WTP44 WORLDBANK TECHNICALPAPERNUMBER July 1985 Animal Health Services in Sub-Saharan Africa Alternative Approaches Comelis de Haan and Nico J. Nissen X - , I SSECrORAL LIBRARY I"NATRIJ?ONAL BANK R.ECNSTR FOR LICTION AND DEVELOpM,.Nr SEP1 7 1985 SF c. a S~~~~~~~~~~w - . XL WLLW(i0t X Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
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WTP44WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER July 1985
Animal Health Services in Sub-Saharan AfricaAlternative Approaches
Comelis de Haan and Nico J. Nissen
X - , I SSECrORAL LIBRARY
I"NATRIJ?ONAL BANK
R.ECNSTR FOR
LICTION AND DEVELOpM,.Nr
SEP1 7 1985
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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS
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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 44 CM
Animal Health Services in Sub-Saharan AfricaAlternative Approaches
Comelis de Haan and Nico J. Nissen
The World BankWashington, D.C., U.S.A.
Copyright ©) 1985The Intemational Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing July 1985
This is a document published informally by the World Bank. In order that theinformation contained in it can be presented with the least possible delay, thetypescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate toformal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Thepublication is supplied at a token charge to defray part of the cost of manufacture anddistribution.
The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, whichare those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank or to itsaffiliated organizations. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions are the resultsof research supported by the Bank; they do not necessarily represent official policy ofthe Bank. The designations employed, the presentation of material, and any maps usedin this document are solely for the convenience of the reader and do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank or its affiliatesconceming the legal status of any country, territory, city, area, or of its authorities, orconceming the delimitation of its boundaries or national affiliation.
The most recent World Bank publications are described in the annual spring and falllists; the continuing research program is described in the annual Abstracts of CurrentStudies. The latest edition of each is available free of charge from the Publications SalesUnit, Department T, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433,U.S.A., or from the European Office of the Bank, 66 avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France.
Comelis de Haan and Nico J. Nissen are livestock specialists with the WestemAfrica Regional Office of the World Bank and the Engineering Department of theIntemational Finance Corporation, respectively.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Haan, C. de.Animal health services in sub-Saharan Africa.
(World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494no. 44)
Bibliography: p.1. Veterinary medicine--Africa, Sub-Saharan.
I. Nissen, Nico J., 1937- II. Title.III. Series.SF719.S92H33 1985 338.1'4 85-12377ISBN 0-8213-0572-7
- iii -
ABSTRACT
Poor health remains one of the main factors limiting livestock
production in Africa. Many of the major epidemic diseases can be con-
trolled economically and considerable progress has been made in the past.
However, during the last decade a progressive deterioration of the quality
of veterinary care has been observed, resulting in the re-emergence of
numerous diseases, dramatically exemplified in the major epidemic of
Rinderpest. This paper analyzes the reasons for this downward trend in the
quality of animal health care.
The paper describes the importance of the livestock subsector in
Sub- aharan Africa, and reviews the Bank role in the development of this
subsector, showing that veterinary interventions generally are well
accepted by the producers. However, producers demand is not being
adequately met by the Government services; to the contrary the quality of
the services is deteriorating. The paper demonstrates that in many
countries the veterinary services lack the means to operate, because the
growth in personnel has not been matched by a parallel increase in
operational funds. Furthermore, background and training of the services'
personnel are not conducive to gaining the confidence of the producers,
especially crucial now that eroded government and traditional structures do
- iv -
no longer allow a top-down approach. As a result, the veterinary services
in many African countries have become ineffective, restricting their work
almost exclusively to vaccinations against the major diseases, although
even in this field with questionable efficiency. Curative treatments are
almost non-existent and government monopolies have all but stopped the
supply of drugs.
The authors propose the following changes:
- Increasing cost recovery for services rendered and inputs
provided, a freeze on new recruitment and, if necessary, a
staff reduction to increase the share of non-personnel
recurrent funds in the budgets; and
- Easing of monopoly restrictions on many government tasks
and encouragement of private sector involvement, especially in
curative treatments and drug distribution.
The possibilities to develop the private sector, focusing on
middle-level technicians and producer societies are then discussed and,
whenever possible, supported by experiences gained in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The required linkages between the public and the private sectors, and the
necessary support actions in research, training and extension are then
described. The authors finally propose donors actions to support these
policy changes.
v -
While acknowledging the importance of other factors, such as
nutrition and husbandry, this paper deals mainly with animal health
services. First, because animal health in many cases constitutes a
pre-condition to an effective input into these other factors, and second,
because the technology in the animal production field is less advanced and
more location-specific, and requires therefore different organizational
approaches and development inputs, treated only marginally in this paper.
- vi -
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contribution of the
livestock specialists in the Eastern and Western Africa Regions, especially
Messrs. Blanc, Marples and Sihm, upon whose operational experience much of
this report is built. The authors also wish to express their special
gratitude to the Banks' Livestock Development Advisor, Mr. Walshe, and to
the management of the Western Africa Region, Mr. Stephen Eccles, Assistant
Director, and Mr. Ben Thoolen, Division Chief, for their constructive
comments and excellent support in carrying out this review.
- vii -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .......................... .........................
I. BACKGROUND ........................................... 1
II. ORGANIZATION AND FINANCING OF LIVESTOCK SERVICES ..... 5
A. Historical background ...... ............. 5
B. Organization ........................ 6
C. Budgets ................................... 7
1. West Africa .................................. 7
2. Eastern and Southern Africa ................... 11
D. Personnel ..................... ................... 13
1. West Africa .................................. 13
2. Eastern and Southern Africa .................. 16
3. Staff Efficiency .............................. 16
E. Cost recovery ................ 19
III. CURRENT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE .... .......... 23
A. Disease prevention ............... .. .............. 23
1. Disease identification ....................... 23
2. Vaccine production ........................... 24
3. Vaccination campaigns ........................ 26
B. Curative services ............... .. ............... 29
C. Public health activities ............ .. ........... 30
D. Extension services ............... .. .............. 31
IV. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES ............................... 35
A. Introduction ..................................... 35
B. Public versus private functions .................. 38
C. Curatives services ............................... 45
D. Reform of government animal health services '...... 49
E. Financial implications ........................... 53
F. Conclusions ............................. 54
V. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT SERVICES .56
A. Research .57B. Training .58C. Organization ............... 59
VI. DONORS POLICIES ...................................... 62
References ................................................. 83
- viii -
ANNEXES
1. 1979 Human Population and GDP (West Africa) ...................... 672. 1979 Human Population and GDP (East Africa) ...................... 683. 1979 Livestock Population (West Africa) .......................... 694. 1979 Livestock Population (East Africa) .705. The Economics of Animal Health Services .......................... 716. Bank/IDA Financed Livestock Projects (West Africa) ................ 727. Livestock Projects with Animal Health Components in East Africa .. 738. Organigram of a Typical Livestock Service ........................ 749. Livestock and National Budgets in Six Sahelian Countries .... ..... 7510. Actual and Required Budgets for Livestock Services in Six 76
Sahelian Countries .............................................11. Livestock and Agriculture Budgets in some East African Countries.. 7712. Personnel in the Livestock Services (West Africa) ................. 7813. Staffing of Veterinary Services (Eastern and Southern Africa) ..... 7914. Cost Recovery Policies ........................................... 8015. Distribution Network of Veterinary Inputs ....................... 81
References ............. ............................................. 83
List of Tables
1. Share of Livestock and Agricultural Services in their Respective GDP(1979)
2. Relative Importance of Livestock Services in the National Economyof Six Eastern and Southern African Countries (1980)
3. Average Staffing Ratios in the Various West African Zones4. Average Numbers of Field Days for Veterinary Officers in Several
West African Countries5. Portion of Livestock Services Expenditure Covered by Actual Revenue
(1980-1981)6. Average Livestock Services Budget and Revenue in Several West African
Countries (1975-1979)7. Average Yearly Vaccination Coverage Against Major Cattle Diseases in
West Africa (1975-1979)
I. BACKGROUND
1.01 Sub-Saharan Africa has a population of some 380 million
inhabitants (Annexes 1 and 2), of which some 40 million depend primarily on
livestock production and 220 million (58%), in varying degrees, on the
productivity of animals.
1.02 The livestock population in Sub-Saharan Africa was estimated in
1980 at 150 million head of cattle, 220 million sheep and goats and more
than 400 million chickens (Annexes 3 and 4). Livestock production
contributes about 16.5% or US$5.0 billion to the subcontinent's
agricultural GDP. The growth rate of animal products was 2.2% between 1963
and 1970 and 1.4% between 1970 and 1980. Considering that the human
population growth rate is about 2.8% per year and that milk and meat
products show a high income elasticity of demand, measures must be taken to
improve livestock productivity, if huge deficits are to be avoided.
1.03 Infectious and parasitic diseases are common in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Of the viral diseases, Rinderpest has re-emerged over the last few
years causing between 1981 and 1983 about US$300 million in losses.
Periodically, African Swine Fever decimates the pig population of West
Africa, and Foot and Mouth Disease, although economically less important in
many Sub-Saharan countries, causes considerable losses in countries
dependent on exports to the European Economic Community (EEC) or those with
well developed dairy industries. Of the bacterial diseases, Contagious
Pleuro-Pneumonia (CBPP), although less severe than Rinderpest, causes
- 2 -
considerable losses, as well as Anthrax, Black Leg and Pasteurellosis,
which are more localized. Diseases transmitted by ticks, such as East Coast
Fever, Heart water, Piroplasmosis and Theileriosis, or by the tse-tse fly,
such as Trypanosomiasis, result not only in a high mortality in sensitive
herds, but in production losses in sub-clinial cases. Helmintic diseases
may be the most important single disease group threatening African
livestock. Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, about one third of all calves
and half of all lambs and kids die before weaning because of intestinal
parasites and nutritional stress.
1.04 Reliable vaccines and drugs exist against most of these diseases,
although disease control is made more difficult by communal grazing and
large-scale movements of herds in nomadic systems, and by fragmented
holdings and deficient infrastructure in settled production systems. The
Joint Program 15 (JP15) campaign against Rinderpest 1/ was a major step in
controlling one of the big problems that confronted livestock producers in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In addition, many
animal health projects carried out over the last 20 years made the African
livestock owners aware of the benefits of animal health and of its
significant economic returns (Annex 5). Programs for disease prevention
1/ The Joint Program was a coordinated effort to eradicate Rinderpestfrom Africa. The campaign was supported by the EEC, USAID, WestGermany and France between 1962 and 1976 at a cost of US$14.0 million,of which US$6.0 million was financed by participating Africangovernments. Although unsuccessful in eradicating the disease, itgreatly reduced its incidence.
- 3 -
are in great demand by producers and usually show high adoption rates and a
general willingness on the part of the producers to pay for this service.
These positive results contrast with those obtained in communal rangelands
development where the introduction of new technology has frequently failed.
Bank Involvement
1.05 In Western Africa, the Bank has acknowledged from the start of
its lending operations that inadequate animal health services are a major
constraint to improving the livestock sector. Between 1971 and 1980, the
Bank and IDA financed 13 livestock projects (Annex 6), of which only four
did not include animal health components (first project in Chad, 1972;
first project in Cameroon, 1974; Ghana, 1974; and Nigeria, 1974). Since
1974 all approved projects include animal health components and two
projects (Central African Republic, 1979 and the Republic of Guinea, 1980)
focused on animal health services.
1.06 The size of animal health components relative to total project
costs varied between 10% (Burkina) and 95% (Guinea), with an average of
25% cf the total Bank/IDA funds for the 13 projects (US$126.9 million),
directed toward animal health measures. Through animal health components
Bank--assisted projects have reached at one time or another approximately
15% of the total livestock population in West Africa.
1.07 In Eastern Africa the share of animal health components in
livestock projects has been less. Out of the 21 projects implemented
- 4 -
between 1967 and 1980, only 10 had animal health components and their total
share was less than 10 (US$15 million) of the loans and credits (Annex 7).
