WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD Kate Harwood Bachelor of Science (Hons) This thesis is presented in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy/Master of Psychology (Clinical) of The University of Western Australia, School of Psychology, 2004.
282
Embed
WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE …€¦ · perceived social support. On average, positive prenatal expectations were matched or exceeded by maternal reports
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD
Kate Harwood
Bachelor of Science (Hons)
This thesis is presented in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy/Master of Psychology (Clinical) of The University of Western Australia,
School of Psychology, 2004.
ABSTRACT
The transition to parenthood places a number of emotional, physical, and
cognitive demands on individuals. It is also a role that many individuals choose, enjoy,
and derive benefit from. This research examined how women’s parenting expectations
influence their adjustment to parenthood. Taylor & Brown (1988, 1994) suggest that
unrealistically optimistic expectations are associated with positive psychological
adjustment. However, research examining adjustment during the transition to
parenthood has demonstrated that unrealistic expectations pertaining to some aspects of
parenthood can have a negative effect on adjustment (Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble,
1992). The primary aims of this thesis were to examine the relationship between
optimistic expectations and adjustment, taking into account a broader range of
expectations than previous work, and to examine how adjustment is influenced if
expectations are overly optimistic relative to experiences.
In Study 1, a measure of parenting expectations was developed. The measure
assesses four categories of expectations: infant expectations, self expectations, partner
expectations, and social expectations. Initial testing with pregnant women (n = 87)
indicated that the measure had sound reliability and validity. Study 2 used this measure
to examine the relationship between expectations and adjustment in first-time mothers
(n = 71) who were assessed pre and post delivery. Optimistic prenatal expectations
were associated with positive relationship adjustment, high parenting efficacy, and high
perceived social support. On average, positive prenatal expectations were matched or
exceeded by maternal reports of experiences four months after births of their infants.
However, experiences that were negative relative to expectations were associated with
lower postnatal mood and poorer postnatal relationship adjustment. These relationships
were moderated by parenting self-efficacy beliefs. The results from Study 2 suggest
that, while for many women parenthood is a positive experience, for some, it is not as
III
positive as expected and this has a negative effect on their adjustment. While optimism
may be associated with positive adjustment during pregnancy, it may be hazardous if it
is unrealistic in comparison to experiences.
Studies 3 and 4 examined factors that may influence the formulation of
optimistic expectations. Expectations may be particularly likely to become
unrealistically optimistic when an individual is faced with an imminent challenge.
Study 3 examined the expectations of a group of non-pregnant women (n = 85) who
wanted to have children in the future but were not facing the imminent challenges of
childbirth and parenthood. These women also had positive expectations of parenthood,
although they were significantly less positive than pregnant women. Study 4 examined
how parenthood is presented in the media as a means of gaining insight into the
information used by expectant parents and the cultural context within which parenting
expectations are formulated. A content analysis of parenting magazines revealed that
images of parenting are overwhelmingly positive.
The findings of this thesis further existing knowledge of factors that influence
the transition to parenthood. The findings elucidate the consequences of optimistic
expectations and disconfirmed expectations on adjustment to parenthood, and have
implications more broadly for understanding of how expectations of future life events
influence adjustment. The current research also informed of the broader cultural
context that may influence women’s parenting expectations.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………III
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………X
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD ………………………………………1
CHAPTER 2
THE EFFECT OF EXPECTATIONS ON ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD 12
Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………………………13
Negative Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………15
Depressive Realism ………………………………………………………………16
Positive Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………18
The Psychological Consequences of Disconfirmed Expectations ………………22
Coping with Disconfirmed Expectations ………………………………………25
Self-Efficacy Beliefs ………………………………………………………………27
Summary ………………………………………………………………………30
Expectations of Parenthood ………………………………………………………31
& Raps, 1990). However, attempts to replicate the depressive realism effect in studies
examining individuals’ expectations about future life events have proven more difficult.
Alloy and Ahrens (1987) assessed depressed and non-depressed college
students’ expectations about future life events. Compared to their non-depressed peers,
depressed students expectations were more pessimistic and less optimistic. When the
students were asked to compare themselves to individuals with attributes similar to
themselves, non-depressed students appeared to be overly optimistic. Non-depressed
students stated that they were more likely than similar others to experience success and
less likely than similar others to experience failure. Because it is logically impossible
for most people to be more successful than those similar to themselves, this was
interpreted as a positive bias. In contrast, depressed students did not display any
negative or positive bias suggesting that they may have more balanced or realistic
expectations. However, attempts to replicate these findings have found evidence for
1 This section uses the group names described by the authors of each study. In the studies described in this section, participants were divided into depressed or non-depressed groups based on their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck & Steer, 1993). Scores on this measure represent the severity of depression symptoms but this does not necessarily mean that the depressed participants would have met the diagnostic criteria for clinical depression.
17
both a negative bias in depressed individuals (Pietromonaco & Markus, 1985) and a
positive bias in depressed individuals (Pyszczynski, Holt, & Greenberg, 1987). One
criticism of these studies is that they failed to provide an external criterion of accuracy,
meaning it is difficult to determine objectively which group had more realistic
Much of the research investigating parenting self-efficacy has been conducted
with parents of toddlers and older children. However, two important studies have
demonstrated that parents’ self-efficacy beliefs exert a powerful effect on adjustment
during the first year of parenthood. These studies attempted to ascertain how self-
efficacy interacted with two common stressors that new parents face: a temperamentally
difficult infant and poor social support. Teti and Gelfand (1991) tested whether self-
efficacy mediated between maternal competence and maternal depression, maternal
perceptions of infant temperament, and social-marital supports in a sample that included
clinically depressed and non-depressed women. Maternal competence was measured by
observing the mothers interacting with their infants who were aged between 3 and 13
months of age. Self-efficacy was significantly correlated with maternal competence,
perceptions of infant difficulty, socio-marital supports, and maternal depression.
Maternal self-efficacy remained significantly correlated with maternal competence after
the effects of the other variables were controlled for statistically. However, when self-
efficacy was controlled for statistically the other variables no longer accounted for
variance in maternal competence indicating that self-efficacy mediated between the
psychosocial variables and maternal competence.
In similar research, Cutrona and Troutman (1986) measured women’s
depression and social support during pregnancy and three months after the birth
assessed depression again as well as parenting self-efficacy and ratings of infant
difficulty. Cutrona and Troutman found that the effect of infant temperament and
perceived social support on depression was mediated by maternal self-efficacy. Hence,
factors that have been associated with maternal depression, such as having an infant
41
who cries frequently or low levels of social support, appear to exert their effect by
undermining the new mother’s sense of efficacy. Mothers who have environmental
influences that boost their sense of efficacy may be less prone to depression. Again, the
findings suggest women’s efficacy beliefs are an important factor in their postnatal
adjustment.
While it would seem that parenting self-efficacy beliefs are influential in the
early stages of parenthood, the extent to which parenting self-efficacy beliefs held
during pregnancy might influence adjustment during the transition to parenthood is
uncertain. On the one hand, given that efficacy beliefs seem to play an important role
during other stages of parenthood, it seems plausible that these beliefs may play an
important role during the transition. However, because the self-efficacy beliefs of first-
time parents are based on very limited experience, it is possible they do not exert a
particularly powerful effect on behaviour. Robust, lasting self-efficacy beliefs are
formed via direct success experiences in relevant behavioural domains (Bandura, 1995,
1997). While first time parents may have had previous experience caring for infants,
very few would have cared for an infant on a constant basis for an extended period of
time. Many first time parents may have to rely on vicarious experience or visualisation
of themselves in the parenting role as sources of their self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore,
their self-efficacy beliefs relating to the specific tasks of parenting may be unreliable.
