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ORIGINAL ARTICLE Open Access
Word sketch lexicography: newperspectives on lexicographic studies ofChinese near synonymsShan Wang1* and Chu-Ren Huang2
* Correspondence:[email protected] of Chinese LanguageStudies, The Education University ofHong Kong, Tai Po, Hong KongFull list of author information isavailable at the end of the article
Abstract
Comparative study of near synonyms is one of the most productive researchparadigms in Chinese lexicography. Empirical studies to discriminate nearsynonyms are either introspection-based or corpus-based. Yet, due to the largequantity of data in a corpus, lexicological studies of Chinese rarely make fulluse of the corpus data. To solve this problem, Kilgarriff’s Word Sketch Engine isdesigned to automatically obtain grammatical and collocational relations of target wordsfrom corpora for researchers to further analyze them. Chinese Word Sketch (CWS), alanguage specific version of Word Sketch Engine, provides a tool to automaticallyidentify grammatical information for Gigaword size corpora. Through a comparativestudy of the synonymous emotion words 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gāoxìng'happy', this paper illustrates how CWS can distinguish them and help lexicographers todiscriminate their subtle differences. In particular, it focuses on the context where thesesynonymous words can be used to define each other and context where theyshould be differentiated. It also discusses how to select information from CWSsuch that the information represented would be suitable for lexicographicstudies. Through the study of near synonyms, we propose that Word SketchLexicography will lead the next generation of dictionaries.
Keywords: Word sketch lexicography, Word sketch engine, Chinese word sketch,Near synonyms, Emotion words
1 IntroductionThe Chinese language has a large number of synonyms. The teaching and learning of
synonyms is difficult but important in language teaching. Synonym discrimination
plays an important role in sorting out the nuances of their meanings, using a language
accurately, and improving communication and writing abilities. From the perspective
of research methods of distinguishing synonyms, the academic community has gone
through two important stages: first, the manual data collection phase based on intro-
spection, which mainly relies on the experience of the researchers and second the
corpus-based phase, which obtains KWIC (key word in context) from a corpus. At
present, the synonym discrimination is entering the third stage, which uses Word
Sketch Engine to process the concordance lines from a corpus (Wang and Huang
2013a; Wu and Wang 2016). It obtains the grammatical and collocational relations
of the target word, so researchers can further analyze it based on the results.
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 4 of 22
small corpus, it is possible to manually annotate such data, but when a large corpus is
available, it is hard to do it this way. Usually a large corpus is more convincing.
3 Emotions words: a case study of 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gaoxìng'happy'This section selects a pair of near synonyms expressing the positive emotion of happi-
ness, 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gaoxìng 'happy'. We first examine their usage in
three corpora and five textbooks. Then we investigate how dictionaries discriminate
them in order to find out the shortcomings.
3.1 Usage in corpora and textbooks
This section investigates whether 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gaoxìng 'happy' are
widely used in three Chinese corpora and five textbooks. Table 2 shows their frequency
in the Chinese corpora, namely, BCC,3 CCL,4 and Sinica Corpus. It is obvious that they
are frequently used. It is also important to note that 高興 gaoxìng 'happy', as one of the
most commonly used Mandarin term for happiness, is used more frequently than 愉快
yúkuài 'pleasant', in the ratio of roughly 3 to 1.
In addition to their high frequency in the three corpora, 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and
高興 gaoxìng 'happy' are both first level words in The Syllabus of Chinese Vocabulary
and Characters Levels (汉语水平词汇与汉字等级大纲) (Examination Center of The
National Chinese Proficiency Test Committee 国家汉语水平考试委员会办公室考试中心
2001). In order to see how different usages of the two words are introduced to learners,
we also investigated the frequency of them in five sets of popular CSL textbooks
as indicated in Table 3. We found that both of them are widely used, with 高興
gaoxìng 'happy' more common than 愉快 yukuai 'pleasant'. 高興 gaoxìng 'happy' is
used about five to eight times of 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant', even higher than the distribution
in the corpora. This may due to language learning textbook’s reliance and emphasis on
more basic words.5
It is important to note that the textbooks do not explicitly differentiate the usages of
the two near synonyms. However, even with textbook sentences, it is clear that they are
not always interchangeable. For example, sentences (1)–(4) show how the two words
are used in textbook The Chinese Course 汉语教程 (Deng et al. 邓懿等 1992-
1993). In some cases, they are interchangeable [such as (1) (2)], while sometimes
they are not [such as (3) (4)]. For the two common words, the textbook is lack of
specific instructions about the differences between them. It is the same with other
textbooks.
