symposium provided contact with
reputable companies that have been established in the flax industry
for decades. The accumulated technology for flax is also applicable
to hemp and possibly kenaf crops, and may provide good leads into
obtaining more information to assist in developing harvesting and
processing equipment for all bast crops, or making a direct
purchase. The symposium did exemplify the ingenuity of Australia.
Unfortunately many Australians need evidence of an idea working in
another country before they will commit to something. This is
especially so with new industry, where all proof must come from
elsewhere before it is accepted as realistic here. This makes it
extremely difficult for new ideas to find support, and are often
moved offshore in frustration. Australia has new innovations that
are set to revolutionise the bast fibre industry worldwide. The
principle being used by an Australian innovator to develop his
revolutionary harvesting and processing system for bast fibre has
been validated by numerous engineers, but unfortunately is still
held in derision by many, and is being stymied by lack of support.
The new structural composite product being developed in New
Zealand/Australia has excited all those who have seen it, but the
group is finding it impossible to locate supplies of hemp fibre.
Extremely high demand for processed hemp products is restricting
access to the raw material needed by the group. They view Australia
as the ideal country to extend their factory facilities because of
its ability to grow large quantities of raw material, and its
proximity to Asian markets. Unfortunately Australia views this
whole industry sceptically, and continues to emphasis the lack of
interest by anyone except growers, when if fact they other interest
groups do exist.
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It has been pointed out in many reports being written in
Australia that a bast fibre industry is not viable because there is
no feasible harvesting or processing systems for the crop. This
symposium gave evidence that feasible processing systems, from seed
to market, exist throughout the world, and given Australia’s
innovations already being developed, our rural industry is in the
enviable position to take full advantage of this industry.
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RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Form a national bast fibre industry
association. This would be a definitive
way to assess the real interest in Australia, and what can be
offered to the industry. It also provides a central co-ordinating
point for information dissemination and incoming queries, unlike
now where the industry is made up of fragmented small groups and
individuals.
2. Take away disincentives for those interested in growing,
processing and manufacturing bast fibre crops. Desktop reports,
using outdated and out of context information continues to
discourage participants and supporters of this industry. Also,
standards for bast fibre products need to be reassessed as imported
products are often contravening regulations to the complete
disadvantage of the emerging domestic industry.
3. Determine the value and potential of the emerging global
market for renewable, biodegradable, sustainable products. Changes
occurring throughout Europe are having a profound influence on the
direction research and industry is taking globally. To be market
leaders, or at least participants, Australia must keep up and be
aware of these global trends.
4. Study the implications of using bast fibre crops as a CO2
sink. This is particularly relevant in cropping areas, and may play
an important role in contributing to current ‘Greenhouse Challenge’
initiatives as well as providing future tax incentives to thousands
of growers.
5. Follow the lead of Japan by increasing the non-wood fibre
content of all paper products produced in Australia to 5% by the
Year 2005 (Japan aims at 10% non-wood fibre by the Year 2000).
6. Create an industry strategy to ascertain both the short -term
and long -term benefits of a bast fibre industry for Australian
agriculture, processing, manufacturing and exporting sectors using
up-to-date information from those involved in the industry
worldwide.
7. Encourage and support wastewater management schemes using
bast fibre crops. There are many interested Shire Councils and
piggeries throughout Australia interested in researching bast fibre
crops for this purpose. This is particularly relevant for
contaminated wastewater that should not enter the food chain.
8. Support and encourage Australian innovations. Waiting for
overseas evidence that this industry will work in Australia before
support is given is ensuring that Australia becomes a market
follower rather than a market leader. Overseas interests are
already approaching Australians for their inventions in the bast
fibre industry. Lack of support in Australia is forcing them to
seriously consider going offshore as their only option.
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APPENDIX 1 Flax and Other Bast Plants Symposium Program Session
I Harvesting and Processing of Flax and Other Bast Plants
Cappelletto, P., Mongardini F. & Bilancini, I. (Istituto
Poligrafico e Zecca dello
Stato, Italy) - Industrial Systems for Preparation of Cellulose
Fibres: IPZS Experience.
Giliazatdinov, R.N. (Institute of Bast Crops, Ukraine) – About
New Technology of Processing of Fibre Flax.
Heinemann, O. (Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Germany)
Thermally-Induced On-Stem Retting, A New Harvesting System for
Flax.
