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COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR
Formulation and Operationalization of National Action
Plan for Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development through
Agriculture (NAPA)
Working Paper - 6
Yangon, June 2016
5.
Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irrigation
7.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................................... i 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 2. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 1
2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture ......................................................... 1 2.2. Coastal resources management ........................................................................................................ 1 2.3. Myanmar .......................................................................................................................................... 2 2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar ............................................................................................................ 3 2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar ............................................................................... 3 2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar ............................................................................................... 3 2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone ........................................................................................................ 4 2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone ...................................................................................................... 5 2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone .................................................................................................. 5 2.10. Sector history ................................................................................................................................. 5 2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance ................................................................................ 6 2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods .......................................................................... 8
3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ......................................... 9 3.1. Integrated coastal management ........................................................................................................ 9 3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities .................................................................................................................... 11 3.3. Water resource management .......................................................................................................... 13 3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply ....................................................................................... 14 3.5. Waste management and sanitation ................................................................................................. 15 3.6. Integrating environmental management ......................................................................................... 18 3.7. Environmental education and awareness........................................................................................ 20 3.8. Management of information and knowledge .................................................................................. 21 3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements .......................................................................................... 23 3.10. Access to financial resources ....................................................................................................... 24
4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................. 25 4.1. Government institutions ................................................................................................................. 25 4.2. Research and education .................................................................................................................. 27 4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and international
organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 28 4.4. Non-government organizations ...................................................................................................... 29 4.5. Regional bodies .............................................................................................................................. 30 4.6. Private sector .................................................................................................................................. 31
5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ...................... 31 5.1. Coastal development – major sectors ............................................................................................. 31 5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and transport sectors ....... 32 5.3. Mining sector ................................................................................................................................. 33 5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector ..................................................................... 33 5.5. Oil and gas sector ........................................................................................................................... 33 5.6. Tourism and recreational sector ..................................................................................................... 34 5.7. Coastal agriculture ......................................................................................................................... 34 5.8. Coastal livestock and farming ........................................................................................................ 35 5.9. Coastal forestry .............................................................................................................................. 36 5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry ................................................................................................. 37 5.11. Community co-management ........................................................................................................ 39 5.12. High priority marine corridors ..................................................................................................... 39 5.13. Water quality ................................................................................................................................ 39 5.14. Natural hazards ............................................................................................................................. 40 5.15. Offshore resources........................................................................................................................ 41 5.16. Coastal issues ............................................................................................................................... 42
6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS .............................................................................. 42 7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT ................................... 43 8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS ................................................................................ 43
8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas ......................................................................... 43
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8.2. Rural development and enterprise .................................................................................................. 44 8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives .................................................................................................. 44 8.4. Forestry .......................................................................................................................................... 45 8.5. Aquaculture .................................................................................................................................... 46 8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity ........................................................................................... 47 8.7. Coastal zone management .............................................................................................................. 47 8.8. Fishing ............................................................................................................................................ 48 8.9. Mariculture ..................................................................................................................................... 49 8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction ................................................................................................ 50 8.11. Coastal protection ......................................................................................................................... 50 8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas ............................................................................................ 51 8.13. Recreation and tourism ................................................................................................................. 51 8.14. Wind and wave energy ................................................................................................................. 52 8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management .......................................................... 53
9. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 55 ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 57 ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN MYANMAR ............. 59 ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS .................................................................... 60
Intervention 1. Land-use policy ............................................................................................................ 60 Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority ..................................................................... 63 Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR)
technique ............................................................................................................................................... 64 Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development ......................................................................... 66 Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees ........................ 68 Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater ..................................................................................................... 69 Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options .............................................................................. 71 Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building ....................................................................... 73 Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping ............................................................................................. 75 Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems ........................................ 76 Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension ............................................. 78
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ACRONYMS
ADB Asian Development Bank
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BANCA Biodiversity and Nature Conservation
BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem project
CB Cooperative Bank
CBM Central Bank of Myanmar
CCS Central Cooperative Society
CSO Central Statistics Office
CSO Civil Society Organization
DAP Department of Agriculture Planning
DAR Department of Agricultural Research
DICD Department of Industrial Crops Development
DOA Department of Agriculture
DOF Department of Fisheries
DFID Department for International Development
DRD Department of Rural Development
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FD Forest Department
FY Financial Year
GAD General Administration Department
ICAM Integrated Coastal Area Management
IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated (fishing)
LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund
MADB Myanmar Agriculture Development Bank
MoAI Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
MLFRD Ministry of Fisheries, Livestock and Rural Development
MOC Ministry of Cooperatives
MOECF Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry
MPA Marine Protected Area
MSAM Marine Science Association of Myanmar
NCEA National Commission for Environmental Affairs
NGO Non-government Organization
NAPA National Action Plan for Agriculture
NSPARD National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural Development
REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
SEE State Economic Enterprises
SEZ Special Economic Zone
SPDC State Peace and Development Council
TBD To Be Determined
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VFV Virgin, Fallow, and Vacant
WRUD Water Resources Utilisation Department
YAU Yezin Agriculture University
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1. INTRODUCTION
The Myanmar Government has given high priority to rural development and poverty
alleviation and articulated a National Strategy on Poverty Alleviation and Rural
Development (NSPARD). This strategy has recognized the need for formulating several
sectoral strategies and plans, of which one would be for agriculture and rural development.
It is in this context that the Government of Myanmar requested the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) to provide technical support for the
formulation of the NSPARD’s National Action Plan for Agriculture (NAPA). This
programme is multifaceted and includes coastal resources management.
2. BACKGROUND
Myanmar, since ancient times has been famous for its wealth of natural resources. The
Sanskrit name Suvarnabhumi, meaning ‘Golden Land’ has been associated with Myanmar
for over two millennia. Myanmar’s natural resources include pristine ecosystems like
mangroves, coral reefs, sea-grass beds, sandy beaches and intertidal mudflats, mountains,
terrestrial and wetland forests; fishery, oil and gas, various minerals, precious stones and
gems, timber and forest products, hydropower potential and so forth. Of these, natural gas,
rubies, jade, paddy, fishery and timber logs are the most valuable and currently provide a
substantial proportion of national income. Unsustainable development in Myanmar has been
damaging the coastal ecosystems (particularly mangrove forests), which provide resilience
against sea-level rise induced by global climate change and exacerbating rural poverty in
coastal areas. Exploitation of coastal resources has increased to such an alarming rate that it
is now time for their improved management and sustainable utilization. Therefore, an
overall strategy, particularly for coastal resources management, is imperative and the NAPA
is an ideal tool to pursue this.
2.1. Basic principles for the National Action Plan for Agriculture
The formulation process for the NAPA will strongly encourage the participation of
stakeholders at all levels to ensure a diversity of inputs to the plan and to foster ownership
by a wide range of stakeholders and the government. Poverty alleviation will be an
overriding focus of the NAPA and this will be reflected through the integration throughout
the plan of such key aspects as social protection, rural employment, women’s economic
empowerment and the strengthening of rural institutions and services as well as equitable
access to resources.
As a result of the fundamental shifts in priorities and policy orientation currently taking
place in Myanmar, the scope of the NAPA must also be broad enough to cover all important
segments and interlinkages within the agriculture and rural development sectors. Agriculture
in NAPA is defined broadly to include crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry as well as
several subsectors of the rural economy closely linked to agriculture such as agro-industries,
product value chains, markets, finance etc.
2.2. Coastal resources management
Coastal resources management includes a wide array of management practices such as: land-
use planning; legal, administrative and institutional execution; demarcation on the ground;
inspection and control of adherence to decisions; solution of land tenure issues; settling of
water rights; issuing of concessions for plant, animal and mineral extraction (e.g. wood and
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non-wood forest products, fishery resources, hunting, peat); and safeguarding the rights of
different interest groups (e.g. traditional and indigenous people, women).
Coastal area management is too complex to be handled by traditional sectoral planning and
management. To be effective, planning for integrated coastal area management (ICAM)
must be coordinated between sectoral implementing agencies. A balanced management
perspective is needed in which intersectoral relationships are fully understood, trade-offs
recognized and anticipated, benefits and alternatives critically assessed, appropriate
management interventions identified and implemented, and necessary institutional and
organizational arrangements worked out. This is the essence of ICAM.
2.3. Myanmar
Myanmar is situated in Southeast Asia and is bordered to the north and northeast by the
People’s Republic of China, to the east and southeast by Lao PDR and Thailand, to the south
by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal and to the west by Bangladesh and India It is
located between 09 32' north and 28 31' north latitudes and 92 10' east and 101 11' east
longitudes.
The country covers an area of 677 000 km2 ranging 936 kilometres from east to west and 2
051 kilometres from north to south. It is a land of hills and valleys and is rimmed in the
north, east and west by mountain ranges forming a giant horseshoe. Enclosed within the
mountain barriers are the flatlands of the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin and Sittaung River
valleys where most of the country's agricultural land and population are concentrated.
Climatically Myanmar has summer, rainy, and winter seasons. Summer lasts from the end of
February to the beginning of May, with the highest temperatures occurring during March
and April, in Central Myanmar sometimes exceeding 43.3°C, in Northern Myanmar about
36.1°C and on the Shan Plateau between 29.4°C and 35°C. The rainy season extends from
mid-May to the end of October with annual rainfall of less than 40 inches in Central
Myanmar while the coastal regions of Rakhine and Tanintharyi receive about 200 inches.
Winter starts in November and lasts to the end of February with temperatures in hilly areas
of over 3 000 feet dropping below 0°C.
Myanmar's population of approximately 54.6 million makes it the world's 25th
most
populous country (ADB 2012); it is the second largest country in Southeast Asia.
Rice, pulses, beans, sesame, groundnuts, sugar cane; fish and fish products; and hardwood
are the major agricultural products. Currently, agricultural processing; wood and wood
products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement and construction materials; pharmaceuticals;
fertilizer; oil and natural gas; garments; jade; and gems are the industrial outputs of the
country. Natural gas, wood products, pulses, beans, fish, rice, clothing, jade and gems are
the major export commodities and fabric, petroleum products, fertilizer, plastics, machinery,
transport equipment, cement, construction materials, crude oil, food products and edible oil
are imports.
Myanmar claims to have three national parks and 17 wildlife sanctuaries (including two
marine and three wetland environments), which together protect about 1 percent of the
nation's total land surface; the government reports plans to raise protection to 5 percent by
the end of the century.
Since the transition to a civilian government in 2011, Myanmar has aimed at attracting
foreign investment and reintegrating into the global economy. The government’s
commitment to reform and the subsequent easing of most Western sanctions, has begun to
pay dividends. The economy accelerated in 2012 and 2013. Myanmar’s abundant natural
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resources, young labour force and proximity to Asia’s dynamic economies have attracted
foreign investment in the energy sector, garment industry, information technology and food
and beverages. Foreign direct investment grew from US$1.9 billion in FY 2011 to US$2.7
billion in FY 2012 and stood at US$4.11 billion during the fiscal year to March 2014
(Central Statistics Organization, Myanmar 2014). Despite these improvements, living
standards have not improved for most of the people residing in rural areas. Myanmar
remains one of the poorest countries in Asia − more than one-fourth of the country’s
estimated 54.6 million people live in poverty. Key benchmarks of sustained economic
progress would include modernizing and opening of the financial sector, increasing budget
allocations for social services and accelerating agricultural and land reforms
2.4. Coastal regions of Myanmar
Myanmar has a rich and diverse coastline, a fertile coastal plain, productive offshore waters
and a tropical climate that provides a strong basis for integrated sustainable development
that will support both a prosperous society and healthy ecosystems and biodiversity.
One-third of Myanmar’s total perimeter of 1 930 kilometres forms an uninterrupted
coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.
Myanmar’s coastline can be divided into three major coastal regions and portions of the
three divisions viz., Yangon, Bago and Mon also fall under the coastal region:
The Rakhine coastline is about 740 kilometres long and extends from the Naff
River to Mawtin Point. It is shallow and deltaic in the northern section and
rocky in the southern part.
The Deltaic coastal region extends about 460 kilometres from Mawtin Point to
the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and consists of the entire river-mouth areas
of three major rivers, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin.
Sedimentation at a rate of about 250 million tonnes per year results in seaward
delta growth at a rate of about 50 metres per year. The southeastern portion of
the central deltaic area comprises the coast of Mon State. Here, the Thanlwin
River opens into the Gulf of Mottama (Martaban) and ‘Balu- Kyune’ (Giant
Island) lies at its mouth.
The 900 kilometre-long Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) coastline extends from the
Gulf of Mottama south to the mouth of the Pakchan River. It is fringed in the
southern part by the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago island chain. There are
many estuaries and islands along these coastal regions.
2.5. Topography of the coastal regions of Myanmar
In the northwest, the coast has rocky ridges with deep channels. South of Cape Negrais, the
southern delta coast is formed by silt from the Ayeyarwaddy and other rivers. From the
mouth of the Sittang River, the coast stretches to the south, studded with inlets, rocky cliffs
and coral reefs.
The Rakhine coastal plain forms a narrow strip, mostly between 5 and 20 kilometres wide,
but up to 60 kilometres in places, rising to the Rakhine Yoma mountain range parallel to the
coast to the east. It is traversed by a number of short, fast-flowing rivers. The Ayeyarwaddy
Delta and its adjoining coastal plains form an expanse of fertile alluvial land with a network
of small rivers and streams extending northward inland to varying distances of some 80 to
320 kilometres. The Tanintharyi coastal plain in the south is similar to the Rakhine plain,
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being narrow, crossed by short rivers and rising to the Tanintharyi Yoma mountain range
parallel to the coast.
Many rivers flow into the coastal zones such as the Mayu and Kaladan rivers in the Rakhine
coastal area, the Ayeyarwaddy, Sittaung and Thanlwin rivers in the Delta coastal area and
the Ye, Dawai, Tanintharyi and Lenya rivers in the Tanintharyi coastal area.
Offshore, there are many large islands and hundreds of smaller ones. The islands off
Myanmar's western coast and delta have been formed by erosion of the shoreline. Just off
the northwest (Rakhine) coast, the large islands of Ramree (1 350 km2) and Cheduba (523
km2) support volcanic activity. Bilugyun is a large island on the southwest coast. Also in the
southwest is an undersea ridgeline that forms the Myeik (Mergui) Archipelago, with islands
ranging in size from Kadan Island (440 km2) to small rocks. The Myeik Archipelago extends
from Mali Island to Similan Island and includes about 800 islands covering an area of about
34 340 km2 lying up to 30 kilometres offshore. Coral reefs surround the outer islands and
mangroves cover many of the inner islands.
In terms of Myanmar’s territorial sea zone, it has limits of 12 nautical miles (nm), the
contiguous zone is 24 nm and the continental shelf is 200 nm or to the edge of the
continental margin (0-200-metre depth), covering an area of approximately 2 30 000 km2; it
is relatively narrow off the Rakhine coast, widest (and still growing) off the central delta and
there is a relatively wide portion off Tanintharyi to the south.
The oceanographic conditions of Myanma marine waters are governed by the monsoon
regime and the influence of the Ayeyarwaddy River reaches far out to the coastal waters
around Myanmar. Inland waterbodies like natural lakes, reservoirs, river systems and ponds
cover a total area of about 13 327 km2. Inland water systems together with the high annual
rainfall provide vast water resources for the country. Wetland fauna and flora are found in
many parts of the country. The principal wetlands are mangroves, swamp forests, lakes and
marshes.
Information on corals is scare mainly due to limited funds and tools essential to access
present coral status. Rakhine, and Tanintharyi coastal areas are favourable grounds for both
hard and soft corals. In particular, the offshore islands of the Myeik Archipelago are most
abundantly distributed with diverse coral communities. The reef formation in the
Ayeyarwaddy coastal zone is restricted to Coco and Preparis islands which lie far off the
influence of river runoff.
The mangroves are still relatively pristine compared to those in the neighbouring countries
such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. Estimated total mangrove forest cover was 531
000 ha in 1980, but in 2010 it was around 312 000 ha according to Forest Department
statistics. Again in 2010, Forest Statistics indicated it was 659 033 ha, however this also
included encroachments by agriculture, fisheries and others inside the mangrove forests of
around 346 590 ha. Mangrove forests in Myanmar cover 494 584 ha, that is 3.6 percent of
the global total (Giri et al. 2011), using earth observation satellite data.
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Table 1: Description of the coastal regions of Myanmar
Coastal region Agriculture Resources Tourism
Rakhine State*
Rakhine State is
located between
17o 21'N and
21o 24 'N
latitudes and
92o 10 'E and
94o 54 'E
longitudes
bordering
Bangladesh to
the northwest,
Chin State to the
north, Magway
Division, Bago
Division and
Ayeyarwaddy
Division to the
east and the Bay
of Bengal to the
west and south
Agriculture is
the main
economic
activity:
principal crops
being paddy,
chili, Myanmar
tobacco,
coconut, betel
nut and dhani.
Groundnut,
maize, rubber,
matpe, bocate
bean, soybean,
and gram are
also cultivated.
The
Kissapanadi
River runs
through the
state, giving
water for
plantation
Oil exploration is in progress
along Rakhine offshore.
Rathetaung Township,
Baronga Island, Cheduba
Island, Ramree Island and
Muwe island produce some
oil. Coal is found in Sittwe
Township and marble in
Taungup Township. There is
a four-mile-long limestone
hill on Ramree Island. Half
of the state is covered with
forests that yield valuable
woods and bamboos. Solar
salt making is another
occupation in Thandwe,
Taungup and Kyaukpyu
townships
The main lines of
communication to Rakhine
State are by sea and by air.
Kyaukpyu port is a good
international freighter port
The famous
unspoiled Ngapali
beach is in Rakhine
State, stretching
along the Bay of
Bengal. It is famous
for its clean aqua
blue water and the
sandy beach. There
are many luxury
hotels for tourists
and locals for
accommodation. The
southern beach of
Kanthaya is reached
from Ayeyarwaddy
Division by road.
Mrauk U, or the
ancient city of the
Rakhine Dynasty is
also a popular
destination in this
state
Ayeyarwaddy
Region*
The
Ayeyarwaddy
Region covers
the deltaic coast
of the
Ayeyarwaddy
River. On the
northwest and
west of this
division are the
Bay of Bengal
and Rakhine
State, on the
north and east is
Bago Division,
on the east is the
Yangon Division,
and on the south
is the Andaman
Sea
The division is
the top paddy
producer in the
country and is
commonly
known as ‘the
granary of
Myanmar’.
Agriculture is
the main
occupation of
the people.
The fertile
alluvial soil of
the delta
enables
cultivation of
paddy,
groundnut,
sesame,
coconut,
banana, jute,
tobacco, chili,
onions, pulses
and tapioca
The division is criss-crossed
with rivers and lakes and is a
major producer of fish paste,
dried fish and dried prawns.
The Inyegyi Fishery is
famous for its scenic beauty.
In addition to freshwater
fishery, the division is also
engaged extensively in sea-
fishing and salt-making
industries
The capital city of
Ayeyarwaddy Region is
Pathein, which is famous for
the Pathein umbrella and
Pathein Halawar (greasy rice
cakes). Now the new road
linking Pathein to Sagaing
division (Monywa, Kale,
etc.) has been developed.
The road passes the plain of
Magwe Division between the
Ayeyarwaddy River and the
western hills of Rakhine and
Chin states
Relaxing spots like
Ngwe Saung Beach
and Chaung Thar
beach are in this
division. These
beaches are along the
coast of the Bay of
Bengal. It is about
only 4 hours’ drive
from Yangon, and
easily accessible by
car.
Yangon Region
Yangon Region
has the main port
Yangon. The city
Yangon Region
is one of the
major paddy
production
areas. Main
For regional development,
272 state-owned factories
have been built and four are
under construction. The
Myanma pharmaceutical
Yangon is the main
port by air and sea.
All other places can
be visited from
Yangon. The main
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lies where
16o 19'N latitude
intersects
96o 52'E
longitude.
Yangon Region
is located at the
eastern extremity
of the
Ayeyarwaddy
Delta area with
the Andaman Sea
to the southeast,
Bago Region to
the north and the
Ayeyarwaddy
Region to the
west
crops are
paddy,
groundnut, jute,
pulses, rubber
and sugar cane.
The whole
region is
engaged in
implementing a
special high-
yield paddy
cultivation
project
industry, steel mills,
tarpaulin, aluminium, tile,
soap, glass, rubber ball,
shuttle-cock, umbrella and
footwear factories are
located in Yangon Region
Yangon Region is
economically developed as it
is at a strategic spot in the
communications network.
Roads, railways, waterways
and airways connect Yangon
City with the whole country.
Yangon's ports are always
busy with international sea
and air traffic
Yangon Port is the main
gateway to the country for
all imports and out of the
country for all exports. It is
handling 85 percent of the
nation's overseas trade
There are microwave
stations with automatic
telephone exchange for
inland communications.
Twenty-four-hour overseas
telephone and telex services
connect Myanmar with 114
world nations via a satellite
ground station. The national
TV stations and radio
stations are in Yangon
landmark of Yangon
is the Shwedagon
Pagoda. Other
famous pagodas are
Sule, Kabaraye, Ko
Htat Gyi, Chauk Htat
Gyi and so on. The
Bogyoke Aung San
Market is a tourist
destination. There
are over 40 colonial
buildings in Yangon.
Nearby places such
as Thanlyin, Dalla,
Twante, Bago can be
accessed easily from
Yangon
Bago Region
Bago Region is
located between
Mandalay Region
and Magwe
Region in the
north, Rakhine
State and
Ayeyarwaddy
Region in the
west, Yangon
Region in the
south, Kayin
State and Mon
State in the east.
Its capital is
Bago City
Its main
occupation is
agriculture,
growing paddy,
sesame,
groundnut,
pulses, jute,
rubber, tobacco
and sugar cane
Bago Region's forests
produce valuable woods
such as teak, pyinkado,
ingyin and the plywood mill
in Swa produces high-
standard plywood.
Zeyawaddy Sugar Mill, No.
3, the Heavy Industries
Corporation Mill at Sinde of
the Ministry of Industry (2),
the textile mill at Shwe
Daung, Jute Baling Mills at
Taungoo, Pyay and
Tharyarwaddy, Ceramics
Factory at Tharyarwaddy are
well known factories. The
North Nawin Dam on Nawin
Chaung in Pyay Township is
the biggest dam in Myanmar
Bago Region is an
economically
strategic region with
a network of roads
and railways. Bago
Shwemawdaw
Pagoda is one of the
most famous
reclining Buddha
images in Myanmar.