Major health components were included in the Ethiopian Rangelands Project,
the Somalia Central Rangelands Project and the Ituri Livestock Development
Project in Zaire.
1.08 The underlying strategy of all Bank-financed animal health
projects or components is to improve the existing government-run veterinary
services by financing: (a) infrastructure (clinics, vaccination parks,
diagnostic facilities and training institutes); (b) equipment (vehicles,
freezers and instruments); (c) vaccines; (d) drugs (anti-parasitic,
anti-bacterial and others); (e) operating funds; and (f) training. These
projects concentrated almost exclusively on cattle.
1.09 Animal health projects normally focus on a specific geographical
area, replacing and sometimes competing with existing government services.
During the life of a project, the increased funding generally improves the
efficiency and quality of the veterinary services provided. In many
instances, it also helps in obtaining the confidence of the target producer
groups for other improvements, such as mineral supplementation, concentrate
feeding, and grazing control. However, experience from completed projects
indicates that once external assistance stops, and without effective
cost-recovery mechanisms, governments find it difficult to maintain the
level of services set during a project. Under such circumstances,
long-lasting effects can be expected only from the training and
infrastructural components.
- 5 -
II. ORGANIZATIONAL AND FINANCING OF LIVESTOCK SERVICES
A. Historical Background
2.01 Most livestock services in Sub-Saharan Africa were established
sixty to eighty years ago, when the crucial constraint to increased
livestock production was poor animal health, which required staff with a
veterinary background. Moreover, mainly high-level professionals were
recruited to administer drugs because these were relatively expensive in
relation to livestock products and their improper use could produce serious
side--effects. High level technical expertise was therefore economically
and technically justified.
2.02 The present form and structure of the Western Africa livestock
services reflect this historical background. African livestock services
stil'L have a strong veterinary bias and many routine functions are
restricted to professional staff. However, during the last few decades
research findings have aided in the gradual elimination of most unwanted
side--effects of drugs, and mass production techniques have greatly reduced
their costs. Vaccination campaigns, although still requiring careful
attention, have reduced the most direct disease risks. Furthermore, the
price reduction of drugs and the increase in the value of cattle have
increased the economic viability of health care for individual animals.
The increased livestock population, as a result of the control of major
epidemics, has also heightened the need for the development and
introduction of an appropriate technology in areas such as range management
and animal husbandry. The premise of this paper is that the institutions
serving the livestock sector have not evolved with these changing
conditions.
B. Organization
2.03 Veterinary services in most African countries are organized
similarly (Annex 8). A central government office is usually responsible
for policy decisions and general administration; it is also responsible for
research and training facilities, diagnostic laboratories and vaccine
production units, where they exist. Policy implementation is ensured by
regional field services which are usually divided into: (a) a regional or
provincial veterinary service; (b) a sector or district service; and
(c) veterinary posts. While the regional or provincial service has mainly
supervisory and logistic functions (vaccine and drug supply), district and
veterinary staff are responsible for the delivery of animal health inputs.
2.04 In Anglophone East Africa the veterinary service is generally
responsible for animal health only; extension in the field of animal
production and range management is entrusted to the agricultural extension
service. In Francophone West Africa, animal health and production are
almost always the responsibility of the same service. This stems partly
from the greater emphasis given to animal production and range management
in the French veterinary training systems, and partly from the larger
- 7 -
proportion of cattle kept on mixed farms in East Africa to which the
Agricultural Extension Service has a more logical access.
C. Budgets
1. West Africa
2.05 In most West African countries, financial allocations for live-
stock; services have declined in real and relative terms (Annex 9). The
decline is reflected in the budget analyses 1/ of six Sahelian
countries, 2/ which show the following trends:
(a) During the 14-year-period 1961/62 to 1975/76, the national
budgets of the six countries increased by 300% or 10.6% per
annum. However, during the same period the budgets of livestock
services increased by only 120%, or 5.8% annually; assuming an
annual inflation rate of 10%, they declined in real terms by 4%
1/ These budgets also cover other livestock services, as it was notpossible to separate animal health services. However, animal healthbudgets constitute on average 80% of the total service and the sametrends apply.
2/ Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Vfterinaire des Pays Tropicaux(IEMVT). Intensified Control of Epizootic Diseases in West andCentral Africa. Maisons Alfort, France, 1980.
- 8 -
annually. In 1961/62, 1.9% of the national budget was spent on
livestock services but by 1975/76 the allocation had been reduced
to 1%.
(b) Within the allocation for the livestock services, an increasing
amount is spent on personnel. In 1961/62, 64% of the livestock
budget was spent for personnel costs and 36% for other
expenditures, a ratio of 1.7:1; in 1975/76, 75% was for personnel
costs, leaving only 25% for non-personnel expenditures, and the
ratio had declined to 3:1. This trend is not restricted to
livestock services, but can be found in most government services
in Sub-Saharan Africa.
(c) Over this 14-year-period, personnel costs rose faster (7.1% p.a.)
than the total livestock budget (5.8% p.a.), at the expense of
non-personnel costs which went up by only 2.9% p.a., a major
reduction in real terms. Thus, if past trends were to continue
the livestock services staff would, by the end of the decade,
have virtually no material resources left to carry out this work.
2.06 If the share of the livestock services in the livestock CDP were
compared with the share of agricultural services in the agricultural GDP,
we would see that in the Sahelian countries livestock services do not
receive an allocation proportionate to the contribution of the subsector to
the GDP. In some of the more humid areas, e.g., Ivory Coast and Cameroon,
governments have given higher priority to livestock development and the
budget allocations to these services are more favorable, as shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Share of Livestock and Agricultural Services
in Their Respective GDP (1979)
Share of Livestock Share of AgriculturalServices in Services in
Country Livestock GDP (%) Agricultural GDP (%)
Senegal 2.3 N.A.Niger 1.0 3.9Burkina 1.4 2.2Mauritania 3.8 10.8Ivory Coast 16.6 4.6Cameroon 3.1 2.3Sierra Leone 2.9 3.8Central African Republic 1.2 N.A.
Source: Addis Anteneh. Financing Animal Health Services in Some African
Countries. LPU Working Paper No.1, ILCA, Addis Ababa, 1984.
2.07 It is generally considered that an effective livestock service
should spend about as much on other operational costs as on personnel
- 10 -
costs. 3/ If these criteria were applied to the livestock services in the
six Sahelian countries as currently structured, government operating
budgets for livestock services would have had to increase from their actual
level in 1979 of CFAF 2.0 billion to CFAF 3.1 billion, i.e., by 55% (Annex
10). In addition to these operating expenditures, capital investments
would be required at an estimated cost of CFAF 2.4 billion. 4/ If it is
assumed that these investments will depreciate in five years without
residual value, an annual sum of CFAF 500 million would have to be provided
for. Thus, without structural changes, the total budgetary requirements
for livestock services in these countries would amount to CFAF 3.6 billion,
or 80% more than presently budgeted.
2.08 These amounts represent only between 1.5% and 2.5% of the total
national budgets, and could well be argued in view of the 13% contribution
of livestock to GDP in these countries; in some countries such an increase
would only serve to bring government contribution to livestock services to
a level comparable with agriculture (para 2.06). Chances for such an
increase are however slim. Except for Mali, the livestock services budgets
are already higher than governmental revenues from the subsector
3/ SEDES/Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Animal Healthin the Sahelian Countries, 1977.
4/ IEMVT, 1980; op. cit. It estimates the following requirements for thesix Sahelian countries: vehicles: CFAF 1.7 billion; cold chain: CFAF200 million; other equipment: CFAF 500 million.
- 11 -
(para 2.20), and West African livestock producers lack political influence
to exert pressure for increased governmental funding.
2. Eastern and Southern Africa
2.09 The situation is similar in Eastern Africa, but appears
significantly different in Southern Africa. In Kenya, for example, the
staff/non staff ratio significantly deteriorated from 42:58 in 1975 to
69:31 in 1981/1982. The effect of this reduction was recorded by
Leonard 5/ who pointed out that in 1982 senior staff in Kenya received
funds for only 352 km of travel per week, while most practices and clinical
runs involved 1000 km of travel or more per week. No data are available on
Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia and Uganda, but of total expenditure more than 85%
is estimated to be spent on salaries in these countries.
2.10 An analysis of the budgets of the major livestock producing
countries in Southern Africa (Annex 11 - Botswana, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia
and Zimbabwe) shows that 6/:
(a) In Botswana, Malawi and Zimbabwe, the budget grew in
the 1970-1980 period by 9% and more in current prices,
5/ Leonard, D. The Supply of Veterinary Services. Conference onlivestock policy issues. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1984.
6/ Anteneh, A. Financing Livestock Services in Some Countries of Eastand Southern Africa. LPU working paper No. 6, ILCA, 1985.
- 12 -
and by 3% and more in constant prices. Only in Zambia
and Tanzania was there a decline in real terms.
(b) In Botswana, Malawi, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, non-salary
expenditures grew (in 1975 constant prices) faster (4-5% per
year) than salaries (0-1%).
(c) As a result, the staff/non-staff expenditure ratio,
already healthy at 48:52 in the early 1970s, improved
further to 43:57 in 1980/1981.
2.11 In those East African countries where livestock constitutes a
relatively minor part of agriculture, it receives proportionally more
funding than in those countries where livestock is dominant, as shown in
Table 2.
- 13 -
Table 2. Relative Importance of Livestock Services
in the National Economy of Six Eastern
and Southern African Countries (1980)
Country Livestock Services Share Livestock GDP Sharein Agric. Services (%) in Agric. GDP (%)
Botswana 54 80Kenya 23 35Malawi 21 7Tanzania 34 24Zambia 4 30Zimbabwe 12 36
Source: Anteneh, 1985; op. cit.
The same trend could be observed in West Africa (para 2.05) and is likely
to be caused by deliberate government policies in meat importing countries
to achieve self-sufficiency in animal products, and by the natural
tendencies of government bureaucracies to reach a certain size,
irrespective of tasks and target populations.
D. Personnel
1. West Africa
2.12 Staffing of the West African livestock services varies
considerably among countries (Annex 12) and ecological zones (Table 3).
- 14 -
The livestock/staff ratio generally seems lower in humid areas, reflecting
the priority given to meat and milk production in these areas by, for
example, the governments of Ivory Coast, Cameroon, and Nigeria (para 2.05).
Table 3. Average Staffing Ratios in the Various West African Zones
'000 VLUs * perCountry Veterinarian Vet. Assistant
Sahel 204 9.0
Sub-humid/humid (Francophone area) 76 4.5
Sub-humid/humid (Anglophone area) 36 5.0
Overall West Africa 70 6.0
-* Veterinary Livestock Unit (VLU). One VLU equals 1 cow, 1 camel, 2
horses, 2 pigs, 2 donkeys, 10 small ruminants, or 100 fowl.
Source: IEMVT, 1980; 2p. Cit
2.13 The optimum staffing levels depend upon the production systems
and the kind of services required. The SEDES/GTZ study recommends one
veterinarian per 240,000 VLUs and one veterinary assistant per 12,500 VLUs
as the optimum staffing levels for preventive disease control in nomadic
and in sedentary production systems. FAO considers the ideal ratio for
- 15 -
preventive and curative work to range from 5,000 head for a modern dairy or
feedlot system to 30,000 head for a traditional system. The latter norm
seems to be mainly based on technical criteria, as economic studies
indicate that a ratio of less than 50,000 VLUs per veterinarian seems very
difficult to justify under the traditional system. If a requirement of
240,000 VLUs per veterinarian is assumed for preventive work and 12,500
VLUSs for preventive and clinical work, then three Sahelian countries
(Burkina, Mauritania and Chad) would be inadequately staffed for disease
prevention and one country (Senegal) more than adequate. In the higher
potential areas of coastal and central Africa, all countries are
adequately, or more than adequately, staffed for disease prevention. Only
Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast would be adequately staffed for preventive
and curative work; all other western and central African countries would be
understaffed.
