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NCERT CLASS VI WORDS SL. NO ENGLISH WORD HINDI TRANSLATION1 remorse पछता�वा�2 aspect पहलू�3 jealous ईर्षा��लू�4 consignment प्रे�र्षाण5 hit मा�रना�6 statue प्रेतितामा�7 aware जा�गरूक8 renown यश9 behead सि�र क�ट कर अलूग कर दे�ना�10 terrify आता तिकता करना�11 terrified भय�क्रां� ता12 dawn भ#र13 ambitious माहत्त्वा�क� क्षी&14 exaggerated अतितार जिजाता15 pale प&लू�16 starve भ�खे� रहना�17 curse अभिभश�प18 muttering ग�नाग�ना19 narrate बय�ना करना�20 obliged आभ�र&21 inauspicious अश�भ22 auspicious श�भ23 dilemma दुतिवाधा�24 Embarrassment पर�श�ना&25 magnanimous उदे�र26 grievance सिशक�यता27 revolt तिवाद्रो#ह28 torture य�ताना�29 brutal क्रां� र30 confession31 confess कब�लू करना�32 persist दृढ़ रहना�33 allege आर#प करना�34 plunge डु�बक235 unprecedented अभ�ताप�वा�36 martyr शह&दे37 phased out ब�हर चरणबद्ध38 endanger जा#खिखेमा मा6 डु�लूना�39 perpetuate य�देग�र बना�ना�40 guideline ��मा�न्यता�41 grocery तिकर�ना�
very hotmove underground by diggingheaps of sand formed by the windstony
an animal naturally preying on others.interestingsearch for food
Move quickly to avoid its enemy
Feel angry about
Small pieces of foodGoing deep into
group (of bushes or trees)moving smoothly
long sharp teeth (of a snake or dog)
move quickly
participants in a fight
magically persuade
the nose and mouth of an animal
NCERT CLASS VII WORDS ENGLISH MEANINGa group of people chosen to give advice or to make rules
members of the councila person who lives alone and leads a simple life
took by force
loyal and true
A person who makes maps.
A place where documents and manuscripts are stored.
Refers to the environment of a region and the social and economic lifestyle of its residents.
An influential, wealthy individual who supports another person – an artiste, a craftsperson, a learned man, or a noble.
The world of living organisms. e.g. plants and animals.The world of elements. e.g. land.
thin
someone who hides himself/ herself in a ship or an aircraft to travel unnoticed
followed haltingly
short sleep
tasty and sweet smellingsmall axetorn awkwardly/disfigured
look quickly and secretively
wetnesschangetake in completelychangescontaining moisture
comfortable
intentionally
persuaded;enticedtasty foodgreedyold womanthrewdead body
crushing;grinding
drip
treated him with contempt
lying on the ground face downward
happily
policeman
harsh and grating
take care ofdisapprove or regard as inferior make a short visit investigate be carefulimproveadmire
sickly
arrange systematically
officially chosen (by someone important)
a helper in crime
unusual
make to appear big
constantly looking to and frosay angrilymoved unsteadilywiped
unsteadylaughed mockingly
burning slowly without flame
suffocated (from lack of air)
put outdeal with; manage
5 *
beating; strikingmove unsteadily from side to sideturningremaining partsball-bearingscrawled on the grounddamagesmad personmix up things
upside downthat can’t be explained;mysterious
go backloud and franticnoise (made by hens)wicked and dangerous plan or ideaKepthit lightlymove noiselessly
result of a game in which neither side wins or loseslength, breadth, etc.shaped like an eggstandardised with rules and regulations
fellow countrymen
taken or ledshort rest or nap after lunchfound
told or informed
NCERT CLASS VIII WORDS ENGLISH MEANING
The capacity to act independently without outside interference
A business enterprise that makes profit primarily through trade, buying goods cheap and selling them at higher prices
Someone who knows and studies several languagesThose with a scholarly knowledge of the language and culture of Asia
An accepted norm or style
A wall painting
Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information, writing reports, speaking at meetings
To undo law; to officially end the validity of something such as a law
NCERT CLASS VI WORDS SENTENCE 1He has shown no remorse for his actions.
Algu’s heart sank and he turned pale. But what could he do?
He realised his responsibility
He realised his responsibility as judge and the dignity of his office.
It is now obvious that I am not wanted in your house.
pleaded the old lady
Municipal Corporation takes care of street lights, garbage collection, water supply, keeping the streets and the market clean
All you require is a pile of paper
I will abide by her decision.
How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him?
plains are very fertile
Both the parties started meeting people seeking their support.
The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products like gum, raisins, etc.
We must take steps now to ensure the survival of these animals.I finally manged to obtain a copy of the report.Is this an inherited disease?His family hoped that his bride would bring a large dowryHe wanted to have a son to ensure the succession.I must have your assurance that there will be no repetition of this conduct.Measures to secure oil production must be framed in the context of rising energy demands.Younger children can be left in the crèche.When you have acquired a basic range of computing skills, you will be ready to start the job.They took action to prevent the disease from spreading.The roses are now in full bloom.The grass withered under a scorching sun.To solve the puzzle, simply reverse the order of the numbers.Leave the dough to rise.The report concluded that the cheapest option was to close the laboratory.Blow balloon to its full size and tie its mouth with a string tightlyPrick balloon with the pointed tip of your pencil. Oops! It burst.
Batter to idli
The sawing of a piece of woodThe shopkeeper writes Rs 3 as due amount from himIn Mohan’s house, there are stairs for going up to the terrace and for going down to the godown.The king’s charioteer, who was his companion in the battle field and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory
They made earthen pots
people began transplanting paddyInstead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields
They met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat
They followed established rules
Some parts of the lithosphere may be rugged and some flat
Reservoirs are made and the water is harnessed for the use of people
Mountains provide an idyllic site for touristsSeveral sports like paragliding, hang gliding, river rafting and skiing are popular in the mountains.Some plains are extremely level. Others may be slightly rolling and undulating.The rivers flow down the slopes of mountains and erode them.
Rivers deposit their load consisting of stones, sand and silt along their courses and in their valleysNatural calamities such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, storms and floods cause widespread destruction.
She swallowed these insults along with her food for a few months
you will not kill your conscience for the sake of friendship
What have you to say in your defence?Jumman was Algu's enemy and wanted his revenge.Sahu got very annoyedI can’t pay you a penny for the wretched beast you sold me
Alexander wanted to become a world conqueror.
Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in the sanghas
Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna
Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity
Algu decided to refer the case to the panchayat.
WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY?The death of the bullock was unfortunate, but Algu cannot be blamed for it
Jumman came to Algu, embraced himLet no one deviate from the path of justiceThe aunt decided to appeal to the panchayat.
She just retired from the Municipal CorporationYasmin Khala lived in the same laneIt also runs schools, hospitals and dispensaries
There are also taxes for education and other amenities
He asked Gangabai to get a petition signed by all of the adults in the locality saying that garbage was not being collectedThe Commissioner met with this large group and began giving excuses
The children enjoyed hearing Gangabai's story immenselyThey had sensed that Gangabai was much loved and respectedThe city of Surat had a plague scare in 1994Houses hotels and restaurants would dump their garbage into the nearest drainPlague spreads through the air and people who have the disease have to be isolatedIn Surat, several people lost their lives, and over 300,000 deserted the town
NCERT CLASS VII WORDS SENTENCE 1
Refers to the environment of a region and the social and economic lifestyle of its residents.
An influential, wealthy individual who supports another person – an artiste, a craftsperson, a learned man, or a noble.
someone who hides himself/ herself in a ship or an aircraft to travel unnoticed
NCERT CLASS VIII WORDS SENTENCE 1
A business enterprise that makes profit primarily through trade, buying goods cheap and selling them at higher prices
Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information, writing reports, speaking at meetings
NCERT CLASS VI WORDS SENTENCE 2 SENTENCE 3they were filled with remorse and shame
He realised his responsibility as judge and the dignity of his office.
How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him?
The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products like gum, raisins, etc.
We must take steps now to ensure the survival of these animals.