Researchers who have attempted to establish whether prenatal self-efficacy beliefs
influence postnatal adjustment have produced mixed results.
Olioff and Aboud (1991) asked pregnant women to list 10 activities that they
believed characterised good mothering and the extent to which they were confident that
they would be able to carry out these activities during the first 6 months of their infants’
lives. The authors’ rationale for using this idiosyncratic measure was that it would
provide a sensitive measure of each woman’s concept of parenting self-efficacy. Six
42
months after the birth, the new mothers recorded their self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to
their performance on the same childcare tasks. There were no significant differences
between prenatal and postnatal perceptions of efficacy. Further, prenatal perceptions of
self-efficacy predicted maternal postnatal dysphoria, suggesting that parenting self-
efficacy beliefs held during pregnancy affect postnatal adjustment.
Olioff and Aboud (1991) argued that mothers with low self-efficacy beliefs
might believe that problems or difficulties encountered while caring for their infant
were due to their own lack of parenting efficacy. These women may be less persistent
in efforts to acquire new parenting skills, which would further decrease the likelihood of
achieving desired outcomes. The authors speculated that this cycle resulted in the
higher levels of dysphoria in the women with lower self-efficacy beliefs. In contrast,
mothers with high self-efficacy beliefs may attribute any difficulties and problems to
external factors or view having trouble at some point as an inevitable part of the
transition. These efficacious mothers may persist in the face of difficulties and
therefore increase the likelihood of achieving desired outcomes. An alternative
explanation, given the correlational nature of the research, is the women with low self-
efficacy beliefs accurately assessed that they were not able to cope with the challenges
of parenting and felt depressed about it.
Reece and Harkless (1998) conducted a similar longitudinal study assessing
parenting self-efficacy beliefs during pregnancy and four months after the birth of the
baby but used different measures and produced findings that contradict those of Olioff
and Aboud (1991). The former authors examined the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on
perceived stress and parental adaptation, which encompassed quality of the marital
relationship, partner’s participation in infant care, gratification with delivery,
satisfaction with life, confidence in parenting, satisfaction with the infant and infant care
tasks, and support for the parental role from family, friends, and others. Notably, they
43
did not measure depression during pregnancy or the postnatal period. They found no
relationship between prenatal self-efficacy and postnatal measures of adaptation and
stress. Postnatal perceptions of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with quality
of relationship with partner, confidence in parenting, satisfaction with infant, and
support for parenting for mothers, and confidence in parenting and life satisfaction for
fathers. The authors suggested that prenatal perceptions of self-efficacy may have been
inaccurate and therefore may not have exerted any influence over postnatal measures of
adaptation; in contrast, postnatal self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to be accurate
and exert a more robust influence adjustment. Reece and Harkless (1998) used different
self-efficacy measures and outcome variables to Olioff and Aboud (1991), which makes
it difficult to draw conclusions about the contradictory findings.
Binda and Crippa (2000) examined the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on couples’
adaptation to parenthood rather than each parent’s individual adjustment to parenthood.
Self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to pregnancy and labour were assessed in the prepartum
phase. Approximately four months after birth, the researchers assessed self-efficacy
beliefs relating to parenting and mutual support between the couple as they adjusted to
the arrival of the infant in the family. A structural equation modeling analysis of the
results revealed that maternal self-efficacy influenced paternal self-efficacy, which in
turn influenced paternal satisfaction. Paternal satisfaction then influenced maternal
satisfaction. Binda and Crippa argued that this pattern of relationships served to
strengthen the marital bond during the transition to parenthood and that the perceived
self-efficacy of each partner may serve as a protective factor in coping with the
sometimes stressful transition to parenthood. Although this study focuses on a
circumscribed set of variables, the results suggest that high self-efficacy beliefs can
buffer some of the difficulties of the transition to parenthood.
An optimistic sense of self-efficacy in the early stages of parenthood seems to be
44
associated with better parental adjustment. Factors such as having a fussy infant or poor
social support are associated with poorer adjustment to parenthood and seem to exert
their effects by undermining the parent’s sense of efficacy (Teti & Gelfand, 1991;
Cutrona & Troutman, 1986). These studies have examined self-efficacy once the
parents have had some experience with the task. Studies that have examined the
parenting self-efficacy beliefs of expectant parents have focused on self-efficacy beliefs
pertaining to specific parenting tasks (Olioff & Aboud, 1991; Reece & Harkless, 1998),
such as being able to feed the infant or soothe the infant when he or she cries. Then,
they have attempted to link these beliefs to indicators of adjustment to parenthood such
as mood or the quality of the parents’ relationship. These studies have produced
contradictory results about the extent to which these beliefs affect postnatal adjustment
(Olioff & Aboud, 1991; Reece & Harkless, 1998). A more general sense of prenatal
efficacy pertaining to the extent to which expectant parents believe they are capable of
meeting the challenges of and adapting to parenthood may exert a greater influence on
postnatal adjustment. Research from other areas has found that a general sense of self-
efficacy may be beneficial for adjustment during life transitions (Jerusalem & Mittag,
1995). Parents who enter their new role with the belief that they will be able to meet the
challenges that parenthood presents may be able to persevere through the early
challenges and difficulties without becoming dispirited. Those that enter their new role
unsure of their ability to cope may interpret early difficulties as a sign of their inability
to cope rather than a normal part of the transition and become depressed. Given the
mixed findings of previous research examining, the relationship between prenatal self-
efficacy beliefs and later adjustment warrants further investigation.
Conclusion
The research reviewed in this chapter indicates that expectant parents’
expectations influence their adjustment to their new role. This is consistent with
45
research in other areas, which has found that expectations have a powerful effect on
mood, cognition, and behaviour. As has been demonstrated in research investigating
expectations about other future life events, expectant parents tend to have optimistic
expectations about their impending role. In studies examining factors such as academic
achievement and coping with chronic illness, optimistic expectations have been
associated with positive psychological adjustment and there is evidence that this is also
the case during transition to parenthood (Buehler et al., 1994; Coleman et al., 1999;
Delmore-Ko et al., 2000; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Kach & McGhee, 1982; Leedham et
al., 1995; Wylie, 1979). This research seems to provide some support for Taylor and
Brown’s (1988, 1994) view that unrealistically optimistic expectations may a beneficial
effect on psychological adjustment. However, these studies have not compared the
expectant parents’ expectations with their postnatal experiences. This means it is
impossible to determine whether antenatal expectations matched postnatal experiences
or whether there were discrepancies and if there were discrepancies, how they
influenced postnatal adjustment.
Studies that have compared expectations with later experiences have found that
unrealistic optimism in certain areas can have a detrimental effect on adjustment
(Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In
particular, women’s expectations about the extent to which their partners will assist with
household duties and both partners’ expectations of the impact of parenthood on their
relationship are often overly optimistic. These expectancy discrepancies appear to be
associated with a more difficult adjustment to parenthood. These findings are consistent
with work examining expectations in other areas where expecting a positive outcome
but experiencing a negative outcome is associated with negative affect (Shepperd &
McNulty, 2002). This may indicate that expecting some of the common difficulties that
occur during the transition to parenthood may be beneficial for adjustment.
46
Another possibility is that not all individuals are affected by expectancy
discrepancies in the same way. For example, Hackel and Ruble (1992) found that
women’s gender role orientations moderated the effect of household labour expectancy
discrepancies on adjustment to parenthood. Parenting self-efficacy beliefs may
moderate the effect of expectancy disconfirmation on adjustment. An optimistic sense
of efficacy may enable parents to cope more effectively when events are more difficult
than they had expected and, consequently, these discrepancies may not have as
detrimental effect on their adjustment. While there has been considerable research into
parenting efficacy beliefs, relatively few studies have examined parenting efficacy
during the transition to parenthood and those that have been conducted have produced
contradictory results (Reece & Harkless, 1998; Olioff & Aboud, 1991). In terms of
predicting adjustment to parenthood, it may be more useful to focus on efficacy beliefs
pertaining to how expectant parents expect to cope with the challenges of parenthood
more generally, rather than expectations about specific parenting tasks. Research
examining these more general parenting efficacy beliefs has not been conducted, nor
have there been studies investigating whether efficacy beliefs moderate the effect of
expectancy discrepancies.