Table 2 Frequency of 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gaoxìng 'happy' in three corpora
Corpora 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' 高興 gaoxìng 'happy' Ratio of 高興 gaoxìng 'happy'over 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant'
BCC 41,499 126,261 3.0
CCL 10,646 38,678 3.6
Sinica 460 1044 2.3
Average 17,535 55,327.7 3.0
Since none of the three corpora provide the accurate total number of words, the percentage of each word used in eachcorpus cannot be calculated
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 5 of 22
心情~ xīnqíng ~ 'have ease ofmind; feel happy'丨車窗打開了,凉爽的風吹進來了,使人非常~。chēchuāng dǎ kāi le, liángshuǎng de fēngchuī jìn lái le, shǐ rén fēicháng~ 'Travelling in a car with its windowopen, one can enjoy a cool refreshingbreeze.'
~的微笑 ~ de wēixiào 'happysmile'丨祝您生日~。 zhù nín shēngrì ~'Happy birthday to you.'
tòngkuài'(1) very happy; delighted; joyful(2) to one’s heart’s content; toone’s great satisfaction (3) simpleand direct; forthright;straightforward'
形 ① ; xíng① shūchàng; gāoxìngadjective 'happy; joyful; delighted;gratified'
看見場上一堆一堆的麥子, 心裏真~。 kànjiàn cháng shǎng yī duī yī duīde màizi, xīnlǐ zhēn~ 'I wasdelighted at the sight of stack afterstack of wheat.'
②盡興jìnxìng'to one’s heart’s content; to one’sgreat satisfaction'
這個澡洗得真~ zhè ge zǎo xǐ dézhēn ~ 'I have a very refreshingbath.'丨痛痛快快地玩一場。tòngtongkuàikuài de wán yīcháng' have a wonderful time'
③爽快;直率shuǎngkuai; zhíshuài 'straightforward;frank and direct;forthright'
隊長~地答應了我們的要求duìzhǎng ~ de dāying le wǒmen deyāoqiú 'The team leader readilyagreed to our request.'丨他很~,說到哪兒做到哪兒。tā hěn ~,dàonǎer zuò dàonǎer 'He is astraightforward man, and does whathe says he will.'
形 ① xíng ① shushìtòngkuàiadjective 'refreshed; comfortable'
洗個澡, 身上~多了 xǐ gè zǎo, shēnshang ~ duō le 'feel much refreshedafter a bath'|談了這許多話,心裏倒~了些。tán le zhè xǔduō huà, xīnlǐdǎo ~ le xiē 'I feel relieved aftertalking things out so much.'
The translation in column I is from A Modern Chinese-English Dictionary 现代汉英词典 (Unit of Dictionaries, ForeignLanguage Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社辞书部 2001). The translation in column II and III is fromThe Contemporary Chinese Dictionary [Chinese-English Edition] 现代汉语词典(汉英双语版) (Dictionary Editing Room ofInstitute of Linguistics of China Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室 2002). The pinyin areadded by the authors.
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 9 of 22
using CWS, we can either use the two corpora directly or generate a sub-corpus
from them according to the years, text types, text sources, and so on. Since Tagged
Chinese Gigaword Corpus (2nd Edition) is much larger than Sinica Corpus, in the
following part, we chose it to compare the emotion words 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant'
and 高興 gāoxìng 'happy'.