Mankowski, J., Kaniewski, R. & Rynduch, W. (Institute of
Natural Fibres, Poland) – Versatile Line for Homomorphic Flax and
Hemp Fibers (Retted and Raw Ones).
Kaniewski, R., Mankowski, J., Rynduch, W. & Baraniecki, P.
(Institute of Natural Fibres, Poland) – Modernized Hemp Mower.
Kaniewski, R., Leuschner, J. & Kranemann, H. (Institute of
Natural Fibres, Poland & World Hemp Center, Germany) – New,
High Seasonal Capacity Harvesting Machine for Hemp.
Sinelnikova, V.I., Smerechenskaja, N.R. & Karpets, I.P.
(Ukrainian Research Institute of Textile Production, Ukraine &
Institute of Agriculture of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences,
Ukraine) – New Economical Technology for Cottonized Flax Fibre
Preparation (Boiling and Bleaching).
Chursina, L.A., Klevtsov, K.N., Karpets, I.P. & Vergunov,
V.A. (Industrial University, Ukraine & Institute of Agriculture
of UAAS, Ukraine) – Theoretical Principle and Development of the
Method of Thermolysis Processing for Scutched Flax Fibre.
Lloyd, E. & Bowden, M. (Arizona Fibers Marketing, USA) –
Integrated Commercial Production and Processing of Kenaf in
Arizona.
Smerechenskaja, N.R., Potapenko, I.V. & Sinelnikova, V.I.
(Ukrainian Research Institute of Textile Production, Ukraine) –
Formaldehydless Finishing of Textile.
Xinwen, Li (Inner Mongolia Institute of Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry, China) – Analysis of Ecological Adaptation of Flax in
Dry and Cool Areas in China.
Luostarinen, M. & Pirkkamaa, J. (Agricultural Research
Centre of Finland, Finland & Agropolis Ltd., Finland) –
Comprehensive Utilization of Flax Cultivation and Processing
Techniques in Finland.
Mackie, G. (United Kingdom) – Hemp, Cannabis sativa. Kolodinsky,
J. (University of Vermont, USA) – Marketing of Hemp Products –
The
Consumer is Key. Rudnicov, N.V. (Institute of Bast Crops UAAS,
Ukraine) – Combine Technology of
Harvesting of Hemp Seed Sowings.
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Session II Non-Textile Application of Flax and Other Bast Plants
Herrmann, A.S., Riedel, U. & Nickel, J. (Deutsche
Forschungsanstalt fur Luft- und
Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) Institut fur Strukturmechanik, Germany) –
The Use of Renewable Materials in Structural Design.
Shehata, M.M., Mona, H.A.D. & El-Hariri, D.M. (Dental
Materials Dept. Fac. Of Dentistry, Egypt & Field Crops Res.
Dept, Egypt) – Compressive Strength, Solubility and Micro-Leakage
of Flax Fibres Reinforced Zinc Oxide Eugenol Dental Cement
Material.
Murphy, D.P.L., Behring, H. & Wieland, H. (Institute for
Agricultural Building Research, Germany) – The Use of Flax and Hemp
Materials for Insulating Buildings.
El Bassam, N. (Institute of Crop Science, Germany) – Energy from
Bast Fibre Plant Species, Potential and Impact on Environment and
Development.
Kozlowski, R., Mieleniak, B. & Przepiera, A. (Institute of
Natural Fibres, Poland) – Particleboards and Insulating Board on
Base Hemp Shives and Hemp Straw.
Session III The Role of the Bast Fiber Plants in Recultivation
of Polluted Areas Kokurin, N.L. & Yagodin, B.A. (Laboratory of
Trace Elements, Timiryazev
Agricultural Academy, Russia) – Elemental Composition of Flax
and Its Wild Relatives as Affected by Genetic and Environmental
Factors.
Wislicki, B., Zdrodowska, B. & Krzyzanowski, R. (Institute
of Aviation, Poland) – Ester of Aliphatic Alcohols and Fatty Acids
Present in Vegetable Oils Obtained from Plants Grown on Heavy-Metal
Polluted Areas as Diesel Fuels and Lubricating Base Oils.
Grzebisz, W., Chudzinski, B., Diatta, J.B. & Barlog, P.