The research to be reported in the remaining chapters of this thesis aimed to
address the limitations of previous work, first by examining a broader range of
expectations than has been investigated in the past. Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) work found
evidence to suggest that the effect of expectancy disconfirmation during the transition to
parenthood may depend on the particular expectation that has been disconfirmed. The
finding that expectancy disconfirmation does not always influence adjustment warrants
further investigation. Second, this research will compare expectations with experiences
to determine the impact of expectancy disconfirmation on psychological adjustment
during the transition to parenthood. The aim is to elucidate how the disconfirmation of
47
overly optimistic expectations influences psychological adjustment both during the
transition to parenthood and more broadly. Third, this research will investigate whether
efficacy beliefs moderate the effects of expectancy disconfirmation.
48
CHAPTER 3
STUDY 1: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE OF PARENTING
EXPECTATIONS
This chapter briefly reviews previous work examining attitudes and beliefs
during pregnancy and the early stages of parenthood and describes the measure
development study undertaken in the current project. As outlined in Chapter 2, the aims
of the current research included expanding on previous findings by examining a broader
range of expectations, exploring the relationship between optimistic expectations and
adjustment, and delineating the effects of disconfirmed expectations on adjustment. In
order to address these aims, it was necessary to examine pregnant women’s expectations
about parenthood, that is, their beliefs about the nature of their lives once they became
parents. This necessitated a measure that would assess a broad range of positive and
negative parenting expectations and enable direct comparison between expectations and
reports of experiences. Although previous work has investigated the expectations of
first-time parents, it was difficult to find a questionnaire that measured first-time
expectant mothers’ expectations of parenthood and addressed the requirements
described above. One reason for this is that there are few measures with established
reliability or validity that assess psychological phenomena pertaining specifically to the
transition to parenthood (Ruble et al., 1990).
The scales that do exist tend to ask women to comment on their attitudes and
beliefs pertaining to their current circumstances rather than their expectations of
parenthood. Consequently, these scales assess attitudes and beliefs pertaining to
pregnancy during pregnancy and after the birth, they assess attitudes and beliefs
relevant to early parenthood. An example of this is Kumar, Robson, and Smith’s (1984)
Maternal Adjustment and Maternal Attitudes (MAMA) measure, which is designed to
measure self-perceptions and attitudes in pregnant women and new mothers in order to
49
identify factors that contribute to psychiatric disorders during pregnancy and the
postnatal period. The scale assesses a woman’s perceptions of her body, somatic
symptoms, marital relationship, attitudes to sex, and attitudes to pregnancy and the
baby. Most items in this scale ask women to express their attitudes or beliefs about
their current situation. For example, an item in the prenatal version of the marital
relationship subscale asks “Have you been feeling close to your partner since you
became pregnant?” (p. 50). In the postnatal version, this item asks “Have you been
feeling closer to your partner since you had the baby?” (p. 51). Few of the items assess
women’s expectations pertaining to their future as a parent. The exception to this is the
subscale that taps attitudes to the pregnancy and the baby. In the pregnancy version of
this scale, some of the items tap women’s thoughts about their future, such as whether
they have been worrying about being a good mother, wondering if their baby will be
healthy and normal, and looking forward to caring for their baby’s needs. Other items
in the subscale focus on issues relevant to pregnancy such as whether the woman has
been worrying about hurting her baby while it is inside her.
Other scales designed to assess psychological constructs during pregnancy also
focus on attitudes or beliefs about pregnancy rather than expectations of parenthood.
Affonso and Sheptak’s (1989) Cognitive Adaptation to Pregnancy scale is based on the
assumption that successful adaptation to pregnancy involves self-enhancement, a sense
of mastery, and a search for meaning. Therefore, scale items are designed to tap these
themes and do not measure expectations of parenthood. While Warner, Appleby,
Whitton, and Faragher’s (1997) Maternal Attitudes Questionnaire is designed for use in
a postnatal population, the authors state that it measures expectations about motherhood
and expectations of the self as a mother, as well as thoughts pertaining to role change.
However, close examination of the expectation items reveals that they tap beliefs and
attitudes rather than expectations about the future. The one item that does address
50
expectations assesses whether having a baby has made the women as happy as they had
expected, which appears to be a retrospective evaluation of their feelings rather than a
prenatal expectation. Ruble et al. (1990) developed two scales that assess a
comprehensive range of attitudes, beliefs, and mothering characteristics across the
transition to parenthood. The first scale assessed attitudes towards childbearing and
covered a wide range of areas including maternal worries, body image, feelings about
children, and feelings of dependency. The second scale assessed maternal self-
definition and asked women to rate the extent to which they would exhibit a range of
behaviours and attributes presumed to be relevant to good mothering. While some of
the items in this scale do tap expectations about the early stages of parenthood, the
primary focus is on women’s attitudes about their current state or their beliefs about
themselves and others in their lives.
Some research has examined a broad range of expectations but it has done so
with measures that do not have established reliability or validity. For example, Wylie
(1979) investigated the extent to which the expectations of first-time parents predicted
the ease of adjustment to parenthood. The 32-item questionnaire used by Wylie was
based on measures used by Hobbs (1965) and Russell (1974) and it assessed positive
and negative perceptions of parenthood. As with many of the measures or items used in
this field of research, the initial expectations measure asked respondents about their
expectations of parenthood and the second measure converts the initial expectations into
statements worded in the present tense assessing experiences of parenthood. The items
cover a broad range of topics but no information is provided about their reliability or
validity.
Ruble and colleagues also examined how expectations pertaining to the division
of household labour and childcare influence relationship satisfaction during the
transition to parenthood (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In the prenatal
51
phase of the studies, the participants were asked to rate the percentage of domestic
labour that they expected their spouses and themselves to do after the arrival of the
baby. In the postnatal phase, they were asked to rate the percentage of household labor
that they and their spouse were doing. As discussed in Chapter 2, when women’s
expectations about the amount their spouse would contribute to domestic labour were
disconfirmed, there was a decline in relationship satisfaction. While this research
investigated an important aspect of the transition to parenthood, it is possible that the
division of labour is not the only area where there is a discrepancy between expectations
and experiences.
Belsky (1986) and Kalmuss et al. (1992) examined a wider range of expectations
than Ruble and colleagues (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In order to
determine whether disconfirmed expectations contributed to the decline in marital
satisfaction across the transition to parenthood Belsky assessed expectations in six
domains: marital conflict and co-operation, overall marital relationship, the effect of
parenthood on themselves, relations with extended family, relations with friends and
neighbours, and shared caregiving. The items for each domain were obtained from a
content analysis of open-ended interviews with first time parents. Expectations were
measured during the last trimester of the women’s pregnancy. Perceptions of parenting
experiences were measured when the infants were three and six months of age. The
internal consistency reliability of each scale ranged from .57 to.92 with a mean of .83.
Although Belsky examined a wider range of parenting expectations, the focus remained
on factors pertaining to the couple’s transition to parenthood rather than the individual
parent’s transition (the findings of Belsky’s study are discussed in Chapter 2). The
study tapped expectations about how the expectant parents thought parenthood would
influence various aspects of their life but asked few questions on their expectations of
parenting itself, their baby, or their relationship with their baby. Questions on the baby
52
were confined to which parent would be responsible for the various care-taking tasks,
for example, the percentage of the time that each parent would take responsibility for
getting up to attend to the baby’s needs in the night.