2.14 Judged by the same criteria, the number of support staff is
adequate or more than adequate in all West African countries, except in
Mauritania, Chad and Burkina. Furthermore, in many African countries any
graduate of a middle-level vocational school or university has rights to a
civil service position. This policy brings more and more staff to the
already overstaffed and underutilized cadre, and is one of the main causes
of the diminishing operational funds. In some African countries, where all
field office positions are filled, any new graduate or hired veterinary
assistant is allowed to stay in the urban area without performing any duty
- 16 -
but with remuneration. Such practices are not only a waste of scarce
resources, but also further undermine the already low morale of those
posted in the field.
2. Eastern and Southern Africa
2.15 In East Africa, similar differences in staff ratios can be
observed among countries (Annex 13). In the northern parts, Sudan and
Uganda have a more than adequate number of professionals (one veterinarian
per 30,000 VLUs), whereas Ethiopia greatly needs to increase its
professional staff (one veterinarian per 2 million VLUs). Staffing levels
in the southern parts range between 50,000 and 100,000 VLUs per
professional veterinarian and are therefore considered more than adequate
for prevention but inadequate for clinical attention and prevention,
especially because of the more intensive dairy systems found in some of
these countries (Kenya, Malawi).
3. Staff Efficiency
2.16 Especially in the arid zones, government veterinary services
staff and the producers they serve normally belong to different ethnic
groups. Training opportunities for the sedentary population are generally
better, giving people with a cropping or urban background easier access to
the desired civil service status. As a result, veterinary agents often
lack the practical experience and knowledge that pastoralists have in
handling livestock. This affects the efficiency of the staff in, for
- 17 -
example, routine operations in vaccination campaigns. This obvious lack of
experience in handling livestock, together with differences in background,
cause a lack of respect between the pastoralist and the civil servant.
Moreover, in the strong governmental and traditional societies of
pre-independence, a "top-down" approach where government officials could
impose sanitary control measures was possible. However, changing
circumstances, the eroding government authority, and the weakening of
traditional structures since independence render mutual respect between
producers and staff an essential precondition for the adoption of control
measures and extension advice by producers. Furthermore, professional
staff are heavily concentrated in and around the urban centers. For
familial, economic, and social reasons, they are unwilling to work in
remote rural areas, although it is there that most West African livestock
is located.
2.17 Due to a lack of operational funds, a low morale and a lack of
acceptance by the producers, the staff is employed fully only during the
few months of each vaccination campaign. On an average, few days are spent
in the field, as shown Table 4.
- 18 -
Table 4. Average Number of Field Days for Veterinary Officers
in Several West African Countries
Days in the fieldCountry (Average per officer per year)
Senegal 12Mali 29Burkina 75-86Niger 62Cameroon 62-95
Source: IEMVT, 1980; op. cit.
2.18 The same lack of field involvement at field level can be seen in
East Africa. Even in a country such as Kenya, where there is an advanced
and commercialized livestock industry, curative services are far from
meeting the needs of producers. Thus, for the pastoral Kajiado district,
which is deeply involved in commercial beef production, a 1983 survey shows
a strong demand for curative services but virtually none being provided,
and even in the mixed farming districts which are heavily involved in
commercial dairying, up to 30% of farmer requests for animal curative care
had been unmet. 7/
7/ Leonard. 1984; 2p. cit.
- 19 -
E. Cost Recovery
2.19 Most West African countries (9 out of 18) follow a policy whereby
all services performed by the veterinary departments are free of charge
(Annex 14). No charges are made for vaccinations, drug applications or
treatments in Benin, Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Ivory
Coast, Mauritania, and Togo. Five countries provide free vaccinations, but
charge for drug application and treatment (Chad, Niger, Nigeria, and Sierra
Leone). Senegal charges for all services except vaccinations against
Rinderpest and CBPP, while Burkina and, since 1983 Mali and CAR, charge for
all drugs and vaccinations.
2.20 Sudan and Somalia still follow a policy of free drug and vaccine
distribution, although recently cost recovery for drugs is being introduced
on a pilot scale in both countries. Ethiopia sells drugs at cost but
provides all vaccines free of charge. Uganda charges costs plus a margin
of 15% for all drugs and vaccines, except the Rinderpest and CBPP vaccines.
Payment for drugs is common in all Southern African countries; vaccines
against the major diseases such as Rinderpest, CBPP and Foot and Mouth
Disease are generally free. A number of countries have introduced a
service fee (Botswana, Kenya, and Rwanda on a pilot basis) for individual
treatments and services. This revenue covers only a fraction of the total
recurrent costs as shown in Table 5.
- 20 -
Table 5. Portion of Livestock Services Expenditure
Covered by Actual Revenue (1980-1981)
Livestock Services revenue Livestock Services revenueas % of non-staff from drugs and vaccines
Country recurrent as % of drug expenditures
Botswana 15 91
Kenya 20 28
Malawi 12 33
Tanzania 17 N.A.
Zimbabwe 4* 12 **
* From veterinary services only.
** Include also pesticides from tse-tse control.
Source: Anteneh, 1985; op. cit.
2.21 The large gap between budgeted expenditure and sales income from
medicines is caused partly by the subsidy on the vaccines, partly by
mismanagement and partly because governments released less funding than
budgeted. To overcome the latter problem, drug sales are often financed
through a revolving fund. However, experience with revolving funds in
government institutions is generally disappointing. First, in most
countries government income reverts automatically to the Treasury and
authorization to use this income for new purchases is difficult to obtain
- 21 -
outside a project. When revolving funds have been established -- often as
a condition for external funding -- experience indicates that as soon as
the project is completed such funds vanish in the Treasury or are used for
other purposes, and little activity remains. Second, revolving fund
performance has been poor. The receipts from drug sale programs show that
at best only 80-90% (at worst only 20%, as experienced in a Bank-funded
project) of the sale is deposited in the revolving fund, the rest being
lost due to administrative negligence or embezzlement by civil servants.
Revolving funds therefore become rapidly depleted.
2.22 Besides the incidental payment for services rendered and inputs
provided, the livestock subsector is subjected to taxes. The cattle head
tax "jangali," which used to be one of the main sources of income for many
local African governments, is now generally suspended or abolished because
of difficulties in collecting the tax and adverse reactions from producers.
It has been replaced to some extent by external and internal trade and
slaughter fees. There seems to be little correlation between the livestock
service budgets and the subsector revenue, as shown in Table 6.
- 22 -
Table 6. Average Livestock Service Budget and Revenue
in Several West African Countries (1975-79)
(CFAF Million)
Country Livestock Budget Revenue from Livestock Sector
Mali 174 929
Burkina 190 50
Senegal 190 175
Cameroon 900 148
Source: Anteneh, 1984; op.cit.
In East Africa, export duties on live animals and livestock products are a
feature of the surplus producing countries only. Kenya's levies on hides
and skins are earmarked for a hides and skins improvement program.
Botswana has the most extensive tax levy on cattle exports and byproducts.
Tanzania and Ethiopia levy export duties on meat products, hides and skins.
- 23 -
III. CURRENT FUNCTIONS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE
3.01 Governmental animal health services in Sub-Saharan African can be
divided into four categories: (a) disease prevention; (b) curative
services; (c) public health services; and (d) extension services. The
effects of personnel and administrative policies of the above-mentioned
services on these functions are as follows.
A. Disease Prevention
1. Disease identification
3.02 Disease identification, crucial for the early detection and
therefore economic control of epidemics, is deficient. Most African
countries have one or more reasonably well-equipped diagnostic laboratory,
but the lack of budget and task definition has resulted in a lack of focus
and in an unnecessary concentration on vaccine production. Furthermore, the
traditional strong link between field staff and the central laboratories
has been severely weakened due to declining activities in the field,
disappearance of diagnostic equipment and lack of sustained training in
diagnosis, sample collection and preparation for transport. Consequently,
the central laboratories lack material and focus on individual cases rather
than general disease problems. Therefore, their results concern frequently
atypical diseases of village herds owned by civil servants and urban
- 24 -
merchants, but bear little relevance to the problems of most producers
or the most rampant diseases.
3.03 Often the identification of major contagious diseases has
political overtones. Sometimes the veterinary services are reluctant
to acknowledge the outbreak of a major disease because of fear that this
might reflect on their efficiency or have important macro-economic
implications (export restrictions, etc.). In several Sub-Saharan
countries, the initial reports of the recent Rinderpest outbreak were
stifled because of political pressures.
2. Vaccine Production
3.04 Vaccine production is usually entrusted to a laboratory under the
responsibility of a governmental veterinary service. Major laboratories
exist in West Africa in Dakar (Senegal), Bamako (Mali), and Vom (Nigeria).
Smaller units exist in Niamey (Niger), Kindia (Guinea), and Bingerville
(Ivory Coast). The important laboratory of Farcha (Chad) was closed for
security reasons but has reopened recently. Furthermore, the new facility
at Garoua (Cameroon) should bring the West African production capacity to
more than 50 million doses per year for Rinderpest and CBPP each.
Additional production capacity exists in East Africa in Debre Zeit
(Ethiopia), Mogadiscio (Somalia), Khartoum (Sudan) and Nairobi (Kenya). A
- 25 -
recent review of IEMVT 8/ concluded that with some small additional
investments in existing laboratories to rehabilitate equipment, production
capacity would be sufficient. The capacity for poultry vaccine might be
insufficient, but this vaccine can be produced more cheaply in the more
developed countries of the world.
3.05 Laboratory operations, however, are unsatisfactory. Their non-
personnel recurrent funding has also been reduced over the last decade and
bureaucratic procedures (automatic transfer of income to the Treasury, long
drawn-out processes of requests for material) heavily impinges on their
capacity to react rapidly and efficiently to an increased demand in the
case of a disease outbreak as shown by the initial vaccine scarcity during
the recent Rinderpest outbreak. Another effect of financial and
administrative constraints is the lack of adequate quality control,
resulting in some instances in the production of poor quality and unsafe
vaccines (para 3.08).
3.06 Vaccine production costs are minimal; prices of US$0.01 and
US$0.02 (1978 prices) are quoted for the Bamako (Mali) and Farcha (Chad)
laboratories respectively. For the JP15 campaign, an average cost of
US$0.20 per head vaccinated including all delivery costs is quoted in the
8/ IEMVT. Survey on the Potentialities of the African Laboratories forRinderpest and Pleuropneumonia Vaccine Production. Maisons Alfort,France, 1983.
- 26 -
IEMVT study. Taking into account inflation and currency adjustments, the
average cost can be estimated at US$0.30 per head at today's prices.
3. Vaccination Campaigns
3.07 The vaccination campaigns against Rinderpest and CBPP are the
major activities of the veterinary services; their coverage in West Africa
is shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Average Yearly Vaccination Coverage
(% of Total Cattle Population) Against
Major Cattle Diseases in West Africa (1975-1979)
Black-Zone Rinderpest CBPP Anthrax quarter Pasteurelosis
Sahel 42 36 4 12 8
Sub-humid(Anglophone areas) 17 38 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Sub-humid(Francophone areas) 2 15 5 13 7
Source: IEMVT, 1980; op. cit.
3.08 The efficiency of these vaccination campaigns leaves much to be
desired, as demonstrated by the number of vaccinations, which reach only 60
- 27 -
to 80% of the number of vaccines distributed (the rest is lost). This lack
of efficiency can also be inferred by the persistence of major contagious
diseases in spite of regular vaccination campaigns. For example,
Rinderpest vaccination ensures the lifetime immunity of animals, but in
spite of the coverage of more than 40% of the Sahelian cattle (Table 7
above) each year, an average of 50 cases of Rinderpest per year was
reported in Mali and Mauritania during the 1975-79 period. Also, very high
losses, indicating a low level of immunity occurred in several western and
central African countries during the 1983 outbreak.
