Research report Working, declarative and procedural memory in specific language impairment Jarrad A.G. Lum a,b, *, Gina Conti-Ramsden c , Debra Page c and Michael T. Ullman d a Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia b The University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark c The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK d Georgetown University, Washington D.C., USA article info Article history: Received 27 August 2010 Reviewed 22 November 2010 Revised 18 March 2011 Accepted 23 May 2011 Action editor Mike Anderson Published online 12 June 2011 Keywords: Specific language impairment (SLI) Working memory Procedural memory Declarative memory Procedural Deficit Hypothesis (PDH) abstract According to the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis (PDH), abnormalities of brain structures underlying procedural memory largely explain the language deficits in children with specific language impairment (SLI). These abnormalities are posited to result in core defi- cits of procedural memory, which in turn explain the grammar problems in the disorder. The abnormalities are also likely to lead to problems with other, non-procedural functions, such as working memory, that rely at least partly on the affected brain structures. In contrast, declarative memory is expected to remain largely intact, and should play an important compensatory role for grammar. These claims were tested by examining measures of working, declarative and procedural memory in 51 children with SLI and 51 matched typically-developing (TD) children (mean age 10). Working memory was assessed with the Working Memory Test Battery for Children, declarative memory with the Chil- dren’s Memory Scale, and procedural memory with a visuo-spatial Serial Reaction Time task. As compared to the TD children, the children with SLI were impaired at procedural memory, even when holding working memory constant. In contrast, they were spared at declarative memory for visual information, and at declarative memory in the verbal domain after controlling for working memory and language. Visuo-spatial short-term memory was intact, whereas verbal working memory was impaired, even when language deficits were held constant. Correlation analyses showed neither visuo-spatial nor verbal working memory was associated with either lexical or grammatical abilities in either the SLI or TD children. Declarative memory correlated with lexical abilities in both groups of children. Finally, grammatical abilities were associated with procedural memory in the TD children, but with declarative memory in the children with SLI. These findings replicate and extend previous studies of working, declarative and procedural memory in SLI. Overall, we suggest that the evidence largely supports the predictions of the PDH. ª 2011 Elsevier Srl. * Corresponding author. School of Psychology, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Melbourne, Victoria 3125, Australia. E-mail address: [email protected](J.A.G. Lum). Available online at www.sciencedirect.com Journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cortex cortex 48 (2012) 1138 e1154 0010-9452 ª 2011 Elsevier Srl. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.06.001 Open access under CC BY license. Open access under CC BY license.
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c o r t e x 4 8 ( 2 0 1 2 ) 1 1 3 8e1 1 5 4
Available online at
Journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cortex
Research report
Working, declarative and procedural memory in specificlanguage impairment
Jarrad A.G. Luma,b,*, Gina Conti-Ramsden c, Debra Page c and Michael T. Ullman d
aDeakin University, Melbourne, AustraliabThe University of Southern Denmark, Odense, DenmarkcThe University of Manchester, Manchester, UKdGeorgetown University, Washington D.C., USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 27 August 2010
Reviewed 22 November 2010
Revised 18 March 2011
Accepted 23 May 2011
Action editor Mike Anderson
Published online 12 June 2011
Keywords:
Specific language impairment (SLI)
Working memory
Procedural memory
Declarative memory
Procedural Deficit Hypothesis (PDH)
* Corresponding author. School of PsychologE-mail address: [email protected]
van der Lely, 2005). The correlation between declarative
memory and grammatical abilities in SLI is also problematic
for such hypotheses. Additionally, this correlation is not
expected on the view that the language problems in SLI are
explained by phonological deficits (Joanisse, 2004). Similarly,
this correlation, together with the lack of a correlation
between either lexical or grammatical abilities in SLI with any
working memory measures, does not appear to be predicted
by accounts that posit that the language deficits in SLI are
caused by processing deficits (Leonard, 1998; Tallal, 2004).
This study has various limitations that may be addressed
by future studies. Although we examined verbal and non-
verbal measures of working memory and declarative
memory, only a non-verbal measure of procedural memory
was included. On the one hand, this is sufficient for testing the
PDH, which expects that even non-verbal procedural memory
deficits should be observed in SLI. And given that any verbal
procedural memory measure may be contaminated by
language deficits, this is a purer approach. Nevertheless,
future studies examining the status of working, declarative
and procedural memory in SLI would benefit from the inclu-
sion of measures of verbal procedural memory as well. The
present study also leaves many other avenues open for
further research. We did not examine how declarative
memory may underlie grammar in its compensatory role e
e.g., via chunking, learning rules explicitly, or conceptual/
semantic parsing (see, Introduction). Additionally, although
the present study tested associations between performance at
memory systems and lexical and grammatical abilities, it did
not investigate any causal effects of the posited dependence
of these abilities on declarative or proceduralmemory. Finally,
we limited our investigation to behaviour, and did not probe
the neural bases of SLI, or of the observed language and
memory deficits in the disorder.
In conclusion, the evidence from this and other studies
seems to suggest the following. SLI is associatedwithprocedural
memory deficits. Declarative memory is intact for visual infor-
mation, and for verbal information once working memory and
language deficits are controlled for. Workingmemory is normal
for visuo-spatial information, but appears to be problematic in
the verbal domain. Lexical abilities in SLI (and TD) children are
related at least in part to declarative memory. In TD children,
grammatical abilities are related at least partly to procedural
memory. In SLI, variability in grammatical abilities seems to be
explained both by procedural memory deficits and by compen-
sation by the largely intact declarativememory system. Overall,
the evidence appears to largely support the predictions of the
Procedural Deficit Hypothesis, or PDH (Ullman and Pierpont,
2005), though additional research is needed to further investi-
gate a number of issues. In sum, this study highlights the
importance of simultaneously considering multiple memory
systems and their interactions in developing our understanding
of the nature of the language difficulties in SLI.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Wellcome Trust Grant
#079305.
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