Kalmuss et al. (1992) looked beyond the previous focus on expectations about
the division of labour and the effect of parenthood on the marital relationship. Their
investigation examined first-time mothers’ expectations in six non-maternal domains -
the effect parenthood would have on the relationship with their spouse, their physical
well being, their relationships with members of their extended family and friends, their
employment, and their financial well-being. In addition, Kalmuss et al. assessed
women’s expectations in three maternal domains, namely, expectations about their
competence and maternal satisfaction in the maternal role and about the amount of
caregiving assistance that they would receive from their spouses. Within each of the
non-maternal domains, participants were asked to compare the way things usually were
with the way they expected things to be when their infant was 12 months old. In the
postnatal test phase, participants were presented with the same item but were asked to
report how much change had occurred rather than how much change they expected to
occur (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of the findings). While the broader scope of
expectations examined by Kalmuss et al. is useful, the investigators do not provide any
information about the reliability or the validity of their expectations measure.
In summary, while there has been work investigating cognitions during
pregnancy and early parenthood relatively few studies have examined parenting
expectations during pregnancy and then compared these expectations to reports of
parenting experiences. Those that have made the comparison have tended to focus on
expectations pertaining to how parenthood would influence the marital relationship.
Areas that have been somewhat neglected in previous work include women’s
expectations of the nature of caring for their infants, their expectations of their
53
relationship with their infants, and how they expect parenthood to influence their
emotional well-being and perception of themselves. Other studies that have been
broader in scope have not provided information about the reliability or validity of their
measures. When planning the current project, it was impossible to find measures with
established reliability and validity that enabled an exploration of expectations about a
range of positive and negative aspects of early parenthood. For the purposes of the
current research, it was also important to have a measure that allowed a direct
comparison between expectations and experiences in order to determine how
discrepancies between these variables influence adjustment to parenthood.
The aim of the current study was to develop a comprehensive, valid, and
reliable measure of parenting expectations. The current measure was designed to assess
women’s expectations of caring for their infant and their relationship with their infant.
In addition, the measure was designed to assess women’s expectations of how
parenthood would influence three major aspects of their lives: their relationship with
their partner, their own physical and psychological well being, and their relationships
with others in their lives, including family, friends, and colleagues. As discussed in
Chapter 1, previous research has found that each of these domains of functioning are
influenced by the transition to parenthood (e.g., Bost et al., 2002; Cappuccini &
Cochrane, 2000; Cowan & Cowan, 1992; Monk et al., 1996; Shapiro et al., 2000;
Thompson et al., 2002; Wells et al., 1999; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990). To create this
measure, items were gathered and adapted from previous studies examining
expectations and other cognitions during the transition to parenthood. Items were also
generated for this study in order to address aspects of parenthood that previous work has
not addressed or to elaborate on themes addressed in a limited manner by previous
research. In order to establish the reliability and validity of the items and whether they
discriminated between participants, all of the items were administered to a sample of
54
women pregnant with their first child. Given that previous research has found that first-
time expectant parents tend to be overly optimistic about parenthood, the hypothesis
was that the women would expect to experience positive aspects of parenthood and
expect to avoid negative aspects of parenthood.
Method
Participants
The requirements for women to participate in this study were that they were
pregnant with their first child and over the age of 18 years. Women were approached at
antenatal classes and at an antenatal clinic at public hospitals in the metropolitan area of
a major Australian city (Perth, Western Australia). One hundred and fifty women
expressed interest in participating in the study and were given the questionnaire; of
these, 87 returned their questionnaires. There is no way to assess whether there were
any consistent differences between those that returned their questionnaires and those
that did not.
The majority of the women (67) were recruited from an antenatal clinic. These
women were attending their initial appointment with the midwife. Twenty women were
recruited from antenatal classes. These women had been pregnant longer than those
recruited from the antenatal clinic as women usually commenced these classes when
they were 28 weeks pregnant. The duration of the participants’ pregnancies at the time
they completed the questionnaire ranged from 8 to 36 weeks (M = 24.3 weeks, SD =
9.11). Of the participants who returned their questionnaires, 12.6% were in the first
trimester of their pregnancy (1 to 12 weeks), 36.8% were in the second trimester of their
pregnancy (13 to 27 weeks), and 50.6% were in the third trimester of their pregnancy
(28 weeks to birth).
The women ranged in age from 18 years to 39 years and the mean age of the
participants was 27.2 years (SD = 5.08). This is approximately the average age of 27.3
55
years for first-time mothers in Australia in 2000 (Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare [AIHW] National Perinatal Statistics Unit, 2003). Of the participants, 58.6%
were married, 29.9% were in de facto relationships, and 11.5% were single. It should
be noted that several participants indicated that they were single but wrote on the
questionnaire that they were in a relationship with their baby’s father, although not
living with him at the time that they participated in this study.
Measures
Parenting Expectations Measure
The expectations measure used in this study contained 103 items gathered
from a variety of sources. The items consisted of a statement relating to an expectation
of what life would be like when the participant was a parent of an infant. Twenty-four
of the items were adapted versions of those used by Wylie (1979). Aside from some
minor word changes, these items were used in their original form. Forty-six of the
items were adapted from items used in studies examining cognitions relating to
pregnancy and the early stages of parenthood (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989; Belsky, 1985;
Kalmuss et al., 1992; Levy-Shiff, Goldshmidt, & Har-Even, 1991; Ruble et al., 1990;
Warner et al., 1997). The items were rephrased for a number of reasons. Some items
were reworded from the present tense to the future tense. Others were phrased into the
first person. In other cases, it was necessary to change the wording so that it was
appropriate for an Australian sample. For example, partner was used rather than mate
to refer to the participant’s spouse. To obtain items that unambiguously represented
either positive or negative expectations about parenthood, neutrally worded or
ambiguous items were reworded to represent either a positive or a negative expectation.
In addition, 26 items were written specifically for this study in order to examine
expectations relating to areas of early parenthood that had not been considered in
previous research or to examine in more detail aspects that other research has touched
56
on. Examples of these include items tapping women’s expectations of how parenthood
will influence their ability to socialise with family and friends, whether they expect to
feel confined to the house, and whether they expect to encounter unwanted interference
from others. All items included in the measure development questionnaire, the source
of the items, and the original version of the items (where appropriate) are displayed in
Appendix A.
Based on previous research examining domains that are influenced by the
transition to parenthood, the collated items were divided into four groups: infant
expectations, partner expectations, self expectations, and social expectations. The
infant expectations items tap issues relating to care of the baby and the women’s
relationship with their infant. The partner expectations items assess the women’s
expectations about how parenthood will influence their relationships with their partners.
The self expectations items assess expectations pertaining to the woman’s emotional,
social, and physical functioning. The social expectations items tap women’s
expectations about how parenting will influence their relationships with others in their
social networks and their expectations about the amount of social support they expect to
receive in the early stages of parenthood.
The expectation items were randomly ordered in the questionnaire. The
participants were required to respond to the item on a 7-point scale where 1 represented
strongly disagree and 7 represented strongly agree. Participants also could also write
NA if they felt that the item was not relevant to them (for example, items that asked
about breastfeeding for women who were not planning to breastfeed). There was also
space at the end of the questionnaire for women to comment on how they had found
completing the questionnaire and to make note of any items that they found ambiguous,
offensive, or irrelevant.