3.09 In Ethiopia, the follow-up on the JP15 campaign was also
insufficient. In Sudan, average yearly vaccination coverage against
Rinderpest over the 1970-1980 period was only 20%. As a result, from an
average of four officially reported outbreaks per year over the 1970-80
period, Sudan experienced in 1982 at least 72 outbreaks, with a mortality
officially reported at 20,000 heads although unofficially estimated to be
much higher. In Kenya and Tanzania vaccinations are not administered
regularly. Kenya followed a policy of border vaccinations, but
experienced, however, several outbreaks in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Tanzania, in spite of being already almost free of Rinderpest when JP15
started, still participated in the campaign but experienced Rinderpest
again in the early 1980s. Rinderpest and CBPP do not occur on the southern
parts of the continent. Vaccination against Foot and Mouth Disease is the
most important activity there.
- 28 -
3.10 The veterinary services are responsible for restricting animal
movement upon the outbreak of a contagious disease. They are in general
reasonably effective in closing markets, but are less successful in
controlling border or seasonal transhumant movements. Containing
epizootics is further hampered by wildlife movements; for example, game is
thought to have played an important role in the recent Rinderpest outbreaks
in Kenya and Tanzania.
3.11 Veterinary services are also in charge of operating de-ticking
dips and spray races, which are usually constructed under external project
funding. However, these facilities are poorly maintained by the services.
Shortages of funds and low staff motivation and frequent lack of products,
often causes a low insecticide concentration of the liquid and therefore
reduced effectiveness in the tickcontrol. Breakdowns are frequent and the
facilities often fall into disuse a few years after project completion.
3.12 On the other hand, experience in Kenya also shows that management
by local groups can cause problems. Initially, dips were primarily con-
structed and operated by community self-help groups, with some government
assistance. More recently many of these dips have been taken over by
government, and a recent survey showed that in those areas where government
operated the dips, tick-related disease incidence was only 20%, whereas in
areas where they were still operated by the community, the incidence was
over 90%. While part of this difference has been caused by variations in
production systems and environmental conditions, part is also due to the
- 29 -
lack of technical knowledge of the herders to correctly establish the
required concentration. 9/
B. Curative Services
3.13 The individual treatment of diseased animals and supporting
activities such as drug distribution, surgical interventions and
castrations are the second important category of field veterinary tasks,
but reach only a very small part of the livestock population. Lack of
funds for transport and low staff motivation cause these services to be
irregularly available and only at the veterinary posts itself and not in
the field.
3.14 Drug importation and distribution are, especially in West Africa,
entrusted to a governmental or parastatal enterprise often protected by
monopoLy rights. Drugs are dispensed to the producers through the
veterinary services (Annex 15). It is argued that this monopoly is
necessary to protect the producers against receiving inferior quality drugs
at black market prices offered by so-called unscrupulous traders.
Furthermore, restricting medicine distribution and giving the authorization
to inject only to veterinary services' personnel would ensure that the
right dose is injected and that drug resistance induced by underdosing is
precluded. However, the sharp reduction in budget funds for materials, the
9/ Leonard. 1984. 2p. cit.
- 30 -
slow bureaucratic procedures of the parastatals and governmental services,
the lack of foreign exchange, and the limited number of staff in the field
lead to a drug supply through government that is extremely deficient. For
example, in one West African country only 5% of the producers purchased
drugs from governmental services and even after 18 months of Bank-funded
project activities aimed at improving the field level drugs supply through
the veterinary services and a financial input of US$1.85 million (US$14,000
per veterinary post or US$160 per producer) in equipment and operating
costs, 60% of all drugs was still purchased from private traders and over
40% of the producers had never been visited by a government technician.
With a strong demand and a limited supply, such a governmental monopoly
therefore seems to encourage rather than control the black market it is
supposed to curb. It also creates opportunities for civil servants to
illegally overcharge livestock owners for the limited supplies available,
even though these are officially free.
C. Public Health Activities
3.15 The veterinary services are also responsible for all measures to
reduce disease transmission from livestock to humans. Meat and milk
inspection and rabies control are the most important public health
activities. However, efficient meat and milk inspection is difficult in
Sub-Saharan Africa because most consumption occurs outside official
channels, and funds are lacking to compensate the owner or butcher for
losses incurred due to rejected diseased carcasses and organs. Moreover,
- 31 -
the establishment of sanitary slaughterhouses has met strong resistance
from butchers for they generally oppose strict meat inspection and quality
control, as well as the higher fees necessary to operate and maintain these
facilities. The impact of these services has therefore been minimal.
D. Extension Services
3.16 The extension services in most Sub-Saharan countries focus on the
improvement of animal health. This is part due to the demand of the
livestock producers and in part to the very limited supply of operating
means of the livestock services, which leaves little possibility for field
staff to pay attention to nutrition and management practices. It is partly
also due to the training and background of most of the professional staff.
According to IEMVT's figures (1980), veterinarians represent approximately
70% of all professionals in the West African livestock services. In
addition, because of longer training, veterinarians generally start at a
better grade and are promoted faster than animal production specialists.
This, again, reinforces the institutional tendency toward veterinary
aspects.
3.17 Also, and especially in the drier pastoral areas the lack of
simple and easily adaptable techniques has prevented the livestock services
from including advice on production and marketing in their operations.
African livestock production systems are complex and entail a delicate
equilibrium of interacting environmental, economic, and social factors.
Any intervention easily upsets this balance and results in undesirable
- 32 -
side-effects that may affect the livelihood of the livestock owners. Being
aware of these risks, the producers rightfully exercise a lot of caution
in accepting innovative measures for fear of unproven technology; besides,
they have little patience for the long-term results entailed by most
recommendations made in the production field.
3.18 Several African governments have recently established ministries
of livestock (e.g., Cameroon, Chad, Benin, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya,
Mali, Madagascar and Tanzania). This is contrary to the current general
view that livestock raising should be considered an integral part of the
farming system and that the indirect contribution of livestock (manure,
traction) to crops can be as important as the direct production of milk and
meat.
3.19 Lack of reliable data makes it difficult to prove that these
trends have caused an increased mortality rate. However, it is quite clear
that the recent upsurge of Rinderpest outbreaks in West Africa (15 foci in
1978, 41 in 1981, and a general outbreak in 1982, which caused an estimated
loss of US$300 million) results from a lack of adequate vaccination.
Increases in calf mortality and in the incidence of Brucellosis are also
frequently quoted. Furthermore, the cattle population in Sub-Saharan
Africa increased during the 1970s at a substantial lower rate than during
the previous decades. One of the causes of this phenomena was the Sahelian
drought of the early 1970s; however, the other Sub-Saharan countries showed
a similar slow-down. There, the cattle population grew at 3.7% during the
- 33 -
1960s, but only at 2.1% during the following decade, 10/ which can only be
explained by an increased mortality or a lower fertility rate, at least in
part caused by deteriorating services.
3.20 On the other hand, it has been argued that a high disease level
and periodic epidemics in cattle and small ruminants are necessary to
maintain the balance between range resources and stocking rates and avoid
environmental degradation and desertification. While this argument might
be true around a number of water points in the Sahel and East African
Rangelands, other factors like cropping and fuelwood needs are probably as
important as overgrazing. Furthermore this argument does not apply to the
more humid savannah area, or to those drier areas which are still
underutilized. Moreover, a decrease in mortality, if accompanied by
appropriate animal husbandry and marketing services, does not have to
result in an increased stocking rate.
3.21 In summary, the Sub-Saharan livestock services are generally
adequately or more than adequately staffed for disease prevention and other
tasks of public interest, but they generally lack personnel for curative
tasks. However, in many countries the growth in personnel has not been
matched by a corresponding increase in operational funds, particularly for
non-personnel expenditure. As a result, many services are now greatly
10/ International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA). Annual Report 1983.Addis Ababa, 1984.
- 34 -
overstaffed in relation to their means of operation and have become
completely ineffective. Cost recovery is not generally practiced, and when
practiced is often not adequately controlled. Communication between
producers and veterinary agents is severely hampered by background
differences and the lack of practical experience of these agents. As a
result, governmental livestock services have restricted themselves almost
exclusively to controlling the two main epidemic diseases, Rinderpest and
CBPP, although with questionable efficiency. Drug availability through
government monopoly channels is poor. Curative services are almost
nonexistent in spite of a strong demand from the producers, and almost no
extension advice is given on range management and animal husbandry. This
unsatisfactory situation needs to be urgently addressed and serious
consideration should be given to alternative approaches toward the
provision of animal health services.
- 35 -
IV. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES
A. Introduction
4.01 Alternative approaches toward the provision of animal health
services should aim for:
(a) improved knowledge of specific health constraints in each
ecological zone;
(b) improved disease prevention capabilities, which should include
adequate vaccination coverage, early and reliable information on
any new outbreak of the main contagious diseases, an immediate
and efficient response in containing such outbreaks, and strict
enforcement of sanitary regulations;
(c) availability of inputs on a regular basis and in sufficient
quantities;
(d) availability of reliable and regular services and curative
treatments, accessible to all livestock owners;
(e) reliable protection of public health and export requirements;
- 36 -
(f) provision of sound technical advice in all areas of animal
production; and
(g) enhanced capabilities for long-term programming of public and
private sector animal health requirements.
4.02 To achieve these objectives it will be necessary -- but not
sufficient -- to restore the operational capacity of governmental services
by increasing the share of non-personnel recurrent funding in the budgets
of those countries where staff do not have the means to operate. Making
curative services and inputs accessible to all producers would require
substantially increased national budgets in all countries, if this would be
considered a public responsibility. However, as shown in paras 2.07 and
2.08 for the Sahelian countries, a simple budget increase without any
structural change in personnel tasks and cost recovery policies or
mechanisms, is neither likely to be politically or economically feasible,
nor is it justified in most countries on the basis of the subsectors'
contribution to the national product. As noted in a Bank report, 11/
public funds for the provision of basic services exceed by far what
governments can generate in the next several decades. It is therefore most
unlikely that a strengthening of governmental livestock services as
currently organized could be achieved within governmental budgetary
11/ The World Bank. Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. AnAgenda for Action, 1981.
- 37 -
resources. Furthermore, in a situation with limited budget resources as
prevailing in Sub-Saharan countries, expenditure should correlate with
priorities and expected returns. While the place of livestock in the
national economy of many Sub-Saharan countries and the economic returns of
mass vaccination campaigns generally justify an adequate financing of
veterinary services, the justification for increased budgetary allocations
to veterinary services beyond the control of the major epidemics is
questionable, as it would mainly benefit the individual producer. Besides,
a simple budgetary increase would not address the other sociological and
organizational issues now affecting the efficiency of the services.
4.03 To overcome these financial, sociological and organizational
constraints, a combination of policy changes will have to be applied:
- in those countries where at present staff do not have adequate
operating means, the share of non-personnel recurrent funds in
the budget should be increased through a recruitment freeze,
increased cost recovery for services rendered, reorganization of
the structure of livestock services and, if necessary, staff
reduction.
- In all countries, the monopoly restrictions on many governmental
tasks should be eased and private sector institutions, especially
those emanating from the producers' societies, encouraged so that
a progressive transfer of responsibilities from the civil service
to the private sector is achieved.
- 38 -
These policy changes should be viewed as complementary: a moratorium on
staff recruitment or a government staff reduction would become increasingly
feasible if tasks were transferred to the private sector; increased cost
recovery would be politically acceptable only if the quality of the service
were adequate; an emerging private sector could be counted upon only if
government were to provide active support and ease monopoly restrictions;
and more funds for equipment and materials could be found only if
relatively less funding would be required for salaries.
4.04 The relative priority, content, and timing of each of these
elements will depend on the specific country situation, its attitude toward
privatization, its current livestock/staff ratio and its budget situation.
In countries with a low livestock/staff ratio and high personnel costs
(e.g., over 80% of the total budget), higher priority should be given to
staff reduction and privatization than in countries with lower staff
availability and a more favorable budget situation. Due to the differences
in country situations, studies have to be undertaken on a
country-by-country basis to determine the optimum combination of policy
changes required for each.
B. Public Versus Private Functions
4.05 The "public good" nature of the task and the expected relative
cost-effectiveness of execution should be the main criteria for deciding
- 39 -
whether a particular task should remain under governmental responsibility
or could be transferred to the private sector. Of a clear and unequivocal
public good nature are:
(a) Elaboration and supervision of the implementation of Government
livestock development policies.