The Kanbawza
Thardi Royal Palace
of the Bago Dynasty
is not far from
Yangon
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Mon State
Mon State is
located between
14o 52'N and
17o 44'N latitudes
and 96o 53'E and
98o 13'E
longitudes
bounded on the
north by Bago
Division, on the
east by Kayin
State, on the
south by
Tanintharyi
Division and on
the west by the
Gulf of Martaban
Principal crops
are paddy,
groundnut,
pulses, rubber,
sugar cane,
coconut, betel
nut, dhani,
durian,
rambutan and
mangosteen
The state is the top producer
of rubber. Tin, antimony and
white clay are some of its
natural products.
Manufacturing-wise, there
are the Sittang Pulp and
Paper Mill, Billin Sugar
Mill, Thanbyuzayat Rubber
Factory, Mudon Textile Mill
and Mupon Ceramics
Factory
Tobacco pipes, hot water
bottles, rubber balloons,
plaster figurines, feather-
brooms, coconut-shell
handicrafts are successful
products in Ywalut village of
Belugyun. Zeebyuthaung is
Myanmar's first sea-fishing
cooperative village. Salt-
making is another reliable
economic activity.
Kyaikhtiyo Pagoda
or the Golden Rock
is located in the state
Tanintharyi
Region*
Lies at the
southern end of
Myanmar. The
region has
common borders
with Thailand to
the east and
southeast, Mon
State to the north,
and the Andaman
Sea to the west.
Out of about 1
000 islands along
Myanmar's
coastline over
800 are off the
Tanintharyi
coast. Dawei is
the capital
The main crops
are paddy, betel
nut, coconut,
rubber and
dhani. Tapioca,
rambutan,
durian and
mangosteen are
also grown on a
large scale. Oil-
palm is being
grown under a
special project
The region is rich in natural
resources. The famous mines
of Heinda, Hamyingyi,
Kanbauk, Yawa,
Kyaukmetaung, Nanthida
and Yadanabon produce
many metals. Pearls cultured
at Pearl Island earn a great
amount of foreign currency
at the Myanma Gems
Emporia. Arrangements are
being made for the sea-
fishing industry along
Tanintharyi coast to supply
domestic consumption and
exports. Birds' nests are also
being gathered from offshore
islands. This part of the
country is the main fishery
product market of Myanmar
The Salone tribes
inhabit the Myeik
Archipelago, and
yearly there are
festivals. Diving trips
can also be arranged.
Kawthaung is the
southernmost point
of Myanmar and the
border check point to
enter Thailand
2.6. Special economic zones in Myanmar
The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is about 486 000 km2 (World Fact Sheet 2014 and
http://www.boblme.org/documentRepository/nat_Myanmar.pdf).
Following economic reforms, Myanmar soon began to further facilitate the establishment of
special economic zones (SEZs). In 2011, Myanmar established the Central Body for the
Myanmar Special Economic Zone, a regulatory body responsible for overseeing foreign
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investment in the country. The Myanmar SEZ Law and the Dawei SEZ Law were also
passed in 2011, which established several SEZs throughout Myanmar to encourage
economic growth and foreign investment (ASEAN Briefing, June 28, 2013).
A primary draw of the SEZ laws includes several incentives, such as:
A five-year tax holiday;
50 percent income tax relief on items exported overseas for five years;
50 percent income tax relief on reinvested profits from overseas exports for
five years;
A five-year exemption on customs duties on approved products;
The granting of 30-year land leases;
SEZs which offer tax exemptions for different sectors (five years for
production, eight years for high-tech, two years for agriculture, livestock
breeding and forestry, and one year for banking) are undergoing preliminary
establishment in Sittwe Township and Kyaukpyu Township in Rakhine State.
The six free trade zones will be Thilawa Port in Yangon, Maw-la-myine in Mon State,
Myawaddy and Hpa-an in Kayin State, Kyaukphyu in Rakhine State and Pyin Oo Lwin in
Mandalay Region. According to the country's Special Economic Zone Law's Act 7, Section
36, homes and farming properties located on a proposed SEZ must be duly relocated and
reimbursed. There are currently three SEZs under development in Myanmar: Dawei SEZ,
Thilawa SEZ and Kyuakpyu SEZ. An international-standard airport is also to be constructed.
Investment into Myanmar’s SEZs has been steady; with companies hoping to take advantage
of the burgeoning economy and friendly investment incentives it offers. Despite some
worries over existing infrastructure deficiencies in Myanmar, investors continue to see a
positive outlook for the region. Most recently, India has offered US$150 million to begin
establishing a fourth SEZ in the city of Sittwe. India has completed Kaladan Port and shortly
will hand it over to the government.
2.7. Dawei Special Economic Zone
A deep-sea port and industrial estate spanning 250 km2 are currently being built in the
Dawei SEZ located in Southeast Myanmar along the Andaman coast. The area will be home
to several industries, including steel, fertilizer, power and petrochemical plants. There will
also be a shipyard for construction and repair of vessels using the port, which is expected to
see 100 tonnes of freight each year upon completion.
The project has received funding and support from several nations and international
companies. Most recently, Thailand has joined Myanmar in contributing capital to the
Dawei SEZ project, and it has taken part in an infrastructure development plan for the area.
Thailand will contribute 35 percent of the costs for the construction of the deep-sea port.
Also, the Italian-Thai Industrial Group will contribute US$300 million to develop the
industrial estate project, and will be given a 25 percent share of the project’s management in
return.
Japan, China, and Republic of Korea (ROK) will also participate in the development of the
SEZ. Tourist, recreational, and residential developments are also planned.
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2.8. Thilawa Special Economic Zone
The Thilawa SEZ project is located in Myanmar’s southern Yangon region and shares its
border with Dawei. The project is in the early stages of development, but has already
received significant financial commitments from Japanese companies. The SEZ will be
home to textile, manufacturing and high-tech industries, as well as a deep-sea port.
Myanmar and Japan will jointly develop the area, with Japanese companies holding a 49
percent stake in the project.
The Thilawa project has been attractive to investors due to its proximity to Myanmar’s
commercial hub and existing ports. The first phase of construction is expected to cost
US$205 million, and it will be completed in 2016.
2.9. Kyaukpyu Special Economic Zone
The Kyaukpyu SEZ is located along the central western coast of Myanmar on Ramree
Island. The area already serves as a port for export and transportation of Myanma goods,
such as rice.
An oil and gas terminal financed by the China National Petroleum Corporation is in the final
stages of construction, and a pipeline linking Myanmar and China is in the works in the area
as well. Furthermore, a container port and gas-turbine power plant are also under
development.
Plans for the SEZ are being finalized this year, and completion of the first phase is expected
in 2016. The area will be home to industrial, logistics and service industries, and will focus
on processing local resources, such as agricultural goods and minerals.
The Kyaukpyu SEZ has been attractive to Chinese investors due to its strategic location as
the quickest trade route by sea between India and China. Also, extensive rail and air
infrastructures are currently being developed in the region to increase linkage between China
and Kyaukpyu.
The area is expected to rival Singapore as the region’s petrochemical hub upon completion.
2.10. Sector history
Coastal regions, which are home to a large and growing proportion of the population, are
undergoing environmental decline. Because there is no common definition of what
constitutes a coastal region, estimates of coastal populations vary. Most are based on an area
within 60 to 200 kilometres of the shoreline and may include evergreen forests, coastal
floodplains, mangroves, marshes, and tide flats (coastal areas affected by the rise and fall of
the tide), sandy beaches, dunes, sea-grass beds and coral reefs. The term ‘coastal regions’
also covers marine fisheries because the bulk of the world's marine fish harvest is caught or
reared in coastal waters.
Coastal areas help to prevent erosion; filter pollutants; and provide food, shelter, breeding
areas, and nursery grounds for a wide variety of organisms. Coastal regions also provide
critical inputs for industry, including water and space for shipping and ports; opportunities
for recreational activities such as fishing and diving; and other raw materials, including salt
and sand.
The challenge for policy-makers and coastal resource managers is to figure out how to reap
the economic benefits of coastal resources while preserving them for future generations.
Addressing population issues is key to achieving such balance.
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2.11. Overall sector scope, status and performance
The coastal waters of Myanmar have been heavily exploited since the introduction of
trawling in the 1970s. Several signs of overfishing are visible and there is considerable
concern, particularly because of demand for fish for local consumption and because the vast
majority of fishers are artisanal fishers dependent on coastal waters for their livelihood. The
trawl fisheries are considered the most destructive. The need for managing the coastal
fisheries has been recognized and several efforts have been undertaken. Licensing of vessels
and banning trawl fishing within a five-mile limit in Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal regions
and a 10-mile limit in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta coastal region have not been successful due to
inadequate monitoring and enforcement and this needs to be addressed. Environment
degradation, especially in the estuarine regions, is also a concern.
The role of the government in coastal wetland ecosystems’ destruction cannot be ruled out.
The Ayeyarwaddy Delta consists of the extended and fertile plain of the southern part of
Myanmar, around 180 miles long and 150 miles wide. When the British occupied the lower
part of the country in 1852, the delta was tall jungle and high grass. During the period,
native colonists from the parched fields in the formerly Upper Burma became attracted by
the delta and started clearing the jungle because of the regularity of its fertilizing rain and
unfailing monsoon. Many of those pioneers died due to harsh conditions but their
descendants benefited by staying. The colonial government encouraged the immigration
from Upper Burma by adopting the ‘dama-u-gya’ system, which had allowed any person to
clear and cultivate any land to which no previous occupant laid claim. Thus, the cleared
mangrove land became the private property of the cultivator, which could be mortgaged,
sold or bequeathed to descendants (Furnivall 1957).
Two dominant types of land system out of the five introduced during the period of British
rule were the patta system and squatter type (Furnivall 1957). Under the patta system, the
government granted tenure before the cultivator cleared the land. On the other hand,
‘squatter’-type land was similar to the dama-u-gya system in the feudal days in which most
cultivators became landholders by clearing and cultivating a patch of jungle or scrub. Either
form of tenure gave the landholder a permanent and heritable title to the land, which could
be sold, mortgaged or transferred. To promote immigration into the Delta, the government
waived payment of the capitation tax for the first two years after a migrant’s arrival.
The cultivated land in the Delta increased from 600 000 acres in 1852-1853 to 6.7 million
acres in 1902-1903 and then to 8.9 million acres in 1922-1923, therefore, 8.9 million acres
of mangroves were reclaimed for paddy cultivation in 70 years’ time. The area of rice by
clearing mangroves grew to 11.6 million acres in 1926. The density of population clearing
mangroves in the Delta rose from 45 per square mile in 1852 to 152 in 1930 (Christian
1942).
The Working Plan, 1958-1970 states that in the past the yield from mangroves was 1.68
tonnes/acre/annum from the annual coupe of 33 280 areas, but the out-turn was fixed
conservatively at 50 000/tonnes/annum. In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta on average there were
11.66 trees per acre of 2.0′ girth that yielded 4.42 tonnes/ha; however, in the mangroves of
Rakhine there were only 9.5 trees per acre. Ayeyarwaddy Delta mangroves were then
destroyed to accommodate 62 percent (432 200 hoppus tons of charcoal) of the demand for
charcoal by Yangon (700 000 hoppus tons of charcoal).1
1 1 hoppus ton = 1.8027 m
3.
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The military government (1962-2011), since 1963 introduced four laws and decreed the
abolition of landownership by tenanted owners. As in the 1948 Constitution, the 1974
Constitution confirmed that ownership of the land was vested in the state. However, the
slogan of the agrarian reform in the military government changed from ‘Land to the tiller’ to
‘Right to cultivate to the tiller’ as the land belongs to the state (Mya Than 1984).
The government started the land reclamation programme in 1998 to develop large tracts of
land of about 22 million acres to be farmed by private entrepreneurs. The land includes deep
water or wetland, coastal land and Dry Zone land not under cultivation. In the Delta, which
comprises Ayeyarwaddy Division, Yangon Division and Bago Division, there are two types
of such land, wetland and coastal land. As of June 1999, a total of about 1.2 million acres
had been allocated to some 80 business groups in the whole country and 35 percent of the
total leased land was in the Delta, mostly in Yangon and Ayeyarwaddy divisions. Most
holdings were around 3 000 to 5 000 acres and the largest was 72 000 acres. Under the
Myanmar’s Land Reclaiming Scheme (Warr 2000) in the Ayeyarwaddy Division the total
coastal wetland forests leased out for land reclamation was 246 366 acres and total land
developed was 65 456 acres in June 1999.
From the mid-1970s most of the coastal forests were completely cleared for paddy
cultivation. Until 1978 fishery was also plentiful in mangroves and later in 1982 the decline
in fishery was realized by the fishing stakeholders.
In 1995 the introduction of the Community Forest Instruction (CFI) paved the way for
overexploitation of particular allotted patches and subsequent degradation. Under the CFI
mangrove areas were demarcated and handed over to the community for utilization and
management.
Up to 1999, 3 500 acres of mangroves had been handed over to communities under the CFI
scheme. However, in several cases only degraded mangrove patches and shrubby secondary
vegetation mixed with invaded or introduced terrestrial tree stands were evident in the
mangroves of the Delta. The Forest Department now needs to provide attention and
technical support to these communities; it should also have regular short- and long-term
monitoring schemes to follow up on the CFI programme and rectify shortcomings, if there
are any. No periodic monitoring will doom the unique concept followed by the Forest
Department to failure. It was understood from the director-general that the Ministry of
Forests is developing a management plan and committee to follow up evaluation and
monitoring of CFI-allotted forest land.
From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded land reclamation for paddy which resulted in
blocking of several canals inside the mangroves which helped the ecosystem to survive
through long peripheral tracts of earthen bunds. Disruption of hydrology has destroyed and
is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine Region.
From 1979 to 1985 the World Bank funded a land reclamation project for paddy cultivation;
it constructed long peripheral bunds which resulted in obstruction of several canals flowing
inside the mangroves, destroying the mangrove vegetation. Disruption of hydrology has
destroyed and is still destroying larger expanse of mangroves in the Delta and Rakhine
Region.
In Myanmar aquaculture in mangroves has been introduced since 1980 on a pilot scale. The
expansion of aquaculture has increased fisheries production. Based on shrimp pond
operations in 2000, this was about 28 000 ha then, increasing to 49 000 ha in 2003 and a
significant leap in 2013 to 87 248.84 ha with shrimp production of 56 982.02 tonnes. In
2003 about 16 400 acres were expanded for shrimp farming in Ayeyarwaddy mangroves
damaging sensitive ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands.
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During the last 15 years, many reefs south of latitude 11 north have suffered much
destruction. Especially within the island ecosystems of Tanintharyi coastal zone, coral reefs,
mangroves and fisheries resources have been heavily exploited. Stringent rules and strict
enforcement cannot control the resources of Tanintharyi coastal and marine areas because
the coast is about 1 200 kilometres long. In addition, the huge area of approximately 34 34
km2 of the Myiek Archipelago that consists of about 800 islands makes any effective
administration and law enforcement almost impossible under the present situation.
Myeik Public Corporate Limited and Myeik Future Development Public Company Limited
have plans to destroy thousands of acres of mangroves and Nypa colonized areas for
development activities.
The land-use policies, utilization and management practices conducted from 1852 to 2014
are detrimental to the huge areas of mangrove wetlands in the country and have resulted in
total destruction of mangrove ecosystems, with untold damage to brackishwater ecology and
coastal fisheries, as well as heavy erosion of Delta lands due to the constant shift of the
river’s channels.
2.12. Contribution to overall economy and livelihoods
Marine and coastal ecosystems are a vital economic resource and their health and
sustainability depend on good governance, sound environmental policies and effective
management. Coastal ecosystems generate a variety of goods and services that benefit
people. Myanmar has an estimated population of 54.6 million (73 people/km2).
Approximately 66 percent of the population lives in rural areas with 33 percent living in
urban areas. The population that lives within coastal villages is yet to be estimated for ideal
planning and management.
However, quantifying the economic contribution of Myanmar’s coastal resource remains a
challenge because this ecosystem lacks official boundaries and definitions. These goods and
services, often referred to as ecosystem services, provide outputs that are commercially
important (e.g. commercial fish stocks, tourism that depends on wildlife viewing) and some
that are both commercially important and that provide important recreational opportunities
(e.g. recreational fishing). These ecosystems also support many ecological functions that are
essential in the support of human life (e.g. oxygen production and carbon capture and
storage). Coastal ecosystems have proved to be places that abound in genetic diversity and
biological compounds that may yield new chemical and medicinal products. The total
marine fishery catch from Myanmar’s coastal zone was reported to be 2 702 240 tonnes per
annum, worth US$10.27 billion or 10.81 trillion kyat and aquaculture produced up to 964
260 tonnes worth US$2.00 billion and 2.11 trillion kyat in 2014 according to the Department
of Fisheries.
Fishing and carbon sequestration are two of the 15 ecosystem services (ES) associated with
seas and oceans, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by the Global Ocean
Commission for 2014. In the case of carbon sequestration, the Global Ocean Commission
estimates its global economic value ranges between US$74 billion and US$222 billion per
annum, which underlines not only its economic benefit but also shows its essential role in
efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
Basic information about the potential economic magnitude or nature of ES is lacking from
Myanmar and highlights critical knowledge gaps that need to be filled to help inform
management of coastal zone.
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3. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
3.1. Integrated coastal management
The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) provided
significant support for integrated management of coastal areas. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21,
‘Protection of oceans, all kinds of seas including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, coastal
areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources' outlines a
commitment by coastal nations to ‘integrated management and sustainable development of
coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction'. Paragraph 17.5
of Programme A of Chapter 17 sets out the objectives of integrated coastal area management
as being to:
Provide for an integrated policy and decision-making process to promote
compatibility and a balance of uses;
Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their interactions;
Concentrate on well-defined issues;
Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in planning and
implementation;
Promote the application and development of methods that reflect changes in
value resulting from uses of marine and coastal areas, including pollution,
marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction; and
Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, groups and
organizations to relevant information and opportunities for consultation and
participation in planning and decision-making at appropriate levels.
Sustainable development has been defined as development that meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (The World
Commission on Environment and Development 1987).
The distribution or redistribution of rights to own and use coastal resources can have a
significant impact on coastal management. Some of the legal mechanisms used in this regard
include:
Reasserting public ownership and control over coastal areas or initiating
expropriation or acquisition programmes to bring important areas under public
ownership or control;
Recognizing customary or indigenous rights over resources and devolving
certain powers to manage those resources to traditional authorities or local
organizations representing users; and
Imposing restrictions on private ownership rights, for example, by providing
for public servitudes or easements over private land to facilitate access to the
seashore and requiring landowners to obtain official authorization for
undertaking certain activities, particularly where these are likely to have a
significant impact on the coastal landscape and environment.
The present status of integrated coastal management is as follows:
Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of coastal
resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and only provide limited
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mandates to regulate or control activities that may impact upon the coastal
zone;
Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes within the
coastal zone;
Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of responsibility between
agencies and ministries related to coastal zone management;
Little plan of action to bring together all the parts of government for integrated
coastal management together and to work in a cohesive fashion;
Human, financial and technical resources available for coastal resource
management, particularly enforcement and monitoring of activities, are
overburdened with multiple responsibilities and insufficient to support a more
coordinated framework for coastal zone management;
Absence of effective, routine intergovernmental coordinating mechanisms for
information sharing, alignment of programmes and collaboration for overall
environment management; and
Limited capacity of staff to provide sound legal, social, economic and
biological advice to support well-informed decision-making related to coastal
zone management
The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure sustainable and
community-based coastal management:
The government is currently involved in the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Programme, which promotes sustainable marine
ecosystem management and sustainable coastal livelihood development. The
programme aims to improve the lives of coastal populations through effective
regional management of marine biodiversity and fisheries;
Four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established along Myanmar‟s
coast, including i) Moscos Island; ii) Thamihla Kyuun; iii) Mainmahla Kyuun;
and iv) Lampi;
The Department of Fisheries in collaboration with the Biodiversity and Nature
Conservation Association (BANCA) and Fauna and Flora International (FFI)
are planning to establish an MPA Network System that will incorporate
existing MPAs, for example, the Shark Reserves in the Myeik Archipelago
(Lampi MPA);
A number of different agencies and organizations, including Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Forest Resource Environment
Development and Conservation Association (FREDA) and UNDP’s Mangrove
Environmental Rehabilitation Network (MERN) are undertaking mangrove
and coastal forest restoration efforts following damage from recent cyclones in
Myanmar’s coastal areas; and
The Department of Marine Science within the University of Maw-la-myine
has established an aquaculture research centre.
Actions required are:
Clarify and evaluate roles and responsibilities, institutional arrangement
options and coordination mechanisms among relevant ministries,
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organizations and the private sector in order to develop a harmonized
approach to coastal zone management;
Within the context of an integrated resource management framework,
establish an appropriate legal and institutional framework, including integrated
and consolidated legislation with clear delineation of mandates and
responsibilities, focused on the sustainable use of limited resources in coastal
areas and managing human activities in coastal and adjoining areas to
maintain, restore or improve the quality of coastal zone ecosystems and the
societies they support;
Ensure that development activities within the coastal zone are coordinated
amongst responsible agencies, meet clearly defined standards, do not cause
harm to human health or the environment and that all activities are within the
‘carrying capacity’ of fragile coastal resources;
Legislation developed or amended should empower appropriate agencies to
undertake by a specified date, and regularly update a comprehensive inventory
of marine and coastal resources and conditions, which should provide baseline
information for coastal zone management and development decisions;
Strengthen working relationships of MOECAF with other organizations
responsible for environmental health and quality issues;
Develop Coastal Atlases and an Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Plan
to address land and water management problems affecting the coastal zone,
through broad-based consultation at the community level, and ensure
necessary legislative frameworks to implement and enforce the management
plans;
Establish guidelines and standards for the siting, construction, development
and operation of residential, tourism and industrial structures in the coastal
area;
Develop human technical capacity to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate
ICM programmes and activities;
Develop training manuals and courses related to coastal management at
different levels, drawing on institutional knowledge from experienced staff for
capacity development and empowerment of relevant agencies, organizations
and communities;
Develop capacity of relevant ministry and agency staff to provide sound
advice (legal, social, economic, biological) for coastal resource and
environment management; and
Establish or identify appropriate intergovernmental mechanisms to facilitate
regular information sharing and coordination of activities related to
management of the coastal area.