57
MAMA (Kumar et al., 1984)
The MAMA questionnaire (Kumar et al., 1984) was used to assess the
concurrent validity of the expectations questionnaire. As discussed in the introduction
to this study, the MAMA measures attitudes pertaining to pregnancy as well as general
expectations of parenthood meaning that it is not an ideal measure to use to establish
concurrent validity. However, it was selected for this purpose because it is one of the
few published scales assessing parenting expectations that has established reliability and
validity. There is a pregnancy version and a postnatal version of this questionnaire,
both of which contain five sub-scales: body-image, somatic symptoms, marital
relationship, attitudes to sex, and attitudes to pregnancy and baby. The pregnancy
version of the attitudes to pregnancy and baby subscale was used in this study as it
contained the items most relevant to the concepts that the expectations questionnaire is
attempting to assess and it was developed for use on pregnant women. Kumar et al.
found that this subscale has satisfactory test-retest (r = .84, p < .001) as well as
satisfactory split-half reliability (r = .73, p < .001). The authors also found that the
attitudes to pregnancy and baby sub-scale distinguished between woman that reported
negative feelings towards their infants during a structured interview and women that
expressed positive feelings towards their infants. Cronbach’s alpha for the MAMA in
the current sample was .67.
Procedure
Women attending antenatal classes and an antenatal clinic were approached
and asked if they would like to complete a questionnaire that assessed their expectations
of parenthood. If the women agreed to participate, they were given a test package
containing an information sheet, a consent form, instructions, the questionnaire, and a
reply paid envelope. Copies of the questionnaire, instructions, and information sheet
used in this study are displayed in Appendix B. Participants were asked to complete the
58
questionnaire and return it to the School of Psychology at the University of Western
Australia using a reply paid envelope. If the participants had not returned the
questionnaire within two weeks, they were given a reminder telephone call. Of the
participants that returned their questionnaires, 17 were given reminder calls.
Results
The mean, standard deviation, and number of responses for each item are
presented in Table 1. The means for the items ranged between 1.75 and 6.89. The
standard deviations for the expectation items ranged between 0.32 and 1.80. Items with
means higher than 6.50 and lower than 1.50 were removed from the item pool. Items
with means that are close to the extreme values on a scale tend to indicate that most
participants are responding to the item in the same way. Therefore, in order to produce
a measure with sound psychometric properties, it is appropriate to select items with
means that are close to the middle value on the scale as this would indicate that
participants are giving a variety of responses to the item1 (Rust & Golombok, 1989). In
this case, the means of many retained items were higher or lower than the middle value
but were retained for a number of reasons. Participants tended to agree overwhelmingly
with positive expectation items and disagreed with the negative expectation items.
Although the mean was high or low, there was some variation in the level of
disagreement or agreement. For example, on some items different participants marked
slightly disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree. The instrument aims not only to
measure parenting expectations but also whether there are any changes between
expectation scores and experience scores. Given that previous research has found that
the expectations that women hold about life after the birth of their child can be
unrealistically high (e.g., Kalmuss et al., 1992), it is likely that the expectations scores
1 Means that are equal to the middle item on the scale could also indicate that all participants responded to the item by endorsing the middle response. The distributions of the items were checked to ensure that this was not the case.
59
in this study may also be unrealistically high and the means of some items will be lower
on the postnatal version of the measure. For this reason, items skewed towards the
positive or negative end of the scale were retained, although they did not have
psychometrically ideal properties.
The Pearson’s correlations between the participants’ scores on each item and
their total scores on the parenting expectations measure were calculated and are
displayed in Table 3.1. Before these correlations were calculated, the negative
expectation items on the measure were reverse scored to ensure that higher scores on
individual items and higher total scores were indicative of positive expectations of
parenthood: either agreement with positive expectations or disagreement with negative
expectations. Eighty of the calculated correlations were significant. Non-significant
correlations and correlations with values less than .30 were removed from the item pool
as this indicates there was a weak relationship between the individuals’ responses on the
item in question and their responses on the other items in the measure (Rust &
Golombok, 1989).
After items had been removed from the scale due to low correlations between
participants’ scores on the item and their total scores or where item means were too
extreme, ambiguously worded items were also removed. Ambiguity was determined by
examining participants’ comments about the scale. Items that were determined to be
worded neutrally (i.e., statements that did not reflect a clearly negative or clearly
positive expectation), were also discarded. Participants commented that some items
were repetitive and some items were removed to avoid this repetition. When making
the choice between two similar items, the item with the best psychometric properties, as
indicated by the mean and correlation, was retained.
60
Table 3.1 Means for participants’ responses on the expectation items and correlation coefficients between scores for each item and the total scores for the questionniare.
Infant Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will enjoy my baby’s company 87 6.49 0.76 4-7 .64**
I will feel that my baby loves me 87 6.33 0.79 4-7 .65**
My baby will be fun to play with 87 6.09 0.69 4-7 .66**
Breastfeeding will make me feel close to
my baby
84 6.01 1.04 1-7 .55**
I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby 83 5.80 1.10 3-7 .44**
Caring for a baby will be very difficult 87 4.20 1.68 1-7 .37**
I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable 85 3.12 1.44 1-6 .45**
I will be disturbed by feelings I have
towards my baby
86 2.63 1.36 1-6 .47**
The messes that my baby will make will
bother me a lot
87 2.49 1.24 1-7 .53**
I will resent being the main caretaker of the
baby
87 2.13 1.16 1-6 .61**
I will sometimes regret having my baby 87 1.91 1.18 1-5 .65**
Removed Items
I will love my baby 87 6.89 0.32 6-7 .47**
I will feel pride in my baby’s development 87 6.59 0.60 4-7 .67**
Being the parent of a baby will involve a lot
of hard work
85 6.11 0.83 3-7 .15
I will enjoy the care-taking activities
involved in being a mother
87 6.05 0.83 1-7 .56**
Being the parent of a baby will be very
time consuming
87 5.99 0.88 3-7 .11
61
Infant Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
I will find myself worrying about my
baby’s health
87 5.63 1.16 2-7 .26*
I will be responsible for most of the child-
care tasks
87 5.26 1.24 2-7 .07
Breastfeeding will come very naturally to
me
85 4.95 1.39 1-7 .40**
I will have no difficulties in becoming
comfortable caring for my baby
87 4.82 1.59 1-7 .43**
It will be difficult to breastfeed my baby 85 3.45 1.45 1-7 .14
I will find breastfeeding embarrassing 85 2.60 1.59 1-7 .22
Partner Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My partner and I will enjoy spending time
together
84 6.07 0.88 3-7 .46**
My partner will be able to take care of the
baby when I go out
83 5.90 1.16 1-7 .30*
I will feel satisfied with my partner’s
involvement in the daily care of the baby
84 5.68 1.04 3-7 .41**
My partner will help out more with
household chores
83 5.36 1.04 1-7 .30*
My partner and I will have more fun
together
84 4.83 1.12 3-7 .59**
My partner will get on my nerves 84 2.48 1.44 1-7 .56**
The arrival of the baby will cause
difficulties in my relationship with my
partner
84 2.46 1.45 1-7 .58**
62
Partner Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My partner will be less sensitive to my
feelings
84 2.33 1.20 1-7 .52**
My partner will show less attention to me 84 2.19 1.10 1-5 .49**
I will feel more distant from my partner 84 1.95 1.18 1-7 .45**
My partner will show too little attention to
the baby
84 1.75 1.07 1-7 .45**
Removed Items
My partner will give me the emotional
support that I need
83 5.88 1.00 1-7 .37**
My partner and I will spend a great deal of
time together
82 5.60 1.12 2-7 .51**
I will have stronger feelings of love for my
partner
84 5.43 1.56 1-7 .26*
My partner will respect me more 83 4.65 1.48 1-7 .19
I will have more things to talk to my
partner about
84 4.51 1.68 1-7 .18
My partner and I will argue less about how
we spend our money
81 3.43 1.20 1-6 -.10
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will feel proud to be a parent 85 6.45 0.65 4-7 .65**
Being a parent will make me feel happy 86 6.21 0.86 4-7 .64**
Being a parent will be the most important
thing in my life
85 5.69 1.08 3-7 .55**
Being a parent will fit into the life that I
want to live
87 5.69 1.16 2-7 .57**
63
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My life will change for the better 86 5.67 1.00 3-7 .63**
I will have a feeling of “fulfillment” 87 5.64 1.15 2-7 .66**
Being a parent will make me feel satisfied 87 5.63 1.05 3-7 .65**
Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled
as a woman
86 5.56 1.17 2-7 .56**
Becoming a parent will be the best thing
that ever happened to me
87 5.35 1.27 1-7 .37**
I will return to my normal physical self
within a few months of the birth of the
baby
87 4.66 1.45 1-7 .43**
Being a parent will increase my sense of
independence
87 4.64 1.40 1-7 .31*
There will not be enough money for non-
essential items or services (for example,
going to the movies, buying CDs or gifts)
87 4.06 1.54 1-7 .32**
I will feel more vulnerable to being
criticised by others
87 3.76 1.49 1-7 .32**
I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset 87 3.62 1.50 1-7 .49**
I will be less sexually responsive 87 3.44 1.46 1-7 .43**
I will feel confined to the house 87 3.02 1.46 1-7 .44**
Being a parent will make me feel frustrated 87 3.01 1.51 1-6 .43**
I will have more periods of boredom 87 2.51 1.21 1-7 .52**
My life will lack variety 87 2.44 1.23 1-5 .60**
I will feel disappointed by parenthood 85 1.99 1.02 1-4 .57**
Removed Items
There will be an interruption of routine
habits of sleeping, going places, etc.