(b) Veterinary inspection, i.e., ensuring compliance with public
health standards, import and export regulations, quarantine
measures, and quality control of veterinary inputs and services.
(c) Veterinary reporting and statistical services, i.e., the
collection and dissemination of reliable data on livestock
population, movements, markets, transformation of products, and
imports and exports.
(d) Detection of the notifiable diseases in outbreak areas, 12/
including the gathering of information on such diseases,
confirmation of diagnostics, enforcement of necessary quarantine
measures, and implementation of all sanitary measures required.
12/ All African countries have a list of notifiable diseases which form anintegral part of the national veterinary legislation and, in general,of international agreements. The obligation to notify diseases isbadly fulfilled and the number of notifiable diseases might requirereconsideration in some countries.
- 40 -
4.06 The nature of the disease should play an important role in
deciding who should be responsible for the vaccination. The major epidemic
diseases, Rinderpest, CBPP, and possibly "Peste des Petits Ruminants"
(PPR), can eliminate entire animal populations. An outbreak of Foot and
Mouth Disease can mean that lucrative export markets would close. The
chance of an outbreak of those diseases in any one unprotected herd
diminishes when more livestock in that area is vaccinated. Leaving the
decision to vaccinate to the individual alone might cause that some
herders, relying on a high degree of immunity of the other herds, will take
the chance and avoid the vaccination charge. However, such negligence
might affect the herder who does vaccinate his stock:
(a) In many diseases (e.g., Rinderpest, CBPP), there is a gap between
the end of the calves' maternity immunity and the protection
transferred through annual vaccination campaigns. A disease
outbreak could therefore still cause mortality in vaccinated
herds.
(b) Restrictions on livestock movements, prohibition of exports, and
closing of markets are normally enforced to contain the outbreak
of an epidemic disease. Although never fully effective, these
measures impose equal hardships on the owners of vaccinated
herds: the best grazing areas are restricted, sale prices are
lower, and even sale opportunities are non-existent; for example,
cattle prices in CAR and Cameroon dropped by 40% during the
- 41 -
recent Rinderpest outbreak. Such measures also deprive
governments of export levies and of much-needed foreign exchange.
(c) Finally, several of the main epidemic diseases also affect the
wildlife population, which has a social as well as an economic
value to society.
Because of these externalities and the economics of scale in immunizing on
a mass campaign basis, governmental involvement in the supervision and
enforcement, as well as a contribution to the funding of vaccination
campaigns against Rinderpest and CBBP and in some instances Foot and Mouth
Disease, is necessary and justified.
4.07 However, to entrust the full execution of those vaccination
campaigns to government personnel would be unproductive. These campaigns
normally require an input of only two to three months per year, and it
would be inefficient to maintain on a year-around basis full staffing for
this task only. The logical longer-term strategy therefore would be to
sub-contract the execution of the actual campaign work to the private
sector under the direct supervision of government professional staff.
During the transitional period, when the private sector is not yet fully
developed, temporary staff could be trained and employed as vaccinators, as
is the case in Burkina. Alternatively, other governmental departments
(agricultural extension) could be involved in the campaign; this is
successfully implemented in the Bank-funded Mali-Sud Livestock Project.
- 42 -
4.08 In most production systems Foot and Mouth Disease would not
justify a government-sponsored campaign. However, in countries that export
meat to the lucrative EEC market (e.g., Botswana), a nationwide obligatory
vaccination against Foot and Mouth Disease is essential. An eventual
outbreak of the disease would automatically mean that the EEC would, for
its own sanitary protection, stop all imports, which in turn would cause
sharp drops in producers income and government revenue in the exporting
country. Additionally, in well-developed dairy systems (e.g., Kenyan
smallholders), Foot and Mouth disease would cause great losses in milk
production. Under those circumstances, it is essential that governments
take over the responsibility for immunization against this disease. On the
other hand, vaccination against diseases having a more incidental
prevalence and individual occurrence, such as Anthrax, Blackquarter,
Brucellosis and Tuberculosis, should fall exclusively under the producer's
responsibility and government's role should be restricted to quality
control.
4.09 The vaccine production capacity is adequate in Africa and does
not require expansion (para 3.04). Future policies should encourage the
regionalization of some vaccine production (e.g., Rinderpest, CBPP) and the
importation of those that can be more cheaply produced elsewhere (e.g.,
poultry vaccines) and increase the administrative and financial autonomy of
the laboratory. Abolition of governmental subsidies for vaccine production
-- as distinct from vaccinations (para 4.10) -- would be recommended as it
- 43 -
would open the door to private laboratories and would allow government to
restrict its involvement to the "public good" aspect, such as quality
control measures.
4.10 The major issue for immunization is not who provides vaccinations
but how they are financed. Most African states use general tax revenues to
finance vaccination campaigns without any direct charge to producers. This
is done under the argument that the risk of an outbreak is eliminated only
if all producers vaccinate and that the introduction of a direct fee would
reduce the coverage. Furthermore, the administration surrounding the
collection of fees is cumbersome and opens the opportunities to illicit
charges, for example as little as 55% of the already modest vaccination
charges has been collected in some recent campaigns in Kenya 13/.
4.11 On the other hand, as shown on several occasions, the great
danger of free or heavily subsidized services in a situation of extreme
financial stringency is to deprive the farmers and pastoralists of a
satisfactory service, as government would be unable to maintain these
services. The current Rinderpest epidemic which followed the JP15 campaign
provides an unfortunate example which could reoccur if no solution is found
to sustain the campaign financially.
4.12 So far, experience indicates that most livestock owners,
especially near an outbreak area, are quite willing to pay for the
13/ Leonard. 1984. Op. cit.
- 44 -
protection of their animals, provided the campaign is well organized. The
total coverage will drop slightly but experiences in Mali and Central
African Republic show that it will not be more than 15%. 14/ Furthermore,
even in countries where the vaccination is officially free, illegal charges
are frequently reported and the introduction of a fee would change, de
facto, very little.
4.13 However, because of the above-mentioned public benefits, less
than a full payment is defendable. Vaccination policies should therefore
aim at establishing a fee that would at least cover all non salary
operating costs to ensure a sustained financing of future campaigns. This
user charge, therefore, would at minimum include the vaccine and
transportation costs, allowances for the vaccination teams, and temporary
labor (i.e., vaccinators), but permanent staff salaries and the cost of
technical assistance would be excluded. Based on cost calculations of JP
15 and subsequent inflation, it would mean a cost of US$0.30 per head in
1984 prices, which would seem to be well within the producers' ability and
willingness to pay, if herds were threatened with the disease. If there is
no such imminent danger, indirect charges, although less reliable in terms
of guaranteeing a sustained disease control system, might have to be
14/ Moreover, this may have been an unfair comparison since in both casesa free campaign in 1983 was compared with a contributory campaign in1984, when the disease had already been contained and thephysiological shock had worn off.
- 45 -
considered. Assurances that such indirect charges will be used exclusively
for the financing of the vaccination campaigns will then form an important
part of the policy reforms.
C. Curative Services
4.14 Unlike preventive care, curative services are predominantly
private goods. The value derived from a clinical or curative veterinary
visit goes almost exclusively to the owner of the livestock, and no one
else derives any benefit from the veterinarian during the time he is on
that visit. Furthermore, this is the aspect of veterinary medicine for
which producers most readily see the need and are most prepared to pay 15/.
Moreover, it is especially in this area that fast responses, which the
private sector is better equipped to provide, are essential.
4.15 One of the arguments most frequently raised against private
practice in Africa is that it will discriminate against the poorer
producers. However, significant evidence from Kenya 16/ shows that the
level of inequity in the distribution of care decreased, instead of
increased, when commercial veterinary care was introduced, because the
number of curative visits increased (the data suggests up to ten-fold).
And political and social pressures, which dictated which producer was
15/ Leonard. 1984. p. cit.
16/ Leonard. 1984. Op. cit.
- 46 -
visited when these services were free disappeared when a charge was
introduced. Leonard's survey found that in one area the more
commercialized veterinary staff even graduated the charges according to
what they perceived the recipient could pay, and wealthier producers paid
more per visit than the poorest segment of the population.
4.16 For the foreseeable future, middle-level staff would form the
main category of those who may be interested in establishing small, private
operations for drug distribution and clinical services. In most countries,
middle-level staff exceed government requirements (paras 2.12-2.15), and
their deployment should be promoted. Moreover, in regions with more
extensive production systems and lower returns per animal, the deployment
of private professionals would neither be attractive financially nor
justified economically. These middle-level private auxiliaries could be
coming from the ranks of government services, from vocational colleges, or
through the training of special groups, e.g., the vaccinators.
4.17 Both Sandford (1983) 17/ and Leonard 18/ stress that
middle-level personnel are not to be seen as a replacement of the
veterinarians but rather as a way of extending the impact of the latter.
They can handle the bulk of the routine work and if supported by
17/ Stephen Sandford. Management of Pastoral Development in the ThirdWorld. ODI, John Wiley, London,1983.
18/ Leonard (1984), op. cit.
- 47 -
easy-to-apply treatment packages and with limited interventions and drugs
for sale, can constitute the only feasible way of providing adequate
services at the grassroot level. 19/
4.18 In the sedentary areas with higher livestock density and more
productive animals, private professional practices can well be envisaged.
There are almost no private professional practices in Sub-Saharan Africa
and the few that do exist are generally located in the urban areas,
catering to the pets of the higher income community. The economic
feasibility of private professional practice is therefore difficult to
assess. A tentative estimate is made under the following assumptions:
(a) A livestock density of 30 VLUs/km2 minimum, as is the case in
many sedentary areas of the Sudano-Sahelian zone and in the more
temperate highlands of East and West Africa.
(b) An average expenditure of US$1.00 per VLU per year (US$0.75 for
drugs and US$0.25 for services) which is a conservative estimate
of what livestock owners are willing to pay.
19/ The recent (1984) Center for Technological Assistance (CTA) Workshopin Bujumbura on Basic Animal Health Systems recommended allantihelminitic, trypanocides and other drugs since they are notconsidered dangerous. It also recommended regular interaction betweengovernment professional veterinarians and the auxiliaries.
- 48 -
(c) A radius of activity of 30 km, which would cover a total
livestock population of 85,000 VLUs per practice.
Under these assumptions, yearly gross turnover would be approximately
US$85,000 and gross revenue approximately US$20,000 with a net income of
approximately US$10,000. This is substantially above many present
governmental salary scales, and with the possible additional income from
participation in vaccination campaigns and training programs, there seems
to be adequate financial incentive for the establishment of private
professional practices.
4.19 Private professional practitioners might not be attracted to the
pastoral areas, and even middle-level graduates from different ethnic and
regional backgrounds might find it extremely difficult to adjust to the
harsh conditions of such regions. Therefore, representatives of the
pastoralists will have to be involved directly in the pastoral zones. Such
local representatives, preferably the livestock owners themselves, who
migrate with the other producers can be expected to establish a better and
more productive relationships with the other pastoralists. Such pastoral
"grassroot level vet" is already a feature in several livestock development
projects (e.g., Bank-funded Ethiopia Rangeland, Niger Livestock, CAR
Livestock, and USAID-funded Niger Range Livestock Project). Although still
preliminary, initial experiences are favorable, especially where frequent
contacts are maintained between the paravet and the government service, and
where an adequate institutional structure (e.g., pastoral associations,
etc.) is available to provide a framework for their services (para 5.08).
- 49 -
4.20 Simultaneously, with the privatization of curative services,
governmental monopoly on drug distribution should be lifted, although
government should remain responsible for the distribution of drugs where
private initiatives cannot be reached. At the same time, the dangers of
indiscriminate drug use that may arise in a free market system should be
minimized; the following precautionary steps are recommended:
(a) The veterinary service should be the sole authority to determine
which veterinary drugs should be imported, and it should
disseminate price information.
(b) Government should strongly encourage research for establishing
region-specific standard treatments (dosage, timing etc.) against
the most prevalent diseases (para 5.04).