3.2. Coastal vulnerabilities
Coastal infrastructure is extremely vulnerable to coastal erosion, and the impacts of climate
change such as sea surge, sea-level rise and extreme events. Current planning procedures
and the environmental impact assessment process look at the impact of development on the
environment but do not sufficiently take into account the impact of the environment on a
project or development. An integrated approach to adaptation and coastal resource
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management is lacking, including preventative infrastructure planning to adjust to the
possible increased risks from climate change impacts. Data gaps and technical capacity
issues limit detailed information about coastal vulnerabilities including the impacts of
climate change, extreme events and sea-level rise, and the lack of consensus on appropriate
or suitable technology to use.
The present status of coastal vulnerability is as follows:
Outdated or unenforced policies and legislations regarding land zoning,
infrastructure and building standards;
Limited capacity of regulatory agencies to incorporate climate change
considerations into the development approval process;
Limited information available for preventative infrastructure planning and
climate proofing of infrastructure and development to accommodate climate
change impacts;
Vulnerability and adaptation assessments carried out were restricted and did
not have national coverage;
Limited studies on, or vulnerability assessments of, existing infrastructure and
properties along coastal areas likely to be affected from natural hazards and
climate change;
Limited available data or access to data for mapping of coastal vulnerabilities
including of coastal infrastructure to flooding and sea surge, or the
vulnerability of inland and all islands to periods of drought and flooding;
Limited capacity, including technical expertise and equipment to properly
assess hazards, risks and vulnerability;
Solutions or technology for coastal protection can be site-specific and need to
be tailored to suit local conditions;
Insufficient data and research to identify appropriate adaptation technologies
that can be employed at suitable locations to mitigate coastal vulnerabilities,
including coastal protection mechanisms;
Lack of programmatic approach and mandate for the collection and collation
of data on coastal resources to support scientific research and decision-
making;
Limited local capacity to conduct studies of risks and locally appropriate
adaptation technologies including coastal protection mechanisms;
Inadequate capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts
and flood events; and
Awareness about the future risks to property from climate change and coastal
erosion or potential climate- and cyclone-proofing best practices are limited at
best.
Actions required on coastal vulnerability are:
Ensure as an urgent priority that assessments of the possible impacts of the
environment, including climate change, on a project are a formal part of all
development planning processes, and appropriate changes should be made in
the relevant legal and institutional structures to facilitate such considerations;
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Incorporate design, construction and building technologies related to climate
change, extreme events and future conditions into current building control
codes and standards, and develop inspection guidelines and regulatory
enforcement systems with appropriate capacity building and training in
implementation, to support preventative planning at the development stage;
Develop and disseminate guidelines and best practices for preventative
infrastructure planning and climate proofing of infrastructure and
developments to accommodate climate change impacts;
Establish and develop effective climate monitoring capacity to provide for
effective climate change risk management physical planning;
Develop a coordinated programme and technical capacity to carry out
vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands in the Tanintharyi
Region;
Source necessary data and develop data-sharing arrangements needed to
undertake vulnerability and adaptation assessments for all islands;
Develop a ‘vulnerability atlas’ which identifies areas that are vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss;
Appropriate risk management regimes should be established to reduce the
risks of extreme events associated with climate change/variability;
Assess options to identify appropriate adaptation technologies and solutions
that are suitable and can be employed at specific locations to mitigate
identified coastal vulnerabilities, including technologies such as coastal
protection mechanisms;
Undertake awareness programmes of risks to coastal area property and
development from climate change and coastal erosion and promote and
encourage the incorporation of adaptation technologies and consideration into
the future and, where possible, existing coastal development to mitigate
coastal vulnerabilities;
Develop and update of best practices and lessons learned on technologies
applied and utilized for coastal protection and coastal resource management;
Develop local capacity for risk analysis and research into locally appropriate
adaptation technologies, including coastal protection mechanisms; and
Develop capacity of vulnerable communities to cope with onset of droughts
and flood events though emergency management plans and promotion of
water conservation practices.
3.3. Water resource management
Effective care and management of water resources, which include lagoons, surface and
groundwater, are critical for the economic and social well-being of the coastal regions of
Myanmar. Yet the sector is the most fragmented, is supply-driven and lacks coherent
policies, strategies, legislation, regulation and monitoring. The lack of clarity of the roles
and responsibilities of relevant agencies and organizations related to various aspects of water
resource management is a major contributing factor towards this fragmentation.
The lack of a legal and policy framework to support water resource management in the
Myanmar is a key gap.
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3.4. Water quality, water demand and supply
Currently, there is insufficient information and resources (including climatic data) to enable
effective preparation and planning for the impacts of climate change and natural disasters on
the sustainability of water supplies. Limited technical capacity and funding issues are major
constraints to the implementation of activities and maintenance of water infrastructure in the
country and need to be addressed.
At the community level, little action is being taken to conserve the available drinking water.
There is limited individual awareness of the long-term potential consequences of water
wastage, and water conservation measures, including traditional knowledge and practices,
are not promoted with any vigour.
Pilot projects for water demand management may provide valuable information to improved
water resource management. However, the lack of determination of the full extent of water
resource demand and supply hinders well-versed decision-making and planning.
A number of agencies and organizations is conducting various aspects of water quality
testing and monitoring with different testing parameters. There is a need to develop
coordinated programmes amongst these agencies, and to ensure that information is
comparable with appropriate facilities and capacity to support testing and analysis.
The present status of water quality, water demand and supply is as follows:
Ownership and management of water resources is unclear and need to be
determined at the national level;
Lack of an integrated national water resource management policy;
No comprehensive national legislation to manage water resources and the
scattered legal provisions that address the supply and quality of water to the
public are conflicting or do not provide sufficient direction;
No management framework for integrated water resource management or to
control pollution of water supplies, or encroachment into water catchment
areas;
Disjointed activities and coordination processes for forestry, water
catchments, wetlands, lagoon environments, water supply, wastewater and
solid waste disposals have also produced mixed results;
Limited coordination and collaboration amongst all agencies/stakeholders
responsible for management of different aspects of water resources;
Limited understanding of the close relationships between water resources and
the total environment at all levels, and the importance and principles of
sustainable water resource management; and
Technical and human capacity for water resource management is insufficient,
staff retention is a problem and retraining is required every time capacity is
lost.
Actions required in the area of water quality, water demand and supply are as follows:
Undertake a comprehensive inventory to determine the current state of water
resources in Myanmar including all freshwater resources (surface and
underground), water intakes, watersheds and water catchments to provide
sound information with a view towards the formulation of plans, policies,
programmes and projects to ensure that freshwater resources are available to
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facilitate the sustainable development of the country, and to serve as a basis
for planning approvals and environmental impact assessments;
Conduct a legislative review of various acts and regulations that regulate water
resource, water supply or water quality management and implement
appropriate recommendations to address key issues and promote integrated
approaches and institutional structures for sustainable management of water
resources and watersheds;
Develop and implement policies for water governance as an immediate step
towards an overarching policy for integrated water resource management;
Develop and strengthen local capacity for sustainable water resource
management at the national, institutional and community levels, including
capacity to monitor and enforce water resource policies;
Reassess levels of current demand and supply of water resources and the
dynamics of supply;
Investigate alternative water sources and viable options to supplement water
supply, including groundwater and rainwater harvest;
Develop innovative community and educational awareness programmes,
highlighting the finite nature of water resources, the need to protect water
supply sources and promote water conservation awareness programmes
discouraging water wastage or excessive use as well as judicious water-use
technologies such as dual flush toilets and reduced-flow shower heads;
Develop economic incentives to encourage the use of water storage facilities,
including the installation of water tanks and low-energy pumping equipment,
and to encourage investments in alternate water catchment technologies and
equipment, including the installation of roof spouts and gutters for rain
catchment;
Ensure that any regulatory regime for water resource management
incorporates appropriate adaptation strategies to address likely impacts from
climate change/variability;
Strengthen capacity for monitoring the effects of climate change on water
resources including early warning systems for water resource supply and
ongoing monitoring for the onset of drought;
Improve access to relevant regional and national climatic data, including
through the establishment of networks with regional meteorological centres
for information sharing on climate change and regional weather patterns;
Improve preparedness for natural disaster events that could have significant
impact on water resources and water supply; and
Develop capacity and resources for the integration of traditional and modern
water resource management, including water conservation practices, across all
subjects and levels of the school curriculum.
3.5. Waste management and sanitation
Waste management is widely recognized as a major concern for Myanmar with the potential
to cause negative impacts on national development activities, including tourism and trade,
food supplies, public health and the environment. The generation and disposal of waste has
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direct and indirect linkages to economic development. Poorly managed waste can have
negative effects on tourism, by damaging its image and by association with health warnings
about infectious and vector-borne diseases. There is the potential for contamination of food
supplies, which can have impacts on local markets or revenue from export crops. And there
are numerous health and environmental hazards that arise when waste is poorly managed
and disposed.
In addition, Myanmar lacks the capacity and knowledge to deal with new or non-traditional
wastes, especially hazardous wastes, electronic wastes and white-ware materials. Options for
the application of viable economic incentives to encourage waste management have not been
adequately explored. Public awareness, self-compliance, community cooperation and
appropriate economic incentives are central to the effective management of waste.
There is a gap in current legislation and institutional arrangements in some aspects of solid
waste management, whereby legislation or institutional arrangements are either conflicting
or do not provide sufficient direction. Options for waste minimization should be widely
promoted as part of the solution.
The present status of waste management and sanitation is:
Limited management of activities in water catchment areas and water supply
systems;
Limited plan of action to guide the actions of agencies involved in water
testing;
Definition of roles of individual agencies involved in water testing is unclear;
Institutional arrangements for the monitoring of water resources are
fragmented and lack coordination or a consistent monitoring regime;
Insufficient capacities and resources for ongoing water testing, monitoring and
analysis;
Baseline assessment of in-country laboratory capacity is poor in terms of
technical capacities, resources, data storage and monitoring programmes;
Different testing locations are utilized by the various water-testing agencies
leading to inconsistent results for quality assurance;
Limited research into the causes of high faecal coliform counts in water
intakes and water supply systems;
Lack of acceptable standards for water quality;
Results of water quality tests are not made readily available to the public;
Overlap and lack of clarity in the functions and roles of the respective
agencies in the collection and management of waste, operation of sanitary
landfills and the licensing of waste transporters;
No legal requirement for operators handling and transporting waste to be
licensed;
No waste reception facilities legally established for disposal of solid waste (or
sewage or oil) from visiting vessels;
Recycling and disposal options for motor vehicles, white-ware, computers and
other household appliances have yet to be implemented fully; and
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No comprehensive assessment of the management and disposal regimes for
solid and hazardous waste on the islands.
Actions required for waste management and sanitation are:
Implement a coordinated monitoring regime for water quality with all relevant
agencies and a centralized testing facility for all environmental testing, and
develop a coordinated monitoring programme to guide water-testing activities;
Strengthen capacity for conducting testing, monitoring and result analysis of
drinking water quality amongst relevant agencies, including the determination
of agreed testing parameters, and the surveillance and monitoring of public
water supplies and source waters;
Undertake capacity building and development for water quality monitoring
programmes;
Involve communities in decision-making regarding water resource
management, including conducting workshops to empower communities to
take more ownership and responsibility of their drinking water;
Prepare annual reports on drinking water quality status and share them among
key stakeholders;
Establish and enforce water quality standards (based on World Health
Organization standards for drinking water, recreational water and irrigation
water) by the Ministry of Health and Rural Department;
Encourage the use of low cost water filters within water intakes and individual
households to increase the quality of water supply technology, infrastructure
and equipment for water supply and to strengthen ongoing monitoring of
drinking water quality;
Revive traditional knowledge and systems for clean water management;
Designate an appropriate existing board or committee to coordinate and
implement the National Waste Strategy and expand its mandate to cover this if
necessary;
Promote the National Waste Strategy to the private sector for private sector
involvement;
Produce island-specific management plans for waste, particularly with an
emphasis on waste minimization;
Ministry of Health and other relevant agencies to continue to update and
implement communication strategies to promote effective management of
waste including public and community engagement;
Strengthen relationships between agencies and organizations involved with
waste management for improved collaboration and coordination of activities;
Clearly define regulatory, management and enforcement roles and
responsibilities for various agencies and councils related to waste regulations;
Establish appropriate legal and institutional frameworks and operational plans
for the management of solid waste;
Recommend that consideration be given to providing other economic
incentives to support the fledgling recycling industry;
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Recommend that appropriate economic incentives be established to promote
the reduction and recycling of aluminium cans, glass and plastic bottles, and
plastic shopping bags;
Encourage reduction of solid waste generation to the minimum practicable
level using the principles of reduce, reuse and recycle and ‘polluter pays’;
Encourage at-source separation to minimize waste accumulation and ensure
the life of the landfill is extended;
Support the private sector goal of ‘Zero Waste’ as an overarching goal for
waste management in the coastal regions;
Strengthen and support education and awareness activities related to waste
management and pollution;
Establish regulatory instruments which will create appropriate economic
incentives to promote the sound management and disposal of hazardous
substances;
Provide fiscal incentives for promoting the phasing-out of pesticides and
chemicals and to encourage the importation of ‘environmentally friendly’
alternatives;
Develop mechanisms to encourage ‘life cycle management’ and the recovery
and recycling of hazardous substances;
Provide incentives for industries to establish sound hazardous substance
management plans and provide training in hazardous substance management,
recycling and disposal; and
Identify and promote alternatives for current chemicals and pesticides that are
effective and proven to be environmentally friendly.
3.6. Integrating environmental management
Outdated legislation on environmental issues has resulted in stakeholders working in
isolation of each other with no clear policy directions. Environmental and economic policies
have not yet been fully integrated, which is a major obstacle as the integration of
environmental issues at the forefront of strategic economic and policy planning is essential
in order to achieve positive environmental outcomes in Myanmar.
The mainstreaming of environmental management issues into national economic and
development planning processes has improved over the years however implementation of
such plans still remains weak.
Environmental management is the responsibility of all stakeholders and it is therefore
important to strengthen capacity to develop partnerships between stakeholder agencies and
the community for implementation and advocacy.
The present status of integrated environmental management is:
Limited capacity to develop and implement national monitoring and
evaluation processes, including tools such as state of the environment reports;
Currently, it is not a legal requirement of responsible ministries and
departments to produce regular state of the environment reports;
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Lack of local expertise in several areas, most notably in the areas of
environmental accounting and economics, environmental law and economic
valuation of resources and ecosystem services;
Weak reporting and monitoring capacities for climate change, biodiversity,
land degradation and cross-cutting environmental issues at all levels;
Insufficient staff, staff expertise and resources within relevant ministries and
organizations to support the implementation of national plan activities; and
Limited awareness and promotion of the limitations of donor funding for
national implementation of environmental management-related activities.
Actions required in integrated environmental management are:
Strengthen local capacity for the development of policies and strategic
planning to support the integration of environmental management activities
within ministries;
Work in collaboration with national and regional agencies to provide focused
training in project proposal report writing, project design, project
implementation and management at all levels;
Increase awareness and understanding of the limitations of donor funding to
project outputs and the need for national-level support for national and local
implementation of environmental management activities;
Improve government capacity to implement environmental-related strategies
and policies in a coherent and effective way, including through training in
planning and programmatic approaches for improved environmental
management;
Combat insufficient capacity within agencies for implementation of
multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and environmental activities
by forming partnerships or resource-sharing agreements where possible
among ministries, the private sector, NGOs and community groups for the
implementation of MEA projects where goals align or are complementary;
Strengthen the partnerships between environmental NGOs, the private sector
and the government including through collaborative efforts on advocacy and
capacity-building programmes;
Utilize existing mechanisms (such as for Head of Ministry meetings), for
information sharing of planned activities and projects within and among
ministries and agencies to promote cooperation and collaboration, sharing of
resources and to avoid duplication of efforts;
Consideration should be given to strengthening the role of customary practices
in environmental and resource management;
Encourage the participation of members of the general public (through
education/awareness and providing simple tools) to undertake systematic
observations of their environment, as part of efforts towards monitoring for
environment management; and
Activities that monitor the environment such as beach profiling and coral
monitoring should be supported and extended to cover all regions of
Myanmar.
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3.7. Environmental education and awareness
Formal environment education continues to be limited. Resources and capacity to support
the integration of environmental issues into formal education are limited.
Strengthening integrated biophysical and socio-economic research is a prerequisite to
improving the long-term protection and management of the Myanmar coastal zone.
The difficulties in inducing and measuring behavioural change also highlight the lack of
formal mechanisms for feedback and evaluation of the effectiveness of environmental
programmes and various forms of media. Linking education at schools with information and
actions at home and within communities is weak and will need to be focused on in order to
achieve education awareness goals and meaningful change towards sustainable
environmental management.
Present status of environment education and awareness:
Technical environmental data and information need simplification and
translation into local languages for broader understanding at all levels;
There is a shortage of training programmes and opportunities for education
planners and environmental educators;
Limited teachers’ professional development programmes to enhance the
education of students on environmental issues;
Localized information in an easy-to-use format is not readily available for
educators, media or the general public;
Limited use of practical applications and fieldwork for environmental
monitoring and education to foster awareness and engage students’ interest at
all levels; and
Lack of effective mechanisms or processes to improve the exchange of data
and information among relevant government agencies, NGOs and academic
institutions undertaking environmental awareness and education activities for
improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing.
Actions required:
Develop a systematic approach to environmental education and awareness
including development of specific communication strategies, effective
measures at different levels (e.g. national or community), and partnerships
among stakeholders in order to achieve positive behavioural change towards
the environment;
In collaboration with the Ministry of Education, incorporate environmental
education into targeted professional development programmes for educators
and develop curriculum resources, expertise and support to strengthen
capacity to undertake environmental education;
Biodiversity, climate change and land degradation experts need to provide
more assistance to formal educators, especially to help teachers develop and
fully understand their environmental programmes in an educationally useful
format;
Develop capacity of appropriate staff within relevant agencies to act as
information brokers or communicators who are able to undertake the
translation of scientific and technical environmental-related information from
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conventional texts, international and regional resources into simplified clear
language for dissemination;
Work with appropriate authorities and individuals to develop the Myanmar
language for new environmental information and scientific terms;
Develop capacity to undertake evaluations of education and awareness
programmes and cost-benefit analysis of various mediums for
communications to determine the effectiveness of messages and mediums in
disseminating environmental information for different target audiences;
Continue to support the production of media and educational packages
featuring locally relevant information in a simplified bilingual format,
ensuring that materials for islands are in an appropriate language/dialect;
Establish formal mechanisms to access international, regional and national
expertise and resources to improve availability of resources and local capacity
at government and community levels to produce quality localized media
productions, awareness and educational materials, including through
development and implementation of targeted training programmes;
Develop closer working relationships among government and environmental
NGOs, community-based organizations (CBOs) and academic institutions
involved in environmental awareness and education activities and utilize
effective mechanisms to improve the exchange of data and information for
improved coordination and collaboration of activities and resource sharing;
Develop partnerships, cost-sharing initiatives and innovative communication
tools where possible for the production and distribution of resources to
maximize national coverage;
Identify and source resources that can be shared amongst
communities/villages for access to environmental information;
Where practical, utilize existing events such as expositions, science fairs and
competitions to promote the environment to students and encourage students
to participate in environmental events This is based on the assumption that
these events are actually effective, and this would follow the need to
strengthen capacity in monitoring or evaluation;
Develop and implement programmes to involve students, youth and
communities in environmental monitoring and encourage the
dissemination/extension of similar programmes; and
Continue to support the capacity development of community groups and youth
to act as facilitators and peer educators in community awareness programmes
on environmental issues and conduct training and conservation initiatives for
young people to enhance their skills in environmental management.
3.8. Management of information and knowledge
Inadequate management and exchange of information, including traditional knowledge and
practices in environment management, continue to be a major gap. Technical capacity for
the development and management of information management systems, such as databases
and GIS, is well developed in some organizations but not all. Available datasets are limited
to those produced as part of that organization’s programme of work and therefore sectoral in
nature, or those produced from a project which means they have limited scope. Mobilizing
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appropriate data for dissemination to all levels of users is poor and this is not helped by the
limited awareness of and access to some sources of data. Appropriate policies, programmes
and mandates to support data collection and information management activities are limited.
Data collation, analysis, data basing and management capabilities in most government
agencies are weak and there is limited support to develop and maintain data and information
management systems. Most government agencies have very limited capacity to utilize GIS,
which can be useful in managing data. There is limited ownership of information and
retention of data collected for project activities and research in Myanmar and no effective
mechanism to maintain information in a cohesive manner. Some of the current data
collection programmes are wasted as information gathered is not being used to aid analysis
and decision-making and highlights the need to reassess the rationale for collecting data and
their usefulness. The ability to interpret and practically use information and data is an area
that needs further development in Myanmar.
Limited local capacity in data collection, data basing, analysis, mapping,
maintenance and utilization of environmental-related data and information;
Lack of policies to support the development and housing of environmental and
natural resource data in national databases/clearing houses;
Limited legal and policy recognition of the need to organize proper
information in a central repository;
Limited number of individuals nationally with the technical background in
databasesand IT development activities;
Limited capacity to utilize GIS technologies of benefit to relevant ministries
including insufficient GIS resources such as relevant equipment and
software; and
Limited coordinated and ongoing programmes to collect information for the
creation and maintenance of GIS data layers and maps necessary for
biodiversity, climate change and land degradation planning and monitoring
Actions required:
Integrate into the national policy and make provisions for enforcement;
Promote mechanisms to involve communities and schools in the collection of
environmental data;
Provide training and training resources for national institutions, NGOs and
community groups on data collation, administration and management of
databases and data analysis;
Develop a multisectoral approach to data analysis as well as mechanisms to
seek advice from other sectors or relevant expertise;
Encourage all ministries/organizations to promote awareness of available data
through the use of mechanisms such as Web sites, newsletters and information
expositions;
Strengthen the capacity of existing agencies responsible for natural resources
in data collection, analysis, reporting;
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Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data gaps and
information needs for natural resources, ecosystems and sustainable land
management;
Develop and implement monitoring and data collection programmes for
natural resources, ecosystems and land information;
Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as part of a
programmatic approach to database and inventory development, data collation
and analysis, mobilizing information and dissemination;
There is a need to develop cooperation in sharing database development
expertise among government agencies;
Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to collaborate and
develop their skills in database development and support this collaboration;
Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and resource
information system that is accessible by all stakeholders;
Formal and informal training and skills development of national- and
community-level personnel for resource-use planning methods, techniques,
approaches and systems; GIS development; resource inventory methods;
multicriteria- and objective-based planning; ecosystem approaches to land-use
planning; land capability/suitability methods; and integrated catchment and
coastal zone approaches;
Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for individual ministries
from a GIS, develop a targeted programme for practical utilization of GIS
data;
Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant agencies and
organizations in data collection, databasing, analysis, mapping, maintenance
and practical utilization of GIS; and
Draw on existing national GIS expertise and experience where possible to
support training and resource-sharing initiatives, particularly for the islands
3.9. Multilateral environmental agreements
A key weakness is the current levels of awareness and participation amongst many
stakeholders in relation to the obligations within each of the UN conventions. It will also be
important to improve awareness of MEA issues in the local context if Myanmar is to build
support for MEA activities at all levels. Having sufficient capacity for monitoring and
evaluation of MEA progress in-country, including good data collection and management
programmes in place, will also be necessary if Myanmar is to fulfill its MEA obligations for
national reporting.