86 6.23 0.76 3-7 -.08
64
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
I will feel physically tired and fatigued 87 5.32 1.10 2-7 -.09
I will not get much sleep at night 87 5.32 1.09 2-7 -.13
My feelings will be more intense 87 4.87 0.99 2-7 .25*
I will be more sensitive 85 4.74 1.26 1-7 .27*
There will be increased money problems 86 4.65 1.51 1-7 .32**
My life will change in a way that seems
scary
85 4.58 1.57 1-7 .10
I will worry about my loss of figure 87 4.55 1.65 1-7 .13
Daily life will be no more difficult after the
baby is born
87 4.39 1.53 1-7 .15
I will feel less desire to work outside the
home
87 4.39 1.53 1-7 .06
I will be worried about my personal
appearance
87 4.38 1.65 1-7 .13
Being a parent will make me feel like I
have a purpose for living
86 4.31 1.80 1-7 .28*
There will be reduced feelings of privacy 86 4.23 1.42 1-7 .29*
I will feel healthier 84 4.20 1.07 2-7 .44**
With all the changes that the birth of a baby
brings, I will sometimes feel like I don’t
know myself anymore
87 4.01 1.47 1-7 .27*
I will be more interested in sex 87 3.91 0.98 1-6 .35**
For financial reasons, it will be necessary
for me to work
87 3.87 1.49 1-7 .28*
I will be unable to sleep after going to bed 86 3.72 1.36 1-6 .11
I will not have time to do the housework
that is usually my responsibility
86 3.42 1.48 1-6 .37 **
65
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
Meals will be off schedule 86 3.41 1.47 1-7 .28*
I will feel more physically attractive than I
did before I was pregnant
87 3.33 1.18 1-6 .11
I will have an increased appreciation for
religious tradition
86 3.30 1.56 1-6 -.01
I will feel a greater desire to work outside
the home
87 3.16 1.31 1-6 -.18
I will resent not having enough time to
myself after the baby is born
87 2.84 1.51 1-7 .49**
Social Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will receive emotional support from my
family and friends
87 6.09 0.69 4-7 .43**
I will be able to go to my family and
friends for advice
87 6.02 0.76 3-7 .48**
My family and friends will help me out
after the baby is born
86 6.01 0.91 3-7 .40**
I will form new friendships 87 5.69 0.84 2-7 .43**
I will have an increased appreciation for
family tradition
87 5.45 1.15 2-7 .38**
My relationship with my relatives will be
closer
87 5.06 1.22 2-7 .37**
The demands of being a parent will restrict
my social life
87 4.29 1.57 1-7 .38**
There will be unwanted interference from
other people in my life
86 4.14 1.49 1-7 .34**
I will continue my social activities as usual 87 3.97 1.46 1-7 .43**
66
Social Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will feel that my friends without children
no longer understand me
85 3.40 1.57 1-7 .56**
I will have less contact with friends 87 3.39 1.56 1-6 .50**
My friends and colleagues will think that I
am less interesting
87 2.74 1.31 1-6 .30*
I will become too dependent on others
when the baby is born
87 2.56 1.13 1-6 .43**
Removed Items
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my own parents
86 5.55 1.14 2-7 .24**
I will receive uninvited advice from my
family and friends
86 4.87 1.39 1-7 .13
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my in-laws
83 4.43 1.25 2-7 .30*
I will strengthen old friendships 87 4.14 1.15 2-6 .01
I will have increased contact with my
neighbours
87 3.53 1.35 1-6 .20
My circle of friends will become smaller 87 3.36 1.50 1-7 .29*
I will see my extended family less than I
did before I was pregnant
85 2.94 1.36 1-7 .49**
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
The internal reliability of the scale was established using Cronbach’s alpha,
which for the final 55 items was .94 (n = 75). The alphas for each of the subscales
were: infant expectations .84, partner expectations .83, self expectations .86, and social
expectations .70.
The validity of the scale was examined by correlating the total scores from the
final 55 items with the total score on the Attitudes to Pregnancy and Baby scale of the
67
MAMA questionnaire (Kumar, et al., 1984). The Pearson’s product moment correlation
was .64 (p < .01). While this figure is in the moderate range, it is to be expected given
the differences between the two scales. As discussed earlier, the MAMA questionnaire
assesses several attitudes relevant to pregnancy, whereas the parenting expectations
measure focuses on expectations of postnatal experiences.
Discussion
The measure developed in this study assesses positive and negative expectations
pertaining to a range of issues relevant to early parenthood. Participants commented
that they found the retained items relevant to their situation and straightforward to
complete, indicating that the measure has face validity. The measure is constructed in a
manner that allows a direct comparison between parenting expectations and actual
experiences of parenthood. It will enable future researchers to explore how
discrepancies between expectations and experiences influence adjustment to
parenthood. The measure also taps negative and positive expectations about
parenthood. Previous research has not attempted to do this. In part, this will enable an
examination of whether optimism is beneficial during the transition to parenthood and
what occurs if optimistic expectations are not matched by later experiences. Further,
preliminary results suggest that this measure has sound reliability and validity.
The 55 items were retained based on their ability to discriminate between
participants and the extent to which the items correlated with the overall score of the
measure. Some items were removed based on participant comments that these items
were confusing or difficult to interpret. Their comments were supported by the results
for these items, which indicated that the particular items did not discriminate well
between participants. The internal consistency of the final 55 items was sound. The
parenting measure has been grouped into subscales. Currently, these scales are items
that are grouped together because they relate to a similar topic such as caring for an
68
infant or the influence of parenthood on the woman’s relationship with her partner. At
this stage, more complex analysis to determine whether the items load onto particular
factors was not done, as the sample size was not sufficient for factor analysis.
The final 55 items had a moderate correlation with the MAMA measure
(Kumar et al., 1984). The MAMA questionnaire was selected as a measure of
concurrent validity because it was the only available questionnaire that assessed
parenting expectations and had established reliability and validity. However, the
MAMA also assesses attitudes towards pregnancy. This may explain the moderate
rather than a high correlation value between the two scales. It seems probable that some
women may have negative attitudes towards pregnancy but have optimistic expectations
about their lives with their infants. Nonetheless, the MAMA measure does assess
parenting expectations in addition to attitudes towards pregnancy; therefore, the results
provide encouraging information regarding the validity of the scale.