I must have your assurance that there will be no repetition of this conduct.Measures to secure oil production must be framed in the context of rising energy demands.
When you have acquired a basic range of computing skills, you will be ready to start the job.
To solve the puzzle, simply reverse the order of the numbers.
The report concluded that the cheapest option was to close the laboratory.Blow balloon to its full size and tie its mouth with a string tightlyPrick balloon with the pointed tip of your pencil. Oops! It burst.
In Mohan’s house, there are stairs for going up to the terrace and for going down to the godown.The king’s charioteer, who was his companion in the battle field and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory
Instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields
They met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat
Some parts of the lithosphere may be rugged and some flat
Reservoirs are made and the water is harnessed for the use of people
Several sports like paragliding, hang gliding, river rafting and skiing are popular in the mountains.Some plains are extremely level. Others may be slightly rolling and undulating.
Rivers deposit their load consisting of stones, sand and silt along their courses and in their valleysNatural calamities such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, storms and floods cause widespread destruction.
She swallowed these insults along with her food for a few months
Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in the sanghas can be found in Buddhist books.
volcanic activity.
The death of the bullock was unfortunate, but Algu cannot be blamed for it
He asked Gangabai to get a petition signed by all of the adults in the locality saying that garbage was not being collectedThe Commissioner met with this large group and began giving excuses
Houses hotels and restaurants would dump their garbage into the nearest drainPlague spreads through the air and people who have the disease have to be isolatedIn Surat, several people lost their lives, and over 300,000 deserted the town
slum-dwellers do not pay taxes
Hug the tall plants to see how thick their stems are!A minimum number of plants are uprootedPour water to fill one-third of the glass.
What kind of venation do they have?
We eat some of these as roots—like carrot, radish, sweet potato, turnip and tapioca.Which one will help you best to recognize the plant?When choosing flowers to study, avoid using marigold, chrysanthemum or sunflower.
Look at the prominent parts of the open flower.
The stem bears leaves, flowers and fruits.
Let us recapitulate the discussion.
What do we infer?
We cannot spare anything for youThe sages nodded
This is a region with numerous hill ranges and valleys
Straighten your arm and try to bend it downwardsOpen and close a door a few times. Observe the hinges of the door carefully.
Is your wrist flexible?
When contracted, the muscle becomes shorter, stiffer and thicker.GAIT OF ANIMALS
CLASS VII DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONAnimals which eat only plants are called herbivores.Animals which eat only animals are called carnivores.Animals which eat both plants as well as other animals are called omnivoresAscending order Ascending order means arrangement from the smallest to the greatestDescending order Descending order means arrangement from the greatest to the smallest.
In the International System of Numeration, as it is being used we have ones, tens, hundreds, thousands and then millionstributaries are smaller rivers that flow into a larger riverWhen we write anything, we use a script. Scripts consist of letters or signs. When we read what is written, or speak, we use a language.
Dietary fibres are also known as roughageGiven any natural number, you can add 1 to that number and get the next number i.e. you get its successor. The successor of 16 is 16 + 1 = 17, that of 19 is 19 +1 = 20 and so onThe number 16 comes before 17, we say that the predecessor of 17 is 17–1=16, the predecessor of 20 is 20 – 1 = 19, and so on.
The natural numbers along with zero form the collection of whole numbers.1, 2, 3 and 6 are exact divisors of 6. They are called the factors of 6.A factor of a number is an exact divisor of that numberEvery multiple of a number is greater than or equal to that number.The numbers other than 1 whose only factors are 1 and the number itself are called Prime numbers.Numbers having more than two factors are called Composite numbers.Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called Revolution.Apartheid means separation on the basis of race.Those substances or materials, through which things can be seen, are called transparentThere are some materials through which you are not able to see. These materials are called opaque.The materials through which objects can be seen, but not clearly, are known as translucent.The interior of a curve together with its boundary is called its “region”.A figure is a polygon if it is a simple closed figure made up entirely of line segmentsThe line segments forming a polygon are called its sides.Any two sides with a common end point are called the adjacent sides of the polygon.The end points of the same side of a polygon are called the adjacent verticesA triangle is a three-sided polygon. In fact, it is the polygon with the least number of sides.A four sided polygon is a quadrilateral. It has 4 sides and 4 angles.A specialist is a person who is trained to do only one kind of work, for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, or carving seals.A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface according to a scale.Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the mapA plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scaleWhen the heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added to it, the process is called sedimentationWhen the water (along with the dust) is removed, the process is called decantationThe process of conversion of water into its vapour is called evaporation
In our Indian System of Numeration we use ones, tens, hundreds, thousands and then lakhs and crores. Commas are used to mark thousands, lakhs and crores
The sun, the moon and all those objects shining in the night sky are called celestial bodies.While watching the night sky, you may notice various patterns formed by different groups of stars. These are called constellations.An easy way to memorise the name of the planets in order of their distance from the sun is: MY VERY EFFICIENT MOTHER JUST SHOWED US NINE PLANETS
Satellite is a celestial body that moves around the planets in the same way as the planets move around the sun.
The small pieces of rocks which move around the sun are called meteoroidsA galaxy is a huge system of billions of stars, and clouds of dust and gases
The process of conversion of water vapour into its liquid form is called condensationA solution is said to be saturated if it cannot dissolve more of the substance in it.Handpicking, winnowing, sieving, sedimentation, decantation and filtration are some of the methods of separating substances from their mixtures.When two lines intersect and the angle between them is a right angle, then the lines are said to be perpendicular. If a line AB is perpendicular to CD, we write AB CD.⊥A triangle having all three unequal sides is called a Scalene TriangleA triangle having two equal sides is called an Isosceles TriangleA triangle having three equal sides is called an Equilateral TriangleIf each angle is less than 90°, then the triangle is called an acute angled triangle.If any one angle is a right angle then the triangle is called a right angled triangle.If any one angle is greater than 90°, then the triangle is called an obtuseangled triangle.The solid portion of the earth on which we live is called the LithosphereThe gaseous layers that surround the earth, is the Atmosphere, where oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide and other gases are found.The Biosphere is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together, which contains all forms of life.
A tax is a sum of money that people pay to the government for the services the government provides.
The pattern of veins on the leaf is called venation.
In a proper fraction the numerator is always less than the denominator.
A mixed fraction has a combination of a whole and a part.A fraction is said to be in the simplest (or lowest) form if its numerator and denominator have no common factor except 1.The peninsula is a piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sidesWorking on farms involves operations such as preparing the land, sowing, weeding and harvesting of crops.You walk, run, skip, jump and move from place to place.Walk, run, fly, jump, creep, crawl, slither and swim – these are only a few of the ways in which animals move from one place to another.The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal jointA very big kingdom = an empireWhen members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty.
Perimeter is the distance covered along the boundary forming a closed figure when you go round the figure once.Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 × (length + breadth)Perimeter of a square = 4 × length of a sidePerimeter of an equilateral triangle = 3 × length of a sideArea of a rectangle = (length × breadth)Area of the square = side × side
The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called adaptation.The surroundings where organisms live is called a habitatsmall changes that take place in the body of a single organism over short periods, to overcome small problems due to changes in the surroundings, are called acclimatisation.Changes in our surroundings that makes us respond to them, are called stimuliThe process of getting rid of wastes by the living organisms is known as excretionThe branch of mathematics in which we studied numbers is arithmeticThe branch of mathematics in which we studied shapes is geometryCommuting means interchanging.
The wearing away of the earth’s surface is called erosion. The surface is being lowered by the process of erosion and rebuilt by the process of depositionIn some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers
Plants with weak stems that cannot stand upright and spread on the ground are called creepers, while those that take support on neighbouring structures and climb up are called climbers
5/12 is a fraction. Here 5 is called the numerator and 12 is called the denominator.
The fractions, where the numerator is bigger than the denominator are called improper fractions.
Weather may be hot or cold; sunny or cloudy; windy or calm.Have you tried ‘Sharbat’, made from raw mango, bel, lemon, tamarind, kokum, phalsa, watermelon and buttermilk made from curds; for example chhaachh, mattha, mori, chash, etc?