The status of MEAs is as follows:
Limited human and technical capacity to undertake MEA implementation,
monitoring and evaluation;
General deficiency in planning and policy development capacity within key
government agencies;
Weakness of project management skills, as well as limited opportunities to
develop capacity in these areas;
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Lack of clear national training strategies and human resource development
paths for environmental management capacity;
A number of environmental NGOs operating in Myanmar may undertake
community conservation and education projects in isolation of the
implementation of particular MEAs;
Limited community involvement in MEA implementation, monitoring and
evaluation; and
Information provided by MEA Secretariats for education and awareness tends
to use language that is too technical and of generic global relevance lacking
any localized context through which to engage communities and stakeholders.
Actions required:
Strengthen national reporting capacity and evaluation processes, including
development of a regularly updated, centralized information management
system for biodiversity, climate change and land degradation to reduce the
efforts required to produce national reports to the UN conventions;
Improve the ability of the government and institutions to intervene on matters
of national environmental importance;
Review the legal and institutional framework to carry out legal and
institutional strengthening for environmental management in Myanmar; and
Promote and improve the awareness of politicians, decision-makers and
government ministries of MEAs, particularly those that Myanmar is a
signatory to, the environmental issues they are trying to address and how this
affects Myanmar in a local context.
As a recommendation, Myanmar should take the necessary steps to further obtain advisory
services in the areas of (i) interagency coordination mechanisms for environmental system
management with the goal of incorporating the environmental dimensions in the
development efforts of the country; and (ii) effective implementation of its commitments to
MEAs, in particular, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
3.10. Access to financial resources
One of the critical constraints to the implementation of environmental management activities
and meeting Myanmar’s obligations and commitments to the UN conventions continues to
be access to financial resources to support such programmes. This is an area that needs to be
addressed as resource mobilization strategies to implement the NAPA, at least in the
foreseeable future, are likely to rely on external financial mechanisms though efforts to
access limited national financial resources will continue.
The capacity, time and resources necessary to identify, develop and access international
funding mechanisms are limited at all levels. Many government departments, NGOs and
community groups do not have the experience and skills to aggressively pursue external
funding options. The preparation of project proposals is usually outsourced to consultants as
application processes can be lengthy and arduous, and place intensive time and work
pressures on staff within government agencies that are often already overextended.
Limited awareness of funding opportunities available to NGOs and
communities;
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Limited technical assistance to identify Small Grants Programmes (SGP)
projects for communities; and
Limited local capacity at all levels to identify sources of funding and develop
quality project proposals essential for accessing funding opportunities.
Actions required:
Training of planning officers and stakeholders in identification of
environmental funding opportunities, proposal writing and project
management;
Continue to maintain strong working relationships and networking
opportunities with UN convention Secretariats, convention funding
mechanisms such as the Global Environment Facility and regional Council of
Regional Organisations (CROP) agencies to keep up-to-date with funding
opportunities that may be available for environmental projects, activities,
training and capacity building in Myanmar’s coastal states;
Increase capacity of NGOs and community groups in project proposal writing
and reporting (including financial reporting) in order to better access funding
opportunities, including GEF SGP funds;
Utilize GEF operational focal points and local SGP focal points to assist
communities in accessing technical assistance in identifying locally relevant
projects that fit under the SGP funding criteria;
Raise awareness of known funding opportunities for community-based
environmental management activities and projects; and
Strengthen capacity for financial responsibility and accountability in the
management of donor funds, including through the provision of resources and
training opportunities.
4. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The establishment of coordinating mechanisms among agencies principally charged with
environmental-related administration, e.g. the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health,
Ministry of Works and Communications, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Local
Governments aside from the MOECAF, MoAI and MLFRD, is imperative to ensure
effective environmental resource management, including that of wetlands.
4.1. Government institutions
Department of Fisheries (DoF): The DoF is part of the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries
and Rural Development (MLFRD) and is responsible for the management of Myanmar’s
fisheries and coastal resources. As of 2010, livestock and fisheries accounted for 7.6 percent
of the country’s GDP (Department of Fisheries 2010). The DoF has a number of directorates
including Capture Fisheries, Aquaculture, Research and Development and Administration.
The DoF national headquarters are based in Nay Pyi Taw and states/regions and districts
have smaller administrative offices.
The DoF’s activities are guided by six key responsibilities, namely:
1. The conservation and rehabilitation of fishery resources;
2. The promotion of fishery research and surveys;
3. Collection and compilation of fishery statistics and information;
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4. Provision of fishery extension services;
5. Supervision of fishery sectors; and
6. Ensuring the sustainability of fishery resources (Myanmar Ministry of
Livestock and Fisheries 2008b)
The DoF issues licenses, evaluates sites for aquaculture, produces fingerlings for sale to the
aquaculture industry, advises the MLFRD on fishery matters, acts as an inspection body for
trade, administers auctioning of leasable freshwater fisheries and waterbodies for
aquaculture, provides training and communicates with stakeholders.
A Monitoring, Control and Surveillance programme for fishery management generates
statistics that are published in national reports by the Myanmar Ministry of Livestock and
Fisheries (2008 a,b), Myanmar Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development
(2010) and the Department of Fisheries (2010); these are shared with global organizations
who can collate and share the data more broadly (see FAO 2013).
The DoF is involved in research programmes on endangered species and ecosystems such as
marine turtles and Irrawaddy dolphins. They oversee some conservation areas such as the
marine component of the Thamihla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary and the Khaing Thaung Island
Reserve Forest and work closely with stakeholders in managing these areas. They are also
the management authority for two shark protected areas.
Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). In 2012, the Ministry of Forestry
was reorganized to become the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry
(MOECAF) reflecting a growing awareness of the importance of addressing environmental
issues in the country. Soon after, a new department, the Department of Environmental
Conservation (DEC) was created. The DEC will be responsible for an ambitious range of
activities including implementing environmental conservation policies, designing and
implementing monitoring programmes, prescribing environmental quality standards,
conducting activities relating to waste management and conducting environmental impact
assessments (EIAs).
Fishery law enforcement agencies are:
Inspection at sea: Myanmar Navy; and
Inspection authority at shore: DoF; Myanmar Port Authority; Myanmar
Customs; Immigration Department; Department of Marine Administration;
Myanmar Police Force.
Forest Department (FD). The FD also falls under the MOECAF and is responsible for the
management of forests, including mangrove forests, though some mangroves are ceded to
the DoF for possible aquaculture development. The DF is also the key implementing agency
for the designation and management of protected areas in the country.
Ministry of Education (MoE). The MoE oversees all formal education in the country from
basic to higher education. The ministry supervises the implementation of educational
programmes and sets educational policies.
Ministry of Hotels and Tourism (MoHT). The MoHT oversees and legislates aspects of
Myanmar’s burgeoning tourism sector. The MoHT has worked with NGOs, such as the
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), on developing ecotourism activities.
Navy of the Union of Myanmar. The naval branch of Myanmar’s armed forces operates
more than 122 vessels. The Navy patrols Myanmar’s water and enforces maritime laws for
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the country. The Navy is mandated to enforce various marine fishery laws, in particular
those relating to offshore fishing.
State/region governments. Six of Myanmar’s 14 states and regions border the eastern edge
of the Bay of Bengal and many who live there have livelihoods connected with marine
systems. These are: Rakhine State, Ayeyarwaddy Region, Yangon Region, Bago Region,
Mon State and Taninthayi Region.
4.2. Research and education
Aware of the fact that the environment and development are interlinked, the government is
paying more attention to environmental affairs. As a result, the National Commission for
Environmental Affairs (NCEA) has emerged as a coordinating agency collaborating closely
with government ministries and departments in matters relating to the environment. It also
acts as the national focal point for environmental matters vis-à-vis other countries and
international organizations, coordinates the work of various relevant ministries and
departments and reports directly to the Cabinet. The NCEA was established with the
following objectives:
To develop sound environmental policies in order to safeguard the
environment and prevent its degradation;
To set environmental standards, rules and regulations for pollution control;
To formulate environmental plans, programmes and strategies; and
To promote environmental awareness and public participation in
environmental activities.
There is neither a specific protection and management body or coordination unit that has a
multidisciplinary approach for coastal and marine ecosystems. However, separate indirect
responsibilities on protection and management of the marine environment are scattered
amongst different ministries.
At the ministry level, the Ministry of Science and Technology is empowered to designate its
directorate to carry out environmental research activities while the Ministry of Forestry
oversees the conservation and management of forest, biodiversity and wildlife. Protection,
conservation and management of coastal and marine areas are under the responsibility of the
DoF.
Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science. The academy was created in 1999 under the
MoE and comprises experts from a range of academic fields. The academy conducts regular
seminars and publishes the Journal of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science.
Universities. Under the Ministry of Education, the Marine Science Department of the
University of Mawlamyine is the only educational institution in the country related to coastal
and marine activities. The department carries out research and development activities on
marine ecosystems. The country’s first marine biology programme was established in 1973
at the university. It was upgraded to become a Marine Science Department in 1986. Most of
the senior marine scientists in the country were trained here. The university has a field
station at Setse. This station was established in 1985 as a high-tech aquaculture facility
through funding from the UNDP project, Strengthening of Marine Science Teaching at
Moulmein College (UNESCO 1985). By 1995, the university was no longer able to support
the high maintenance and electrical costs and the facility began its decline into disrepair.
Tanks are now cracked and water filtration and pumping systems are beyond repair so
aquaculture research can no longer be conducted. However, its facilities are still used by the
university as a field station that hosts undergraduate field courses.
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Two more marine programmes stemmed from the original at Mawlamyine, which allowed
research to expand to other areas of Myanmar’s coast. Pathein University in the
Ayeyarwaddy Region has a Marine Science Department with a field station on the Rakhine
coast just south of Shwe Thaungyan. This station has good access to a range of marine
habitats and hosts seven- to ten-day courses at the end of each semester. Myeik University,
also with a Marine Science Department, is on the Taninthayi Coast, close to the islands of
the Myeik Archipelago. It has a large Marine Science Museum and hopes to host the future
Marine and Coastal Resources Research Centre.
Yangon is the oldest university in the country and its students and staff have conducted
many of the original studies of Myanmar’s marine life. It is home to the Diamond Jubilee
Hall that contains the national repository of PhD theses. Other universities have zoology,
botany and chemistry departments whose staff and students are able to conduct marine-
related research, including the universities of Bago, Dagon, Dawei and Sittwe.
The Phuket Marine Biological Centre (PMBC). Thailand. The PMBC, established in
1966, is one of the older and more established marine research centres in the region.
Regional workshops are often hosted there and, in recent years, Myanmar scientists have had
the opportunity to attend training workshops at the centre. In 2010 and 2012, Myanmar
teachers attended courses on coral and marine mammals.
4.3. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs), bilateral aid agencies and
international organizations
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Myanmar: The WCS was the first international
conservation NGO to work in Myanmar, establishing a programme in 1993. The WCS’s
Myanmar Program has memorandums of understanding with both MOECAF and MLFRD
and has worked with the DoF for over 10 years to develop and manage the DoF’s first
aquatic protected area, the Ayeyarwaddy Dolphin Protected Area on the mainstream
Ayeyarwaddy River upstream of Mandalay. The WCS Myanmar Program has worked with
the Marine Science Association of Myanmar (MSAM) and the WCS Global Marine
Conservation Program to conduct this review.
Fauna and Flora International (FFI): The FFI works in Myanmar through collaborations
with the local NGO, BANCA. Projects have focused on conducting biodiversity assessments
and conservation status reviews and strengthening local civil society organizations (CSOs)
to protect biodiversity through protected area management. The NGO recently conducted
surveys of reefs in the Myeik Archipelago using the protocols of another international NGO,
Reef Check.
Istituto Oikos: This is an Italian NGO that works in developing countries to promote
environmental conservation as a tool for socio-economic development. In 2011, Oikos has
worked in collaboration with the FD and BANCA at Lampi Marine National Park and
recently published a detailed review of Myanmar’s Protected Areas (Isituto Oikos 2011).
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN): IUCN hopes to start
working in Myanmar in the near future alongside the Bay of Bengal Large Marine
Ecosystem (BOBLME) project and in collaboration with the MFF on a multistakeholder
coalition to support and guide national and international conservation efforts in the Myeik
Archipelago. In 2012, IUCN, MFF and MERN hosted the workshop Conservation and
Sustainable Management of Coastal and Marine Ecosystems in Myanmar.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA): JICA has worked in Myanmar on a
range of projects relating to environmental health and economic development. Relevant to
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the marine realm, the organization collaborated with MOECAF on the Ayeyarwaddy Delta
Integrated Mangrove Rehabilitation and Management Project.
Mangroves for the Future (MFF): MFF promotes investment in coastal ecosystems for
sustainable management and uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem because of their
important roles in coastal livelihood and security. MFF has not yet started to work in the
country but, as one of its ‘outreach countries’, Myanmar is invited to regional events and
meetings. MFF plans to work alongside IUCN on coastal management issues in Myanmar.
The Wetlands Alliance: This is an association of agencies that view wetlands and aquatic
resources as an entry point for poverty alleviation initiatives in Southeast Asia. It engages
with partner organizations in Thailand, Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia and, in recent
years, has visited projects in Myanmar with an aim to establish a presence in the country.
WorldFish: In September 2012, WorldFish and the DoF commenced the four-year project
Improving Research and Development of Myanmar’s Inland and Coastal Fisheries
(MYFish). The project is first gathering data on the state of fisheries and aquaculture in
Myanmar and then plans to develop management capacity and help develop fisheries and
small-scale aquaculture to increase the productivity of this sector.
4.4. Non-government organizations
Marine Science Association, Myanmar (MSAM): MSAM is open to all graduates of
marine science in Myanmar. MSAM’s work focuses on research, conservation and the
sustainable development of coastal areas. MSAM collaborates with marine science
departments at Mawlamyine, Pathein and Myeik universities along with marine science
alumni. MSAM collaborated with WCS Myanmar in producing this review.
Myanmar Environment Rehabilitation-conservation Network (MERN): MERN is a
network of 16 Myanmar local NGOs with a range of foci and experience including forestry,
environment, community development, capacity building and social mobilization,
agriculture, livestock & fishery and social infrastructure. The projects implemented by
MERN are implemented jointly by member NGOs and focus mainly on environmental
conservation and rehabilitation linked with community development relating to food security
and livelihood development. Member NGOs may collaborate within the MERN network or
run their own projects independently. In the marine realm, MERN instigated the Coastal
Livelihood and Environmental Assets Restoration in Rakhine (CLEARR) project to improve
mangrove forests and livelihoods in villages in the Thandwe District of Rakhine State.
Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA): BANCA conducts a range
of projects relating to nature including surveys, watershed development, establishing forest
plantations and access to drinking water. Currently BANCA is partnering with FFI to
conduct surveys of coral reefs in the Myeik Archipelago.
Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT): LIFT aims to improve the food and
livelihood security of poor and vulnerable people in Myanmar. LIFT works in areas where
food poverty is high, including the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Rakhine State.
Rakhine Coastal Region Conservation Association (RCA): The RCA conducts awareness
raising for the conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable use of Rakhine’s mangroves and
conservation of marine turtles. It also works on community forestry activities and wild
elephant conservation.
Rakhita: Rakhita is an environmental NGO based in the Rakhine coast. In recent months, it
has run a five-day land-planning workshop in Ngapali of Thandwe District.
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Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA): FREDA is an NGO with a focus on the forestry sector of Myanmar. FREDA is composed of
more than 400 members including foresters, botanists, agronomists, zoologists, veterinary
scientists, hydrogeologists, engineers, timber entrepreneurs, journalists and artists. In the
marine realm, FREDA has worked with communities that rely on mangrove resources.
Myanmar Environment Institute (MEI): The MEI provides training courses in
environmental science and management and in conducting EIAs.
The Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI): The
ECCDI works on sustainable forest ecosystem management, which includes the
establishment of mangrove plantations.
4.5. Regional bodies
Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) project: The BOBLME project
engages all eight nations that rim the Bay of Bengal, namely the Maldives, India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. The project aims to lay the
foundations for a coordinated programme of action designed to improve the lives of the
coastal populations through improved regional management of the Bay of Bengal
environment and its fisheries. The executing agency is the FAO Regional Office for Asia
and the Pacific, based in Bangkok, and FAO is also involvedin project components directly
relating to fisheries and resource management. Principal funding is from the Global
Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of Norway, the Swedish Internal Development
Agency, FAO, participating governments and the National Oceanic and Atmosphere
Administration (NOAA). The project had a total estimated budget of US$31 million for an
initial period from September 2008 to August 2013, though a no-cost extension has been
requested to an anticipated date of 31 March 2015. The National Inception Workshop was
held in Myanmar in early 2010 and since then Myanmar experts have attended and
contributed to a number of workshops focusing on a range of topics including policy
reviews, transboundary issues, Hilsa fisheries, fisheries and aquaculture assessments, fishery
statistics, coastal management, responsible fisheries training and climate change. Partners to
the project who are active in Myanmar include the Government of Myanmar, IOSEA,
SEAFDEC, and WorldFish. A vast number of project reports are available through its Web
site.
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC): Myanmar is one of 11
SEAFDEC member countries, joining in 1999. The centre, established in 1967, is mandated
“to develop and manage the fisheries potential of the region by rational utilization of the
resources for providing food security and safety to the people and alleviating poverty
through transfer of new technologies, research and information dissemination activities.”
The centre supports training activities, technical assistance, research and publications
relating to fisheries development in the region through four technical departments: the
Training Department, the Marine Fisheries Research Department, the Aquaculture
Department and the Marine Fisheries Resources Development and Management
Department. The centre also aims to be a unified voice for fisheries issues in the region
(Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center 2013).
Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) and Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO): APFIC is FAO’s regional fisheries body. APFIC was founded in 1948 and merged
with the Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission in 1999. Its main objective is “to promote the
full and proper utilization of living aquatic resources of the Asia-Pacific area by the
development and management of fishing and culture operations and by the development of
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related processing and marketing activities in conformity with the objectives of its
members.” The commission reviews the state of resources and makes recommendations,
carries out programmes and conducts training to increase the efficiency and sustainability of
fisheries and aquaculture. Myanmar is among its 21 members. Many of the statistics
collected by Myanmar’s DoF on the country’s production from marine and freshwater
fisheries and aquaculture are processed, housed and shared through APFIC and FAO (see
FAO 2013). Myanmar is in FAO’s Fishing Area 57 and the subarea 57.1 that encompasses
all of the Bay of Bengal.
4.6. Private sector
Myanmar Fishery Federation (MFF): The MFF, a national-level organization with a
membership of over 700 companies and 27 000 individuals, is mandated to encourage and
promote fishing industries. MFF aims to promote the socio-economic life of member
entrepreneurs and fishery communities, share information on economic policies and fishery
technologies and advocate on behalf of the fishing industry, among other objectives. There
are nine associations under the MFF that deal with particular industries, namely, shrimp,
fish, exporters, aquaculture feed, marine fisheries, freshwater capture fisheries, crabs, eels
and ornamental fish.
5. KEY OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS TO SECTOR DEVELOPMENT
5.1. Coastal development – major sectors
Coastal ecosystems are highly productive containing high biological diversity, rich fishery
resources and significant sea bed minerals. Coasts also support a diverse array of related
industries (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which
provide enormous economic productivity. However, the shared demands placed by densely
populated coastal regions impose stresses on finite coastal systems and resources.
Major development activities and opportunities come from the agriculture, forestry, mining,
livestock and fishery, dairy farming, transportation, hydropower, coal-fired and solar power
production, oil and gas, tourism and recreation, infrastructure and construction development
sectors.
The expansion of the Myanmar economy will further increase pressure on the coastal marine
area and its resources. Development of hard structures along the coastline restricts the ability
of intertidal habitats to move landward as sea level rises.
Development will impact on seascapes and landscapes, and will limit traditional public
access to the foreshore. Coastal industries such as fishing, aquaculture, tourism and shipping
play significant roles in support of Myanmar’s large coastal population. However, the many
activities associated with these industries can also have a detrimental effect on coastal
habitats and water quality, in addition to creating conflicts of use among stakeholders.
Developmental pressure on the coastal area continues as a result of socio-economic driving
forces such as urban expansion, retirement, secondary home establishment and the tourism
industry. For example, coastal tourism has led to increases in the numbers of marinas, golf
courses and residential buildings near the coast. There is insufficient information to judge
the current rate and long-term environmental implications of coastal development (EPA
2000).
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5.2. Infrastructure development, industries, port and harbour development and
transport sectors
There is an urgent need for building and upgrading of most infrastructure sectors in
Myanmar. Myanmar’s construction industry is expected to grow at an annual minimum of
7.8 percent over each of the next five years.
The government also recently announced the construction of over 120 000 apartments in the
Yangon area, with the help of local and foreign investors and developers. The Yangon City
Development Committee (YCDC) is aiming to finish the construction of over 9 500
affordable apartments by 2015.
The increase in the number of investment opportunities in energy and public infrastructure
projects includes:
Development Project for Greater Yangon – 39 townships;
Affordable Housing Project – by The Department of Human Settlement and
Housing Development (DHSHD);
Urban development projects – such as Mindama Secondary CBD
Development;
Thilawa Social Economic Zone Development and Urban Spatial Control
Management projects;
Investment opportunities for foreign firms based on the Build-Operate-
Transfer (BOT) and other suitable public-private partnership (PPP) models;
and
In Myeik two public companies are also involved in development and
infrastructure development.
Myanmar has about 142 395 kilometres of road networks; the lengths of various categories
of road are:
Union highways − 18 740 km;
Township network roads – 19 045 km;
Major city roads & other roads – 26 472 km; and
Village & boundary area roads – 78 183 km.