4.1 Use sketch-difference to get COMMON and ONLY patterns
Figure 1 shows the entry form of Word Sketch Differences. We set the minimum
frequency to 5 times, maximum number of items in a grammatical relation of the com-
mon block to 100, and maximum number of items in a grammatical relation of the ex-
clusive block to 100 as well.
After clicking on the button “Show Diff” (show differences), we will get not only the
common patterns of the two words but also their exclusive patterns. This information
is crucial to lexicographers.
Table 5 illustrates the common patterns of 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gāox-
ìng 'happy'. The words listed in this table can collocate with both 愉快 yúkuài
'pleasant' and 高興 gāoxìng 'happy'. Though all these words can collocate with both
the two emotion words, their tendency is different. This is indicated from the color
chain from green to red. From 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' to 高興 gāoxìng 'happy', the
greener a word appears, the more possible it collocates with 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant'.
By contrast, the redder a word appears, the more possible it collocates with 高興
gāoxìng 'happy'.
CWS automatically extracts collocations based on grammatical patterns that the
word participates in (Kilgarriff et al. 2004; Kilgarriff and Tugwell 2002). These colloca-
tions are ranked by salience (Kilgarriff et al. 2004; Kilgarriff and Tugwell 2002; Rychlý
2008). Salience is the MI log Frequency, which is counted like this:
fx = number of occurrences of word X
fy = number of occurrences of word Y
Fig. 1 Word Sketch Differences entry form
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 10 of 22
fxy = number of co-occurrences of words X and Y
MI-score: log2f xyNf xf y
MI log Frequency: MI − score × log fxy
Although 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and 高興 gāoxìng 'happy' share many similarities,
they are more different than similar. Table 6 depicts 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' only pat-
terns and Table 7 shows 高興 gāoxìng 'happy' only patterns, which means that the
words listed can only collocate with one of the two words.
The subjects of the two words indicate that 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' tend to have ap-
pearance and atmosphere as subjects, while 高興 gāoxìng 'happy' is apt to have human
beings as subjects. The words in the modifies relation depict that 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant'
is inclined to modify time and atmosphere, while 高興 gāoxìng 'happy' tends to modify
appearance and information.
Table 6 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' only patterns
Subject Frequency Salience Modifies (first 10 words) Frequency Salience
目前正在維吉尼亞州結束巡迴演出的喬治溫斯頓今天心情顯然相當愉快。mùqián__zhèngzài__wéijíníyà__zhōu __jiéshù__xúnhuí__yǎnchū__de__qiáozhìwēnsīdùn__jīntiān__xīnqíng__xiǎnrán__xiāngdāng__yúkuàicurrently__in-course-of__Virginia__state__end__concert-tour__George-Winston__today__mood__clearly__quite__pleasantGeorge Winston, who is currentlyending a concert tour in Virginia,is clearly quite pleasant today.
旅居里約熱內盧40多年的老華僑季福仁聽到北京申奧成功的消息後心情十分高興。lǚjū__lĭyuērènèilú__40 __duō__nián__de__lǎo__huáqiáo__jìfúrén__tīngdào__běijīng__shēn’ào__chénggōng__de__xiāoxi__hòu__xīnqíng__shífēn__gāoxìngliving-overseas__Rio-de-Janeiro__40__more__year__DE__old__overseas-Chinese__jifuren__heard__Beijing__bid for the-Olympic-Games__success__news__after__mood__utterly__happyThe old overseas Chinese Furen Ji,who has lived in Rio de Janeirofor more than 40 years, is veryhappy on hearing that Beijingsuccessfully bid for the OlympicGames.
表示人的詞語作主語
the words thatrefer to peopleas subjects
他們愉快地回顧了訪華的情況。tāmen__yúkuài__de__huígù__le__fǎnghuá__de__qíngkuàngthey__pleasantly__DE__review__ASP__visit-China__DE__situationThey pleasantly reviewed thesituation of visiting China.
如果工黨能有這樣一個結果,他們自然會很高興。rúguǒ__gōngdǎng__néng__yǒu__zhèyàng__yī__gè__jiēguǒ, tāmen__zìrán__huì__hěn__gāoxìngif__the-Labor-Party__can__have__like-this__one__CL__result, they__naturally__can__very__happyIf the Labor Party has such a result,they will naturally be happy.