Thus far, the results indicate that the parenting expectations measure taps a
broad range of positive and negative expectations in a valid and reliable manner. The
measure also enables a direct comparison between parenting expectations and parenting
experiences; this should enable investigation of the relationship between disconfirmed
expectations and adjustment. The longitudinal study of this project will provide an
opportunity to examine how this measure relates to other psychological constructs,
which will provide further information on its validity. For example, based on the
theoretical and empirical work reviewed in Chapter 2, positive expectations on this
measure should be associated with positive psychological adjustment as indicated by
low levels of depression, good relationship adjustment, and high perceived social
support.
The responses of women in this study suggest that women tend to have
optimistic expectations about parenthood. They tended to agree with positively worded
69
items and disagree with negatively worded items. This is consistent with previous
research that has found that people tend to have optimistic expectations about the future
(Weinstein, 1980; Carnelly & Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Fowers et al., 2001). Here, women
tended to agree with positive expectation items and disagree with negative expectation
items. The next study in this project attempted to replicate these results and then
determine whether these very optimistic expectations were matched by actual
experiences of parenthood.
70
CHAPTER 4
STUDY 2: FIRST TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS ABOUT
PARENTHOOD: WHAT HAPPENS WHEN OPTIMISTIC EXPECTATIONS ARE
NOT MATCHED BY LATER EXPERIENCES?
Given that the transition to parenthood is generally regarded as a positive life
event and individuals tend to be optimistic about their futures, the optimism of the first-
time expectant mothers in Study 1 is relatively unsurprising. Expectant parents are
generally optimistic about how the arrival of their baby will influence their life
(Carnelly & Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Fowers et al., 2001; Langdridge et al., 2000;
Weinstein, 1980; Woollett & Parr, 1997). Yet, pregnancy and early parenthood can also
present a number of challenges and difficulties (Bernazzani, Saucier, David, & Borgeat,
1997; Feeney et al., 2001). As discussed in Chapter 2, optimism is associated with
better psychological adjustment in the face of challenging circumstances, and therefore
expectant parents’ positive expectations may have a positive effect on their prenatal
adjustment (Buehler et al., 1994; Fournier et al., 2002; Jackson et al., 2000; Leedham et
al., 1995; Murray & Holmes, 1997; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002; Taylor et al., 1992). In
contrast, negative expectations are associated with poorer adjustment (DeVellis &
adjustment and the aim was to determine the effect of expectancy discrepancies and
efficacy on postnatal relationship adjustment once prenatal relationship adjustment had
been statistically controlled for.
Postnatal relationship adjustment
The results of the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship between
disconfirmed expectations and relationship adjustment and the presence of a moderator
effect for efficacy beliefs are displayed in Table 4.4. In three out of four cases,
disconfirmed expectations made significant contributions to the regression equations
after prenatal relationship adjustment had been entered into the equation. The exception
to this pattern was for infant expectations discrepancies, which did not make a
significant contribution to the equation once prenatal relationship adjustment had been
entered into the regression equation.
Efficacy scores did not significantly predict relationship adjustment in any of the
regression equations. The products of the efficacy scores and discrepancy scores made
a significant contribution to the regression equation in one case only: self expectations.
In order to examine this significant interaction, a median split was performed to create
two levels of the efficacy variable. The overall mean for parenting efficacy was
relatively high in this study (32.35 on a scale with a maximum score of 42). Therefore,
the median split created a high efficacy group (n = 36, M = 36.30, SD = 2.26) and a
moderate efficacy group (n = 34, M = 28.53, SD = 3.07) rather than a high efficacy
group and a low efficacy group. For each of the efficacy levels, partial correlations
between postnatal relationship adjustment scores and the self discrepancy scores
(controlling for prenatal relationship adjustment scores) were calculated. For the
moderate efficacy group, the relationship between self expectations discrepancies and
postnatal relationship adjustment was not significant, with a partial correlation
coefficient of .27 (ns). However, for the high efficacy group the partial correlation
84
Table 4.4 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences predicted postnatal relationship adjustment, the dependent variable. Independent variables
2. Social expectation discrepancy .16* .40* 6.11 1.15
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .01 -.07 -1.20 1.13
4. Efficacy x social discrepancy .00 .04 0.61 1.10
Note. In each regression reported above, multivariate outliers with χ2 values greater than Malhalanobis distance at p < .001 were detected on the interaction variables. The relevant cases were excluded from the final analyses, which is the reason for the varying n, R2, and ∆R2 values. aβ, B, and SE statistics represent figures at the final step, when all variables have been entered into the equation. Infant expectations analysis, R2 total = .54, F(4, 65) = 19.24, p < .001; partner expectations analysis, R2 total = .69, F(4, 65) = 36.29, p < .001; self expectations analysis, R2 total = .68, F(4, 65) = 34.48, p < .001; social expectations analysis, R2 total = .67, F(4, 65) = 33.16, p < .001. *p < .05. ** p < .001.
85
coefficient was .69 (p < .001) indicating that experiences that were less positive relative
to expectations were associated with lower relationship adjustment scores. In order to
test whether these correlation coefficients were significantly different, the observed
value of z was calculated. This value was –2.20, indicating that the correlation
coefficients were significantly different. This finding differs from the hypothesis,
which predicted a stronger relationship between adjustment to parenthood and
disconfirmed expectations for those with lower levels of efficacy than for those with
higher levels of efficacy.
Postnatal mood
For the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship between postnatal
mood and disconfirmed expectations, the independent variables were entered in the
following order 1) prenatal mood, 2) one of the expectation discrepancy scores, 3)
postnatal efficacy (these scores were standardised), and 4) the interaction of the relevant
expectation discrepancy score and postnatal efficacy. Prenatal mood was the first
variable entered into the regression equation because it is a predictor of postnatal
relationship adjustment and the aim was to determine the effect of expectancy
discrepancies and efficacy on postnatal mood once prenatal mood had been statistically
controlled for. The results of the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship
between disconfirmed expectations and mood and the test of a moderator effect for
efficacy beliefs are displayed in Table 4.5. The results pertaining to the effects of
disconfirmed expectations on postnatal mood were more consistent than the effects of
disconfirmed expectations on relationship adjustment. In each analysis, the expectancy
discrepancy scores were significant predictors of postnatal mood after statistically
controlling for prenatal mood. In the hierarchical regression examining the effect of
infant expectation discrepancies on postnatal mood, parenting efficacy did not make a
significant contribution once prenatal mood and the discrepancy score had been entered
86
Table 4.5 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences predicted postnatal mood, the dependent variable. Independent variables
4. Efficacy x social discrepancy .01 -.09 -0.32 0.32
Note. In each regression reported above, multivariate outliers with χ2 values greater than Malhalanobis distance at p < .001 were detected on the interaction variables. The relevant cases were excluded from the final analyses, which is the reason for the varying n, R2, and ∆R2 values. aβ, B, and SE statistics represent figures at the final step, when all variables have been entered into the equation. Infant expectations analysis, R2 total = .53, F(4, 65) = 18.61, p < .001; partner expectation analysis, R2 total = .77, F(4, 66) = 23.26, p < .001; self expectation analysis, R2 total = .66, F(4, 65) = 31.12, p < .001; social expectation analysis, R2 total = .57, F(4, 65) = 21.58, p < .001. *p < .05. **p < .01***. p < .001.
87
into the equation. Further, there was no moderator effect. In the hierarchical regression
examining the effect of disconfirmed social expectations on postnatal mood, efficacy
was a significant predictor of postnatal mood but there was not a significant moderator
effect.