Demand for port expansion has resulted in loss of various habitats in harbours around the
country. There is increased competition between leisure activities and commercial shipping
in ports. Maintenance dredging in ports can also lead to disturbance and dispersal of
contaminated sediments. The Ministry of Construction is promoting private sector
participation in infrastructure development, on the basis of BOT and other suitable PPP
models for the construction of roads, inland cargo depots, ports and airports.
The governments of India and Myanmar are working on a US$500 million, Kaladan Multi-
modal Transit Transport Project that will facilitate trade between the two nations. The project
includes the construction of the US$120 million deep-water Sittwe Port at the mouth of the river,
dredging of the Kaladan River to enable cargo vessels to navigate the river from Sittwe to
Mizoram, the construction of a river port at Paletwa, as well as the widening and upgrade of
highways between Paletwa and Myeikwa on the Indo-Myanmar border. The project will open up
not only Mizoram but all of India's northeastern states as hinterland for Sittwe Port. Construction
for the port started in 2010 and will be completed and handed over in 2015.
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Dawei is also getting a proposed SEZ plus a deep-sea port called the Dawei Port Project. It
is undergoing construction with companies providing road links to Thailand, port
construction and rail connection. It is partly being developed by Italian-Thai Development.
The proposed completion date is set for 2014.
5.3. Mining sector
Myanmar has a considerable deposits of gold, copper, lead, zinc, silver, nickel, coal and
dimension stones, such as granite, marble and limestone. In 1989, Myanmar embarked on a
policy of encouraging foreign investment and invited foreign companies to participate. The
policy and objective of the Ministry of Mines is to encourage responsible and
environmentally sound commercial exploitation, and the development of abundant but
underutilized mineral resources in the country.
Six granite deposits are located in the country and the estimated ore reserve of deposits in
Mon State is 3.7 billion tonnes. Regarding ornamental stones, the estimated ore reserve in
the whole country is about 563 million tonnes. Rubies, sapphires, coloured gemstones and
jade are being exported. Myanmar is the primary source of top grade Jadeite, with Hpakant
region being one of the richest deposits in the world.
5.4. Hydropower and coal-fired power production sector
Hydropower is a major electricity generator; in this context Myanmar has rich water
resources to feed supply. In December 2009, the government added three hydropower plants,
Saidin, Thahtay Chaung and Laymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants
together can produce 687 MW but the surplus electricity will be distributed to other states
and divisions. In 2007, Myanmar signed an agreement for the construction of
seven hydroelectric dams, yielding a total 13 360 MW, in the N'mai and Mali Rivers,
including the 3 600 MW Myitsone Dam at the confluence of both rivers.
Eight of 12 planned coal-fired power plants, with combined capacity of 12 780 MW, will be
located in Yangon and Tanintharyi regions, with four projects each. Yangon's Thilawa area
will become home to three new coal-fired power plants − one in Thilawa, one in Kyauktan
and one in the Thilawa SEZ. The fourth coal-fired power plant in Yangon Region will be
established in Kyunchankone and is expected to generate 3 270 MW.
The Thailand-based Ratchaburi Electricity Generating Holding recently signed a
memorandum of understanding (MoU) for the feasibility study and development of the 2
640 MW Myeik clean coal-fired power plant project in Tanintharyi Region.
For the generation subsector, foreign direct investment can be made in the form of joint
ventures, BOT and other suitable PPP models for suitable power generation projects. Local
investors are also allowed to participate in schemes of independent power producers for
hydropower projects.
5.5. Oil and gas sector
Myanmar’s petroleum sector is administered by the Ministry of Energy, which takes the
leading role in the coordination, discussion and negotiation of the development of
programmes in the energy sector. Myanmar Oil and Gas Enterprise (MOGE) under the
Ministry of Energy, is responsible for conducting exploration and production of crude oil
and natural gas, in both onshore and offshore areas.
The Ministry of Energy has invited multinational companies to participate in the exploration
and production of crude oil and natural gas in cooperation with MOGE, on a production-
sharing basis. In the onshore sector, a total of 47 blocks have been demarcated; they
comprise 18 production sharing contract blocks, five exploration and production blocks, 10
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reactivation of suspended field blocks, seven improved petroleum recovery blocks and seven
MOGE blocks; 26 blocks have been demarcated in the offshore sector.
Investment opportunities include:
Exploration and production in petroliferous onshore and offshore Myanmar;
Rehabilitating marginal fields and enhancing declining and suspended fields;
New plant commissioning; refineries, LPG, LNG, fertilizer plants;
Floating storage units, floating storage and offtake facilities;
Compressed natural gas refuelling stations and necessary parts and kits;
Research and development;
Trading, marketing and retailing of petroleum products; and
Indispensable equipment to revamp and renovate drilling rigs, refineries and
plants.
5.6. Tourism and recreational sector
The hotel and tourism sector has been booming in recent years and the country’s unspoiled
scenic and historic places and of course extremely nice local people and very safe travel
experiences are attracting global tourists. Hotel business in Myanmar is allowed 100 percent
foreign direct investment for the development of 3-star + rated hotels. However, tourism is
only allowed under a joint venture system. Myiek Public Corporation Limited and Myiek
Future Development Public Co Ltd have major plans to develop island- and mangrove-based
tourism by building quality hotels, adventure sports complexes, residential complexes and
other facilities in Tanintharyi Region.
Coastal tourism depends on the quality and diversity of the coastal environment; increase in
tourist numbers will have impact and threats on areas of high ecological and resource value
in coastal marine environments. Furthermore, tax relief on property investment schemes or
economic zones aimed at generating economic activity in seaside resorts would also result in
increased ad hoc development without significantly boosting tourism revenues in coastal
locations.
5.7. Coastal agriculture
Myanmar is an agrarian country and the agriculture sector is the backbone of its economy.
The agriculture sector contributes 34 percent of the GDP, 23 percent of total export earnings
and employs 63 percent of the labour force. About 75 percent of the total population resides
in rural areas and is principally employed in the agriculture, livestock and fishery sectors to
sustain livelihoods.
Agriculture has been identified as the biggest source of pollution in Myanmar rivers and
lakes, which has implications for coastal water quality. Intensive agriculture will also lead to
a reduction in seminatural habitats and to a decrease in biological diversity.
Tangible progress has been achieved in the sown acreage, production and exports of certain
crops, especially paddy and pulses, however, the performance of agriculture as a whole is far
short of its true potential. Dawei produces rubber, dried fish and teakwood. It also
produces cashew nuts and betel nuts and exports them through local traders to China, India
and Thailand. Dawei is also well known for its variety of tropical fruits such as pineapples, a
variety of mangoes, mangosteens and durian.
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In the coastal regions, the agriculture sector is extremely mechanized and people wanted to
mechanize the sector. Dependency on cattle for draught power and manure has been lost, as
countries like Thailand and Japan have intervened with mechanized agricultural technology
and people have lost jobs as agricultural labourers.
Myanmar has a land area of 676 577 km2 and around 50 percent is available for growing
various crops that are in line with tropical weather conditions. The government has invited
both local and foreign investors to invest, under joint venture schemes or 100 percent
investment, in the following areas:
Establishing agro-based industries;
Assembling and manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm
implements; and
Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related support products.
Rakhine Region’s agriculture department has provided a development needs road map for
immediate implementation.
5.8. Coastal livestock and farming
In the coastal regions of Myanmar, there is great potential to develop the dairy farming
sector and Myanmar has been striving to boost production of milk products to meet rising
demand as it imports US$40 million worth of products annually.
To reduce the amount of total imports, the authorities are calling for an increase in the
breeding of milch cows. In the coastal regions there is a demand for the expansion of
imported species of cattle such as Indo-Brazilian, American Brahman and Holstein-Friesian.
The local breeds are almost neglected and forgotten. Water buffalo support agriculture as
draught power in agricultural areas where mangroves have been destroyed or converted in
Rakhine State for paddy farming.
Ra They Taung, Pu Ma Kyun and five more districts are in the livestock expansion zone
identified by Rakhine State Livestock Department. However, there are limitations
concerning artificial insemination of cattle and organized fodder supply.
Opportunities for developing livestock are allied with small-scale and major industries such
as pharmaceuticals, feed, fodder, liquid nitrogen production and others to cater to the
expansion of cattle and poultry farms.
Training the local community in veterinary technical skills was also identified as a critical
need to support the industry.
Myanmar produces annually about 1.5 billion kilograms of milk, and over 226 570
kilograms of condensed milk from about 500 000 milch cows. The industry needs to upgrade
in terms of planning, technology and financing, the limitations of which handicap the
industry.
The government is promoting the development of breeding dairy cattle in order to boost
dairy production locally. Presently, Myanmar has 14 million cows and steers, and some
three million buffalo. Local and foreign dairy firms have been invited to invest in raising
dairy cattle, and the Myanmar Livestock and Fisheries Federation will render necessary
assistance, such as land lease and allocation.
Because of growing export demand and high prices, soft shell mud crab farming has become
a booming industry in the Yangon and Taninthayi regions of Myanmar. Small juvenile
crabs (60 to 80 grams) are collected from the wild and stocked individually into plastic
basket boxes. In one 6 000 m2 pond, 40 000 crabs were stocked, and production was from
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2.0 to 2.5 tonnes a month with continuous harvesting of 100- to 120-gram crabs. The
farming system is labour-intensive. Scylla serrata and S. olivacea are the dominant species.
Recently, a new government policy on shrimp farming has renewed interest in the
industry. A trial using semi-biofloc technology has been successfully implemented south of
Yangon within a soft shell crab farm. It is a high-risk venture because crabs are known to be
carriers of the white spot virus, but it was the only location with good, clean, earthen ponds
and a stable power supply.
Shrimp and prawn farmers in Myanmar are pleading for financial support to save their
businesses, which are going downhill rapidly because of erratic power supplies and
shortages of ice, cold storage facilities, transportation and laboratories.
Hatchery production of postlarvae dropped from 300 million in 2012 to 30 million in 2013
and will probably drop to 20 million in 2014, mostly because of diseases (recent data
unknown). The number of hatcheries has also fallen from about 20 in 2012 to 15 currently,
and only four or five of them are operational.
According to DoF data, Myanmar has 120 plants that process farmed and wild-caught
shrimp, freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and fish. Twelve processing and
cold storage facilities around Yangon are certified by the European Union.
5.9. Coastal forestry
Myanmar’s forests have been affected by degradation, shifting cultivation and conversion to
commercial oil-palm plantations (the latter is particularly relevant in the lowland forests of
the Tanintharyi Region). Deforestation pressures include:
Fuelwood consumption (the principle source of energy);
Unplanned and unrestricted agricultural expansion;
Aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming in the Delta and Rakhine Region);
Infrastructure development; and
Commercial clear-cutting.
The main cause of island ecosystem destruction in Tanintharyi coastal zone has been logging
of the uplands and mangrove areas for charcoal production, but recently shrimp culture has
emerged as a potential threat to mangroves despite the forest and fisheries laws that prohibit
mangrove destruction and conversion to aquaculture. Poverty and lack of environmental
awareness amongst indigenous and immigrants has given space for small- and medium-scale
investors of neighbouring countries to harvest coastal marine resources in an unsustainable
manner.
Despite the rules (by the local administrative authority) and nominal penalties, illegal
logging continues to thrive in the island ecosystems in Tanintharyi and estuary mangroves in
Rakhine. In the case of Ayeyarwaddy mangroves, these natural barriers have been denuded
and facing natural catastrophe. Therefore, there is an urgent need to change the resource
management strategy as well as environmental protection law in order to achieve sustainable
resource utilization and management in the coastal areas of Myanmar.
About 85 species of native trees in Myanmar are recognized as being able to produce good
quality timber. Development of the wood-based industry is a crucial aspect of the forestry
sector, and besides, timber forests in Myanmar contain a wide range of NWFPs.
Major forest products include teak and hardwoods such as Pyinkatoe, Paduak, Ingyin and
many others. Also, minor products such as bamboo, rattan, charcoal, beeswax and bird nests.
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The investment opportunity for the production of teak and hardwood furniture is the most
prosperous area, especially with the input of good design and modern equipment, processes
and packaging. Recently, raw wood has been banned from export; only value-added
products can be exported.
The government has provided opportunities for investors to grow plantations of wood trees
and also in the value-added wood industry.
5.10. Fishing and aquaculture industry
Myanmar has a long coastline of 2 832 kilometers, and the total area of swamps along the
coast is about 0.5 million hectares, which provides a very good basis for the development of
shrimps and prawn culture. Aquaculture expansion has led to the destruction of
mangroves in Myanmar and irreversible damage to both estuarine and offshore fisheries
by introducing biological, chemical, and organic pollutants (such as antibiotics and
pesticides) and by modifying habitats especially in Rakhine and the Ayeyarwaddy
Delta.
According to recent surveys and research, the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is
estimated at about 1.05 million tonnes per year.
Environmental challenges in Myanmar include:
High demand for fish and fisheries products will significantly increase
pressure on living aquatic resources by investors, national and international,
over the next years;
According to stakeholders and recent stock assessments, the abundance and
diversity of marine resources is already in decline;
Offshore vessels (local and foreign), including bottom trawlers operating in
inshore waters, will exacerbate negative impacts on the marine environment;
Without adequate regulations and enforcement, the risk to critical habitats
such as mangroves, mudflats, coral reefs and sea-grass beds will become
greater than the current threat;
Without effective management of coastal and marine resources and
ecosystems, fisheries will become unsustainable; and
Continued unsustainable use of resources could lead to the collapse of
fisheries, damaging Myanmar’s economy and creating abject poverty on a
dramatic scale.
Political factors, issues and challenges of Myanmar fisheries are growth- and production-
oriented. Focused on generating public revenue, i.e. licence fees and export duties, there is
weak collaboration and coordination between different public stakeholders/policy-makers at
central and state/division levels. Overall, sector policies target short-term economic gains at
all levels rather than responsible and sustainable resource utilization and long-term
management.
Organization of the fishing sector indicates social cohesion, in particular in less-stratified
villages; no visible or reported tensions between resident and immigrant fishers, many
different ethnicities; emerging fisher organizations, e.g. gear groups, with group leaders who
were elected democratically and legitimately and with representative leadership. But there
are examples of organizations with non-transparent mandates and questionable
inclusiveness.
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Offshore fishers in Myanmar include long liners that target pelagic fish all along the coast.
Squid fishers are common along the Tanintharyi coast. Large commercial boats with crews
of several men head out on multiday trips and use lights to lure squid. Bottom trawlers’
primary targets are prawns or finfish. Anchovy and sardine fishers using purse seine nets are
common off areas of the Rakhine coast. The DoF estimated the number of offshore vessels
in Myanmar at 2 205 in 2010 (Department of Fisheries 2010).
Overfishing, including by foreign vessels, is contributing to the declining livelihoods of
fishing villages. Myanmar’s fisheries law explicitly allows for the use of their marine
resources by neighbouring countries. According to official data, from 2004 to 2011, 250 to
300 foreign boats per year fished in Myanmar bringing in an estimated US$12 million per
year in taxes. Fishing rights for foreign boats are due to expire on 31 March 2014 and
recently there have been suggestions in parliament to end these rights, allowing for more
fishing opportunities and local employment in Myanmar (Anonymous 2013). As of 2010, an
estimated 18 percent of the offshore fishing boats were foreign (Department of Fisheries
2010).
Serious concerns exist regarding the sustainability of Myanma fisheries. Some fish stocks
have been seriously overfished including cod and whiting from the Myanma seas. Some
coastal communities have diversified by developing aquaculture industries (particularly
inside the mangroves and converting the reserved forests to aquaculture ponds and soft shell
crab farms by private entrepreneurs). Developments in aquaculture needs to be balanced
with requirements for protecting coastal habitats. Loss of seascape due to the siting of
aquaculture installations can cause potential conflict with the tourism industry.
Economic factors affecting the fishery sector are directly related to sector policies. Sector
policies favour larger scale offshore operations catering for affluent markets, domestic
and/or export, largely excluding low-income consumers; however, the small-scale, artisanal
subsector provides most livelihoods and income and employment, and is the major
contributor of domestic food supplies, food security and nutrition, as well as being a major
engine of local economies and growth.
Social factors include social structure within fishing communities, social infrastructure and
living conditions. Villages and communities visited varied in social structure, from highly
stratified to significantly more homogeneous. In Mon State many villages are difficult to
access, with negative implications regarding social infrastructure and living conditions. In
Tandwe District, Rakhine State, villages were accessible but many were locked in spatial
conflict with tourism.
Technological factors regarding fish capture concern gear used in offshore and artisanal
fishing; in the absence of enforcement of minimal mesh sizes, regulations all are unselective,
with the exception of long lines. Illegal fishing methods reported were use of poison and
explosives and ‘baby bottom trawls’. The main reason for declining resources appears to be
overcapacity of the sum of all fleet segments (including illegal, unreported and unregulated
[IUU] fishing).
Processing technology at the artisanal level, i.e. salting and drying, is economically and
technologically efficient (no discards, all catches are utilized including by-catch from
offshore vessels, with low quality landings being preprocessed for animal feed); appropriate
(no major capital outlays, energy and advanced technical expertise is required); and
immensely valuable and irreplaceable in terms of income and employment creation and
livelihoods for poor coastal dwellers of all ethnicities.
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Some management attempts target prohibition of dangerous fishing nets, temporary
suspension of activity in spawning seasons and for target species, co-management plans and
allotting marine corridors for protection. Suspension periods are listed below:
Spawning season: June-August (started in 1993);
Lobster and commercial fish spawning season: June-August (started in 2008);
Grouper (2/2006): July-September in all fishing grounds;
Sea bass (2/2006): January-March in all fishing grounds;
Hard clam (9/2008): 20 acres in Myeik, Palaw, Kyae Chaung and Ta Bo
Chaung point;
Set bag net (Bom Kyaung Pike)-(1/2009): January-March; and
Shark (2/2004): April-May in Myeik Archipelago.
5.11. Community co-management
A major shift toward community management of forest resources occurred in the mid-1990s
with the issuance of the CFI by the FD in response to widespread forest degradation and
increased demand for forest products and services. The document guides participatory
resource management and impacts management activities in mangrove and other forest
systems.
The term ‘fisheries co-management’ implies that communities and the state work together
compared to other commonly used terms such as ‘community fisheries management’, which
implies that communities are solely responsible for the management of their fisheries, within
the boundaries of the law.
5.12. High priority marine corridors
In January 2012, over 80 of the country’s environmental experts from civil society and
government assembled to discuss the current state of Myanmar’s biodiversity and used
international criteria to identify and prioritize 132 Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). These
sites are defined as areas holding significant populations of species of high conservation
concern. Because connectivity is required to ensure that the full range of environmental
services continues to function, these KBAs were grouped together within ‘conservation
corridors’. Fifteen conservation corridors were revised and updated taking into account
connectivity among KBAs, safeguarding against the impacts of climate change and
maintaining ecological processes, among other factors. These corridors allow for
conservation planning that considers connectivity and resource impacts beyond the borders
of nationally designated protected areas. Two marine conservation corridors were
highlighted: The Tanintharyi Marine Corridor and the Rakhine Marine Corridor (Wildlife
Conservation Society 2013).
5.13. Water quality
There is a general lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation is a crucial issue
in Myanmar as infrastructure is already extremely limited. Access to safe drinking water
varies significantly among different states and regions in Myanmar. A UNICEF (2012) study
indicated that just 68 percent of households had access to improved water sources, but only
17 percent of households had a safe way of extracting water from sources, thereby
increasing the risk of contamination.
Direct discharges into coastal waters include urban wastewater, domestic sewage and
industrial (trade effluent) inputs. Non-source discharges such as agricultural runoff are also
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known to have a detrimental effect on water quality. River and lake pollution from sewage,
industrial waste and solid waste disposal in particular are serious problems in Myanmar, but
the only control of water pollution in the country is through guidelines issued in June 1994
by the Myanmar Investment Commission (MIC), which require that new investment
projects have wastewater treatment systems (Kyaw Thi Soe and Mon Mon Yin 2009).
5.14. Natural hazards
Myanmar is particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels as a result of its highly populated,
low-lying coastline. An increase in sea level will provide a higher base for storm surges and
other extreme climate events. Therefore, sea-level rise and associated impacts will threaten
coastal ecosystems, agricultural land and infrastructure (roads, property, and businesses).
Certain low-lying coastal zones will be at risk of complete inundation resulting in a loss of
agricultural and residential land. The slope of the land will largely determine the extent of
inundation. For example, the low-lying Ayeyarwaddy Delta is particularly at risk, as even a
small rise in sea level will lead to a large portion of the Delta being inundated. Rising sea
levels will also threaten water tables as saline water enters into groundwater supplies.
According to the UN Risk Model, Myanmar ranks as the ‘most at risk’ country for natural
disasters. Coastal regions, particularly Rakhine State and the Ayeyarwaddy Delta Region,
are at high risk from cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis. Much of the country is also
exposed to flooding and landslides during the rainy season in addition to drought and fire
during the dry season. As Myanmar falls on one of the two main earthquake belts in the
world, much of the country is prone to earthquake. Though fires make up 73 percent of
reported disaster events, storms and cyclones have caused the greatest damage and loss of
life.
Poverty is both the cause and result of natural disasters. Villagers engage in deforestation,
overcultivation and poor resource management, leading to flood, drought or landslides. On
the other hand, natural disasters continually destroy people’s livelihoods, push them into
poverty and prevent them from rising above the poverty line (Oxfam 2014). Weak
infrastructure and poor housing conditions contribute to Myanmar’s susceptibility. High
casualties and economic loss are often related to the collapse of non-engineered structures.
Cyclones: Cyclones have historically caused the most destruction by natural disasters in
Myanmar. Thirty-six cyclones have made landfall on the Myanmar coast since 1947. Strong
winds and storm surges (flooding) associated with the cyclones have caused the most
damage. Of the cyclones that caused the greatest disaster, 11 of them made landfall in
Rakhine State and two in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta region. The most devastating cyclone by
far was Cyclone Nargis of 2008. Cyclone risk is highest during the month of May, though,
during the last 100 years, cyclones also have occurred during April, October, November and
December.
Floods: Flooding has always been one of the major hazards in Myanmar and floods account
for 11 percent of all disasters, second only to fire. Myanmar has an intricate system of rivers
contributing greatly to local economies and transportation of goods. Many cities and towns
are located alongside these rivers, particularly the largest: the Ayeyarwaddy, Chindwin,
Sittaung and Thanlwin.
The Ayeyarwaddy River Basin alone, the largest in the country, covering 404 200 km2,
exposes over 2 million people to flood hazards. Between 1910 and 2000, there were 12
major floods. There is risk of flooding during the monsoon season, which runs from mid-
May to October every year. Peak flood periods occur during June, August and late
September to October.