The amount of surface enclosed by a closed figure is called its area.
any equation is a condition on a variable. It is satisfied only for a definite value of the variable.The value of the variable in an equation which satisfies the equation is called a solution to the equationwe compared the two quantities in terms of ‘how many times’. This comparison is known as the Ratio. We denote ratio using symbol ‘:’Two quantities can be compared only if they are in the same unit.we can get equivalent ratios by multiplying or dividing the numerator and denominator by the same number.If two ratios are equal, we say that they are in proportion and use the symbol ‘::’ or ‘=’ to equate the two ratios.
The method in which first we find the value of one unit and then the value of required number of units is known as Unitary Method.A figure has line symmetry if a line can be drawn dividing the figure into two identical parts. The line is called a line of symmetry.
Materials which allow electric current to pass through them are conductors of electricity.Insulators do not allow electric current to pass through them.The materials which get attracted towards a magnet are magnetic – for example, iron, nickel or cobalt. The materials which are not attracted towards a magnet are non-magnetic.
CLASS VII DEFINITIONSAnts live in comfortable homes called ‘anthills’The queen ant has a pair of wings, which she casts off before she begins to lay eggs. Eggs hatch and become grubs, grubs change into cocoons, and cocoons break to bring forth complete ants. the place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called environment. It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena.
The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust. It is the thinnest of all the layers. It is about 35 km.Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken down into small fragments. These smaller particles are called sediments.The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of an object is known as conductionThe forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces and the forces that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces
Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice. The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. Salt and water are produced in this process with the evolution of heat. If you leave a piece of iron in the open for some time, it acquires a film of brownish substance. This substance is called rust and the process is called rusting A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Identity: Identity is a sense of self-awareness of who one is. Typically, a person can have several identities. For example, a person can be a girl, a sister and a musician.Care-giving: Care-giving refers to a range of tasks related to looking after and nurturing. Besides physical tasks, they also involve a strong emotional aspect.
The dayto-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to the temperature, humidity, rainfall, windspeed, etc., is called the weather at that place The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is called the climate of the place.Salinity is the amount of salt in grams present in 1000 grams of water. The average salinity of the oceans is 35 parts per thousand.
when the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides. These tides are called neap tides The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy is called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of all organisms.
The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide is known as exhalation. A breath means one inhalation plus one exhalation.The fluid part of the blood is called plasma.The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called excretion. The parts involved in excretion forms the excretory system.
If two ratios are not equal, then we say that they are not in proportion. In a statement of proportion, the four quantities involved when taken in order are known as respective terms. First and fourth terms are known as extreme terms. Second and third terms are known as middle terms.
If we cannot see through an object at all, it is an opaque object. If you are able to see clearly through an object, it is allowing light to pass through it and is transparent. There are some objects through which we can see, but not very clearly. Such objects are known as translucent.
The first set of teeth grows during infancy and they fall off at the age between six to eight years. These are termed milk teeth. The second set that replaces them are the permanent teeth. The permanent teeth may last throughout life or fall off during old age.
De-valued: When someone is not given due recognition for a task or job they have done, they can feel de-valued. For example, if a boy has put in a lot of effort into making a special birthday gift for his friend and this friend does not say anything about this, then the boy may feel de-valued
In the cell, the food (glucose) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water using oxygen. When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen it is called aerobic respiration. Food can also be broken down, without using oxygen. This is called anaerobic respiration.
The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called the xylemleaves synthesise food. The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the vascular tissue called the phloem.The production of new individuals from their parents is known as reproduction.Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds. The process of fusion of male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is called fertilisation. The zygote develops into an embryo.Settlements are places where people build their homesThe place where a building or a settlement develops is called its site.
CLASS VII DEFINITIONSA written document in which we find rules is called a Constitution.A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.
A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a mineralThe process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining. Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining. Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining. Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling. Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing.When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. For example, crop of wheat means that all the plants grown in a field are that of wheat.The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilisers.The supply of water to crops at different intervals is called irrigationIn a field many other undesirable plants may grow naturally along with the crop. These undesirable plants are called weeds.The cutting of crop after it is mature is called harvesting.
Food is also obtained from animals for which animals are reared. This is called animal husbandry.there are other living organisms around us which we cannot see with eyes alone. These are called microorganisms or microbes.Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae.Some of the microorganisms cause diseases in human beings, plants and animals. Such disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens.A synthetic fibre is also a chain of small units joined together. Each small unit is actually a chemical substance. Many such small units combine to form a large single unit called a polymer.The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability.The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility.
As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.
Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury. As a result of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the blood. Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through an artificial kidney. This process is called dialysis.
The first is to prevent the domination of one religion over another, i.e. inter-religious domination. The second is to oppose the various types of domination that can happen within a religion, i.e. intra-religious domination.
The subordinate court is more commonly known by many different names. These include the Trial Court or the Court of the District Judge, the Additional Sessions Judge, Chief Judicial Magistrate, Metropolitan Magistrate, Civil Judge.
Rain water harvesting is the process of collecting rain water from roof tops and directing it to an appropriate location and storing if for future use. On an average, one spell of rain for two hours is enough to save 8,000 litres of water.
In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called threshing. This is carried out with the help of a machine called ‘combine’ which is in fact a combined harvester and thresher
if a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by cooling, heating, or by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is an element. So is iron. Carbon, too, is an element. The smallest unit of an element is atom.
There are no more than 92 naturally occurring elements. An important classification of elements is in terms of metals and non-metals. Most of the elements are metals. Less than 20 are non-metals. A few are metalloids which possess characters of both metals and non-metals.
Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810 and in New York around 1820. Now a days, it is used as a source of heat rather than light.
The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).The increase in temperature on the earth disturbs the water cycle and may reduce rainfall. This could cause droughts.
Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky layers. This soil has less humus and is less fertile. Gradually the fertile land gets converted into deserts. It is called desertification.Animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face extinction are known as the endangered animals.An ecosystem is made of all the plants, animals and microorganisms in an area along with non-living components such as climate, soil, river deltas, etc.
Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization. Internal fertilization occurs in many animals including humans, cows, dogs and hens
fertilization in which the fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place outside the body of the female is called external fertilization. It is very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish, etc.
The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus. When the development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth to the baby.The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals. Those animals which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular force.The force responsible for changing the state of motion of objects is called the force of friction.The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force.Objects or things fall towards the earth because it pulls them. This force is called the force of gravity, or just gravity.Gravity is not a property of the earth alone. In fact, every object in the universe, whether small or large, exerts a force on every other object. This force is known as the gravitational force. The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure. pressure = force / area on which it actsThe substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.The to and fro or back and forth motion of an object is termed as vibrationIn humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx.The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of oscillation. Frequency is expressed in hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of 1 Hz is one oscillation per second
The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is called electroplating. It is one of the most common applications of chemical effects of electric current.
The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight years later, in 1867, oil was stuck at Makum in Assam. In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river basins of Godavari and Krishna.
Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’. These are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and other man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea). Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.
A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat is called combustion. The substance that undergoes combustion is said to be combustible. It is also called a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas. Sometimes, light is also given off during combustion, either as a flame or as a glow.
The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances. Examples of inflammable substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), etc.
The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without the application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous combustion. Spontaneous combustion of coal dust has resulted in many disastrous fires in coal mines.
The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro : primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples are bacteria and blue green algae. The cells, like onion cells and cheek cells having well organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic cells. All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called eukaryotes. (eu : true; karyon: nucleus).
the reproductive parts in animals also produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote which develops into a new individual. This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum. When sperms come in contact with an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is called fertilization . During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote
Fertilization results in the formation of zygote which begins to develop into an embryo . The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells then begin to form groups that develop into different tissues and organs of the body. This developing structure is termed an embryo.
Growing up is a natural process. The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called adolescence. Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
a device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge or not. This device is known as electroscope.The stars, the planets, the moon and many other objects in the sky are called celestial objects. When air is contaminated by unwanted substances which have a harmful effect on both the living and the non-living, it is referred to as air pollution.The substances which contaminate the air are called air pollutants.