(Dept. of Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural University, Poland
& Institute of Plant Protection, Poland) – Phytoremediation of
Soils Contaminated by Copper Smelter Activity. Part I. Evaluation
of Soils Contamination by Heavy Metals. Part II. Usefulness of
Non-Consumable Crops.
Grabowska, L. & Baraniecki, P. (Institute of Natural Fibres,
Poland) – Three Year Results on Utilization of Soil Polluted by
Copper-Producing Industry.
Flax and Other Bast Plants Poster Session Session I Harvesting
and Processing of Flax and Other Bast Plants Sedelink, N.
(Institute of Natural Fibres, Poland) – A New Method of
Cottonising
Flax and Its Use in the Production of Textiles. Sitnik, V.
(Institute of Bast Crops UAAS, Ukraine) – Seedgrowing of
Non-Drug
Hemp Varieties. Mateukchin, A.P., Mateukchina, G.N. &
Sukhopalova, T.P. (Research Institute of
Flax (VNIL), Russia) – New Elements and Machines in Flax
Growing.
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Bentini, M., Biavati, E., Cappelletto, P.L. & Pasini, P.
(Dipartimento Economia Ingegneria Agraria, Universita di Bologna,
Italy & Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Italy &
Tecnagri, Italy) – Mechanical Harvest, Industrial Transformation
and Kenaf Quality.
Session II Non-Textile Applications of Flax and Other Bast
Plants Staud, J. & Bjelkova, M. (AGRITEC Research, Breeding and
Services Ltd, Czech
Republic) The Application of the Linseed Stem for Energy and
Technical Purposes.
Salabanova, A. & Tzvetkov, J. (Experimental Station for
Potatoes and Flax, Bulgaria & Experimental Station, Bulgaria) –
Shive Application in Vegetable Growing.
Guilluy, R. (Asselin – Groupe NSC, France & Thibeau – Groupe
NSC, France) – Nonwoven Applications of Natural Fibres.
Assirelli, A., Bentini, M., Cappelletto, P.L. & Pasini, P.
(Dipartimento Economia Ingegneria Agraria, Universita di Bologna,
Italy & Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Italy &
Tecnagri, Italy) – Fiber Valorization of Oilseed Flax.
Przweozna-Schmidt, K. (Institute of Natural Fibres, Poland) Flax
and Hemp in the Three Dimensional Woven Structures.
El-Hariri, D.M. & Moawad, H.M. (NRC, Egypt & Tanta Flax
and Oil Comp., Egypt) – Factors Affecting the Technological
Properties of Flax Particleboard.
Behring, H. & Murphy, D.P.L. (Institute for Agricultural
Building Research, Germany) – Are Flax Based Insulation Products
Environmentally Friendly?
Wieland, H. & Murphy, D.P.L. (Insitute for Agricultural
Building Research, Germany) – Durability of Flax Fibre Materials in
Buildings.
Murphy, D.P.L., Georg, H. & Bockisch, F.J. (Institute for
Agricultural Building Research, Germany) – Infrastructure for the
Exploitation of Bast Fibre Crops in Industry.
Kurtyka, J. (POLOVAT, Poland) Biocomposites Based on Natural
Waste Fibres. Session III The Role of the Bast Fibre Plants in
Recultivation of Polluted Areas Uschapovsky, I.V. & Kokurin,
N.L. (Institute of Flax, Russia) – The Evaluation of
Flax Genotypes Reaction on a High Heavy Metals Background as a
First Stage of the Investigation on the Crops Recultivation
Potential.
Krynski, K. & Radziszewska, D. (WODR, Poland) – Contaminated
Lands in Katowice Voievodeship Potentially Needed to be Cropped
with Flax or Other Bast Plant.
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Session IV Other Topics Smirous, P. & Pavelek, M. (AGRITEC
Research, Breeding and Services Ltd, Czech
Republic) – The Perspectives of the Hemp Growing in the Czech
Republic. Kurt, O. & Leith, M.H. (University of Ondokuz Mayis,
Samsun & University of
Wales, United Kingdom) – The Effects of Plant Growth Regulators
(Chlormequat & Ethephon) on Growth, Development, Seed Yield and
Yield Components of Linseed.
Jawaid, A., Sharman, R.J. & New, J.K. (Biology Dept., Anglia
Polytechnic University, United Kingdom) – A Photographic Study
Showing the Effects of Ultrasound and Retting Upon Flax Stem
Anatomy.