WORK, LEISURE & RETIREMENT. Why Work? material needs material needs self-esteem, self aspect self-esteem, self aspect social acceptance social acceptance.

WORK, LEISURE & WORK, LEISURE & RETIREMENTRETIREMENT

Why Work?Why Work?

material needsmaterial needs self-esteem, self aspectself-esteem, self aspect social acceptancesocial acceptance social status, respect from otherssocial status, respect from others entry to the adult worldentry to the adult world source of fulfillment, challenge, autonomy, source of fulfillment, challenge, autonomy,

satisfaction,enjoymentsatisfaction,enjoyment activity and structure in lifeactivity and structure in life social contactsocial contact generativitygenerativity

MEANING OF WORKMEANING OF WORK

Work means different things to Work means different things to different people,partly on their own different people,partly on their own characteristics, but also based on the characteristics, but also based on the nature of the work itself.nature of the work itself.

Work may symbolize independence, Work may symbolize independence, financial security, living up to social financial security, living up to social expectations and paying one’s dues expectations and paying one’s dues & personal well being& personal well being

MEANING OF WORKMEANING OF WORK Work allow people to express and Work allow people to express and

develop aspects of the self and to develop aspects of the self and to meet personal needs and aspirationsmeet personal needs and aspirations

The meaning of work apparently The meaning of work apparently changes with agechanges with age

Work also plays a major organizing Work also plays a major organizing role in society, structuring both time role in society, structuring both time and activitiesand activities

Occupation & CareersOccupation & Careers

The term occupation is applied to all The term occupation is applied to all forms of workforms of work

Career is sometimes reserved for Career is sometimes reserved for prestigious occupationprestigious occupation

Ritzer (1977)- people who have Ritzer (1977)- people who have careers stay in one occupational field careers stay in one occupational field and progress through a series of and progress through a series of stages to achieve upward mobility, stages to achieve upward mobility, greater responsibility, mastery, greater responsibility, mastery, financial compensationfinancial compensation

SOCIAL STATUS AND SOCIAL STATUS AND OCCUPATIONOCCUPATION

Workers are not all viewed as equally Workers are not all viewed as equally valuablevaluable

Occupational status is correlated Occupational status is correlated with intellectual ability and with intellectual ability and achievement, although not perfectlyachievement, although not perfectly

Five general levels of workers can be Five general levels of workers can be identifiedidentified marginal marginal blue-collarblue-collar pink-collarpink-collar white -collarwhite -collar executives & professionalexecutives & professional

MARGINAL WORKERSMARGINAL WORKERS

Work occasionally, but never long Work occasionally, but never long enough with one employer to enough with one employer to establish a continuos occupational establish a continuos occupational history.history.

Unstable work patterns are due to Unstable work patterns are due to several factors,such as the lack of several factors,such as the lack of necessary language or abilities, necessary language or abilities, discrimination, a criminal record or discrimination, a criminal record or physical & mental disorders. physical & mental disorders.

BLUE-COLLAR OCCUPATIONBLUE-COLLAR OCCUPATION Do not require formal education past Do not require formal education past

high school and may be based more high school and may be based more on physical than intellectual skills. on physical than intellectual skills.

Offer little mobility ; moves typically Offer little mobility ; moves typically reflect changes for better pay or job reflect changes for better pay or job security or result from unemployedsecurity or result from unemployed

PINK COLLAR OCCUPATIONSPINK COLLAR OCCUPATIONS Are held primarily by womenAre held primarily by women do not pay high wagesdo not pay high wages example :example :

office & clerical workeroffice & clerical worker bank tellerbank teller receptionistreceptionist

WHITE COLLAR WHITE COLLAR OCCUPATIONSOCCUPATIONS

Are in offices rather Are in offices rather than in factories or than in factories or outdoors outdoors

Skills are requiredSkills are required require formal require formal

education beyond education beyond high schoolhigh school

EXECUTIVES AND PROFESSIONALEXECUTIVES AND PROFESSIONAL Have the highest status as well as Have the highest status as well as

the highest educationthe highest education In the optimal position to control In the optimal position to control

their own occupational development their own occupational development and to obtain the rewards that most and to obtain the rewards that most workers cannot.workers cannot.