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CLASS VIFACTSLight travels at the speed of about 300,000 km per second. Yet, even with this speed, the light of the sun takes about eight minutes to reach the earth.Neil Armstrong was the first man to step on the surface of the moon on 29 July 1969.Presence of carbohydrates can be tested by dilute iodine solution. A blue-black colour indicates that it contains starchPresence of protein can be tested by solution of copper sulphate. A violet colour indicates presence of proteins in the food item.In India, the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30'E) is treated as the standard meridian. The local time at this meridian is taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
In Russia, there are as many as eleven standard times.The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital planeThe oldest Veda is the Rigveda, composed about 3500 years agoTamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian familyElevation of land is measured from the level of the sea, which is taken as zero.The highest mountain peak Mt. Everest is 8,848 metres above the sea level.The greatest depth of 11,022 metres is recorded at Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.
There are seven major continents. These are separated by large water bodies. These continents are – Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia and Antarctica.Asia is the largest continent. Asia is separated from Europe by the Ural mountains on the westAfrica is the only continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn pass.The Sahara Desert, the world’s largest hot desert, is located in Africa. The world’s longest river the Nile, flows through Africa.The Andes, world’s longest mountain range, runs through its length from north to south. South America has the world’s largest river, the Amazon.India also has research stations Antarctica. These are named as Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri.The Arctic Ocean is connected with the Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water known as Berring strait.
North America is linked to South America by a very narrow strip of land called the Isthmus of Panama.
The Himalayas, the Alps and the Andes are mountain ranges of Asia, Europe and South America, respectivelyThe Tibet plateau is the highest plateau in the world with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 metres above the mean sea level.
The USA and Canada have six time zones extending from the Pacific coast to the Atlantic coast.There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 28 States and 7 Union Territories. Delhi is the national capital. Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa is the smallest state in terms of area
The Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the world’s largest delta, the Sunderban delta. The delta is triangular in shape. It is an area of land formed at the mouth of the riverThe rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through these ranges. These are west-flowing rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea
Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the ArthashastraMegasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.
Edmund Hillary (Britain) and Tenzing Norgay Sherpa (India) were the first men to climb the highest mountain peak Mt. Everest on the planet earth on 29th May, 1953. Junko Tabei (Japan) was the first woman to reach the summit on 16th May, 1975. The first Indian woman to climb the highest peak on 23rd May, 1984 was Bachendri Pal
The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on composition, temperature and other properties. These layers starting from earth’s surface are called the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.
The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka.The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) passes almost halfway through the countryFrom south to north, India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E longitudes.
Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea. These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala. The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian mainland in the Bay of Bengal.
Corals are skeletons of tiny marine animals called Polyps. When the living polyps die, their skeletons are left. Other poplyps grow on top of the hard skeleton which grows higher and higher, thus forming the coral islands.
Ashoka was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.Ashoka is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war.
During the winter season, cool, dry winds blow from north to the south.
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Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.
Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago.The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang.Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, which was then part of the Roman empiredolphins and whales that do not have gills.earthworms breathe through their skin. Fish have gills for using oxygen dissolved in water. Harshavardhana's court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit.Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading centreThe iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It is made of iron, 7.2. m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes.
Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa.Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by a man named Cai Lun.
CLASS VIIIn humans the tongue is the organ of taste. It also helps in chewing, swallowing and speaking.Some animals like the frog and the chameleon use the tongue to catch prey. The chameleon’s tongue is so long that it keeps it folded in the mouth— but it can flick it in and out at lightning speed. The snake uses its tongue to smell. The reptile flickers its tongue in and out, each time carrying molecules from its surroundings to an organ (called ‘Jacobsen’s organ’) in the roof of its mouth.The blue whale has the largest tongue which can weigh as much as an elephant.Tamil Nadu was the first state in India to introduce midday meal scheme.In 2001, the Supreme Court asked all state governments to begin midday meal scheme in their schools within six months.The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocksThe normal temperature of human body is 37°C.Clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. The range of this thermometer is from 35°C to 42°C.The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. There are three ways in which heat can flow from one object to another. These are conduction, convection and radiation.In solids, generally, the heat is transferred by conduction. In liquids and gases the heat is transferred by convection. No medium is required for transfer of heat by radiation The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are called insulators.The celsius scale was devised by a Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius in 1742. Strangely, he fixed the temperature of the boiling water as 0°C and of freezing water as 100°C. However, this order was reversed very soon.In terms of the number of sheep, India ranks third in the world, behind China and Australia. However, the New Zealand sheep are known to yield the best wool An earthquake is measured with a machine called a seismograph. The magnitude of the earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. An earthquake of 2.0 or less can be felt only a little. An earthquake over 5.0 can cause damage from things falling. A 6.0 or higher magnitude is considered very strong and 7.0 is classified as a major earthquake. The highest waterfall is Angel Falls of Venezuela in South America. The other waterfalls are Niagara falls located on the border between Canada and USA in North America and Victoria Falls on the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa. The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus. It is extracted from lichens. It has a mauve (purple) colour in distilled water. When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it turns blue. China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and basic solutions to green.Turmeric is another natural indicatorThe rain becomes acidic because carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (which are released into the air as pollutants) dissolve in rain drops to form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, historical monuments, plants and animals. Our stomach contains hydrochloric acid.The sting of an ant contains formic acid. When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid into the skin. The effect of the sting can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine solution, which contains zinc carbonate.
Acids are sour in taste. Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch. Acid turns blue litmus red. Bases turn red litmus blue.Each cell in our body contains an acid, the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. It controls every feature of the body such as our looks, colour of our eyes, our height etc. Proteins that build part of our cells are also made of amino acids. The fats in our body contain fatty acids.
Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s highest rainfall
Middle Andaman Situated in the Bay of Bengal, the Middle Andaman is India’s largest island.
A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife
Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like chromium, nickel and manganese. It does not rust.
Mehrunnisa, married the Emperor Jahangir in 1611 and received the title Nur JahanElizabeth was the last ruler of a dynasty known as the Tudors
Edmund Spenser wrote a long epic poem called The Faerie Queene in Queen Elizabeth I praise.The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius. It was invented by Anders Celsius. On the Celsius scale the water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynastySultan Iltutmish won universal respect for constructing a large reservoir just outside Dehli-i kuhna. It was called the hauz-i Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir”.Laxmi Lakra is the first woman engine driver for Northern Railways.Rashsundari Devi's book titled Amar Jiban is the first known autobiography written by an Indian woman.Dead sea in Israel has salinity of 45 parts per thousand.
On 8 March, International Women’s Day, women all over the world come together to celebrate and renew their struggles.March 22 is celebrated as World Water Day when the need to conserve water is reinforced in different ways.During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line and the tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides. The Labrador Ocean current is cold current while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.Yeasts are single-celled organisms. They respire anaerobically and during this process yield alcohol. They are, therefore, used to make wine and beer.The accumulation of lactic acid due to heavy exercise causes muscle cramps.
On an average, an adult human being at rest breathes in and out 15–18 times in a minute.Bronze is an alloy containing copper and tin.Haemoglobin bind with oxygen and transports it to all the parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells.The presence of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that may enter our body.The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the blood, called platelets.A resting person, usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute.Veins are the vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body.A doctor uses the stethoscope as a device to amplify the sound of the heart.The English physician, William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of blood.
Near the Qutub Minar in Delhi stands an iron pillar which is more than 7 metres high. It weighs more than 6000 kg. It was built more than 1600 years ago. After such a long period it has not rusted. For its quality of rust resistance it has been examined by scientists from all parts of the world. It tells something about the advances India had made in metal technology as back as 1600 years ago.
The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia. From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey.
A miniature painting (dated 1702-1712) of Timur, his descendants and the Mughal emperors. Timur is in the centre and on his right is his son Miran Shah (the first Mughal emperor Babur’s great-greatgrandfather) and then Abu Said (Babur’s grandfather). To the left of Timur are Sultan Muhammad Mirza (Babur’s great-grandfather) and Umar Shaikh (Babur’s father). The Mughal emperors Babur, Akbar and Shah Jahan are the third, fourth and fifth individuals on Timur’s right and on his left, in the same order, are Humayun, Jahangir and Aurangzeb.
Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12 years old. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra.
The mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Amber (modern day Jaipur). The mother of Shah Jahan was a Rathor princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur).
Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign. Abul Fazl wrote a three volume history of Akbar’s reign titled, Akbar Nama. The first volume dealt with Akbar’s ancestors and the second volume recorded the events of Akbar’s reign. The third volume is the Ain-i Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, the revenues and geography of his empire.
A bolt of lightning travels at a speed of more than 400,000 km/h. It can heat the air around it to a temperature which is more than 4 times the temperature of the surface of the sun. That is what makes lightning so dangerous.
We get relief from cramps after a hot water bath or a massage. Can you guess why it is so? Hot water bath or massage improves circulation of blood. As a result, the supply of oxygen to the muscle cells increases. The increase in the supply of oxygen results in the complete breakdown of lactic acid into carbon dioxide and water.
The Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway system connecting St. Petersburg in Western Russia to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast.
All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitudes. Latitudes are measured in degrees.All parallels north of the equator are called ‘north latitudes.’ Similarly all parallels south of the equator are called ‘south latitudes
Earth rotates from west to east, those places east of Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and those to the west will be behind it
Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary workMirabai became a disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered “untouchable. She was devoted to Krishna and composed innumerable bhajans expressing her intense devotion.
22 March is celebrated as the world water day!Year 2003 was observed as the International Year of Freshwater to make people aware of this dwindling natural resource
Other dance forms that are recognised as classical at present are: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Orissa) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur)It has been suggested that we should plant eucalyptus trees all along sewage ponds. These trees absorb all surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapour into the atmosphere.Viking 1 was launched on 20 August 1975 and arrived at Mars on 19 June 1976. Viking 2 was launched on 9 September 1975 and entered Mars’ orbit on 7 August 1976.
The Chiru or the Tibetan antelope is an endangered species. It is hunted for its wool known as shahtoosh, which is light in weight and extremely warm.
Manali - Leh highway crosses four passes, Rohtang la, Baralacha la Lungalacha la and Tanglang la. The highway opens only between July and September when snow is cleared from the road
Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste in gaseous form (ammonia) which directly dissolves in water. Some land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete a semi-solid, white coloured compound (uric acid). The major excretory product in humans is urea.
The time-keeping services in India are provided by the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi. The clock they use can measure time intervals with an accuracy of one-millionth of a second. The most accurate clock in the world has been developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology in the U.S.A. This clock will lose or gain one second after running for 20 million years.
The credit for the invention of the electric bulb is usually given to Thomas Alva Edison, though others before him had worked on it. Edison was a remarkable man. He made some 1300 inventions including the electric bulb, gramophone, the motion picture camera and the carbon transmitter, which facilitated the invention of the telephone.
On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, either of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox
On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S), a larger portion of the Southern Hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the Northern Hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the Winter Solstice.On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting. The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous daylight for about six months.Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June. At this time in the Southern Hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the Summer Solstice.
Another imaginary line running on the globe divides it into two equal parts. This line is known as the equator. The northern half of the earth is known as the Northern Hemisphere and the southern half is known as the Southern Hemisphere
Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal length. Thus, it was difficult to number the meridians. Hence, all countries decided that the count should begin from the meridian which passed through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is located. This meridian is called the Prime Meridian. Its value is 0° longitude and from it we count 180° eastward as well as 180° westward. The Prime Meridian divides the earth into two equal halves, the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere. Therefore, the longitude of a place is followed by the letter E for the east and W for the west. It is, however, interesting to note that 180° East and 180° West meridians are on the same line.
When Spanish explorers discovered Amazon river, they were attacked by a group of local tribes wearing headgears and grass skirts. These people reminded them of the fierce tribes of women warriors known in ancient Roman Empire as the Amazons. Hence the name Amazon.
Guru Nanak (1469-1539) than about Kabir. Born at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan), he travelled widely before establishing a centre at Kartarpur (Dera Baba Nanak on the river Ravi). Before his death in 1539, Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor. His name was Lehna but he came to be known as Guru Angad, signifying that he was a part of Guru Nanak himself. Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi. The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of “Nanak” and all of their compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604.
The importance of water management has been highlighted by a watershed management project near the village of Kothapally. The project has yielded dramatic results. Groundwater levels have risen, green cover has increased, and productivity and incomes in this semi-arid region have dramatically improved.
SAHARA is the world’s largest desert. It has an area of around 8.54 million sq. km. The Sahara desert touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.
CLASS VIII
Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) were used throughout the country for the first time in the 2004 general elections.
The Parliament in India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.
Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
First Information Report (FIR)the fundamental Right to Life guaranteed in Article 21 of the Constitution included the Right to Food
India has 54 national parks and 372 wildlife sanctuaries covering 1,09,652 sq km.the government set up a high-level committee in 2005. Chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar, the committee examined the social, economic and educational status of the Muslim community in India
Article 15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and ended with the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten.third son of Queen Victoria of Britain, Prince Arthur, who was given the title Duke of Connaught.Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of India in 1773
The National Archives of India came up in the 1920sVasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered sea route to India in 1498
Tipu Sultan died defending his capital Seringapatam on 4 May 1799.
According to the Constitution, there are three organs of the State. These are the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The legislature refers to our elected representatives. The executive is a smaller group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the government.
The Parliament of India (Sansad) is the supreme law-making institution. It has two Houses, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha (Council of States), with a total strength of 245 members, is chaired by the Vice-President of India. Lok Sabha (House of the People), with a total membership of 545, is presided over by the Speaker.
Despite the large number of protests, the Rowlatt Act came into effect on 10 March 1919. In Punjab, protests against this Act continued quite actively and on April 10 two leaders of the movement, Dr Satyapal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew were arrested. To protest these arrests, a public meeting was held on 13 April at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. General Dyer entered the park with his troops. They closed the only exit and without giving any warning General Dyer ordered the troops to fire. Several hundreds of people died in this gunfire and many more were wounded including women and children
Domestic violence refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. Injury may be caused by physically beating up the woman or by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the woman can also include verbal, sexual and economic abuse. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 extends the understanding of the term ‘domestic’ to include all women who ‘live or have lived together in a shared household’ with the male member who is perpetrating the violence. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in 2006.
High Courts were first established in the three Presidency cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1862. The High Court of Delhi came up in 1966. Currently there are 21 High Courts. While many states have their own High Courts, Punjab and Haryana share a common High Court at Chandigarh, and the seven northeast states have a common High Court at Guwahati. Some High Courts have benches in other parts of the state for greater accessibility.
According to Article 22 of the Constitution, every person has a Fundamental Right to be defended by a lawyer. Article 39A of the Constitution places a duty upon the State to provide a lawyer to any citizen who is unable to engage one due to poverty or other disability.
Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished – what this means is that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities etc.
In 1993, the government passed the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act. This law prohibits the employment of manual scavengers as well as the construction of dry latrines
In October 2006, the government amended the Child Labour Prevention Act, banning children under 14 years of age from working as domestic servants or as workers in dhabas, restaurants, tea shops etc. It made employing these children a punishable ffence. Anyone found violating the ban must be penalised with a punishment ranging from a jail term of three months to two years and/or fine of Rs 10,000 to Rs 20,000
Bhopal Gas Tragedy: The world’s worst industrial tragedy took place in Bhopal 24 years ago. Union Carbide (UC) an American company had a factory in the city in which it produced pesticides. At midnight on 2 December 1984 methyl-isocyanite (MIC) - a highly poisonous gas - started leaking from this UC plant.
In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher, published a massive three-volume work, A History of British India. In this he divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British.
The Battle of Plassey: in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. One of the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle. Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.
On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of BengalOn 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British garrison from the city.Bahadur Shah Zafar and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 18621911 when Delhi became the capital of British India
The charkha came to represent India, and it was put at the centre of the tricolour flag of the Indian National Congress adopted in 1931.The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861.The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) that came up began producing steel in 1912.Jones and Colebrooke set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called Asiatick Researches.