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Floods that occur in Myanmar are classified into four categories. For mitigation of damage
caused by floods, flood forecasting and warning systems are recommended as the
responsibility of the central government. In addition, public awareness campaigns and
community disaster preparedness training in flood-prone areas can help communities
strengthen their resilience to floods.
The impacts of climate change and global warming can reduce the water level in the Central
Dry Zone (CDZ), while the water level in the Delta Region may rise due to the change of sea
level. Climate change-related flood issues need to be addressed at the national level. Further
research into climate change influences on flooding in Myanmar also need to be conducted.
Drought: Drought-related hazards are a risk in Magwe, Mandalay and Sagaing regions. The
CDZ includes 53 townships and covers about 10 percent of the country. Farmers in this zone
are mainly commercial, cultivating a variety of crops in a double cropping and rotational
system. Natural resources in this area have been depleted due to soil erosion and
deforestation.
Agricultural production is unstable as a result. The natural resources of the CDZ are being
depleted more rapidly than they can be renewed.
Flash floods occur in mountainous regions in the upper reaches of river
systems. These occur in Karen, Kachin, Shan, Mon and Chin states;
Riverine floods occur along major rivers. These are seen in northern and
central areas as well as southern river delta areas;
Flooding from storm surges during cyclones occurs in Rakhine State and the
Delta Region; and
Localized floods occur in urban areas due to heavy rainfall and poor
infrastructure. Localized floods also occur in rural areas due to breakage or
failure of dams, dykes and levees.
5.15. Offshore resources
The coastal areas, where offshore oil and gas production already comes on shore in Rakhine
and Ayeyarwaddy, are exposed to long-term climatic impacts such as sea-level rise as well
as an increase in cyclones and storm surge/flooding. The country more generally is exposed
to both geological and meteorological hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, cyclones and
tsunamis) as a result of the country’s southwest location within the Bay of Bengal and low-
lying coastal zone.
If not carefully managed, exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves can have negative
impacts on the coastal regions where the reserves are brought ashore, through loss of
landscape and seascape because of terminal developments, to potential for pollution as a
result of accidental spills. Demands for sand and gravel for the construction industry have
extended to offshore resources. The location of wind farm sites is being considered,
particularly off the Tanintharyi coast. The potential impacts of such offshore developments
may include impacts on spawning grounds, migratory routes, migratory birds and cetaceans.
The coastal zone is one of the Myanmar’s greatest assets; its unique coastal values and
resources are vital to the way of life. Within these areas, there is an interacting mix of
terrestrial, estuarine and marine ecosystems that support a wealth of biodiversity. Coastal
biodiversity supports the resource base for a broad range of commercial and non-commercial
activities. Coastal activities dependent on healthy coastal environments include subsistence
fishing and seafood gathering; tourism and recreation; urban development; shipping and
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transportation; coastal agriculture; and trade. Equally the coastal zone has important social,
cultural and indigenous values, including coastal landscapes, amenities and access.
There are various substantial environmental pressures and symptoms of environmental
decline affecting coastal resources due to development and conservation challenges in
coastal areas. This includes ecosystem degradation (particularly for wetlands and inshore
reefs), land degradation, such as soil and coastal erosion, and declines in marine and
freshwater quality from pollution, sedimentation and saltwater intrusion.
Inadequate local capacity to effectively manage coastal resources leaves the coastal regions
of Myanmar vulnerable to the risk of loss of ecosystem services and the impacts of climate
change, extreme events and sea-level rise. These risks are amplified a hundredfold for small
islands like the archipelago islands in Tanintharyi.
5.16. Coastal issues
Population growth, urbanization, industrialization and growing pollution are putting
increasing pressure on Tanintharyi coastal zone. In addition, the state receives an average of
16 cyclonic storms every year – some of them quite severe.
However, deforestation, large-scale mining, habitat and land degradation and diminishing
water resources are all placing pressure on the environment. The expansion of agriculture
and industry, pollution, population growth, along with uncontrolled use and extraction of
resources, are causing severe environmental and ecosystem degradation. Rubber plantations
have almost doubled from 1990 to 2010 and together with large-scale palm oil plantations
are among the biggest threats to biodiversity. These environmental pressures in turn,
increase the vulnerability of several socio-economic sectors including agriculture, transport
and energy. Although accurate updated estimates are difficult to obtain, illegal wildlife trade
in Myanmar is considered to be widespread. Together with illegal hunting, it is causing a
general decrease of wildlife population. Many Myanmar citizens, and local and international
CSOs, fear Myanmar’s rich biodiversity and natural habitats will be depleted and damaged
by greater investment in the extraction of such resources.
Furthermore, tsunamis in the Bay of Bengal are also of concern. The 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami greatly impacted the Delta Region of Myanmar. This highlights the importance of
having an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) plan in place.
1. As part of the ICZM plan, Myanmar should:
Conduct land-use, capability and vulnerability mapping developed through a
Special Area Management Plan (SAMP) and an intersector impact assessment;
and
Prepare land-use, capability and vulnerability maps with high-resolution scale
with land boundaries visible for the entire coastal stretch. All the maps should
run from the coast to 2.5 or 5 kilometres inland, pinpoint village boundaries
and include full administrative units. These maps will benefit various
governmental departments and other stakeholders and help in future planning.
6. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INCLUSIVENESS
Women usually have different access to and control over land and water in coastal zones.
Coastal rural women depend heavily on fish and fishing. They tend to fish close to the shore
and use the catch to feed their families, whereas men typically engage in large-scale
commercial fishing offshore or in major inland waterbodies. Operating on a smaller scale,
coastal rural women earn only 40-50 percent of what men earn for fishing in Myanmar.
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Being less visible in their work, women are also less likely to have access to decision-
makers or to be consulted about the management of natural resources.
Gender issues are not evident, except that girls leave school as soon as they
have learned how to read and write while boys mostly complete primary
school; and
In general, women are integrated in the production structures, in particular in
processing and marketing, where they often take a prominent role.
These findings are indicative as best and need more in-depth analysis/participatory appraisal.
7. RECOMMENDED AREAS OF INTERVENTION AND INVESTMENT
The following high priority areas are recommended for intervention and investment:
Mapping the existing land-use patterns and expected changes in coming years
and evolve a land-use policy for the better management of natural resources;
Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority;
Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove Restoration
(EMR) technique and other coastal ecosystems with stakeholder participation;
Small-scale entrepreneur development support based on minor and major
coastal forest produce, including that from fisheries;
Expanding integrated farming of livestock, fisheries and forestry and
development of livestock-allied industries;
Developing large tracts of grasslands, fodder and woodfuel tree farms using
native grasses and trees;
Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and farming water
demands and restoring waterbodies and catchments;
Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy options to
reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest;
Skills’ assessment and capacity-building programmes in all sectors such as
agriculture, fishery, forestry, livestock; rural employment options for all levels
of stakeholders;
Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation initiatives through
community participation; and
Economic valuation of coastal and marine ecosystems.
8. RELATION TO OTHER RURAL SECTORS
8.1. Improving management of rural and coastal areas
Land use in rural areas: The rural landscape is an invaluable resource for Myanmar,
providing nature and biodiversity, in addition to economic activities such as agriculture,
forestry, rural housing, recreation, tourism, mineral extraction, energy production
(particularly wind farms), fishing and aquaculture. The interplay of these activities is
important and it should be ensured that:
Change in the landscape is managed, without detriment to its overall quality
and character;
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Key resources are protected and maintained for future generations;
The potential negative impacts of one activity over another are carefully
considered at planning application stages;
Efforts are directed towards landscaping with appropriate species and the
retention of existing trees and hedgerows; also to screen and integrate new
development in rural areas. A portion of the development costs may be
allocated for complementary tree planting; and
Existing landscape features such as local stone walls, stiles, hedgerows, field
patterns, archaeological features, traditional building groups, native
woodlands and copses are retained.
8.2. Rural development and enterprise
In order to strengthen the provision of services, regenerate rural communities and promote
the economic development of rural areas, there is a need to support rural and agricultural
diversification through a variety of initiatives. These include rural and agritourism
initiatives; promoting rural transport; developing telecommunications in rural areas; and
promoting the development of small incubator units as an adjunct to other rural activities,
such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry, mariculture and alternative energy production.
Projects assisted by these bodies may include farmers’ markets, tourist attractions and rural
incubator units promoting crafts, the arts, pottery, antiques, indigenous manufacturing and
engineering, in addition to agribusinesses. The government has to work with the supporting
bodies, and others, to promote rural development and enterprise.
Support the active involvement of rural communities in the provision of local
services and the development of resources – e.g. integrated organic farming,
equestrian activities, wildlife and bird watching;
Promote the continuance of the Rural Transport Initiative as an essential
service to people in rural areas;
Facilitate the development of e-commerce, IT and broadband
telecommunications, as enablers of rural enterprise, which can counteract the
effects of distance and remoteness; and
Promote the development of appropriately-scaled second-home and holiday
home development as a contributor to a more diversified rural economy.
8.3. Other rural renaissance initiatives
These should offer funding for projects that make the most of opportunities for community
and economic development arising from peace, and includes initiatives such as economic
renewal, cross-border cooperation and locally-based regeneration and development
strategies.
Activities found in rural areas can be divided into three broad categories: On the farm: rice
and other crops, fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, flowers, animal rearing (chicken, pigs,
sheep), sericulture, apiculture, breeding turtles, frogs, aquaculture and others; Handicrafts:
basket weaving, silk and cotton weaving, carpet weaving, pottery, painting, metal work and
others; Other services include motorcycle repair, radio/television/mobile phone repair,
barber shops, beauty salons, traditional massage parlours, food processing and sales of
various products.
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Rural reform will consist mainly of increasing access to high-quality seeds, expanding credit
through a new private agriculture bank and diversifying crops in villages. Farmers should be
encouraged to cultivate a second crop, such as mangos, bananas, or any suitable crop to
create another source of income. Factories should be built in rural areas to produce juice and
other ‘value-added’ products from second crop produce
Apart from agriculture there is a possibility to develop an industrial sector; there is also
some fear that this may encourage big companies to drive small farmers off their land. Two
new bills, namely the Farmland Law and the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Lands Management
Bill are already facing criticism from farm activists for creating more opportunities for the
state to take over land in Myanmar.
8.4. Forestry
Myanmar is rich in natural forests and approximately half (49 percent or ~317 730 km2) of
the total land area is forested. Forest type and distribution is mostly dependent upon the
landscape of the country (World Bank 2014).
The delta and coastal regions comprise mangrove and estuarine forests;
The arid and semi-arid regions comprise deciduous and dipterocarp forests;
The low rainfall areas (particularly the CDZ and surrounding areas) comprise
dry thorn and scrubland forests;
The high rainfall regions comprise evergreen forests; and
The subtropical high altitudinal areas comprise hill evergreen and subalpine
forests.
Already in the period 1990-2010 Myanmar had lost around 7 445 000 ha (19.0 percent of its
forest cover). Myanmar still remains one of the 10 countries in the world with the largest
annual net loss of forest area and among the five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Myanmar,
Madagascar and Mozambique) with the largest net loss of mangrove area during the period
2000-2010. Similarly, soil erosion is a serious concern in the upland areas on about 10
percent of the country’s cultivated areas, with the government’s land rehabilitation schemes
not keeping pace with new cultivation by upland farmers, sustained by high rates of
population growth.
There are currently 43 officially-recognized protected areas but so far information on their
status has been poor, scattered and not updated; these currently cover 7.3 percent of the
country (Myanmar Forest Information and Data 2014).
The process of establishing community forests over the past decade has been slower than
anticipated, with annual rate of establishment at only about 8 000 acres, despite a national
target of 1.5 million acres by 2030. By 2010, just over 100 000 acres of community forests
had been legally established (recognized and recorded by the central Forestry Department)
in the whole country, over half of which is just in southern Shan State (192 community
forests established by 2010). However, an evaluation and monitoring system is critical to
sustain the objective.
There is a need to support and promote forestry development in Myanmar, subject to the
protection of, inter alia, scenic landscapes and views, water quality, heritage features,
residential amenities and public safety.
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8.5. Aquaculture
Aquaculture relates to the commercial production of fish and shellfish species. The term is
generally used to describe fish farming operations both on inland and coastal (marine)
waters.
Environmental concerns associated with aquaculture include:
Protection of the aquatic environment;
The need to guard against escapees;
The avoidance of any genetic threats, potential disease and parasitic
implications to local fish stocks (there is a need to source seed from certified
disease-free stock); and
Potential conflicts in relation to water supply, which can become critical
during low-flow summer periods.
Major aquaculture projects must be discouraged, unless the government is satisfied that such
proposals will be environmentally sustainable and have a limited impact on the visual
amenity of the area. Hatcheries and breeding techniques are also a major field of importance
in Myanmar.
Net cage culture is operated in the Myeik Archipelago and Gwa Township on the Rakhine
coast. As of 2010 there were six marine net cage finfish culture farms on the Tanintharyi
coast (Department of Fisheries 2010). Primary species for commercial culture are the
duskytail grouper (Epinephelus bleekeri), the orange-spotted grouper, (E. coioides), the
Malabar grouper (E. malabaricus) and the greasy grouper (E. tauvina) (FAO 2003) but other
species of groupers and snappers may be opportunistically reared as well. Seabass (Lates
calcarifer) is similarly farmed in some areas of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta.
Grouper is one of the three main aquaculture exports of Myanmar (after shrimp and on par
with crab). They are exported either live from Myeik for the live reef fish trade to Hong
Kong S.A.R. or chilled. Juveniles are wild-caught by fishers, often around the full moon
using feathered hooks or traps, while fry are lured and collected using rock mounds, brush
piles, brush lures and fish traps. The fish are grown in floating net cages and ponds.
Myanmar scientists have conducted seaweed culture experiments since the 1960s and the
first factory to produce carrageenan and agar from Hypnea and Gracilaria was established in
1979 in Thandwe District of Rakhine coast. Enteromorpha, Catenella and Sargassum have
been grown to produce Japanese nori. Currently there is seaweed farming in the Myeik
Archipelago. Until 1989 it was estimated that at least 1 500 tonnes of dried, raw seaweed
were produced in Myanmar each year, however, this was just 300 tonnes in 2014 according
to the Department of Fisheries.
Commercial seaweed farming near the pristine islands that make up the Myeik or Mergui
Archipelago in southern Myanmar began six years ago. The ROK-based MSC Company
invested millions of dollars in this project by providing technical expertise and agricultural
equipment to growers. The endangered green species of seaweed was widely cultivated in
Myeik Archipelago during previous years but currently only brown species are cultivated.
Seaweed cultivation in the Myeik Archipelago has declined since 2013 because of an
unknown disease. Many seaweed growers are being forced to abandon the cultivation of the
once lucrative Eucheuma or ‘Cottonii’ seaweed and are turning to other sources of income.
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8.6. Diversification of agricultural activity
It is recognized that agricultural diversification helps achieve food security and improved
human nutrition and increased rural employment; it can also impact favourably on soil
fertility and pest incidence. Myanmar’s agroclimatic regional planning has documented the
zones of maximal opportunity for diversified agriculture on smaller farms. Planning (at local
and regional scales) to utilize those opportunities, and to provide the supportive
agroprocessing and market and communications facilities, must involve farmers’
representatives and cooperatives, administrators, extensionists, researchers, input suppliers
(public and private), and NGOs; it must address on-farm and non-farm features.
Other data from agricultural censuses and various regional microscale studies similarly
demonstrate that smaller (< 2.0-ha) farms practise diversified farming. On quite small
holdings, often fragmented, farmers nationwide allocate their land to seasonal crops, fruits,
and vegetables, dairy cattle, and perhaps poultry to maximize their household-labour
utilization and income. In this context, there is a need to:
Promote agriculture and agricultural diversification, while seeking to protect
and maintain biodiversity, wildlife habitats, water quality and nature
conservation;
Provide infrastructure to serve the needs of agriculture, in cooperation with the
appropriate agencies;
Provide support mechanisms to reduce agricultural pollution and the
eutrophication of rivers and lakes;
Promote and support secondary and tertiary economic activities associated
with the primary activities of agriculture, forestry, mineral extraction, fishing,
aquaculture and mariculture;
Promote farm diversification and possible spin-offs (e.g. biomass and energy
production, poultry, mushroom growing, flower growing, equestrian
facilities), in association with vigorous and adequate environmental controls
upon their development;
Support farm families seeking to establish alternative and/or complementary
economic enterprises to supplement their income from farming, subject to
appropriate scale and intensity of development, taking into consideration
traffic, environmental, landscape and residential amenity considerations.
Where the enterprise is not dependent on a rural location, and the scale and
intensity grow beyond family income needs, it may be encouraged, where
appropriate, to relocate to a nearby town or village; and
Promote the development of niche activities, such as those relating to food
(particularly value-added products), forestry (e.g. wood products), crafts,
ecotourism and agrotourism – e.g. farmhouse accommodation, pet farms, farm
holidays, health farms, equestrian activities, wildlife or bird-watching
holidays, painting or photography tuition, angling tourism, field studies and
hill-walking (with the cooperation of the landowners).
8.7. Coastal zone management
Overview: Information on the current state of the environment onshore and offshore is
sparse to non-existent. From sheltered bays, unspoiled beaches, small islands and wild surf,
Myanmar possesses a varied and spectacular coastline.
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The coastline, however, is a finite resource that provides environmental, economic,
recreational and aesthetic benefits and access to marine resources such as fisheries and
aquaculture.
The primary attraction of the Myanmar coast is its relatively unspoiled nature. Increasingly,
the coastal zone is coming under pressure from:
Holiday makers and/or surfers looking for unspoiled coastlines;
Tourism providers who may seek to exploit scenic views in the provision of
accommodation or other facilities;
Individual homeowners;
Maricultural developments; and
Wind farm, solar plant operators who wish to avail coastal locations with high
wind speeds and solar energy.
Pressure for development needs to be examined in the context of a coastal environment
undergoing fairly rapid change, as the coastal zone is subject to constant pressures from
various agents of erosion, potential pollutants and conflicting user groups.
Coastal zone management should aim to achieve more efficient and sustainable use of the
coastal resource. The impacts arising from climate change, including changing weather
patterns and rising sea levels, will be most readily discernible at the coast. Flooding of low-
lying coastal areas is likely to become more frequent as a result of increased intensity and
frequency of oceanic storms. This may also cause or exacerbate coastal erosion, which can
have a devastating effect on existing development and infrastructure. The government
should draw up a policy document on Coastal Zone Management, which stipulates “policies
of limitation and curtailment on tourism and leisure development and use are, therefore,
necessary to deal with the increasing pressure”.
8.8. Fishing
Overharvesting to meet global consumers' growing demand for seafood can deplete many
species and alter the biological structure of coastal ecosystems. Many species are
overharvested because the world fishing fleet is larger than it needs to be. Other problems
include destructive harvesting methods such as trawling (dragging weighted nets across the
sea floor to catch shrimp and bottom-dwelling fish), and by-catch (unintended catch of non-
targeted species). Modern trawling equipment scoops through sediment and rock and often
kills the worms, sponges and other species that live on the sea floor.
The present small-scale fisheries support some sport fishing in Thandwe, which has potential
for expansion as a tourist activity:
One of the localized unisectoral development activities that contradict with Myanmar
Agenda 21 in coastal areas is capture fishery. For example, in the past few years, the
Divisional Economic Development Committee has increased issuance of fishing licences in
order to achieve local economic development and to obtain more foreign exchange in
Tanintharyi coastal region, while studies reveal that there is a clear decline in overall fishery
resources in the area. Recent re-estimation of the MSY by the Department of Fisheries
clearly indicated overfishing in Tanintharyi coastal areas and has recommended revoking
demersal fishery awarded to foreign fishing fleets but to allow expansion of local fisheries
that have small individual fishing capacity (DOLF 1999). However, in Rakhine coastal
region, the DoF has recommended increasing capture fishery production by allowing over 80
percent more fishing vessels based only on MSY obtained through the official fish landing.
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If capacities of illegal poaching by foreign fleets were considered, it would be evident that
current production far exceeds the MSY. Although the volume of illegal poaching is hard to
estimate, already there is a clear indication of decline in fishery resources, according to
unpublished data on the seafood-processing industry. In hot pursuit of economic
development, sustainable marine resources management becomes paralyzed in the absence
of proper infrastructure, sufficient resources and an effective management control
mechanism that is enhanced by multisectoral coordination.
Moreover, fishing of live marine organisms by artisanal fishery poses a great threat to
marine and coastal biodiversity as well as coral reefs, apart from industrialized commercial
fishing. Mud crab fishery and live fish export of coral fish, grouper and black tiger shrimp
breeders would be a prominent example of this issue. According to the Tropical Ecosystem
Research Project survey reports of DANCED (1998-2000), between 80 and 100 tonnes of
live mud crab of both small and large sizes are being exported every month as Tanintharyi
mangroves serve as a major mud crab seed source for soft shell crab farming of a
neighbouring country. Similarly, in Rakhine State, 3 948 tonnes of mud crabs were exported
in the 1998-1999 fiscal year alone through border trade (Latt 1999). Moreover, an
unconfirmed source reported approximately 50 percent of shrimp breeds used in hatcheries
of Thailand come from Myanmar. All these activities, although being operated by mostly
artisanal fishers, have been significantly affecting the stability of coastal marine ecosystems.
Dynamiting coral fish, trampling and boat anchoring by such fishers have contributed
greatly to damaged coral reefs, quite apart from upland deforestation, littering and domestic
sewage. Although the extent of coral reef destruction in the whole Tanintharyi Division has
not been estimated yet, it is evident that large areas of coral reefs within the Lampi Island
Marine National Park boundary have been seriously damaged. Thus,
The legal and regulatory framework for fisheries needs to be reviewed and
revised for central and division/state levels, to facilitate compliance and allow
for co-management and community management of coastal resources;
A National Plan of Action to manage Myanmar’s fishing capacity needs to be
developed and implemented; and
A National Plan of Action to combat and eliminate IUU fishing (including
monitoring, control and surveillance) needs to be developed and implemented.
8.9. Mariculture
Marine fisheries and aquaculture (the controlled cultivation and harvesting of freshwater and
marine organisms) produce fin fish, shellfish and edible plants every year, providing a
livelihood for the coastal community and allied stakeholder community.