Comparisons among them are Comparisons among them are usually not in terms of salaries but in usually not in terms of salaries but in how far and how quickly they how far and how quickly they progress. progress.

THE CHANGING NATURE THE CHANGING NATURE OF WORKOF WORK

Traditional view of work assumes Traditional view of work assumes that one’s job consists of certain that one’s job consists of certain set task that need to performedset task that need to performed

The view of work has changed The view of work has changed because of globalizationbecause of globalization

Occupational flexibility and Occupational flexibility and learning continuity learning continuity

Organizations must respond Organizations must respond rapidly to market conditions that rapidly to market conditions that change quick change quick

OCCUPATIONAL CHOICEOCCUPATIONAL CHOICE

Our work life serves as major Our work life serves as major source of our identity, provides us source of our identity, provides us with an official position, influences with an official position, influences our lifestyle and social interactionour lifestyle and social interaction

The decisions people make The decisions people make occupations may change over timeoccupations may change over time

OCCUPATIONAL CHOICEOCCUPATIONAL CHOICE

2 issues in deciding on 2 issues in deciding on occupation are important:occupation are important: Personality and InterestPersonality and Interest Self EfficacySelf Efficacy

Personality and InterestPersonality and Interest Holland (1973,1985), developed a Holland (1973,1985), developed a

theory of choosing work. theory of choosing work. People choose occupations to People choose occupations to

optimize the fit between their optimize the fit between their individual traits and their individual traits and their occupational interests. occupational interests.

Categorizes occupations in two ways:Categorizes occupations in two ways: By the interpersonal settings in which By the interpersonal settings in which

people must functionpeople must function By their associated lifestyleBy their associated lifestyle

Personality and InterestPersonality and Interest Holland identified 6 personality types Holland identified 6 personality types

that combine these factors; see table that combine these factors; see table 9.19.1

The congruence between traits and The congruence between traits and occupational selection in Holland’s occupational selection in Holland’s Theory exist at the level of interest not Theory exist at the level of interest not at the level of performance at the level of performance requirement.requirement.

Holland Theory’s doesn’t mean that Holland Theory’s doesn’t mean that personality completely determines personality completely determines what occupation on choose.what occupation on choose.

Personality and InterestPersonality and Interest Men and women are differentially Men and women are differentially

represented in Holland’s type.represented in Holland’s type. Holland’s Theory ignores the context Holland’s Theory ignores the context

in which the decision is madein which the decision is made In short, we must recognize what In short, we must recognize what

occupation we choose is related not occupation we choose is related not only to what we are like but also to only to what we are like but also to the dynamic interplay between us the dynamic interplay between us and the social institution we are in.and the social institution we are in.

SELF-EFFICACYSELF-EFFICACY

Occupational choice is strongly Occupational choice is strongly influenced by what we think of influenced by what we think of ourselves.ourselves.

Regardless of age, we evaluate our Regardless of age, we evaluate our abilities in terms of our strengths and abilities in terms of our strengths and weaknesses – self efficacy weaknesses – self efficacy (Bandura,1986). (Bandura,1986).

Self-efficacy theory also helps us Self-efficacy theory also helps us understand differences between men understand differences between men and women in occupational choices. and women in occupational choices.

Self-efficacy is belief in one's capacity to succeed at tasks. 

General self-efficacy is belief in one's general capacity to handle tasks. 

Specific self-efficacy refers to  beliefs about one's ability to perform specific tasks (e.g., driving, public speaking, studying, etc.)

THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT CAREER CAREER

Super’s Super’s TheoryTheory

Ginzberg’s Ginzberg’s TheoryTheory

Super’s TheorySuper’s Theory Donald Super (1980,1994), Donald Super (1980,1994),

maintained that occupational choices maintained that occupational choices are influenced mostly by self-are influenced mostly by self-concept.concept.