Rabindranath Tagore started Santiniketan in 1901Raja Rammohun Roy founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta.In 1829, sati was bannedDayanand founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, an organisation that attempted to reform Hinduism.Tarabai Shinde, a woman educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the social differences between men and women.
In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste.The Satnami movement in Central India, founded by a leader named Ghasidas who came from a “low” caste, worked among the leatherworkers and organised a movement to improve their social status.The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association Jyotirao Phule founded, propagated caste equality.In 1873, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, meaning slavery.In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated.The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at Aligarh, later became the Aligarh Muslim University.The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms
Bal Gangadhar Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”Kesari, a Marathi newspaper edited by Tilak, became one of the strongest critics of British ruleIn 1895, along with other Indians, Mahatma Gandhi established the Natal Congress to fight against racial discrimination.On learning about Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Rabindranath Tagore expressed the pain and anger of the country by renouncing his knighthood.Bhagat Singh said : “It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear. Inquilab Zindabad !”Sarojini Naidu was the first Indian woman to become President of the Indian National Congress (1925).on 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh came into being.The Bhilai steel plant was set up with the help of the former Soviet Union in 1959.Vultures in the Indian subcontinent were dying of kidney failure shortly after scavenging livestock treated with diclofenac, a painkiller that is similar to aspirin or ibuprofen.
You can always tell if a rock contains copper because then the rock looks blue in colour.Switzerland has no known mineral deposit in it.Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the worldA green diamond is the rarest diamondThe oldest rocks in the world are in Western Australia. They date from 4,300 million years ago, only 300 million years after the earth was formed.
The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory. One kingdom after another was annexed simply by applying The Doctrine of Lapse: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854).
In 1764, the spinning jenny was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles. The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786 revolutionised cotton textile weaving.
madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law; and the Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country.
In 1929 the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed without the kind of bitter debates and struggles that earlier laws had seen. According to the Act no man below the age of 18 and woman below the age of 16 could marry.
The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in December 1885. The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing Indians from the various regions together.
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world.India is the largest producer and exporter of mica in the world.Compressed natural gas (CNG)Norway was the first country in the world to devlop hydroelectricity.The site of the world’s first solar and wind powered bus shelter is in Scotland.USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plant.Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world Jhumming - North-East India Milpa -Mexico Roca - Brazil. Ladang - MalaysiaChina leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt Brazil is the leading producer of coffee followed by Columbia and India.The first textile mill in the country was established at Fort Gloster near Kolkata in 1818 but it closed down after some time. The first successful modern textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854Bangalore has the largest number of educational institutions and IT colleges in India.
Common ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and most coughs are caused by viruses. Serious diseases like polio and chicken pox are also caused by viruses.Diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by protozoans whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are bacterial diseases.Curd contains several microorganisms. Of these, the bacterium Lactobacillus promotes the formation of curd.Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857.Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol and wine.This is the smell of alcohol as sugar has been converted into alcohol by yeast. This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as fermentation. medicines kill or stop the growth of the disease-causing microorganisms. Such medicines are called antibiotics
cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by vaccination.Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox in 1798.
carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito which carries the parasite of malaria. Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which causes anthrax disease.Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth of microorganisms. Therefore they are called preservatives. Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives.Meat and fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria. Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by sugarUse of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in such an environment. Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.
bacterium Rhizobium is involved in the fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants (pulses).Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose units.Nylon was the first fully synthetic fibre.Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made up of the repeating units of a chemical called an ester. Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton. Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.sweaters and shawls are prepared from another type of synthetic fibre called acrylic.Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an example of a plastic. It is used for making commonly used polythene bags.uniforms of firemen have coating of melamine plastic to make them flame resistant.Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick.Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature. These are exceptions.
The Government of India has a Ministry of Human Resource Development. The Ministry was created in 1985 with an aim to improve people’s skills. This just shows how important people are as a resource for the country.
When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces antibodies to fight the invader. The body also remembers how to fight the microbe if it enters again. So, if dead or weakened microbes are introduced in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them by producing suitable antibodies. The antibodies remain in the body and we are protected from the diseasecausing microbes. This is how a vaccine works.
Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable diseases. Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
Pasteurized milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes. The milk is heated to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored. By doing so, it prevents the growth of microbes. This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in rain water and form acids. Such rain is called acid rain.
Red Data Book is the source book which keeps a record of all the endangered animals and plants.Robert Hooke in 1665 descovered cell.The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
A white blood cell (WBC) in human blood is another example of a single cell which can change its shape. But while WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledged organism capable of independent existence.
All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells.Goitre is a disease cause by absent of thyroxine hormone which is produced by thyroid gland.Diabetes is a disease caused by less secretion of insulin hormone produced by pancreas.
Pituitary also secretes growth hormone which is necessary for the normal growth of a person.
in our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys.The sound cannot travel through vacuum.
On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the American astronaut Neil Armstrong landed on the moon for the first time followed by Edwin Aldrin.Pole Star is not visible from the southern hemisphereThe star Sirius, which is the brightest star in the sky, is located close to Orion.Orion is constellation that can be seen during winter in the late evenings. It is one of the most magnificent constellations in the sky. It also has seven or eight bright stars. Orion is also called the Hunter.
Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W or M
One such comet is Halley’s comet, which appears after nearly every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986. Aryabhatta was the first Indian satellite. Some other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1, EDUSAT, etc.
CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour are called greenhouse gasesAn ambitious plan to save the river, called the Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1985.
CLASS IX
These days the head of the safety match contains only antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface has powdered glass and a little red phosphorus (which is much less dangerous). When the match is struck against the rubbing surface, some red phosphorus gets converted into white phosphorus. This immediately reacts with potassium chlorate in the matchstick head to produce enough heat to ignite antimony trisulphide and start the combustion.
Story of Dolly, the Clone: Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.
adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the blood. Adrenals also produce the hormone adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust to stress when one is very angry, embarrassed or worried.
change from larva to adult is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones. In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid. Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults.
The fact is that sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per second (20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human ear. Such sounds are called inaudible. On the higher side, sounds of frequencies higher than about 20,000 vibrations per second (20 kHz) are also not audible to the human ear. Thus, for human ear, the range of audible frequencies is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a scale called Richter scale. Really destructive earthquakes have magnitudes higher than 7 on the Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir earthquakes had magnitudes greater than 7.5.
One of the most famous constellations which you can see during summer time in the early part of the night is Ursa Major It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarshi. There are seven prominent stars in this constellation. It appears like a big ladle or a question mark. There are three stars in the handle of the ladle and four in its bowl
There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This gap is occupied by a large number of small objects that revolve around the Sun. These are called asteroids. Asteroids can only be seen through large telescopes.
Only on two days in a year, March 21 and September 23, the Sun rises exactly in the east. On all other days, the Sun rises either north of east or south of east. From summer solstice (around June 21) the point of sunrise gradually shift towards the south. The Sun is then said to be in dakshinayan (moving south). It keeps moving towards south till winter solstice (around December 22). Thereafter, the point of sunrise changes direction and starts moving towards north. The Sun is then said to be in uttarayan (moving north).
The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang.
The celsius scale was devised by a Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius in 1742. Strangely, he fixed the temperature of the boiling water as 0°C and of freezing water as 100°C. However, this order was reversed very soon.
An earthquake is measured with a machine called a seismograph. The magnitude of the earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. An earthquake of 2.0 or less can be felt only a little. An earthquake over 5.0 can cause damage from things falling. A 6.0 or higher magnitude is considered very strong and 7.0 is classified as a major earthquake. The highest waterfall is Angel Falls of Venezuela in South America. The other waterfalls are Niagara falls located on the border between Canada and USA in North America and Victoria Falls on the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa. The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus. It is extracted from lichens. It has a mauve (purple) colour in distilled water. When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it turns blue.
The rain becomes acidic because carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (which are released into the air as pollutants) dissolve in rain drops to form carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. Acid rain can cause damage to buildings, historical monuments, plants and animals.