愉快、高興修飾的詞語
words that愉快yúkuài ‘pleasant’and高興 gāoxìng‘happy’ modify
好友相聚是人生最愉快的事。hǎoyǒu__xiāngjù__shì__rénshēng__zuì__yúkuài__de__shìgood-friends__getting-together__be__life__most__pleasant__DE__thingGood friends getting together isthe most pleasant thing in life.
电影年的活動進行一半,已聽到兩件值得高興的事。diànyǐngnián__de__huódòng__jìnxíng__yībàn, yǐ__tīngdào__liǎng__jiàn__zhíde__gāoxìng__de__shìthe-Year-of-the-Film__DE__activity__carry-on__half, already__hear__two__CL__worth__happy__DE__thingWhen activities on the Year of theFilm were carried out in half, (we)have heard two things worthy ofpleasure.
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 15 of 22
語法方面:都可以做定語、謂語、補語。 Grammar: They can both act as attributives,
predicates, and complements.
[例句] [Examples]
句法成分syntactic function
愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' 高興 gāoxìng 'happy'
定語Attribute
有愉快的心情,才有工作的朝氣。yǒu__yúkuài__de__xīnqíng, cái__yǒu__gōngzuò__de__zhāoqì 。have__pleasant__DE__mood,just__have__work__DE__vitalityHaving a pleasant mood, (you) willhave the vitality for work.
他也以最誠懇、最高興的心情,祝福畢業同學鵬程萬裏,一帆風順。tā__yě__yǐ__zuì__chéngkěn、zuì__gāoxīng__de__xīnqíng, zhùfú__bìyè__tóngxué__péngchéngwànlǐ__, yīfānfēngshùnhe__also__in__most__sincere、most__happy__DE__mood, wish__graduate__classmate__(lit. A roc canreach a destination of a myriad miles away at onejump) have a bright future, (lit. have a favorablewind throughout the voyage) Everything is goingsmoothlyWith the most sincere and happiest mood, he alsowishes the graduates have a bright future andeverything goes smoothly.
謂語Predicate
閩獅漁號未涉案船員的返鄉歸期近了,船員們心情都很愉快。mǐnshīyúháo__wèi__shè’àn__chuányuán __de__fǎnxiāng__guīqī__jìn__le, chuányuánmen__xīnqíng__dōu__hěn__yúkuàithe-ship-Min-Lion-Fishing__not__involve-in-the-legal-case__crew__DE__return-home__return-date__close__ASP, crew__mood__all__very__pleasantThe return home date of the crew ofthe ship Min Lion Fishing who arenot involved in the legal case is close,and thus they are very pleasant.
有一百多位未婚男子爭搶綉球,搶到綉球的人很高興。yǒu__yībǎi__duō__wèi__wèihūn__nánzǐ__zhēngqiǎng__xiùqiú, qiāngdào__xiùqiú__de__rén__hěn__gāoxìnghave__one-hundred__more__CL__unmarried-men__compete-for__colorful-silk-ball,grab__colorful-silk-ball__DE__people__very__happyThere are more than a hundred unmarried mencompeting for one colorful silk ball, and thus the manwho can grab it is very happy.
我們現在以充滿愉快的心情離開漢城,因為我們已成功地完成會談。wǒmen__xiànzài__yǐ__chōngmǎn__yúkuài__de__xīnqíng__líkāi__hànchéng, yīnwèi__wǒmen__yǐ__chénggōng__de__wánchéng__huìtánwe__now__in__be-filled-with__pleasure__DE__mood__leave__Seoul, because__we__already__successfully__DE__complete__talkWe are now leaving Seoul in apleasant mood, because we havesuccessfully completed the talks.