(c) These standard treatments should form an important aspect of the
training program for para-veterinarians (para 5.07).
A schematic presentation of the parallel distribution channels is presented
in Annex 15.
D. Reform of Government Animal Health Services
4.21 To restore the operational capacity of the government services
and in line with a policy toward privatization, the highest priority should
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be given where necessary to restoring the balance between salaries and
non-staff recurrent costs (para 2.07). The automatic recruitment of new
graduates should be abolished, an immediate recruitment freeze imposed on
most services, and early retirement encouraged (para 4.22). In several
countries, such changes in personnel policy would require modifications in
the legislative and administrative procedures.
4.22 In countries with excessive staff in relation to the total budget
resources available, a stronger policy might be needed to induce government
employees to give up their stable, guaranteed salaried jobs and become
self-employed. To facilitate such a difficult transition, a combination of
measures might be required. It could include early retirement through
severance payment as a lump-sum grant for each year of service completed; a
gradual reduction of salary payment over a period of 5 to 10 years,
combined with an immediate official authorization to allow such employees
to be personally remunerated for curative services rendered, preferential
rents on buildings occupied by government, as well as the establishment of
credit funds for the purchase of equipment and vehicles.
4.23 Over-staffing in relation to non-personnel recurrent funding is a
general problem, not restricted to veterinary services, and must,
therefore, also be assessed in the light of its eventual repercussion on
all other branches of the civil services. A solution may have to be found
in a general dialogue on government employment policies. On the other
hand, the veterinary profession is privileged in that it has a clientele
who is willing to pay for its services. This willingness to pay eases the
- 51 -
transfer from the Government service to the private sector and might lessen
therefore, the political nature of eventual staff reductions, facilitate
its introduction and help to keep staff restructuring outside long and
difficult discussions with government on the general principles of a staff
reduction policy.
4.24 As stressed in para 4.14, private initiatives in curative
services need to be encouraged in all Sub-Saharan countries, and not only
in those where they are forced by budget considerations. Several of the
measures enumerated in paragraph 4.22 should therefore become official
government policies. In this context, a model which has been seriously
considered in Kenya whereby the veterinarian has a private practice and is
part-time government employee with reporting responsibilities should be
mentioned. The salary level under this system would be established by
competitive bidding and would include a five-year contract for a practice
and clinical route, with the bidding amount varying from 10% of the salary
up to the full salary costs of the veterinarian and his assistants, while
the practitioner would bear the cost of medicines and transport.
4.25 Simultaneously with staff restructuring, full payment for drugs
including an attractive profit margin for individual treatments and a
partial contribution for vaccinations should be uniformly introduced to
avoid unfair competition with the emerging private sector and to obtain
much-needed funds to sustain the operations. Government subsidies for
inputs usually bar supply from other sources and cause inadequate and
delayed provisions and a wasteful utilization at the producers' level.
- 52 -
Experience from numerous projects indicates that the private producer
appreciates the value of animal health services and drugs and is quite
willing to pay for them at official rates. This was well demonstrated in
the Bank-funded CAR Livestock Project, where drug purchases by traditional
herders jumped from CFAF 5 million in the first semester of 1981 to CFAF 69
million over the same period in 1983, once drug availability increased.
Therefore, charging for services rendered is an indispensable and viable
element for any improvement in the efficiency of animal health delivery
systems.
4.26 These considerations lead to a structure of the veterinary
services which, at the national level, besides the directorate and
administrative departments, would include:
(a) A policy formulation unit to advise senior management of the
veterinary service on training, extension and public health
matters, import and export policies, and to define manpower and
equipment needs.
(b) An epizootiological service to implement and supervise quarantine
regulations (export, market and migratory movement restrictions),
and to supervise vaccination campaigns;
(c) a diagnostic and epizootiological research laboratory, which
would be in close cooperation with the government field service
and the veterinary private sector to:
- 53 -
(i) alert them of impending outbreaks of contagious diseases;
(ii) develop, on the basis of field research, location-specific
standard treatments as a key element of field staff training
programs; and
(iii) be responsible for the quality control of vaccines and
drugs.
(d) A public health service and a veterinary training and extension
unit to be responsible for community organization of livestock
producers, and development of training curricula and extension
packages for the grassroot level para-veterinarian.
4.27 At the regional level, the veterinary services would be
responsible for the organization and supervision of the vaccination
campaigns, the enforcement of quarantine measures in cooperation with the
civiL authorities, and public health control measures and statistical
services. They would also play a key role in training and back-stopping
the grassroot level private sector (para 5.03).
E. Financial Implications
4.28 The restructuring advocated above would imply a reduction in
salary requirements, thus making room for an increase in the budget for
- 54 -
other operating costs. Exact staff requirements for a liberalized system
as described above will need to be developed on a country-by-country basis.
A very tentative estimate (Annex 10) for the six Sahelian countries shows
that no additional budgets would be required and would therefore be viable
despite governments' current financial constraints.
4.29 Provisions would have to be made in some countries to finance the
early retirement of superfluous civil servants. If a lump-sum severance
pay of half a year's salary for every year of service and an average length
of service of five years would be assumed, the required compensation would
be 2-1/2 years' salary. In the Sahelian example, this would mean a
lump-sum of CFAF 2 billion (US$5 million). Donor financing would have to
be envisaged and would be well justified if this could help restore the
operational efficiency of the service.
F. Conclusions
4.30 The package of policy reforms advocated above is both feasible
and highly desirable in view of the current unsatisfactory performance of
government livestock services in Africa. By transferring to the private
sector those tasks that it can handle more effectively and efficiently,
government services would be able to alleviate their organizational
constraints and to restore their operational efficiency, while improving
the quality and accessibility of livestock services to producers. However,
the variability in staffing and staff ratios in the level of funding of
government livestock services and in the political orientation of the
- 55 -
countries concerned makes individualized approaches and in-depth country
studies an absolute prerequisite to the introduction of any of these
elements. Moreover, further experience needs to be gained in the imple-
mentation of both individual elements and the package of reforms.
Therefore, a gradual introduction on a regional pilot basis is necessary.
- 56 -
V. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT ACTIONS
5.01 The organizational changes advocated in this paper for the
development of the private sector, as well as the restructuring of the
public sector, will need active commitment and political support from the
central governments. As part of this, particular attention should be given
to research, training, and organization.
5.02 Greater private sector involvement is most likely to meet
resistance from the government services. Government staff will view
private practitioners as interferences in the area of their competence and
as a threat to their present job security and additional income. The
friction that already exists in many African countries between the
veterinary services and the livestock extension personnel of parastatal
organizations will probably increase if some services are completely
privatized. Central government support to the concept of privatization is
therefore crucial for its successful implementation; without such support,
any scheme is most likely to fail. A country's political attitude toward
privatization is therefore of great importance.
5.03 Governments' positive attitude toward privatization is also
crucial in sustaining the essential link between private practitioners and
government staff. The relationship between the private and the public
sectors would have to be institutionalized through specific rules and
regulations. Under a liberalized system, the two sectors are
- 57 -
complementary: the para-veterinarians need the continuous training and
guidance of the government and the government services require the
grassroot contacts of the para-veterinarians, especially for prompt
detection of disease outbreaks and more generally as a medium for extension
purposes. Such timely information is crucial in the case of disease
outbreaks, as any delay in containing an epidemic means that larger areas
have to be covered in "barrier vaccinations" later, at a higher expense.
The para-veterinarians, therefore, have the important task of advising
veterinary services of impending outbreaks. Regular follow-up visits from
the government veterinarian after the initial training program are
therefore key elements of a liberalized veterinary delivery system.
A. Research
5.04 The dangers of indiscriminate drug use by laymen could be greatly
reduced if the epidemiology of different diseases in particular regions
were known and if standard instructions on application of prescriptions
were made available to all. These instructions could be incorporated in
training programs so that the para-veterinarian would not have to make any
technical decisions, thus reducing the risks of errors. Research to
establish disease patterns should therefore be strengthened and given high
priority. The absence of technical and socio-economic extension packages,
especially in the arid zones (para 3.17), would have to be redressed by a
concerted research effort in the areas of range management, nutrition and
general management. This type of research would be of an applied nature,
- 58 -
system-oriented, and mainly conducted off-station in close cooperation with
the producers and the veterinary services.
B. Training
5.05 The training effort to be mounted in the individual countries
will depend on the pace in which government services reorganize staffing.
Previous experiences indicate that the para-veterinary training should be
preferably designed around&short, 2-4 week courses with continuous
refreshing and upgrading courses, rather than the conventional 2-3 year
approach. This would ensure that para-veterinarians maintain close ties,
and stay longer, with the groups they are to serve, thus solving the fast
turn-over experienced in a number of Bank-funded projects (Senegal, Burkina
Livestock Projects), where para-veterinarians are conventionally trained in
a wide range of subjects (literacy, basic principles of animal husbandry,
etc.), but upon their return to the pastoral areas have lost contact with
their home front and move rapidly back to the urban centers.
5.06 The training of para-veterinarians from the pastoral sector
requires special attention. Although they are generally illiterate and
have very little or no formal training, they have a good practical
knowledge of animal health and can generally recognize the main animal
diseases. Their training program should take these points into
consideration. The USAID Niger Range Livestock Project started an
interesting approach, which might be worthwhile extending to other
situations. In that project, information on indigenous knowledge of animal
- 59 -
disease is initially gathered by a veterinarian and an anthropologist.
This information is used to develop a training curriculum for young
pastoralists. The actual training is being organized semi-annually in
short two-week courses, starting with simple wound treatments and
castration and gradually increasing to more complex diseases. Continuous
follow-up is secured through monthly visits by government veterinarians who
have also been actively involved in the training.
5.07 Training would initially be on health aspects but would
progressively move toward husbandry inputs, once producer confidence has
been gained and research findings become available. The para-veterinarian
could also be an important contact point with the pastoral population and a
very useful part of the extension framework in the crop/livestock areas,
but overloading should be carefully avoided.
5.08 A concerted training effort would also be necessary to recycle
the present veterinary agents. The level of actual knowledge of many
professionals and middle-level personnel is extremely poor and an active
training program, based on a detailed analysis of skill gaps and
requirements, deserves high priority.
C. Organization
5.09 Besides the regular contacts and close working relationships at
the technical level, reliable input supply systems must support the private
- 60 -
practitioner in the field. Experience has shown that para-veterinarians
become more efficient when they are incorporated into some group of
livestock owners such as herders' associations or pre-cooperatives. These
associations could form the economic base for the payment of a small
retainer fee to the para-veterinarian and for the purchase and stocking up
of drugs. The importation and distribution of these inputs could then be
handled by a regional or national umbrella organization of livestock
producers (although the creation of another bureaucracy or monopoly should
be carefully avoided). Initial results in the Bank-funded CAR Livestock
Project, where the National Association of Livestock Producers recently
took charge of drug distribution at the national level, and a similar
system in the Ituri Project in Zaire, are promising. The associations at
the field level could also be used to channel credit and to distribute
other inputs like supplementary feeds. Once they have gained the pastoral
population's confidence through efficient animal health improvement inputs,
the para-veterinarians could also disseminate better husbandry and
nutritional methods, although experience indicates that it is better to
introduce improved nutrition and grazing management after an association
has functioned for a number of years, and not immediately following its
formation, as often attempted mistakenly in pastoral development projects
in the recent past.
5.10 Several legislative and administrative procedures will have to be
adopted in most countries to allow private veterinary auxiliaries to
operate. They include:
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(a) Abolition of the right or obligation of graduate veterinary
assistants and professional veterinarians to enter the civil
service, in most instances combined with a recruitment freeze.
(b) Liberalization of the regulations regarding drug importation and
distribution, with priority in foreign exchange allocation given
to drug imports.
(c) Legislation encouraging actively the creation of pastoral
associations and allowing them to act as commercial entities.
- 62 -
VI. DONORS' POLICIES
6.01 Without active official support from the highest government
level, any private initiative would be in danger to be killed before it
could have taken off. A positive government attitude toward liberalization
of the veterinary services is therefore an absolute prerequisite, shoULd a
donor consider becoming involved. If a positive attitude were developed
(to which donors may well contribute), donors' support could cover both
governmental services and private sector activities.