The sting of an ant contains formic acid. When an ant bites, it injects the acidic liquid into the skin. The effect of the sting can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine solution, which contains zinc carbonate.
Each cell in our body contains an acid, the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. It controls every feature of the body such as our looks, colour of our eyes, our height etc. Proteins that build part of our cells are also made of amino acids. The fats in our body contain fatty acids.
Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed
Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth of microorganisms. Therefore they are called preservatives. Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives.
An earthquake is measured with a machine called a seismograph. The magnitude of the earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. An earthquake of 2.0 or less can be felt only a little. An earthquake over 5.0 can cause damage from things falling. A 6.0 or higher magnitude is considered very strong and 7.0 is classified as a major earthquake.
Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed
Private: An activity or service that is organised by an individual or company for their own profit.Communicable diseases: These are diseases that are spread from one person to another in many ways such as through water, food , air, etc.
OPD: This is the short form for ‘Out Patient Department’. This is where people are first brought in and treated in a hospital without being admitted to any special ward.Constituency: A particular area from which all the voters living there choose their representatives. This could be, for example, a panchayat ward or an area that chooses an MLA.Majority: This is a situation when more than half the number in a group supports a decision or an idea. This is also called a simple majority.
Press Conference: A gathering of journalists from the media who are invited to hear about and ask questions on a particular issue and are then expected to report on this to the larger public.A client is someone who is under the protection of another, a dependent or hanger-on.Alluvial deposits : These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.Tributary : A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river by discharging it into main river from either sidea trifle: an object of little value
A data is a collection of numbers gathered to give some information.Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.
Barter System: It is a trade in which goods are exchanged without the use of money.
Violation: When someone forcefully breaks the law or a rule or openly shows disrespect, we can say that he or she has committed a violation.Sexual harassment: This refers to physical or verbal behaviour that is of a sexual nature and against the wishes of a woman.Terrarium: It is an artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants.Product: This refers to a thing or service that has been made for being sold in the market.Consumer: This refers to the person for whom the goods or products have been made and who pays money to buy and use them.
Lifestyle: In this chapter, this word refers to people’s lives being identified by the products they own, the clothes they wear, the places they eat in, etc.Emporium-A place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and sold.
Mall: This is an enclosed shopping space. This is usually a large building with many floors that has shops, restaurants and, at times, even a cinema theatre. These shops most often sell branded products.Wholesale: This refers to buying and selling in large quantities. Most products, including vegetables, fruits and flowers have special wholesale markets.Chain of markets: A series of markets that are connected like links in a chain because products pass from one market to another.Ginning mill: A factory where seeds are removed from cotton bolls. The cotton is pressed into bales to be sent for spinning into thread.Exporter: A person who sells goods abroad.Profit: The amount that is left or gained from earnings after deducting all the costs. If the costs are more than the earnings, it would lead to a loss.
Prejudice means to judge other people negatively or see them as inferiorA sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale
Public: An activity or service that is meant for all people in the country and is mainly organised by the government. This includes schools, hospitals, telephone services, etc. People can demand these services and also raise questions about their non-functioning.
Opposition: This refers to elected representatives who are not members of the ruling party and who play the role of questioning government decisions and actions as well as raise new issues for consideration in the Assembly.
Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship
thread is separated into a few thinstrands
Ecosystem: It is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms with each other and with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which they live, all linked by transfer of energy and material.
Stereotype: When we believe that people belonging to particular groups based on religion, wealth, language are bound to have certain fixed characteristics or can only do a certain type of work, we create a stereotype. For example, in this chapter, we saw how boys and girls are made to take certain subjects not because he or she has an aptitude for it, but because they are either boys or girls. Stereotypes prevent us from looking at people as unique individuals.
Discrimination: When we do not treat people equally or with respect we are indulging in discrimination. It happens when people or organisations act on their prejudices. Discrimination usually takes place when we treat some one differently or make a distinction.
Brand: This refers to a special identification or name that is associated with a product. Such identification is created through the process of advertising.
Weekly market: These markets are not daily markets but are to be found at a particular place on one or maybe two days of the week. These markets most often sell everything that a household needs ranging from vegetables to clothes to utensils.
Arbitrary: When nothing is fixed and is instead left to one’s judgment or choice. This can be used to refer to rules that are not fixed, or decisions that have no basis etc.Ideal: A goal or a principle in its most excellent or perfect form.
Polity: A society that has an organised political structure. India is a democratic polity.Sovereign: In the context of this chapter it refers to an independent people.
Tyranny: The cruel and unjust use of power or authority.Coercion: To force someone to do something. In the context of this chapter, it refers to the force used by a legal authority like the State.
Intervene: In the context of this chapter, it refers to the State’s efforts to influence a particular matter in accordance with the principles of the Constitution.
Unresolved: Situations in which there are no easy solutions to problems.Criticise: To find fault with or disapprove of a person or thing. In the context of this chapter, it refers to citizens finding fault with the functioning of government.
Acquit: This refers to the court declaring that a person is not guilty of the crime which he/she was tried for by the court.To Appeal: In the context of this chapter this refers to a petition filed before a higher court to hear a case that has already been decided by a lower court.Compensation: In the context of this chapter this refers to money given to make amends for an injury or a loss.Eviction: In the context of this chapter this refers to the removal of persons from land/homes that they are currently living in.Violation: In the context of this chapter it refers both to the act of breaking a law as well as to the breach or infringement of Fundamental Rights.the four key players in the criminal justice system are the police, the Public Prosecutor, the defence lawyer and the judge.Accused: In the context of this chapter this refers to the person who is tried by a court for a crime.Cognizable: In the context of this chapter this refers to an offence for which the police may arrest a person without the permission of the court.
Cross-examine: In the context of this chapter this refers to the questioning of a witness who has already been examined by the opposing side in order to determine the veracity of his/her testimony.Detention: In the context of this chapter this refers to the act of being kept in illegal custody by the police.Impartial: The act of being fair or just and not favouring one side over another.Offence: Any act that the law defines as a crime.To be charged of a crime: This refers to the trial judge informing the accused, in writing, of the offence for which he/she will face trial.Witness: In the context of this chapter this refers to the person who is called upon in court to provide a first-hand account of what he/she has seen, heard or knows.
Ghettoisation: A ghetto is an area or locality that is populated largely by members of a particular community. Ghettoisation refers to the process that leads to such a situation.
Tributaries: These are small rivers that join the main river. The main river along with all its tributaries that drain an area form a river basin or the catchment area. The Amazon Basin is the largest river basin in the world.
Indian national movement: The Indian national movement emerged in nineteenthcentury India and saw thousands of men and women coming together to fight British rule. This culminated in India’s independence in 1947. You will learn about this in greater detail in your history textbook this year.
Trafficking: The practice of the illegal buying and selling of different commodities across national borders. In the context of Fundamental Rights discussed in this chapter, it refers to illegal trade in human beings, particularly women and children.
Freedom to interpret: The independence that all persons shall have to understand things in their own way. In the context of this chapter, it refers to a person’s liberty to develop their own understanding and meaning of the religion they practice.
Approval: To give one’s consent to and be favourable towards something. In the context of this chapter, it refers both to the formal consent (through elected representatives) that Parliament has as well as the fact that it needs to continue to enjoy the people’s trust.
Coalition: A temporary alliance of groups or parties. In this chapter, it refers to the alliance formed by political parties after elections when no party has been able to get adequate seats to form a clear majority.
Evolution: Process of development from a simple to a complex form and is often used to discuss the development of a species of plants or animals. In the context of this chapter it refers to the way in which protecting women against domestic violence developed from an urgently-felt need to a new law that can be enforced throughout the country.
Sedition: This applies to anything that the government might consider as stirring up resistance or rebellion against it. In such cases, the government does not need absolute evidence in order to arrest persons. Under the Sedition Act of 1870, the British had a very broad interpretation of what constituted sedition, and what this meant was that they could arrest and detain any person they wanted under this Act. The nationalists considered this law arbitrary because persons were arrested for a variety of reasons that were seldom clarified beforehand as well as because those arrested were often kept in jail without a trial.
