វវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវវ វវវវវវវ Cambodia International Cooperation Institute Faculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages Applied Linguistics Topic: “Word & Word-Formation Processes” Members of Groups 01: 1)Miss. Ly Chenda 2)Miss. Long Savna 3)Mr. Sem Sopanha 4)Mr. Kong Piseth 5)Mr. Kann Saoda 6)Mr. Um Sothea Batch 06, Year 04, Semester 01 Academic Year 2015 - 2016 Submitted to Lecturer: Kak Sovanna
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កកកកកកកវិ �ទ្យា�ស្ថា� នសហប្�តិ ប្តិ� ការអន�រជាតិ កម្ពុ��ជាCambodia International Cooperation InstituteFaculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages
កកកកកកកវិ �ទ្យា�ស្ថា� នសហប្�តិ ប្តិ� ការអន�រជាតិ កម្ពុ��ជាCambodia International Cooperation InstituteFaculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages
= a completely new word is made up from scratch to suit certain purposes. These are often invented by companies with new products or processes, or taken from names.
•Google•Kleenex •Nylon•Skype •Vaseline•Yahoo
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1. Coinage (2)
The most salient contemporary example of coinage
is the word google. Originally a misspelling for the
word googol (= the number 1 followed by 100
zeros), in the creation of the word Googleplex,
which later became the name of a company
(Google), the term google (without a capital letter)
restricted to the original use as the final thrust
of the sword to end a bullfight.
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2. Borrowing (10)
Nowadays, some Spanish speakers eat perros calientes (literally “dogs hot”) or hot dogs.
The American concept of “boyfriend” was a borrowing, with sound modification, into Japanese as boyifurendo, but as a calque into Chinese as “male friend” or nan pengyu.
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3. Compounding
In some of the examples we have just
considered, there is a joining of two
separate words to produce a single form.
Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined to
produce Lehnwort in German.
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3. Compounding (2)
This combining process, technically known as
compounding, is very common in languages such
as German and English, but much less common in
languages such as French and Spanish. Common
English compounds are bookcase, doorknob,
fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper,
wastebasket and waterbed.
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3. Compounding (3)
All these examples are nouns, but we can also
create compound adjectives (good-looking, low-
paid) and compounds of adjective (fast) plus
noun (food) as in a fast-food restaurant or a
full-time job.
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3. Compounding (4)
. This very productive source of new terms has
been well documented in English and German,
but can also be found in totally unrelated
languages, such as Hmong (spoken in South
East Asia),which combines hwj (“pot”)
andkais (“spout”) to produce hwjkais
(“kettle”).
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3. Compounding (5)
Recent creations are paj (“flower”) plus kws
(“corn”) for pajkws (“pop- corn”) and hnab
(“bag”) + rau (“put”) + ntawv (“paper” or
“book”) for hnabraun- tawv (“schoolbag”).
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4. Blending
The combination of two separate forms to
produce a single new term is also present in
the process called blending . However,
blending is typically accomplished by taking
only the beginning of one word and joining it to
the end of the other word.
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4. Blending (1)
Smurk (smoke + murk)
telecast (television/broadcast)
Brunch (breakfast/lunch),
motel (motor/hotel)
bit (binary/digit)
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4. Blending(2)
Infotainment (information/entertainment)
and simulcast (simulta- neous/broadcast) are
other new blends from life with television.
To describe the mixing of languages, some
people talk about Franglais (French/Anglais)
and Spanglish (Spanish/English).
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4. Blending (3)
In a few blends, we combine the beginnings
of both words, as in terms from information
technology, such as telex
(teleprinter/exchange) or modem
(modulator/demodulator).
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5. Clipping (4)
The element of reduction that is noticeable in
blending is even more apparent in the
process described as clipping. This occurs
when a word of more than one syllable
(facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form (fax),
usually beginning in casual speech.
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5. Clipping (5)
Other common examples are ad
(advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab
(cabriolet), condo (condominium), fan
(fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanent
wave), phone, plane and pub (public house).
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5. Clipping (6)
There must be something about
educational environments that encourages
clipping because so many words get
reduced, as in chem, exam, gym, lab,
math, phys-ed, poly- sci, prof and typo.
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6. Backformation
A very specialized type of reduction process is
known as backformation. Typically, a word of
one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a
word of another type (usually adverb).
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6. Backformation (1)
donate (from “donation”), emote (from
“emotion”), enthuse (from “enthusiasm”), liaise
(from “liaison”) and babysit (from
“babysitter”). Indeed, when we use the verb
backform (Did you know
that“opt”wasbackformed from “option”?),
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6. Backformation (2)
The assumption seems to have been that if
there is a noun ending in -er (or something
close in sound), then we can create a verb for
what that noun -er does. Hence, an editor will
edit, a sculptor will sculpt and burglars,
peddlers and swindlers will burgle, peddle and
swindle.
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7. Conversion
Conversion is the word formation
process in which a word of one
grammatical form becomes a word of
another grammatical form without any
changes to spelling or pronunciation.
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7. Conversion (2)
For example, the noun email appeared
in English before the verb: a decade
ago I would have sent you an email
(noun) whereas now I can either send
you an email (noun) or simply email
(verb) you.
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7. Conversion (3)
Phrasal verbs (to print out, to take over) also
become nouns (a print out , a takeover). One
complex verb combination (want to be) has
become a new noun, as in He isn’t in the group,
he’s just a wanna be. Verbs (see through,
stand up) also become adjectives, as in see-
through material or a stand-up comedian.
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7. Conversion (4)
Or adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an
empty room, some crazy ideas and
those nasty people, can become the
verbs to dirty and to empty, or the
nouns a crazy and the nasty.
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8. Acronym
Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These can be forms such as CD (“compact disk”) or VCR (“video cassette recorder”) More typically, acronyms are pronounced as new single words, as in NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)or UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).
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9. Acronym(1)
ATM (“automatic teller machine”)
PIN (“personal identification number”)
(WAR) (“women against rape” )
(MADD) (“mothers against drunk driving”)
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10. Derivation
In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common word- formation process to be found in the production of new English words. This process is called derivation and it is accomplished by means of a large number of small “bits” of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries.
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10. Derivation (2)
These small “bits” are generally described
as affixes. Some familiar examples are the
elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -
ism and -ness which appear in words like
unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful,
careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness.
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11. Affixation
= adding an established prefix or a suffix
to the existing base
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A) Suffixation
- is characteristic of noun and adjective formation- a suffix usually changes not only the lexical meaning of a word but also its grammatical meaning or its word class, e.g. to bake – baker, beauty - beautiful