預祝大家新春快樂,有一個充實愉快的春節假期。yùzhù__dàjiā__xīnchūn__kuàilè,yǒu__yī__gè__chōngshí__yúkuài __de__chūnjié__jiàqīcongratulate-beforehand__everyone__New-Year__happy, have__one__CL__full-of __fruitful__pleasant__DE__Spring__holidayI wish everyone a happy New Year and a fruitful andhappy Spring Festival holiday.晚宴在愉快的氣氛中持續至午夜才結束。wǎnyàn__zài__yúkuài__de__qìfēn__zhōng__chíxù__zhì__wǔyè__cái__jiéshùdinner__in__pleasant__DE__atmosphere__in-the-process of__continue__till__midnight__endThe dinner ended in a pleasant atmosphere untilmidnight.
全體巴西人民都與羅納爾多、斯科拉裡和其他球員一起流下了激動和高興的眼淚。quántǐ__bāxī __rénmín__dōu__yú__luónàěrduō、sīkēlālǐ__hé__qítā__qiúyuán__yīqǐ__liúxià__le__jīdòng__hé__gāoxìng__de__yǎnlèiall__Brazil__people__all__with__Ronaldo, Scolari__and__other__ball-player__together__fall__ASP__excite__and__happy__DE__tearAll the Brazilian people shed the excite and happytears with Ronaldo, Scolari and other players.看到顧客高興的樣子,她也感到一種滿足。kāndào__gùkè__gāoxìng__de__yàngzi, tā__yě__gǎndào__yī__zhǒng__mǎnzúsee__customer__happy__DE__look, she__also__feel__one__kind__satisfactionSeeing the customers’ happy look, she also felt a kindof satisfaction.
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 17 of 22
The above analysis shows that CWS can gather the relevant information of the tar-
geted words, which greatly changes the data dispersion problem of only getting the
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 18 of 22
concordance lines by using a corpus alone. It can greatly facilitate researchers to do
analysis. Therefore, we predicate that Word Sketch Lexicography will lead the direction
of next generation of dictionaries.
5 ConclusionsSynonyms are difficult for language learners to distinguish. In the past decades, al-
though the idea of using corpora in Chinese lexicography is widely accepted, KWIC
alone has many limitations. Generalization and definitions in Chinese lexicography are
typically still created without making full use of a corpus. With the arrival of the big
data era, to make better use of large-scale data, the analysis with the corpus query tool
Word Sketch Engine has become a necessity. CWS, as a language specific version of
Word Sketch Engine, can facilitate researchers to get the most salient contextual infor-
mation of Chinese words.
Through a comparative study on the synonymous words 愉快 yúkuài 'pleasant' and
高興 gāoxìng 'happy', this paper has illustrated how the CWS functions show their con-
textual information and facilitate lexicographers to discriminate their subtle differences.
In particular, this paper has focused on the contexts where the synonymous words can
both be used and contexts where they should be differentiated. It also discusses how to
select information from CWS such that the information represented would be suitable
for the targeted dictionary. Word Sketch Lexicography has more advantages than using
a corpus alone, and thus this research predicts that it will lead the development of dic-
tionaries of the next generation.
6 Endnotes1http://wordsketch.ling.sinica.edu.tw/2http://asbc.iis.sinica.edu.tw/3http://bcc.blcu.edu.cn/4http://ccl.pku.edu.cn:8080/ccl_corpus/5The one exception (1.5 times) has much shorter texts and smaller samples. Hence
the lack of contrast may be due to the small samples, and thus it can be ignored.6http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/CatalogEntry.jsp?catalogId=LDC2005T147A sentient object follows 高興 gāoxìng ‘happy’. For example,
AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their useful suggestions. An earlier version was presented at The8th ASIALEX International Conference. This work is supported by Internal Research Grant of The Education Universityof Hong Kong (Project No.: 15214, Activity Code: R3733, Reference Number: RG 92/2015-2016) and General ResearchFund (GRF) of the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (Project no. 543810).
Wang and Huang Lingua Sinica (2017) 3:11 Page 19 of 22
Authors’ contributionsBoth authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Author details1Department of Chinese Language Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong. 2Departmentof Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong.
Received: 7 April 2016 Accepted: 28 July 2017
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