Repressive: To control severely in order to prevent free and natural development or expression. In the context of this chapter it refers to laws that brutally control persons and often prevent them from exercising their Fundamental Rights including Right to Speech and Assembly.
Hierarchy: A graded system or arrangement of persons or things. Usually persons at the bottom of the hierarchy are those who have the least power. The caste system is a hierarchical system and Dalits are considered to be at the lowest end.
Displaced: In the context of this chapter this refers to people who are forced or compelled to move from their homes for big development projects including dams, mining etc.Militarised: An area where the presence of the armed forces is considerable.Malnourished: A person who does not get adequate nutrition or food.Assertive: An assertive person or group is one that can express themselves and their views strongly.Confront: To come face to face or to challenge someone or something. In the context of this chapter, this refers to groups challenging their marginalisation.Dispossessed: To possess is to own something and to be dispossessed is to have to give up ownership or to give up authority.Ostracise: This means to exclude or banish an individual or a group. In the context of this chapter, it refers to a social boycott of an individual and his family.
Basic needs: Primary requirements of food, water, shelter, sanitation, healthcare and education necessary for survival. Consumer: An individual who buys goods for personal use and not for resale.Producer: A person or organisation that produces goods for sale in the market. At times, the producer keeps a part of the produce for his own use, like a farmer. Investment: Money spent to purchase new machinery or buildings or training so as to be able to increase/ modernise production in the future.
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people.Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services.
In another incident, on 23 December 2005, due to gas well blowout in Gao Qiao, Chongging, China, 243 people died, 9,000 were injured and 64,000 were evacuatedSmelting: It is the process in which metals are extracted from their ores by heating beyond the melting pointLife expectancy: It is the number of years that an average person can expect to live.Organic Farming: In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.
Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the winter season are called rabi crops. Their time period is generally from October to March. Examples of rabi crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.As a responsible citizen remember the 4 R principle. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recover.metals produce ringing sounds, they are said to be sonorous.
some materials are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good conductors of heat and electricity. The materials which generally posses these properties are called metals.Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature. These are exceptions.Inexhaustible Natural Resources: These resources are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to be exhausted by human activities. Examples are: sunlight, air.
This may occur due to various social, cultural and economic reasons. Fear or hostility may also compel a community to group together as they feel more secure living amongst their own. Often a ‘ghettoised’ community has few options of moving out, which may lead to them becoming alienated from the rest of the society.
Mainstream: Literally this refers to the main current of a river or stream. In this chapter it is used to refer to a cultural context in which the customs and practices that are followed are those of the dominant community. In connection with this, mainstream is also used to refer to those people or communities that are considered to be at the centre of a society, i.e. often the powerful or dominant group.
Morally reprehensible: This refers to an act that violates all norms of decency and dignity that a society believes in. It usually refers to a hideous and repugnant act that goes against all the values that a society has accepted.
Policy: A stated course of action that provides direction for the future, sets goals to be achieved or lays out principles or guidelines to be followed and acted upon. In this chapter, we have referred to government policies. But other institutions like schools,companies, etc. also have policies.
Sanitation: Provision of facilities for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. This is done by construction of toilets and pipes to carry the sewerage and treatment of waste water. This is necessary so as to avoid contamination.
Company: A company is a form of business set up by people or by the government. Those that are promoted and owned by individuals or groups are called private companies. For example, Tata Steel is a private company whereas Indian Oil is a company run by the government.
Universal access: Universal access is achieved when everyone has physical access to a good and can also afford it. For instance, a tap connection at home will allow physical access to water, and if the price of water is low or is provided free, everyone will be able to afford it.
Workers’ unions: An association of workers. Workers’ unions are common in factories and offices, but might be also found among other types of workers, say domestic workers’ unions. The leaders of the union bargain and negotiate with the employer on behalf of its members. The issues include wages, work rules, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits and workplace safety.
One of the worst industrial disasters of all time occurred in Bhopal on 3 December 1984 around 00:30 a.m. It was a technological accident in which highly poisonous Methyl Isocynate (MIC) gas along with Hydrogen Cyanide and other reaction products leaked out of the pesticide factory of Union Carbide. The official death toll was 3,598 in 1989.
Kharif Crops : The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops. The rainy season in India is generally from June to September. Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc., are kharif crops.
Sanctuary : Areas where animals are protected from any disturbance to them and their habitat.National Park : Areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats and natural resources.Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant and animal resources and traditional life of the tribals living in the area.
Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc are the flora and chinkara, blue-bull, barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Endemic species are those species of plants and animals which are found exclusively in a particular area.
Exhaustible Natural Resources: The amount of these resources in nature is limited. They can be exhausted by human activities. Examples of these resources are forests, wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
Global warming is the rise in temperature of the atmosphere of the earth. This results, among other things, in the melting of polar glaciers, which leads to a rise in the sea level, causing floods in the coastal areas. Low lying coastal areas may even be permanently submerged under water.
Species is a group of populations which are capable of interbreeding. This means that the members of a species can reproduce fertile offspring only with the members of their own species and not with members of other species. Members of a species have common characteristics.
State of Motion: The state of motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction of motion. The state of rest is considered to be the state of zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion; both are its states of motion
The process of transfering of charge from a charged object to the earth is called earthing. Earthing is provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks due to any leakage of electrical current.
Gene is a unit of inheritance in living organisms. It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring. This means that your parents pass some of their characteristics on to you. If your father has brown eyes, you may also have brown eyes. If your mother has curly hair, you might also end up having curly hair. However, the different combination of genes from parents result in different characteristics.
in some women oviducts are blocked. These women are unable to bear babies because sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilization. In such cases, doctors collect freshly released egg and sperms and keep them together for a few hours for IVF or in vitro fertilization (fertilization outside the body). In case fertilization occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is placed in the mother’s uterus. Complete development takes place in the uterus and the baby is born like any other baby. Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies. This term is actually misleading because babies cannot grow in test tubes.
An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of several thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is called the queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job is to build the hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately to keep her healthy so that she could lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of eggs. The fertilized eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilized eggs give rise to males, called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the temperature of the hive around 35ºC to incubate the eggs.
In females, the reproductive phase of life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of age) and generally lasts till the age of approximately 45 to 50 years. The ova begin to mature with the onset of puberty. One ovum matures and is released by one of the ovaries once in about 28 to 30 days. During this period, the wall of the uterus becomes thick so as to receive the egg, in case it is fertilised and begins to develop. This results in pregnancy. If fertilisation does not occur, the released egg, and the thickened lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in women which is called menstruation. Menstruation occurs once in about 28 to 30 days. The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years of age, the menstrual cycle stops. Stoppage of menstruation is termed menopause. Initially, menstrual cycle may be irregular. It take some time to become regular.
earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the boundaries of the plates are the weak zones where earthquakes are more likely to occur. The weak zones are also known as seismic or fault zones. In India, the areas most threatened are Kashmir, Western and Central Himalayas, the whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch, Rajasthan and the Indo – Gangetic Plane.
The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 kilometres (150 million km) away from the Earth. The next nearest star is Alpha Centauri. It is at a distance of about 40,000,000,000,000 km from the Earth. Can you read this distance in kilometres conveniently? Some stars are even further away. Such large distances are expressed in another unit known as light year. It is the distance travelled by light in one year. Remember that the speed of light is about 300,000 km per second. Thus, the distance of the Sun from the Earth may be said to be about 8 light minutes. The distance of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light years.
Till 2006 there were nine planets in the solar system. Pluto was the farthest planet from the Sun. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of a planet. Pluto does not fit this definition. It is no longer a planet of the solar system
At night, when the sky is clear and the moon is not there, you may sometimes see bright streaks of light in the sky. These are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars. They are called meteors. A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the earth’s atmosphere. At that time it has a very high speed. The friction due to the atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates quickly. That is why the bright steak lasts for a very short time. Some meteors are large so that they can reach the Earth before they evaporate completely. The body that reaches the Earth is called a meteorite
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the marble of the monument. The phenomenon is also called “Marble cancer”.