Suggests that occupational choice is Suggests that occupational choice is a continuous developmental process a continuous developmental process from adolescence to old age.from adolescence to old age.

Super’s theory suggest the Super’s theory suggest the presence of five stages in presence of five stages in vocational choice becomes more vocational choice becomes more or less successfulor less successful ImplementationImplementation EstablishmentEstablishment MaintenanceMaintenance DecelerationDeceleration Retirement Retirement

ImplementationImplementation Adolescents simply try out a Adolescents simply try out a

number of part- or full-time jobs to number of part- or full-time jobs to explore the world of work.explore the world of work.

involves finding the boundaries of involves finding the boundaries of acceptable work-role behavior: acceptable work-role behavior: dress, communication, social dress, communication, social networks, supervisors expectanciesnetworks, supervisors expectancies

Exploration is healthy and a Exploration is healthy and a reflection of self-concept reflection of self-concept

Mentor-mentee relationshipMentor-mentee relationship 4 phase4 phase

InitiationInitiation CultivationCultivation SeparationSeparation RedefinitionRedefinition

ImplementationImplementation

EstablishmentEstablishment

Involves the transition to a specific Involves the transition to a specific career choice. career choice.

Increasing commitments to career Increasing commitments to career and advancement as well as greater and advancement as well as greater stability in personal life stability in personal life

Greater congruence between self Greater congruence between self concept an occupational rolesconcept an occupational roles

MaintenanceMaintenance

Retaining achievements in career Retaining achievements in career and stability in self conceptand stability in self concept

DecelerationDeceleration

Disengagement from work, Disengagement from work, preparation for retirement, and preparation for retirement, and develop of new images of the self.develop of new images of the self.

Retirement Retirement

The individual physically separates The individual physically separates from work and begins to function in from work and begins to function in life without a career or vocation.life without a career or vocation.

GINZBERG’S THEORYGINZBERG’S THEORY

Eli Ginzberg (1971,1972), has also Eli Ginzberg (1971,1972), has also developed a stage theory of developed a stage theory of occupational choice.occupational choice. FantasyFantasy TentativeTentative RealisticRealistic

FantasyFantasy

Occurs as a child imagines Occurs as a child imagines and practices various and practices various occupations for a few hours, occupations for a few hours, days or weeks.days or weeks.

TentativeTentative

Begins in early adolescence Begins in early adolescence Adolescents may closely monitor Adolescents may closely monitor

(models) in various careers(models) in various careers They also read about and discuss They also read about and discuss

occupations with family occupations with family members and friends.members and friends.

RealisticRealistic

Begins as the young adult Begins as the young adult carefully and rationally analyzes carefully and rationally analyzes careers choices.careers choices.

This stages involves a realistic This stages involves a realistic assessment of the necessary assessment of the necessary educations, apprentice period, and educations, apprentice period, and personal qualities (values, personal qualities (values, attitudes and aptitudes) required attitudes and aptitudes) required to pursue particular careers. to pursue particular careers.

GENDER & WORKGENDER & WORK

Adult women & adult men have Adult women & adult men have experienced difference of work experienced difference of work because of social and education because of social and education factors.factors.

Work pattern between women& men Work pattern between women& men are differenceare difference

Gender issues in work placeGender issues in work place

AGE & JOB SATISFACTIONAGE & JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction is the positive feeling Job satisfaction is the positive feeling that results from an appraisal of that results from an appraisal of one’s work.one’s work.

Older workers tend to have more Older workers tend to have more positive feelings about their jobs positive feelings about their jobs than younger workers do.than younger workers do.