There are considerable opportunities for further development in aquaculture, especially
mariculture, in Myanmar. Joint efforts of the government and the private sector would
realize huge aquaculture potential. To do so without adverse side-effects and impacts on the
environment and social harmony, the government is taking measures to encourage, with
appropriate incentives and assistance, investors, farmers and other stakeholders to practise
responsible production practices.
The most common species in that area is E. coioides, but commercial-scale culture is not yet
practised. Regarding Lates calcarifer or Asian seabass farming, improved hatchery
management techniques are needed for its development into commercial culture. Inadequate
seed supply due to lack of skills in hatchery technology is now the major constraint for the
development of marine finfish aquaculture. There is a need to:
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Encourage and facilitate mariculture development associated with job
creation, in a manner that is compatible with other uses of the Myanmar coast
Work with the mariculture industry to increase environmental sustainability.
8.10. Marine/coastal mineral extraction
A potential threat to coral reef ecosystems in Tanintharyi coastal zone is impact from oil, gas
and mineral exploration. The development of natural gas production and mineral deposits in
watershed areas and offshore could have a significant impact in coming years. No effective
measures and sustainable management of coastal marine resources by concerned agencies
exist to date apart from a ban on non-sustainable fishing practices, such as use of explosives,
by the Department of Fisheries.
Aggregate extraction from the coastal zone, particularly from beaches, estuaries and cobble
storm berms, has created many problems in the past, resulting in increased levels of erosion
and flooding in coastal areas.
Any proposals for future coastal/marine aggregate extraction along the Myanma coast shall
only be considered following detailed EIA and consultation with the MOECAF, if
appropriate. The processing and storage of extracted aggregates on lands within the coastal
zone shall be carried out in a manner that minimizes the impact on natural and residential
amenities.
8.11. Coastal protection
Mangrove forests, which are natural barriers protecting the coastal inland and inhabitants,
are also being cleared for timber and to make room for fish and shrimp ponds, human
settlements, and agricultural and industrial development.
Coastal protection works aim to reduce land loss and the frequency of flooding. Hard
structural/engineering options use structures constructed on the beach (seawalls, groynes,
breakwaters/artificial headlands) or further offshore (offshore breakwaters). These options
influence coastal processes to stop or reduce the rate of coastal erosion. Recent coastal
protection works carried out by the government are limited.
In the past, engineering works tended to impose armoured defences along the shoreline,
whereas in recent times, there has been a preference for a ‘softer’ approach, i.e. working
with natural processes rather than opposing them, where possible.
The following actions are to be taken for further strengthening of the coastal region:
Carry out the outlined coastal zone management and protection works;
Identify, prioritize and implement additional coastal protection works within
the coastal zone that are considered necessary, subject to the availability of
resources;
Monitor existing dune management schemes on an ongoing basis and secure
appropriate repairs, improvements and extensions, subject to the availability of
resources;
Examine existing laws and make appropriate amendments, in the interest of
protecting sand dunes from encroachment and damage;
Continue to employ soft engineering techniques (i.e. dune stabilization and
planting) as an alternative to hard coastal defence works, where appropriate;
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Ensure that regard is paid to visual and environmental considerations in the
design of coastal defence works;
Ensure that any developments permitted within the coastal zone are
appropriately sited, taking into consideration coastal flooding and the
predicted rise in sea levels;
Establish development limits and natural buffers at the coast, particularly in
conjunction with the preparation of local area plans and other land-use plans;
and
Strictly control the nature and pattern of development on all promontories and
headlands, and ensure that, if development is permitted, it is designed and
landscaped to the highest standards. Landscaping will be of a type that is
predominantly native to the area and seasalt spray resistant.
8.12. Nature conservation in coastal areas
Despite the country’s long coastline there are only four marine protected areas and there is
little capacity to conserve and manage marine resources. The government has expressed its
commitment, through international conventions, to put 10 percent of its marine areas under
protection by 2020; however, a range of factors including the lack of biological and socio-
economic data and a lack of financial and technical resources severely constrain the ability
of the government and other actors to meet this target.
Support the management of sites of conservation importance, including
proposed natural heritage areas, candidate special areas for conservation and
special protection areas;
Take into account the potential conservation of all sites of interest within the
coastal zone when assessing development proposals; and
Promote the natural interest of the Myanmar coast as a sustainable tourism,
conservation and educational asset.
8.13. Recreation and tourism
Myeik Archipelago is rich in biodiversity and natural forest. Myanmar has three coastal
regions namely Rakhine State (western Myanmar), the Ayeyarwaddy Delta and Tanintharyi
Division’s coastal zone. The Myeik Archipelago located in the Tanintharyi Division, the
most southern division of Myanmar, consists of over 800 islands across Myanmar and Thai
national boundaries. This area is bestowed with abundant natural marine resources.
The main business of local people is fisheries and allied activities. The Myeik Archipelago is
increasingly becoming a major tourist attraction, particularly for recreational dive
operations.
Tourism can offer some environmental benefits, such as greater appreciation of the value of
natural resources. In the Myeik Archipelago, for instance, diving tourism can help raise
awareness about the need for coral reef and biodiversity conservation. But tourism can also
have harmful effects. It can lead to unsustainable coastal development as infrastructure is
built on the shoreline to accommodate tourists.
Coral reefs are major storehouses for biodiversity, providing habitats for several species of
marine animals and plants despite covering only a tiny fraction of the ocean floor. They also
provide food, building materials, shoreline protection and many indirect benefits for people
living near them.
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More reefs are being degraded and threatened by dynamite fishing, coral
mining and other human activities, as well as by bleaching caused by rising
ocean temperatures.
The reefs are also threatened by inadequate treatment of sewage in the
surrounding area; and
The high nutrient content of wastewater and water contaminated with human
or animal faeces discharged into the sea and other waters adjacent to the reefs
should be also kept in check.
The benefits of marine tourism can be generally defined as economic, ecological and
cultural. Income from accommodation, restaurants and souvenir shops and transportation
services is the most direct economic benefit. There is a need to:
Ensure that future caravan, camping and parking facilities in coastal areas will
not be visually intrusive or impact on sensitive coastal environments (e.g. sand
dune systems), by stipulating, inter alia, appropriate siting, layout, design and
natural screening;
Manage and control car parking and vehicular and pedestrian movements on
beaches and within dunes and other vulnerable areas;
Develop green parking areas in appropriate coastal locations, i.e. soft areas
that can be left in their natural state during out-of-season months and used to
provide overflow facilities during peak periods;
Exclude unauthorized land-based and marine-based motor sports activities
from beaches;
Seek continued compliance on water quality for all bathing beaches;
Provide a number of designated facilities and access points for controlled
water sports activities, in a manner that avoids conflict with nature
conservation activities such as swimming, sailing, fishing and mariculture;
Maintain and develop small piers and harbours along the islands, subject to
funding;
Ensure that golf course development does not damage or encroach upon
vulnerable dune systems;
Give priority to coastal areas within country-wide programmes to signpost and
improve public rights of way; and
Promote awareness of the sensitivity of the coastal environment, amongst
visitors and residents alike, through the provision of educational/heritage
appreciation programmes, public information boards and other appropriate
means.
8.14. Wind and wave energy
The Myanmar coast is endowed with strong winds and is therefore economically suitable for
wind farm development. Most of the coastal zone is relatively flat, providing long open
views. Development proposals should therefore avoid locations that are immediately
adjacent to coastal settlements or significant tourist attractions.
There is also potential for the development of offshore wind farms and energy generated
from the movement of waves. Detailed visual, ecological, archaeological, heritage and social
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impacts of such proposals should be assessed in determining their acceptability. There is a
need to:
Restrict the location of industrial development within the coastal zone to
resource-based activities that have a clear and demonstrable need, i.e. those
dependent on resources offered at the sea or coast (e.g. maritime industries,
mariculture);
All such proposals should be subject to the strict application of location, siting
and design criteria;
Control and minimize sources of water and land pollution;
Maintain and update the Coastal Emergency Response Plan for Myanmar;
Generally, restrict development in the coastal zone, specifically between
coastal roads and the sea, except where it can be demonstrated that it does not
detract from views or impact on environmentally sensitive areas. Exceptions
will be considered for sustainable tourism development, public infrastructural
works and development that is contiguous with existing towns and villages;
Promote existing degraded coastal areas, i.e. those where quarrying or other
deleterious activities have taken place, as significant development sites,
subject to appropriate environmental mitigation measures and the strict
application of location, siting and design criteria; and
Consider the establishment of a local forum for each of the coastal villages;
involving landowners, local communities and relevant interest groups, to
explore and resolve coastal zone management issues that are specific to each
area.
8.15. Legal mechanisms to achieve coastal region management
Laws related to coastal and marine environments are described in different sectoral laws
under two ministries: the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Forestry.
For instance, the Marine Fisheries Law (1990), the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991), the
Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels Law (1989) and the Aquaculture Law (1989)
prohibit causing water pollution; harassing fish and other marine organism and using
explosive substances, poisonous chemicals and dangerous material in fishing. In addition,
the Territorial Sea and Maritime Zone Law (1977) provides measures for protection of the
marine environment, prevention and control of marine pollution. It also endorses conducting
scientific research and management of the marine environment. The Pesticide Law (1990)
prohibits the use of pesticides to catch or kill land or aquatic animals. The Pearl Law of 1995
protects and conserves the water area of oyster fishing grounds from destruction and
safeguards oysters from local extinction.
The Forest Law of 1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation
of Natural Areas Law (1994) cover protection and management of mangrove forests in the
coastal zones.
In the fisheries sector, while some of the directives and regulations emphasize assurance of
fishery revenue, others prevent overfishing by declaring closed seasons and territories,
restriction of fishing gear etc. However, those laws and regulations are weak in conservation
measures including protection of aquatic resource habitat. Apart from the laws mentioned
above, there are also several directives from the ministry for protection of marine resources
however, these are more on an ad hoc basis.
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Appropriate laws promulgated to protect various coastal resources are the Forest Law of
1992 and the Protection of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas
Law (1994). These laws are considered quite comprehensive in protection and management
of mangrove forests as well as wildlife in Myanmar. However, the Ministry of Forestry
declared Lampi Islands as a Marine National Park under these laws although the island
ecosystem has coral reef ecosystem domination. Logically, the park should be under the
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries; the Ministry of Forestry has no administrative power to
manage the park. In addition, there is no regulation or coordination mechanism to allow
collaboration between the two ministries in this case and hence one needs to be created.
Moreover, fishery laws, protection and management systems of other coastal marine
ecosystems such as coral reefs, sea-grass beds and sand beaches are not prioritized.
Therefore, there is an urgent need to introduce new fishery laws that would ensure the
protection, management and sustainable utilization of coastal marine resources.
Aquaculture can affect land, waterbodies, seed quality and availability but in general, the
level of impact depends upon the type of aquaculture system and level of intensification.
Therefore, regulating aquaculture is also important for coastal and marine environments. In
this case, the Aquaculture Law of 1989 prohibits obstruction of waterways and prevents
water pollution from aquaculture activities. The directives of the Directorate of Fisheries
have more specific regulation on pollution control as aquaculture effluent can have negative
impacts on the water environment. One of the regulations also prohibits clearance of
mangroves for aquaculture. However, currently no specific regulation prohibits mass
collection of natural fish seedlings. Wild shrimp seedlings (postlarvae of shrimp) that supply
almost the entire traditional shrimp farms in Rakhine State are collected from estuary areas
because shrimp hatcheries in Rakhine State have very low production capacity. The
Directorate of Fisheries is trying to regulate the collection of wild seeds with limited
success.
Although no direct coastal resource management legislation could be found in the country’s
corpus of environmental laws, a close examination of its natural resources and environment
related legislations revealed that the legal backbone of wetlands management could be found
in, among others, the Forest Law (Law No. 8/92, 1992), Myanmar Forest Policy 1994,
Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (Law No.
6/1994), Aquaculture Law 1989, Marine Fisheries Law (Law No. 9, 1990), Freshwater
Fisheries Law (Law No. 1/91 1991), Pesticide Law 1990, Agricultural Policy 1992 and
Conservation of Water Resources and River Law 2006.
Relevant to coastal resource management are Myanmar’s National Biodiversity Strategy and
Action Plan (NBSAP) and the National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS). In fact,
they could serve well in formulating a national integrated coastal resources management
plan.
Myanmar is currently in the process of revising its policies and laws on environmental
protection. The Environmental Conservation Law requires MOECAF to put in place a
comprehensive waste and pollutant monitoring scheme. MOECAF has just adopted the
Environmental Conservation Rules 2014 and is in the process of developing environmental
quality, starting with effluent standards.
The updated 2012 Environmental Conservation Law and 2014 Rules, empowers MOECAF
to act as a ‘nodal point’ for business activities. It confers powers on MOECAF to regulate
and to establish a ‘prior permission scheme’ for a range of business activities that “may
cause impact on environmental quality”. Other government departments authorized to
approve business activities may do so only after obtaining relevant permission from
MOECAF. MIC Notification No. 1 sets out the list of economic activities that require an
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environmental and social impact assessment, and approval by MOECAF, which include the
exploration, drilling and production of oil and gas, although the EIA Procedures under the
Environmental Conservation Law will refine them. In addition, there are basic provisions in
this law, as there are in the Foreign Direct Investment Law that requires basic pollution
control. The Environmental Conservation Law is based on the ‘polluter pays principle’, with
compensation for environmental impacts to be paid to a fund to be set up by MOECAF.
In addition, the law requires that any business that requires prior permission (which includes
oil and gas operations), must have insurance cover for impacts on the environment. The law
provides for criminal penalties (although it is unclear if these apply to business entities) and
payment of compensation for damages (Myanmar Constitution and Foreign Investment
Law).
In addition to the framework Environmental Conservation Law, there are currently 44
existing laws with some form of obligations on operators with respect to pollution, disposal
and other harmful impacts on the environment and local society. The 2006 Conservation of
Water Resources and Rivers Law provides a general prohibition on polluting watercourses
or rivers. The implementation of these laws needs to be factored into new and forthcoming
rules to be developed under the 2012 Environmental Conservation Law.
Special courts are separately constituted by the Supreme Court to achieve swift and effective
trials and they have the power to establish environmental courts or tribunals if it they are
required. However, even the township courts could play a very important role in
implementing environmental-related laws by cooperating with various administrative
institutions where administrative actions are recognized under some laws.
Legal and regulatory issues: The present legal and regulatory framework is in need of review
and revision to facilitate the:
Effective capacity management of all fleet segments;
Enforcement of regulations and to combat IUU fishing;
Co-management; and
Ecosystem and/or depth-specific zoning of territorial waters.
At present, non-enforcement of existing legal and regulatory provisions makes most of the
fishing in Myanmar marine waters IUU fishing by the FAO/UN definition.
9. CONCLUSION
This review of coastal sectors will provide a framework for implementing priority actions to
strengthen capacity for the implementation of activities related to agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, livestock, biodiversity, land degradation and cross-cutting areas while
strengthening the coordination and collaboration of efforts for environmental management
and diversification of livelihood options will ultimately provide sustainable food security
and poverty alleviation
Development of national land-use planning that considers multisectoral aspects and a
sustainable development vision in its concept needs to start with a land-use policy. At the
same time, a more appropriate and workable institutional mechanism that describes detailed
responsibilities for various sectors should be created. In addition, development of an ICZM
body and rapid implementation in cooperation with related sectors of local and international
agencies should also be done.
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In the case of Myanmar, development of human resources appears to be one of the most
important factors in management strategy. Such resources for protection and management of
coastal marine ecosystems could be acquired by collaborating with NGOs and institutions of
both local and international entities. Using skilled human resources, a wide range of
environmental education activities can be promoted while sustainable development
extension services can be provided in collaboration with all stakeholders. After promotion of
environmental awareness, further steps such as sustainable utilization, protection and
management can properly be taken.
Moreover, as most coastal and marine boundaries are inseparable, transboundary
collaborative efforts in research, development and enforcement activities are necessary at
both local and national levels. Concerned governments should allow simpler and easier
activities at local/microlevels of transboundary nature so that the most urgent issues can be
properly addressed and tackled by the stakeholders; appropriate guidelines and mechanism
are warranted. In pursuing such constructive efforts to protect coastal and marine ecosystems
in Myanmar, political differences amongst all stakeholders should be dropped with a broader
vision in place.
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ANNEX 1: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2012. Asian Development Bank and Myanmar fact sheet, 30
April 2012. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
Christian. 1942. Changing faces of the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Delta (1850-2000).
Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries (DOLF). 1999. Quarterly report. Yangon, Directorate
of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries.
Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Guidelines for preparing economic analyses.
Washington DC, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of the Administrator.
Furnivall, J.S. 1957. An introduction to the political economy of Burma. Third Edition.
Rangoon, Burmese Advertising Press.
Giri, C., Ochieng, E., Tieszen, L., Zhu, Z., Singh, A., Loveland, T., Masek, J. & Duke, N. 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite
data. Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 20(1): 154-159.
Kyaw Thi Soe & Mon Mon Yin. 2009. Environmental management in Myanmar. Yangon
University of Distance Education Research Journal, 1(1): 264.
Latt, W. 1999. The assessment of CDRT aquaculture projects, aquatic resources profile and
aquaculture potential. NACA Consultant Report of Environment Subproject (ESP), Community
Development for Remote Township (CDRT). Bangkok, Thailand, MYA UNDP, Yangon,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Mya Than. 1984. Burma’s agriculture since 1962 – from stagnancy to breakthrough. In Ngo
Manh-Lan, ed. Unreal growth: critical studies in Asian development. Delhi, Hindustan
Publishing Corporation (India).
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA). 2012. Myanmar’s National Adaptation
Programme of Action (NAPA) to climate change. National Coordinating Body: National
Environmental Conservation Committee, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry;
Executing Agency: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Ministry of Transport;
Implementing Agency: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA). 1999. State of the environment in
Myanmar. Draft report prepared for ESCAP. National Commission for Environmental Affairs.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2003. Coastal zone
management: integrated policies (Paris: OECD, 1993); and Integrated coastal management,
"what is the 'coast'?". Available at http://icm.noaa.gov/story/icm_coast.html. Accessed on 12
August 2003.
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United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2001. World resources 2000-2001 —
people and ecosystems: the fraying web of life. Washington, DC, World Resources Institute.
Voigt, B. 1998. Glossary of coastal terminology. Available at
www.csc.noaa.gov/text/glossary.html. Accessed on 15 August 2003.
Web sites
http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar
http://www.unicef.org/eapro/Myanmar_Situation_Analysis.pdf
http/data.worldbank.org/country/Myanmar
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ANNEX 2: OVERVIEW OF STATES/DIVISIONS AND TOWNSHIPS IN
MYANMAR
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ANNEX 3: INTERVENTIONS AND INVESTMENTS
Intervention 1. Land-use policy
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Mapping the existing land use pattern and expected changes in
coming years and evolve with a Land-use Policy for the better
management of natural resources
Justification Land-use planning is the systematic assessment of land and
water potential, alternatives for land use and economic and
social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use
options. The purpose is to select and put into practice those land
uses that will best meet the needs of the people while
safeguarding resources for the future. The driving force in
planning is the need for change, the need for improved
management or the need for a quite different pattern of land use
dictated by changing circumstances.
All kinds of rural land use are involved: agriculture, pastoralism,
forestry, wildlife conservation and tourism. Planning also
provides guidance in cases of conflict between rural land use and
urban or industrial expansion, by indicating which areas of land
are most valuable under rural use.
Land-use planning does not exist in isolation. It is necessary to
view land-use planning as an integral part of the process of
national growth and development. Among other things, this
process seeks to identify, articulate and satisfy the basic
social/human needs of a country’s population within the context
of available economic/financial resources and technical
knowledge.
The developmental needs such as need housing; jobs; education;
opportunities for recreation; transport; and basic services like
water, electricity, clean air and health care. Social planning and
policies attempt to take care of the basic social needs of the
country’s population. Economic planning and policies seek to
ensure that the country has a sound economic base which
provides revenue to finance government operations and pay for
provision of services to the public while also ensuring that jobs
are available to the country’s labour force.
Land-use planning seeks to accommodate these needs within a
technical and spatial framework. Similarly, economic decisions
to focus on tourism, manufacturing industry or agricultural
development, as the basis of the country’s economic
development must be translated into land-use terms.
Understanding the land use patterns and expected changes in
future is significant in developing a Land use policy for the
rational management of the coastal regions.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions
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Scope In Myanmar, one of the major factors for forest degradation and
habitat and biodiversity loss is a lack of land-use policies and
planning. Moreover, unplanned expansion of commercial
plantations, such as oil palm and cassava, is leading to large-
scale conversion of forest areas. Under the guidance of the
Union President, a Land Scrutinizing Committee was formed in
2013 to steer the development of a comprehensive Land Use
Policy and Land 16 Use Management Plan. The Union Minister
of the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry
(MOECAF) chairs the committee.
At the national level, planning is concerned with national goals
and the allocation of resources. A national land-use plan may
cover:
land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land
among different sectors of the economy food production, export
crops, tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public
amenities, roads, industry;
national development plans and budget: project identification
and the allocation of resources for development;
coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;
legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and
water rights.
Activities Categorize the activities existing and also propose potential
areas for future usage:
Shoreline Access
Recreation and Visitor-Serving Facilities
Housing
Water and Marine Resources
Diking, Dredging, Filling and Shoreline Structures
Commercial Fishing and Recreational Boating
Environmentally Sensitive Habitat Areas
Agriculture
Hazards
Forestry and Soils Resources
Locating and Planning New Development
Coastal Visual Resources and Special Communities
Public Works
Industrial and Energy Development
Undertake an assessment of available data to determine data
gaps and information needs for natural resources, ecosystems
and sustainable land management
Develop and implement monitoring and data collection
programmes for natural resources, ecosystems and land
information
Include identification of appropriate personnel and training as
part of a programmatic approach to database and inventories
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development, data collation and analysis, mobilizing information
and dissemination
Need to develop cooperation in sharing database development
expertise between government agencies
Investigate the potential for individuals in key ministries to
collaborate and develop their skills in databases development
and support this collaboration.
Designate an agency to facilitate and manage a central land and
resource information system that is accessible by all
stakeholders
Formal and informal training and skills development of national
and community level personnel for resource use planning
methods, techniques, approaches and systems; GIS
development; resource inventory methods; multi-criteria and
objective based planning; ecosystem approaches to land use
planning; land capability/suitability methods; and, integrated
catchment and coastal zone approaches.
Identify data needs and benefits or desirable outputs for
individual Ministries from a GIS, develop a targeted programme
for practical utilization of GIS data.