6.02 Donor support to governments could include, as a first step,
technical assistance in the preparation of national plans for the
restructuring of livestock services including an analysis of the existing
situation and of the future manpower, research and training requirements.
The importance of country-specific reorganization plans has been underlined
earlier. Maximum involvement of local professionals and the veterinary
service concerned is essential. This would then provide the opportunities
to open the dialogue on these sensitive issues and gain the much-needed
political support from within.
- 63 -
6.03 Once a plan has been developed, donor support could further
include:
(a) funding for early retirement of superfluous government staff,
provided it is done under close supervision and allows staff to
start in the private sector;
(b) technical assistance, equipment, and staff training for monitor-
ing diseases and veterinary research laboratories;
(c) technical assistance in developing adapted training programs for
para-veterinarians;
(d) technical assistance, construction and equipment for regional
training centers;
(e) equipment, training and technical assistance in adaptive research
and in extension on animal husbandry and range management; and
(f) funding for non-personnel recurrent costs, provided it forms part
of an integral restructuring of the service and is only of a
temporary nature.
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6.04 Donors could support private initiatives by making funds
available for:
(a) on-lending for the establishment of private practices;
(b) technical assistance and credit for organizations of livestock
producers, and training of their key personnel in the management
of drugs and vaccine distribution; and
(c) technical assistance and credit for the establishment of pastoral
groups.
6.05 Several of these elements have been included in earlier projects,
but generally with disappointing results (para 1.07). One could argue that
there is no guarantee that their impact would be better in the future.
However, the key shift in institutional focus from public sector to the
private sector most probably will, as confirmed by the initial experience
in the region and results in other sectors and regions, provide a more
sustained basis for these investments.
6.06 On the other hand, it would not be advisable -- and could even be
considered impertinent -- to pressure governments into liberalizing their
veterinary services. However, donors should encourage governments to
critically assess the performance of their livestock services, to consider
the need for change, and to examine alternative approaches to the provision
- 65 -
of such services. At the same time, considerable circumspection will be
required from the donor's side in considering funding requests aimed at
sustaining, and thereby perpetuating, current unsatisfactory systems.
6.07 Timeframes for the introduction of changes need to be discussed
individually with each country. Flexibility is desirable, and different
elements of reform could be introduced gradually. However, if the
deteriorating trend in the conservation of the health of an important
African resource is to be halted, a dialogue between donors and African
leaders will have to be initiated immediately, and urgent steps to
alleviate the situation are required. This paper is meant to stimulate
this dialogue and might guide governments and donors into action.
- 67 -
ANNEX 1
1979 HUMAN POPULATION AND GDP (DOLLARS) IN WEST AFRICA(millions)
GDP GDP GDPPopuLation (national) (agriculture) (livestock)
Benin 3.4 850 366 44
Burkina 5.6 860 327 88
Cameroon 8.2 5,330 1,706 171
C.A.R. 2.0 640 237 19
Chad 4.4 570 399 156
Gambia 3.4 850 366 44
Ghana 11.3 10,160 6,706 268
Guinea 5.3 1,540 631 70
Guinea Bissau 0.8 - - -
Ivory Coast 8.2 9,130 2,374 47
Liberia 1.8 940 329 18
Mali 6.8 1,220 512 184
Mauritania 1.6 470 127 110
Niger 5.2 1,710 752 225
Nigeria 82.6 75,170 16,537 1,819
Senegal 5.5 2,480 719 153
Sierra Leone 3.4 790 284 18
Togo 2.4 1,000 250 25
Total 159.7 112.960 32L2L2 3X425
Source: The World Bank, 1981; op. cit.
- 68 -
ANNEX 2
1979 HUMAN POPULATION AND GDP (DOLLARS) IN EAST AFRICA(millions)
GDP GDP GDPPopulation (national) (agriculture) (livestock)
Angola 6.9 2,490 1,195 215
Botswana 0.8 410 86 70
Burundi 4.0 730 400 25
Ethiopia 30.9 3,530 1,620 535
Kenya 15.3 5,280 1,795 630
Lesotho 1.3 240 25 NA
Madagascar 8.5 2,810 945 195
Malawi 5.8 1,220 525 40
Mauritius 0.9 916 230 NA
Mozambique 10.2 2,360 1,038 145
Rwanda 4.9 860 360 18
Somalia 3.8 1,030 620 505
S,aziland 0.5 243 NA NA
Sudan 17.9 7,640 2,905 1,055
Tanzania 18.0 4,130 2,230 805
Uganda 12.8 8,410 4,625 645
Zaire 27.5 6,020 1,985 80
Zambia 5.6 3,240 485 145
Zimbabwe 7.1 3,640 655 235
Total 182.5 55_199 21,704 5,343
Source: World bank data.
ANNEX 3
1979 LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN WEST AFRICA ('000) HEADS)
Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Horses Asses Pigs Poultry
Benin 755 934 900 - 5 - 438 5,000Burkina 2,708 1,854 2,783 7 70 200 174 11,000Cameroon 3,400 2,175 2,500 - - - 1,512 11,110C.A.R. 1,209 75 799 - - - 264 1,504Chad 4,102 - 4,686 - 448 - 445 - 8 3,100Gambia 306 152 164 - - - 10 75Ghana 823 1,130 874 - 3 6 151 4,580Guinea 1,956 1,021 1,021 - - - 37 6,450Guinea Bissau 170 75 50 - - - 77 -Ivory Coast 666 723 566 - - - 320 10,300 0Liberia 30 548 952 - - - 500 1,500Mali 4,048 8,653 - 145 107 377 44 11,000Mauritania 2,100 8,900 - 750 - - - 3,200Niger 3,112 2,756 6,871 358 230 446 30 7,600Nigeria 10,194 9,800 26,000 106 741 3,542 1,332 84,000Senegal 2,565 - 2,325 - 7 270 219 448 7,500Sierra Leone 333 244 134 - - - 15 3,600Togo 211 825 739 - 1 1 270 2,233
Total 38 688 91,184 1821 L 6=93 5 =60 175X752
Sources: IEMVT, 1980. op. cit. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Production Yearbook. FAO, 1981.
ANNEX 4
1979 LIVESTOCK POPULATION IN EAST AFRICA ('000 HEADS)
Country Cattle Sheep Goats Camels Horses Asses Pigs Poultry
Angola 3,120 220 930 - 1 5 380 5,300Botwana 3,300 450 1,200 - 9 42 22 3,500Burundi 836 336 585 - - - 51 3,032
Ethiopia 25,900 23,200 17,120 966 1,530 3,300 18 52,956Kenya 10,480 4,000 4,500 550 2 - 65 17,500Madagascar 8,744 658 1,583 - 2 - 580 14,082Malawi 790 140 860 - - - 174 8,000Mozambique 1,380 105 330 - - 20 110 17,500Rwanda 640 257 786 - - - 83 872
Somalia 3,800 10,000 16,000 5,400 1 46 9 2,800Sudan 17,300 17,200 1,200 2,500 20 680 8 26,000Tanzania 15,300 3,000 4,800 - - 160 25 20,700Uganda 5,400 1,070 2,145 - - 16 225 13,100Zaire 1,140 779 2,785 - - - 753 12,411Zambia 1,800 51 300 - - - 180 14,000Zimbabwe 5,000 754 2,060 - 15 1 218 8,704
Total 104x92O 62X22O 57.L084 9,416 1 581 6,270 2.901 260.040
Source: World Bank data.
- 71 -
ANNEX 5
THE ECONOMICS OF ANIMAL HEALTH SERVICES
1. The economic benefits of animal health services are difficult toquantify but their importance can be readily illustrated from Africanexperience. Animal health improvements have not only a direct effect onreduced mortality but also indirect effects on productivity and fertility,herd structure, etc.; furthermore, the spread of contagious diseaseswithout effective benefits would, therefore, tend to underestimate theoverall impact of improved health output.
2. The magnitude of the problem can best be illustrated by the highrates of disease-related mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Surveys carriedout among traditional herds generally give between 25-40% mortality inyoung stock and between 3-15% in adult. Information on the losses causedby the recent Rinderpest outbreak in West Africa is scarce: figures of10-15% mortality are mentioned in Cameroon, and one million head inNigeria, giving rise to a very tentative estimate of a total loss ofapproximately 3-4 million head, representing approximately US$300-400million.
3. The few studies that have looked at particular diseases generallyreport very high returns. For example, Felton and Ellis (1978) 1/ reporteda cost/benefit ratio of 1:8 for the Rinderpest campaign, and a similarratio for foot-and-mouth disease. An internal rate of return between 12%and 53% was calculated for brucellosis control in Chad 2/ depending onwhether the cost was shared with other vaccination campaigns, and whetherthe level of infection was high.
1/ Felton and Ellis. Studies on the Control of Rinderpest in Nigeria.Study No. 23, Reading Univeristy, 1978.
2/ Domenech, J., Coulomb, J. and P. Lucet. Brucellosis in Chad:Impact of Animal Disease Control in Africa. Berlin, 1981.
- 72 -
ANNEX 6
BANK/IDA FINANCED LIVESTOCK PROJECTS IN WEST AFRICA
Loan/Credit VeterinaryAmounts Component
Year Country US$ million % Features
1971 Mauritania 4.1 25 Regional, infrastructureequipment, vaccines,operating costs
1972 Chad I 2.2 -
1974 Cameroon I 11.6 -
1974 Ghana 2.0 -
1974 Nigeria 21.0 -
1975 Mali 13.3 20 Regional, infrastructure,equipment, vaccines, drugs,operating costs
1975 Burkina 9.0 10 Regional, infrastructure,equipment, drugs, vaccines,operating costs
1976 Senegal 4.2 15 Regional, infrastructure,equipment, drugs andvaccines
1978 Chad II 11.5 a/ 30 Countrywide, infrastructtureequipment, drugs, vaccines
1979 Niger 12.0 20 Regional, infrastructure,equipment, vaccines, drugs,operating costs
1979 CAR 2.5 80 Regional, infrastructure,equipment, vaccines, drugs,operating costs
1980 Cameroon II 16.0 12 Regional, irfrastructure,equipment, drugs, vaccines,training
1980 Guinea 17.5 95 Countryside, infrastructure,equipment, drugs, vaccines,training
Total Livestock Projects US$126.9 million
Total Veterinary Components US$ 31.6 million (25%)
a/ Project cancelled before effectiveness.'ource: World Bank Data.
- 73 -
ANNEX 7
LIVESTOCK PROJECTS WITH ANIMAL HEALTHCOMPONENTS IN EAST AFRICA
Loan Total VeterinaryYear Country Credit Amount Project Components
1972 Ethiopian Dairy 4.4 6.5 0.41
1975 Ethiopian Rangelands 27.0 42.9 4.59
1969 Kenya I 3.6 11.4 0.30
1974 Kenya II 21.5 59.7 0.46
1975 Madagascar Village 9.6 12.8 1.21
1974 Rwanda 3.8 4.3 0.23
1974 Somalia Trans. 10.0 11.5 0.25
1979 Somalia Central 25.0 51.3 2.40
1973 Zaire 8.5 15.0 1.05
1977 Zaire Ituri 3.5 16.1 4.60
1982 Uganda Agric. Recon. 20.0 21.5 4.30
1982 Sudan Western Sav. 13.0 21.5 1.80
1983 Uganda Rehab. 70.0 90.0 8.30
Total 219.9 364.5 28.90
Source: World Bank Data
- 74 -
ANNEX 8
ORGANIGRAM OF TYPICAL LIVESTOCK SERVICE
Minister Diagnosis
Laboratories Research, ~~~Vaccine Production
nimal Production Service Animal husbandry research
,I/ | \ stations
[Other Dep!rt-7^nts|H SL.-port Un its A'IIlAL HEALTH|
Primary centres(region, country, zone, etc.)
Secondary centres(sectors, etc.)
Tertiary centres(posts, etc.)
Source: IEMVT, 1980; op. cit.