Midlife – low satisfactionMidlife – low satisfaction

WORK PERFORMANCE & WORK PERFORMANCE & AGINGAGING

Findings from many studies show no Findings from many studies show no relationship between age and the relationship between age and the quality of work or effectiveness of quality of work or effectiveness of work performancework performance

Older people hold highly responsibleOlder people hold highly responsible With age-people improve in the skills With age-people improve in the skills

required for some kinds of work and required for some kinds of work and decline in other kinds of work decline in other kinds of work behavior.behavior.

Retirement Retirement and Leisureand Leisure

RETIREMENTRETIREMENT

Definition of retirement in 3 waysDefinition of retirement in 3 ways As a processAs a process As a paradoxAs a paradox As a changeAs a change

RETIREMENT AS A PROCESSRETIREMENT AS A PROCESS

The process of retirement begins as The process of retirement begins as soon as one thinks about what life soon as one thinks about what life after employment might be like.after employment might be like.

Usually leads to some sort of Usually leads to some sort of planningplanning

AS A PARADOXAS A PARADOX

Retirement involves the loss of two Retirement involves the loss of two very important things that we derive very important things that we derive from work: income & statusfrom work: income & status

Assume that losing these key aspects Assume that losing these key aspects of one’s life would be reflected in of one’s life would be reflected in poor adjustmentpoor adjustment

They like and enjoy being retired They like and enjoy being retired

AS A CHANGEAS A CHANGE Involves change in almost every Involves change in almost every

aspect of lifeaspect of life Retirees have an advantage that is Retirees have an advantage that is

often overlookedoften overlooked They have already experienced They have already experienced

several disruptive life transition several disruptive life transition such as marriage, children leaving such as marriage, children leaving home, or movinghome, or moving

They have learned from previous They have learned from previous events provides the basis for events provides the basis for adjusting to retirementadjusting to retirement

DECIDING TO RETIREDECIDING TO RETIRE

The decision to retire is an intensely The decision to retire is an intensely personal one that involves carefully personal one that involves carefully weighing several factorsweighing several factors

More workers retire by choice when More workers retire by choice when they feel financially secure they feel financially secure

Others do not retire by choice Others do not retire by choice because of work history, health, because of work history, health, financial status and attitudes toward financial status and attitudes toward retirement.retirement.

Married woman’s decision to retire is Married woman’s decision to retire is predicted by her age and her predicted by her age and her husband’s working, not by the husband’s working, not by the characteristics of he occupation characteristics of he occupation (George, Fillenbaum and Palmore, (George, Fillenbaum and Palmore, 1984) 1984)

DECIDING TO RETIREDECIDING TO RETIRE

PLANNING FOR RETIREMENTPLANNING FOR RETIREMENT

Preretirement education cover a Preretirement education cover a variety of topicsvariety of topics FinancesFinances AttitudeAttitude HealthHealth ExpectationsExpectations

Realistic expectations toward Realistic expectations toward retirement are important predictors retirement are important predictors of future satisfactionof future satisfaction

ADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENTADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENT

People who are highly work oriented People who are highly work oriented usually have a more difficult time usually have a more difficult time with retirement than people who are with retirement than people who are less work orientedless work oriented

Reorientation of values and a need Reorientation of values and a need for continuityfor continuity

Most people are satisfied with Most people are satisfied with retirementretirement

FAMILY, FRIENDS AND FAMILY, FRIENDS AND COMMUNITYCOMMUNITY

Affects all types of relationshipAffects all types of relationship Disrupt long-term friendship and Disrupt long-term friendship and

produce stressproduce stress Contacts are maintained with Contacts are maintained with

children and may even increasechildren and may even increase Community participation options are Community participation options are

increasing for retirees increasing for retirees

PHASE OF RETIREMENTPHASE OF RETIREMENT

Social scientists believe that many Social scientists believe that many people go through a series of phases people go through a series of phases before and during retirement.before and during retirement.

Developed by Robert Atchley (1983)Developed by Robert Atchley (1983) He reports that people’s attitudes He reports that people’s attitudes

toward retirement are generally toward retirement are generally positive regardless of sex or age. positive regardless of sex or age.