Develop training programmes for practical training of relevant
agencies and organizations in data collection, data basing,
analysis, mapping, maintenance and practical utilization of
Geographic Information Systems
Develop a land use policy and integrate into the National Policy
and make provisions for enforcement
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 2: Integrated coastal management authority
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Authority
Justification As populations in coastal areas increase and the economic
activity diversifies, all the impacts on coastal environment are
bound to worsen threatening survival of several species,
productivity of the biota, and render fishing an unsustainable
proposition. It is, therefore, clear that unless governments and
resource users take appropriate action, the degradation of the
coastal and marine environment will become uncontrollable and
there will be no possibilities for sustainable use of resources
from these waters.
A separate authentic body “Integrated Coastal Management
Authority” to regulate the resources would be appropriate with
defined set of regulations.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions
Scope Existing legislation and policy frameworks for management of
coastal resources are fragmented, ineffectively implemented and
only provides limited mandate to regulate or control activities
that may impact upon the coastal zone
Poor implementation and enforcement of management regimes
within the coastal zone
Lack of clarity of existing mandates and delineation of
responsibility between agencies and ministries related to coastal
zone management
No plan of action to bring together all the parts of government
for integrated coastal management together and to work in a
cohesive fashion
The authority can declare coastal stretches as Coastal Regulation
Zones (CRZ) and regulate certain activities within the zone.
The provisions of the act are to be implemented by the coastal
states and Islands. It also envisages the creation of an
appropriate authority at the state level to be responsible for
enforcement and enactment of these provisions.
Activities Establish an independent coastal management authority with the
implementation objectives of developing directives and decide
the management strategies for:
Protecting natural resources,
Managing development in high hazard areas,
Giving development priority to coastal-dependent uses,
Providing public access for recreation,
Prioritizing water-dependent uses, and
Coordinating state and federal actions.
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 3. Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological Mangrove
Restoration (EMR) technique
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Restoration of degraded mangroves through Ecological
Mangrove Restoration (EMR) technique and other coastal
ecosystems with stakeholders’ participation
Justification The mangrove deforestation rate is now the highest of all forest
types for which data is available; over the past 30 years the
country lost around 58% of its mangrove forests.
Over the past two decades, the natural resources in Wunbaik
Reserved Forest have been severely degraded, due to
unsustainable levels of wood collection and land conversion. In
2011, 25 per cent of the reserve had been encroached for paddy
and shrimp cultivation while degraded forests covered 17 per
cent. And encroached and degraded area was achieved through a
combination of high-resolution satellite imagery at 0.3m
resolution and inventory techniques (FAO-
UN/TCP/MYA/3204).
The Ayeyarwady Delta—also called the Irrawaddy Delta—is a
vast alluvial floodplain. The delta spans over 35,000
km2 (13,500 mi2) and was once home to an extensive tract of
mangrove forests, but deforestation has changed the landscape.
One scientific study estimated that the delta lost 1,685 km2 (651
mi2) from 1978 to 2011. This 40-year sequence of Landsat
images shows the relatively rapid loss of mangrove forest.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) and continuous interventions.
Scope Approximately 5 644 hectares of land encroached for agriculture
and aquaculture within the reserved Wunbaik mangroves,
Rakhine state are degraded and could be taken for restoration
initiatives through EMR technique.
Note: Already a successful EMR demonstration exists in Hlang
Kaung, adjacent to Wunbaik, Rakhine State for replication
(TCP/MYA/3204, FAO-UN).
Ecological Mangrove Restoration method recommends the
following steps, to be undertaken using healthy mangroves of
the surrounding area as a reference:
Assess the ecology, especially reproduction and distribution
patterns, of the mangrove species at the disturbed site;
Map the topographical elevations and hydrological patterns that
determine how seedlings should establish themselves at the site;
Assess the changes made to the site that currently prevent the
site from recovering by itself;
Design a restoration plan that begins by restoring the normal
range of elevations and tidal hydrology at the site; and
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Monitor the site to determine if the restoration has been
successful in light of the original objectives
No Nursery development required for this technique; it depends
on hydrology restoration and natural recruitment.
Activities The actual planting of seedlings is a last resort, since it fails in
many cases; it should be considered only if natural recruitment
of seedlings fails to reach the restoration objective.
Encroached areas are restored to mangrove cover
Design and implement community based mangrove restoration
plans for abandoned areas (cash for work).
Allocate resource use rights in restored areas to local
communities.
Educate and train stakeholders including local Forest
Department and line agency staff to increase awareness of the
need for forest protection and conservation.
Mangrove management is improved at the national level
Provide training in mangrove restoration to organisations
working in different mangrove areas in Myanmar
Periodical evaluation and monitoring and documentation is
inevitable
Review management of other mangrove reserved forests in
Myanmar and provide recommendations/concept notes for
project support
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025) and should be continuous
Cost TBD
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Intervention 4. Small-scale entrepreneur development
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Small scale entrepreneur development support based on the
minor and major coastal forest produce including fishery
Justification The coastal region is bestowed with plenty of natural resources
including the minor and major forest produce and the fishery
resources. These abundant resources are either unutilized or
overexploited.
Coastal region based wood produce, nuts and fruits, sap and
honey, shells and fish, could create a base for the livelihood of
the community dependent. Currently there are several small-
scale entrepreneur activities in operation, which could be
strengthened by the cooperatives, technologies for value addition
and support systems.
People could be supported with seed fund and technical support
and to reach the marketing linkages.
Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)
interventions
Scope Small entrepreneurs cover a wide range of business activities.
The range of products manufactured by small-scale industries is
very wide:
Manufacturing Industries:
Village and Cottage Industries
Handlooms and Handicrafts:
Modern Small Entrepreneurs:
These industries are:
(a) Small Entrepreneurs:
(b) Ancillary Industries:
The manufacture of parts components, sub-
assemblies, tooling or intermediaries, or
The rendering of services supplying for the
production
Tiny Units: include undertakings providing services
such as laundry, zeroing, repairs and maintenance of
customer equipment and machinery, hatching and
poultry etc.
Trading Industries: These types of small
entrepreneurs are engaged in sale and purchase or
exchange of goods and services. These industries act
as middlemen between producers and consumers.
This type of units includes wholesaler, retailer and
commission agents.
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Service Industries: These small entrepreneurs’
establishments are engaged in personal or household
services in rural areas and towns and having fixed
investment in plant and machinery. These industries
include:
Professional services e.g. services of law, accounting
medicine, consultancy etc.
Commercial services e.g. transport, constructing
warehousing, real estate, repair shops etc.
Personal services e.g. fashion shops, dry cleaning
restaurants, etc.
Activities Establish an apex body for assisting the Government in
formulating and overseeing the implementation of its policies
and programmes/projects/schemes.
The apex body may be developed with a view to give a new
orientation and strength to the development of Small Scale
Industries in the coastal states of Myanmar. The main objective
should aid, counsel, assist, finance, protect and promote the
interests of Small Industries.
May play a vital role in revival, development and growth of
traditional skills of Myanmar by responding to the diversified
need s of entrepreneurs and marketing their products in
Myanmar as well as abroad.
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 5. Developing fodder and woodfuel farms using native grasses and trees
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Developing large tracts of grassing lands, fodder and wood fuel
tree farms using the native grasses and trees
Justification Improved/imported breeds of livestock have become the choice
of animal breeding and pasturing.
The existing grassland and fodder grounds remain the cheapest
form of animal feed.
Concentrates are only required at very high level of
management. Pasture grasses and legumes however, vary in their
nutritive value and productivity. Good animal production
requires pasture and fodder species which give a high yield of
palatable and digestive herbage, containing adequate nutrients;
The dependency for energy on trees is also extremely high
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions
Scope Fodder crops may be planted specifically to provide feed for
cattle farms. Plenty of native fodder, palatable grass and wood
fuel species are available in the coastal regions
A well maintained fodder tree plots can continuously produce
fodder for 10 – 20 years. It is important to keep it free of weeds
and fill the gaps in the early stages.
Other uses include fuel woods, stakes, poles and bee forage, as
well as helping in soil fertility improvement and soil erosion
control, and serving as an ornament tree.
Activities Analyse the demand and supply
Identify the native species and techniques of propagation
Linkages for production and marketing linkages
Technical and fund support through government schemes
Cooperative management for sustainable operation of enterprise
1. Choosing where and how to plant grass and trees
2. Nursery and management
3. Managing practices for trees/grass
4. Management for harvest
Involve the community in these interventions to become small,
medium and large scale entrepreneurs
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 6. Harvesting rainwater
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Initiating systems for harvesting rainwater for potable and
farming water demands and restoring the water bodies and
catchments.
Justification Appropriate management of water resources is important to have
socially and environmentally sustainable development, in the
increasing water related economic activities.
Harvesting rain is a practice that has been around for centuries.
Cisterns and other rain harvesting systems are widely used.
Small steps can make a huge impact. Uses include water for
garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, water for
domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for
houses etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected
into a deep pit with percolation.
Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply
during drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas,
and reduces demand on wells that may enable ground water
levels to be sustained. Rainwater harvesting is possible by
growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income
from the used /submerged land. The main purpose of the
rainwater harvesting is to utilize the locally available rainwater
to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need
of huge capital expenditure. This would facilitate availability of
uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial and irrigation
needs.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions
Scope The percentage of people covered by safe drinking water
facilities is still very low in the country compared to the global
status.
Water is strongly linked to the overall socioeconomic
development of Myanmar as it has large water resources related
subsistence sectors, energy and agriculture. There are plans to
intensify water usage in Myanmar in order to achieve economic
growth through increased hydro electricity and agricultural
exports.
The catchment area of Myanmar's ten principal river basins
comprises about 737800 km². Potential water resources volume
is about 1082 km³ for surface water and 495 cubic km for
groundwater.as well constitute national water resources
annually.
As an agro-base country of Myanmar, water utilization for
agricultural sector stands for 90% while industry and domestic
use is only about 10% of the total water use.
There is always a high demand and scarcity for potable water
during summer and for agriculture.
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However, with the increase of population and enhanced need for
water for economic activities, there is increasing pressure on use
of surface water and extraction of groundwater. Control and
management of surface water and groundwater is therefore
important for sustainable development of the country in future.
Activities Institutional Mechanism: Collaboration among several
government agencies. Central Water Board or committee,
Information System for both surface and groundwater
Legal Instrument: Comprehensive Laws and Acts for Water
(Drinking and Irrigation water supply)
Technical measure for water conservation
Economic measures: Application of water saving devices (eg.
Sprinkler, drip); Reuse of water
Non-economic measures: Enhancement of water supply
efficiency
Water Quality Protection: Infrastructure improvement &
Management improvement; Appropriate National Standard for
drinking water and waste water; Restriction on import of toxic
pesticides and chemical fertilizers; Encouragement of utilization
of natural fertilizers; Reforestation
Public Awareness on Water Use and Efficiency and
Conservation:
Role of education sector
Media campaign
Community Base to Community Manage System
Although the conservation of natural water resources is taken
into account in the government policies, the comprehensive legal
mechanism for governance of groundwater is still needed.
Expected duration TBD
Cost TBD
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Intervention 7. Alternative fuel and energy options
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Identification and implementation of alternative fuel and energy
options to reduce dependency and pressure on the coastal forest.
Justification Wood fuel accounted for some 80% of total energy consumption
in Myanmar, equivalent to about 20,000 tons. Since then, the
consumption of wood fuel has increased, and this trend is likely
to continue in the coming years. Though the country is known
for its vast forest resources, in populated areas scarcities of wood
fuel are severe and basic fuel needs are not satisfied, particularly
in the Dry Zone. The flow and trade of wood fuels in the country
may be a key element of balancing supply and demand.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions
Scope Wood fuels have long been a major source of energy and are
expected to remain so for some time. Firewood use is expected
to remain relatively level over the next 20 years, while charcoal
use is expected to increase considerably. This increase in
charcoal demand correlates with the expected increase in
urbanization, as urban dwellers use more charcoal than rural
ones. There may also be increased competition for wood
products if the demand for industrial wood fuels and other
advanced bioenergy increases. Given that charcoal production
can lead to forest degradation, such an increase is cause for
concern.
Activities Review the present system of wood fuel production, distribution
and marketing, demand supply chain in Myanmar
Recommendations on appropriate policies and strategies to
improve the wood fuel plantation situation in the country
Developing strategies by which small- and medium-scale
charcoal production controlled and regulated by local
communities to make the charcoal trade more sustainable
Certification of wood fuel Forest Management in the coastal
region
Using fast-growing native plantation species rather than slow-
growing hardwoods, increasing efficiencies of charcoal kilns and
stoves, and finding alternative sources of energy can reduce the
impact of charcoal production.
To implement programs for use of wood fuel saving device the
extension arms of some projects have introduced the use of new
fuel-efficient stoves.
Rural communities are also encouraged to overcome fuel wood
scarcity through the use of crop residues.
Rice husk gasifiers and rice husk / sawdust briquettes are being
produced and distributed
Mechanisms to distribute proportions of Oil and Gas from the
local fields for the local utility
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Wave and tidal energy, Solar energy harnessing
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 8. Skills assessment and capacity building
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Skills assessment and capacity building programs in all the
sectors such as Agriculture, Fishery, Forestry, Livestock, rural
employment options to all levels of stakeholders
Justification Skills and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth
and social development for any country. Countries with higher
and better levels of skills adjust more effectively to the
challenges and opportunities
Coasts also support a diverse array of related industries (e.g.
agriculture products, fisheries and aquaculture, major and minor
forest produce, tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which
provide enormous economic productivity.
The Myanmar Government has invited both local and foreign
investors to invest, under structures of Joint Venture or 100%
investment, in the following areas:
Establishing Agro-based Industries; Assembling and
manufacturing light agricultural machinery and small farm
implements; Manufacturing agricultural inputs and related
support products; Developing livestock allied small scale and
major industries such as ice, cold storage facilities, laboratories,
pharmaceuticals, feeds, fodder, liquid nitrogen and others to
cater the expansion of cattle and fowl farms; The investment
opportunity for the production of Teak and hardwood furniture,
input of good design and modern technology equipment,
processes and packaging; Value added products for export
market; Construction of wharfs, ports and jetties are in progress;
several infrastructure developments are also in progress.
Above sectors need skilled manpower to cater the development
activities and also to sustainably utilize the natural resources.
Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)
interventions
Scope Skill building can be viewed as an instrument to improve the
effectiveness and contribution of labor to the overall production.
The quality of employment in organized sectors is generally
high. Significant employment generation occurs in the tertiary
sector, particularly, in services industries. Self-employment and
small business continue to play a vital role in this regard. It is,
therefore, necessary to train the people to cater the main
employment opportunities in (a) agriculture, (b) labor intensive
manufacturing sector such as food processing, leather products,
textiles (c) services sectors: trade, restaurants and hotels,
tourism, construction and information technology and (d) small
and medium enterprises.
Concerns related to society are covered under social education,
personality development, and vocational education which
consists of technical education that further deals with sectors
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such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, livestock, medicine,
engineering and commerce.
Technical education is a skill-based education that provides
training to the individual in a specific field and increases the job
prospects.
The personal skill and capacity development is critical for the
people to accept the opportunities created through development
and management
Activities Specific laws and regulations for skill development of the
populace
Increasing capacity & capability of existing system to ensure
equitable access to all.
Promoting lifelong learning, maintaining quality and relevance,
according to changing requirement particularly of emerging
knowledge economy.
Creating effective convergence between school education,
various skill development efforts of government and between
government and Private Sector initiative.
Capacity building of institutions for planning, quality assurance
and involvement of stakeholders.
Creating institutional mechanism for research development
quality assurance, examinations & certification, affiliations and
accreditation.
Increasing participation of stakeholders, mobilizing adequate
investment for financing skill development, attaining
sustainability by strengthening physical and intellectual
resources.
Coordinating with the existing agencies and government to
identify locations and strategies for skill and capacity building
with all stakeholders
Introducing both the structural streams formal and informal of
technical education to cater the small to medium technology-
based enterprises;
Vocational trainings and technical education and main stream
education with life skills
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 9. Natural resource mapping
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Natural resource mapping, awareness and conservation
initiatives through community participation
Justification Natural resource managers, policy planers, administrators,
biologists, botanists, ecologists, environmental regulators,
hydrologists, planners, miners, petroleum engineers, foresters,
and farmers rely on the analytical power of RS-GIS mapping for
help in making critical decisions to manage the coastal
resources.
Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)
interventions
Scope For conserving and restoring habitats, planting crops or forest
trees, exploring oil and gas, or monitoring endangered species
there is increasing optimism that the application of GIS is
considered to be the inevitable tool.
Activities Form Project teams including stakeholders multi faculties and
community
Obtain necessary land parcel data set
Determine base map content and layout
Modify ranking system
Produce draft base maps for review
Survey standards, forms, calibration baselines, permanent survey
marks and other resources
Revise ranking system as necessary
Generation of Geo-database
Zones and Community wise Soil resource development plan,
Water resource development plan, Vegetation resource
development plan, Land use and Land cover plan can be
developed
Contact key landowners and provide land protection
Plan and conduct outreach to town boards, citizens and
landowners
Awareness and training programs with stipulated objectives of
conservation and sustainable utilization
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 10. Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Economic valuation of the coastal and marine ecosystems
Justification Ecosystem functions are the physical, chemical, and biological
processes or attributes that contribute to the self-maintenance of
an ecosystem; in other words, what the ecosystem does. Some
examples of ecosystem functions are provision of wildlife
habitat, carbon cycling, or the trapping of nutrients. Thus, the
processes, or functions, that occur within them, can characterize
ecosystems, such as wetlands, forests, or estuaries.
Some examples of ecosystem services are support of the food
chain, harvesting of animals or plants, and the provision of clean
water or scenic views. In order for an ecosystem to provide
services to humans, some interaction with, or at least some
appreciation by, humans is required. Thus, functions of
ecosystems are value-neutral, while their services have value to
society.
Human-induced changes in the natural environment are affecting
the provision of ecosystem goods and services
Land use plans rarely include the value of public ecosystem
services such as climate regulation and biodiversity due to
difficulties in valuing these services
Priority A mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5 years)
interventions
Scope The ecosystem functions of the Myanmar coastal zone and their
role in producing and sustaining ecosystem services are still
poorly understood, as are human impacts on the ecological
health and function of the Myanmar sea, which affect ecosystem
services and thus people.
To understand the value and economic impact of better
management will require better economic and ecological data
and a more holistic scientific understanding of the integrated
relationship between people and the Myanmar coastal
ecosystem.
Ecosystem valuation can help resource managers deal with the
effects of market failures, by measuring their costs to society, in
terms of lost economic benefits. The costs to society can then
be imposed, in various ways, on those who are responsible, or
can be used to determine the value of actions to reduce or
eliminate environmental impacts.
Data on economic valuation of the coastal and marine
ecosystems substantiates the coastal region management and
land use policy
Activities Economic valuation for important ecosystem goods and services
under five future land-use scenarios using varying levels of
costs, prices and discount rates.
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Economic evaluations can be undertaken at the individual level
(e.g. individual farmer), sectoral level (e.g. farming sector) or
societal level (e.g. single country)
Cost/Benefit Analysis (CBA) provides a systematic assessment
of the costs and benefits associated with an intervention
Cost-effectiveness analysis – CEA
(Sometimes also known as least cost analysis) is used to identify
the most cost-effective option for achieving a pre-set objective
or criterion that is not measurable in monetary terms
Valuing the benefits of interventions
These costs generally fall under five headings that must be
included in social cost analyses (EPA, 2010):
(1) Real-resource compliance costs: these are the direct costs
associated with purchasing, installing and operating new
pollution control equipment; changing relevant production
processes by using different inputs or different mixtures of
inputs; and, capturing the polluting wastes and selling or re-
using them.
(2) Government regulatory costs: these include the monitoring,
administrative and enforcement costs associated with regulation.
(3) Social welfare losses: these are the losses in welfare
associated with the rise in the price (or decreases in output) of
goods and services that occur as a result of policy.
(4) Transitional costs: these include the value of resources that
are displaced because of regulation-induced reductions in
production and the private real resource costs of re-allocating
those resources.
(5) Indirect costs: these other costs include the adverse effects
policies may have on product quality, productivity, innovation
and changes in markets indirectly affected by the policy.
The importance of both the data and the understanding is
underscored by the potentially large amount of economic
activity and value that may be tied to the health of the Myanmar
coastal ecosystem and by the potentially large economic benefits
of improved management.
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD
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Intervention 11. Coastal resources management, research and extension
Areas of Intervention
and Investment
Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and
Extension
Justification Research and Extension studies are vital to the understanding
and management of these crucial ecosystems.
Advanced Coastal Resources Management Research and
Extension provide educational & outreach activities that advance
marine coastal, and estuary literacy and engage educators,
students and the general public to practice coastal stewardship.
Coastal Management Stewardship programs integrate science,
monitoring and communities to protect, manage, and restore
coastal habitats.
The Coastal Training Program provides science-based
information and training to support those who make decisions
that affect coastal resources.
Priority This includes a mixture of immediate, short and long term (>5
years) interventions, owing to the need to address the
restructuring and financing of R&D and extension at various
levels impacting on investment, policies and institutions
Scope Very little natural resources research has been carried out in
Myanmar due to the country's self-imposed isolation from the
rest of the world since independence. Most of the studies
available date to the British colonial era and are not reliable by
today's standards. Tertiary education in the country, which has
never approached an international level, has further declined in
quality since the 1970s, hence native research is even more
scant, but indications are this may soon change.
Advanced research and monitoring programs provide a robust
foundation for effective national, regional, and local coastal zone
management.
Activities The research and monitoring program should include (1)
ensuring a stable environment for research through long-term
protection of coastal resources; (2) addressing coastal
management issues through coordinated coastal and estuarine
research within the System; and (3) collecting
information necessary for improved understanding and
management of marine, coast and estuarine areas, and making
the information available to stakeholders.
Understand how estuaries function and change over time, to
predict how coastal systems respond to changes in climate and
human-induced disturbances
Provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building
opportunities to the people who are responsible for making
decisions affecting coastal lands and waters
Organize regular Coastal Training Programs to stakeholders to
provide up-to-date scientific information and skill-building
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opportunities to individuals who are responsible for making
decisions that affect coastal resources
Establish Research Centers and Institutes with different faculty
and academic units.
Centers/Institutes could serve as a focus of scholarly activity and
intellectual creativity, focal points for interaction with research
sponsors, and serve to amplify competitiveness in obtaining
research funding in the designated areas
Expected duration Long duration 5-10 years (2015-2025)
Cost TBD