- 75 -
ANNEX 9
NATIONAL VERSUS LIVESTOCK BUDGETS IN WEST AFRICA a'
(CFAF million)
GCrowthOver 14 Annual
Country 1961 - 1962 1965 - 1966 1975 - 1976 Years Crowth
Amount 2 Amount A,,.' 2
BURKINAiiiio---1 Budget 6,044.7 Lo0 8,924.0 100 21,112 100 249 9.4Livestock Budget 86.7 1.4 127.8 1.4 186.9 0.9 Ll1 5.7of which:
Personnel 62.2 71.7 103.0 80.6 166.4 89.0 168 7.3Non Personnel 24.5 28.3 24.8 19.4 20.5 11.0 (16) (1.2)
MALIRat-onal Budget 3,399.3 100 5,258.0 100 14,770.2 100 335 11.1Livestock Budgec 90.9 2.7 56.8 1.1 173.8 1.2 91 4.7of which:
Personnel 75.4 83.0 38.6 68.0 118.4 68.1 57 3.3Non Personnol 15.5 17.0 18.2 32.0 55.4 31.9 257 9.5
HAURtTANtENationai Tudgec 2,993.1 100 4,350.0 100 20,305.0 100 578 14.7Livescock Budgec 126.0 4.2 86.5 2.0 220.0 1.1 75 4.1of which:
Personnel 55.7 44.2 58.4 67.5 147.5 67.0 165 7.2Non Personnel 70.3 55.8 28.1 32.5 72.5 33.0 3 0.2
NIGERVational Budget 6,000.0 100 6,398.0 100 28,050.0 100 367 11.7Livestock Budget 181.0 3.0 190.5 3.0 371.4 1.3 105 5.3of which:
Personnel 109.0 60.2 119.6 62.8 214.3 57.7 97 5.0Non Personnel 72.0 39.8 70.9 37.2 157.1 42.3 118 5.7
SENEGCALNationaL Budget 20,806.8 100 45,948.0 100 71,000.0 1o0 2:1 9.2Livestock Budget 197.9 1.0 365.3 0.8 653.5 0.9 230 8.9of which:
Personnel 119.3 60.3 252.3 69.1 545.5 83.5 357 11.5Son Personnel 78.6 39.7 113.0 30.9 108.0 16.5 37 2.3
OLaDNotLonal Budgtc 3,746.0 100 8,269.0 100 19,285.9 100 415 12.4Livestock Budget 126.7 3.4 153.6 1.9 172.1 0.9 36of which:
Personnel 92.7 73.2 102.8 66.9 144.1 83.7 55 1.2Mon Personnel 34.0 26.8 50.8 33.1 28.0 16.3 (13) <1.-)
bes1a f-6 CountrLes
National Budget 42,989.9 100 79. 1.7.0 100 ;74.523.1 100 3C I CALivestock Bu.gec 809.2 1.9 380.5 1.2 1,777.7 1.0 1.20 5.8of which:
Personnel 514.3 63.6 S 7 S8.S 1.336.2 75.2 :I!Non Personnel 294.9 36.4 305.i 31.2 15 24.8
a/ Current prices
Source: IEMVI, 1980; op. cit.
ANNEX 10
ACTUAL AND REQUIRED BUDGETS FOR DIFFERENT ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS OF LIVESTOCK SERVICESIN SIX SAHELIAN COUNTRIES a/
Withoutstructural With
Numbers of Personnel Actual (1979-1980) changes privatization
Higher level 124 124 110Middle level 780 780 440Field level 1,808 1,808 1,300Temporary staff N/A - 1,300
Budget (CFAF million) b/
Total personnel costs 1,557.6 1,560 860
Transportation, communications 448.1 1,560 860and other supplies
Materials - 480 480
Total livestock services budgets 2z0O5.7 3X600 _22__
a/ Burkina, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal.b/ In 1980 prices.
- 77 -
ANNEX 11
LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURE BUDGETS a IN SOMEEASTERN AFRICA COUNTRIES
Country 1970/1971 1980/1981
Botswana: (000 P)Livestock ServiceStaff 513 1,758Non staff 642 6,741Revenue 315 1,357
Agr. Ext. Service 2,176 15,846
Kenya (000 Kenya Pounds) 1974/1975 1980/1981Livestock Service
Staff 1,668 7,082Non staff 2,664 5,460Revenue 1,130 2,082
Agr. Ext. Service 13,215 47,530
Malawi (Malawi K.) 1970/1971 1980/1981Livestock Service
Staff 346 1,145Non staff 339 1,931Revenue 234 921
Tanzania (000 Fish) 1970/1971 1980/1981Livestock Service
Staff 14,859 59,281Non staff 14,316 37,251Revenue 2,811 N/A
/Agr. Ext. Service 131,778a current prices
Zambia (000°2K) 1970 1980Livestock Service
Staff 703 1,784Non staff 1,910 2,170Revenue 20 39
Agr. Ext. Service 24,876 222,775
Zimbabwe (0002) 1977/1972 1980/1982Livestock Services
Staff 1,384 3,361Non staff 1,444 3,570Revenue N/A 463
Agr. Ext. Service 29,205 66,939
Source: Anteneh, 1984; op. cit.
ANNEX 12
PERSONNEL IN THE LIVESTOCK SERVICES (WEST AFRICA)
Higher-Level Staff Medium-Level Staff Field Staff(Category S) (Category M) (Category E) Expatriates
Veterinary Veterinary Veterinary and Lab.Doctors Engineers Controllers Assistants Assistants Nurses Other staff Total
Benin 30 13 2 57 119 75 - 296Burkina 12 - 4 30 149 34 103 - 332Cameroon 31 17 - 191 178 88 - 4 509C.A.R. 10 4 10 29 143 57 - 5 258Chad 14 10 43 109 163 Temp. 76 12 427Gambia 1 1 1 20 31 44 9 - 107Ghana 127 - 11 70 98 295 - - 601Guinea 14 52 258 48 65 52 - - 489Guinea Bissau 1 - - 5 50 150 - 14 220Ivory Coast 42 21 75 160 335 419 - - 1,052Liberia 9 1 1 20 35 43 10 7 126Mali 35 40 52 104 335 93 220 - 879Mauritania 5 4 - 33 59 64 - 8 173Niger 24 9 14 110 231 102 36 - 526Nigeria 389 - 595 410 740 1,734 - 68 3,936Senegal 34 114 5 251 220 136 55 - 817Sierra Leone 4 11 2 16 15 25 - 2 75Togo 21 14 9 17 54 27 168 3 313
Total 803 311 1 68O 3t022 3s438 677 123 11X136
Percent 10.0 24.8 64.1 1.1 100
Source: IEMVT, 1980; op. cit.FAO/ARCN. Country Profile Study, Nigeria Agricultural Manpower Planning, 1978.
- 79 -
ANNEX 13
STAFFING OF VETERINARY SERVICES (EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA)
Country 1970 1980
BotswanaHigher 24 23Middle 41 57Lower 173 240
KenyaHigher 111* 344Middle 289* 331Lower 1,445* 2,598
MalawiHigher 10 16Middle level 34 58Lower level 268 234
Tanzania N/A N/A
ZambiaHigher 15 N/AMiddle 25 N/ALower 48 N/A
ZimbabweHigher N/A 53Middle N/A 46Lower N/A 349
* 1973
Source: Anteneh (1985), op. cit.
ANNEX 14
COST RECOVERY POLICIES
All vaccinations and All vaccinations free; Some vaccinations All vaccinations andtreatments free other services other services treatments to be
paid for paid for paid for
Benin xBurkina xCameroon xC.A.R. xChad xGambia xGhana xGuinea xGuinea Bissau xIvory Coast x 0Liberia a/ !Mali - xMauritania xNiger xNigeria xSenegal xSierra Leone x xTogo x
a/ No information available.
Source: IEMVT, 1980; op. cit.
- 81 -ANNEX 15
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK OF VETERINARY INPUTS
HERDERS ASSOCIATIONS
9 X Q . Q g g Animal Health…Y^ Auxiliaries
I~~~~- - - - , ---- "-'1---"---------- -------- ------- 11 ----- ,/// 1 m"
eterinarl V V.P.I
Retailsp~~~~~~
lu | pepartment , I I Pharma.n |B b D.S. 1 service st' re|
B~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iL L i /ItV
|I I | ,) | ~~~~ ~~i l' ,E
i P.S. | services S. E
E S S
C il , ET Veterina- CT i$anagement Liv i Pharmac- rians (pro- DealersO stock Services ies fessionall O
IR | 0 ,' | / / R1u , ~~~~~~~~~~i IR
Central Sup-ply "harmacy
.____________________________ t __j < _ % H Importers & Whole-salers
SUPPLIERS
(CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES,MANUFACTURERS OF VETERINARY EQUIPMENT)
Source: Y. Cheneau."Vers de Nouvelles Structures pour le Dgveloppement de l'Elevageau Sud du Sahara", 1984.
- 83 -
REFERENCES
Anteneh, Addis. Financing Animal Health Services in Some AfricanCountries. LPU Working Paper No.1, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1984.
Anteneh, Addis. Financing Animal Health Services in Some Countries of Eastand Southern Africa. LPU Working Paper No.6, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,1985.
Cheneau, Y. "Vers de Nouvelles Structures pour le Developpement del'Elevage au Sud du Sahara" (Translation), paper presented at the Seminaron Basic Animal Health Structures Bujumbura, 1984.
Domenech, J.L., Coulomb, J. and Lucet, P. Brucellosis in Chad: Impact ofAnimal Disease Control in Africa. Berlin, 1981.
Felton, G. and P. Ellis. Studies on the Control of Rinderpest in Nigeria.Study No. 23, Reading University, 1978.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO/ARCN). Country Profile Study NigeriaAgricultural Manpower Planning, 1978.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Production Year Book, 1981.
Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Vfterinaire des Pays Tropicaux (IEMVT).Intensified Control of Epizootic Diseases in West and Central Africa.Maisons Alfort, France, 1980.
Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux (IEMVT).Survey on the Potentialities of the African Laboratories for Reinderpestand Pleuropneumonia Vaccine Production. Maisons Alfort, France, 1983.
International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA). Annual Report 1983,1984.
Leonard, D.K. African Practice and the Theory of User Fees. (UnpublishedPaper.) ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1984.
Sandord, Stephen. Management of Pastoral Development in the Third World.ODI, John Wiley, London, England, 1983.
SEDES/GTZ. Animal Health in the Sahelian Countries, 1977.
The World Bank. Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. An agendafor Action, 1981.
WORLD BANIK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued)
No. 25. Industrialization in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strategies and Performance
No. 26. Small Enterprise Development: Economic Issues from African Experience
No. 27. Farming Systems in Africa: The Great Lakes Highlands of Zaire, Rwanda,and Burundi (also available in French as 27F)
No. 28. Technical Assistance and Aid Agency Staff: Alternative Techniquesfor Greater Effectiveness
No. 29. Handpumps Testing and )evelopment: Progress Report on Field and Laboratory Testing
No. 30. Recycling from Municipal Refuse: A State-of-the-Art Review and Annotated Bibliography
No. 31. Remanufacturing: The .xperience of the United States and Implicationsfor Developing Countries
No. 32. World Refinery Industr7: Need for Restructuring
No. 33. Guidelines for Calculat:ing Financial and Economic Rates of Return for DFC Projects
No. 34. Energy Efficiency in the Pulp and ping Countries
No. 35. Potential for Energy Efficiency *** SF 719 S92 H33 1985 c.2
No. 36. Aquaculture: A Compone!nt of Low Ha C d
No. 37. Municipal Waste Processing in El lsand Energy Recovery Prcjects Aniial health services in =
SUb-q :h;;rrn- ;,.-No. 38. Bulk Shipping and Terminal Log:
No. 39. Cocoa Production: Present Conm
No. 40. Irrigation Design and Managemei
No. 41. Fuel Peat in Developing Countr:
No. 42. Administrative and Operational sand Area Upgrading
No. 43. Farming Systems Research: A Rt
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