Lists 7 phases of retirement Lists 7 phases of retirement

Remote phase

Near phase

Honey moon phase

Disen-chantment

phase

Reorien-tation phase

Stability phase

Termi-nation phase

Preriterment Retire-ment event

Retirement End of retirement

REMOTE PHASESREMOTE PHASES

Begin work with the vague belief that Begin work with the vague belief that they will enjoy the fruits of the labor they will enjoy the fruits of the labor at some point in the distant futureat some point in the distant future

Do nothing to prepare themselves for Do nothing to prepare themselves for retirementretirement

They often deny that they will They often deny that they will eventually quit workingeventually quit working

NEAR PHASENEAR PHASE

Participate in preretirement Participate in preretirement programs. Preretirement planning programs. Preretirement planning programs help workers make the programs help workers make the transition to retirementtransition to retirement

Helps people understand the benefits Helps people understand the benefits and pensions they can expect to and pensions they can expect to receive as well as discussing more receive as well as discussing more comprehensive issues –physical and comprehensive issues –physical and mental healthmental health

HONEYMOON PHASEHONEYMOON PHASE

Occurred just after retirementOccurred just after retirement Be able to do things they never had Be able to do things they never had

time for beforetime for before Gives way to a routine – if Gives way to a routine – if

satisfying adjustment is successfulsatisfying adjustment is successful

Disenchantment Disenchantment

Preretirement fantasies about the Preretirement fantasies about the retirement years may be unrealisticretirement years may be unrealistic

The experience of loss (power, The experience of loss (power, prestige, status, income & purpose)prestige, status, income & purpose)

Also experience the loss of specific Also experience the loss of specific work roles, loss of routine & work-work roles, loss of routine & work-related friendshiprelated friendship

REORIENTATION PHASEREORIENTATION PHASE

Most individuals who become Most individuals who become disenchanted with retirement begin disenchanted with retirement begin to reason realistically about how to to reason realistically about how to successfully cope with it.successfully cope with it.

The major purpose of this The major purpose of this reorientation phase is to explore, reorientation phase is to explore, evaluate & make some decisions evaluate & make some decisions about the type of lifestyle that will about the type of lifestyle that will enhance life satisfaction enhance life satisfaction

STABILITY PHASESTABILITY PHASE

Is attained when individuals decide Is attained when individuals decide on a set of criteria for evaluating on a set of criteria for evaluating choices in retirement choices in retirement

How they will perform once they How they will perform once they have made choiceshave made choices

For some, this phase may occur after For some, this phase may occur after honeymoon phasehoneymoon phase

TERMINATION PHASETERMINATION PHASE

The autonomy and self-sufficiency The autonomy and self-sufficiency developed in the stable phase may developed in the stable phase may begin decreasebegin decrease

RETIREMENT ADJUSTMENT RETIREMENT ADJUSTMENT STYLESSTYLES

Hornstein & Wepner (1985)Hornstein & Wepner (1985) In depth-interview of 24 individuals In depth-interview of 24 individuals

obtained one month prior to & 6 to obtained one month prior to & 6 to 8 moths after following retirement8 moths after following retirement

Identified 4 distinctive retirement Identified 4 distinctive retirement stylesstyles Transition to old ageTransition to old age New beginningNew beginning ContinuationContinuation Imposed disruptionImposed disruption

TRANSITION TO OLD AGETRANSITION TO OLD AGE Retirement was a time to Retirement was a time to

disengage or wind down disengage or wind down rather than undertake rather than undertake new activities.new activities.

Retirement marked a Retirement marked a transition to old age, transition to old age, much as rites of passages much as rites of passages mark transition at other mark transition at other periods of development.periods of development.

Retirement meant Retirement meant shedding pressure-filled shedding pressure-filled work roles and the work roles and the adoption of a restful and adoption of a restful and enjoyable lifestyles enjoyable lifestyles

NEW BEGINNINGNEW BEGINNING

Retirement as a Retirement as a welcome welcome opportunityopportunity

Retirement was Retirement was marked by marked by feelings of feelings of renewal, renewal, revitalization & revitalization & enthusiasmenthusiasm

CONTINUATIONCONTINUATION Retirement carried no Retirement carried no

major personal impactmajor personal impact Were able to continue Were able to continue

workingworking Change position, shifted Change position, shifted

careers or devote greater careers or devote greater time to a special skill, time to a special skill, hobby or interesthobby or interest

Individuals differentiated Individuals differentiated preretirement & preretirement & retirement not by retirement not by activity, but by the activity, but by the lessened pace and lessened pace and intensity of the work role intensity of the work role

IMPOSED DISRUPTIONIMPOSED DISRUPTION

Represented a Represented a significant role significant role lossloss

Saw retirement in Saw retirement in largely negative largely negative termsterms

Work was a role Work was a role in which they had in which they had invested invested significant parts of significant parts of their self-identity. their self-identity.

Effects of RetirementEffects of Retirement The IndividualThe Individual

Some individuals experience Some individuals experience difficulties in retiring, while difficulties in retiring, while others not.others not.

Experience of loss self esteem Experience of loss self esteem or depressionor depression

Retirement is a stressful event Retirement is a stressful event (Bosse et al., 1991) (Bosse et al., 1991)

Responses to retirement vary Responses to retirement vary as a function of number as a function of number factors: the importance of work factors: the importance of work for the person, retirement was for the person, retirement was chosen or forced, occupational chosen or forced, occupational level, the extent of level, the extent of psychological & economic psychological & economic preparation preparation

SocietySociety The allocation of economic resourcesThe allocation of economic resources Affects one’s industry or company both Affects one’s industry or company both

positively and negatively positively and negatively Positive –replacing higher-paidPositive –replacing higher-paid Negative –must provide economic support –Negative –must provide economic support –

pension plan, medical insurance, life pension plan, medical insurance, life insuranceinsurance

Effects of RetirementEffects of Retirement

Definition of leisureDefinition of leisure

Defining leisure adequately is difficultDefining leisure adequately is difficult One’s person’s leisure activity may be an One’s person’s leisure activity may be an

occupation to another (Burrus-Bammel & occupation to another (Burrus-Bammel & Bammel, 1985)Bammel, 1985)

Define as any activity in which individuals Define as any activity in which individuals engage during free time (Kubanoff, 1980)engage during free time (Kubanoff, 1980)

This definition does not distinguish This definition does not distinguish between activities that are related to a job between activities that are related to a job and those that are not, nor whether and those that are not, nor whether activity involves purely self-enjoyment or activity involves purely self-enjoyment or earning moneyearning money

TYPES OF LEISURE ACTIVITIESTYPES OF LEISURE ACTIVITIES

4 major categories4 major categories Cultural- attending sporting events, Cultural- attending sporting events,

religious meeting, movies, clubreligious meeting, movies, club Physical- bowling, camping, fishing, golf, Physical- bowling, camping, fishing, golf,

huntinghunting Social-visiting relatives, friends, Social-visiting relatives, friends,

neighborsneighbors Solitary-reading books, magazines, Solitary-reading books, magazines,

newspaper, listening to radionewspaper, listening to radio

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN LEISURELEISURE

The main reasons leisure activities The main reasons leisure activities change over adulthood are health or change over adulthood are health or ability changes and self-perceptionsability changes and self-perceptions

The variety of leisure activities also The variety of leisure activities also differs with agediffers with age

Correlates and Consequences of Correlates and Consequences of Leisure ActivitiesLeisure Activities

Men are more likely to engage in Men are more likely to engage in outdoor and sportsoutdoor and sports

Women are more likely to engage in Women are more likely to engage in cultural or home-based activitiescultural or home-based activities

People in retirement communities People in retirement communities engage in more leisure activitiesengage in more leisure activities

Leisure activities produce positive Leisure activities produce positive well-beingwell-being