There was a significant direct effect and a significant moderator effect of
efficacy in the regressions examining the effects of disconfirmed partner expectations
and disconfirmed self expectations. In order to interpret the moderator effects, a median
split was performed on the sample to create a high efficacy group and a low efficacy
group. As with the analysis described in the regressions for relationship adjustment,
partial correlations were then calculated for each group separately. The partial
correlation coefficients for postnatal mood and the self expectation discrepancy,
partialing out prenatal mood, were -.35 (p < .05) for the moderate efficacy group and
-.69 (p < .001) for the high efficacy group. However, the observed z for these
correlation coefficients was –1.86, indicating that the differences between these
coefficients was not significant. The partial correlations for postnatal mood and partner
expectation discrepancy scores, partialing out prenatal mood, were -.14 (ns) for the
moderate efficacy group and -.61 (p < .001) for the high efficacy group. The observed z
for these scores was –2.19 indicating that the difference between the correlation
coefficients was significant. The association between expectation discrepancies and
efficacy was stronger for participants with higher efficacy scores and expectations that
were positive relative to experiences were associated with higher scores on the postnatal
depression measure.
Discussion
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures
The hypothesis that expectations would be more positive than experiences was
not supported by the results: on average, women reported positive expectations and
88
positive experiences. They expected to experience positive aspects of parenthood and
to avoid negative aspects. In two expectation categories, women’s reported experiences
exceeded their already optimistic expectations. The first of these categories was infant
expectations, which assessed women’s expectations about their relationship with their
infant and the nature of parenting an infant. Previous research has not examined
expectations about the infant in detail, instead choosing to focus on the marital
relationship. The second category in which women’s experiences exceeded their
expectations was self expectations, tapping the extent to which parenthood would
influence their own well-being. This is another area that has been given limited
attention in previous research (e.g. Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al.,
1988). In the current study, it appears that women were pleasantly surprised by how
much they enjoyed caring for their infant and by the positive effect parenthood had on
their own well-being. This concurs with earlier research by Green and Kafetsios
(1997), who assessed more generalised expectations and experiences of parenthood but
also found that women had positive experiences.
In the current study, women gave their postpartum reports of their parenting
experiences approximately four months after the birth. This time frame may have
allowed the mothers to recover from the birth, become familiar with care-taking tasks,
form a bond with their infant, and adjust to their new routines, all of which potentially
contributed to their positive reports. Given that early parenthood is a period of rapid
change for parents and their infants, it would be of interest to assess women’s postnatal
experiences a month after the birth. The earliest that previous research has assessed
women’s postnatal experiences in comparison to prenatal expectation has been 3
months after the birth (Belsky, 1985). The disparity between expectations and
experiences may be particularly large in the early postnatal weeks when women are still
familiarising themselves with their infant and their new role. Indeed, in the course of
89
this research some new mothers anecdotally reported that, while they were enjoying
parenthood four months after the birth, they had found it far more difficult in the very
early stages.
New mothers’ postnatal reports of how parenthood had influenced their
relationship with their partner and their family and friends matched their expectations,
indicating that they were fairly realistic about how parenthood would influence their
relationships with others. These findings differ from the results of previous work,
which has found that women had overly optimistic expectations about the way
parenthood would influence their marital relationship and their relationship with others
(Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988).
However, there was a large amount of variation within the sample and just as some
women’s expectations matched or exceeded their optimistic expectations for others
parenthood was not as positive as they had expected.
The results from the prenatal and postnatal measures of adjustment indicate that
the women generally coped well with the transition to parenthood. The prenatal and
postnatal averages on the mood measure were within the range that is indicative of an
absence of depression and these scores improved across the transition to parenthood –
the postnatal mean was significantly lower than the prenatal mean. The prenatal and
postnatal relationship adjustment means were indicative of good relationship
adjustment. However, consistent with previous research (Belsky et al., 1985; Belsky et
al., 1983; Shapiro et al., 2000; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990), there was a small yet
significant decline in the relationship adjustment scores across the transition to
parenthood. This indicates that the transition to parenthood has a negative effect on the
parents’ relationship. Again, this pattern was not universal, and there was more
variation in the postnatal relationship adjustment scores than in the prenatal relationship
adjustment scores. The extent to which expectancy discrepancies contribute to postnatal
90
relationship adjustment is discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter. Other
factors that may contribute to the decline in relationship adjustment are the way the
couple divides household labour between themselves and changes in nature of the time
that couples spend together (Levy-Shiff, 1994; Monk et al., 1996; Shapiro et al., 2000;
Terry et al., 1991).
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations
The second hypothesis of this study was that optimistic parenting expectations
would be associated with positive prenatal psychological adjustment. This was
supported by the results. However, it is necessary to look closely at the pattern of
relationships between prenatal adjustment and parenting expectations, as they varied
depending on the adjustment measure and the type of expectation. For infant and self
expectations, only relationship adjustment and parenting efficacy were significantly
associated with expectations. Women who were happy in their relationships and
confident in their ability to care for an infant had optimistic expectations of caring for
their infant and of the influence of parenthood on their own well-being. Bandura (1997)
has argued that people’s expectations about their own capabilities predict how
optimistic they are about outcomes relevant to these expectations. Consistent with this
view, women who believed they were capable of parenting were optimistic about the
nature of parenting an infant. To a certain degree, the same explanation applies to the
self expectations: The more capable women believed they would be at parenting, the
more optimistic they were about the effect of parenthood on their psychological and
physical well-being. The results also reflect that, in situations where an individual’s
behaviour is not the only determinant of outcomes, self-efficacy is not the sole predictor
of outcome expectations. The association between infant and self expectations and
relationship adjustment suggests that in the prenatal phase, women’s perceptions of their
relationships with their babies’ fathers is an important factor in influencing the level of
91
optimism they have about caring for their infants and their own well-being as parents.
There was a significant association between women’s relationship adjustment
and their expectations about how parenthood would influence their relationship with
their partner. No other adjustment variables were significantly associated with women’s
expectations of the way parenthood would influence their marital relationship.
Women’s perceptions of their social support were significantly associated with how
they expected parenthood to influence their relationships with others. Contrary to
predictions and to several previous findings (DeVellis & Blalock, 1992; Hull &
Mendolia, 1991; Peterson & Vaidya, 2001; Riskind et al., 1987; Tripp et al., 1997),
scores on the depression measure were not significantly associated with any of the
expectation variables. The moderate range in the mood scores may provide a partial
explanation for this finding. Most participants’ scores were in the normal range on the
mood measure with few scores in the range that is associated with a greater incidence of
depression whereas previous work has been conducted with participants who were
depressed or dysphoric.
Taken together, the results indicate that women’s perceptions of their current life
circumstances operate as a guide for their expectations. If they have good social
support before the arrival of the infant, they expect that the arrival of their baby will
have a positive effect on their relationships with family and friends. If their relationship
is satisfying prior to the birth, they expect it will remain satisfying after the birth. In
other words, if life is going well currently, people expect that it will go well in the
future even when the future will involve circumstances very different to those
encountered in the past, such as becoming a parent. There are similarities between these
results and those of previous work, which have found an association between optimistic
expectations and positive adjustment (Fournier et al., 2002; Leedham et al., 1995;
Murray & Holmes, 1997). In the current study, consistent with Taylor and Brown’s
92
(1988, 1992) position, optimistic expectations were associated with positive attitudes
about the self (i.e., efficacy beliefs) and the ability to care for and about others (i.e.,
relationship adjustment and perceived social support).
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on Adjustment
The third hypothesis was that there would be a significant association between
expectancy disconfirmation and postnatal adjustment, whereby expectations that were
disconfirmed in a negative direction would be associated with poorer adjustment to
parenthood. This part of the hypothesis was supported. However, it was predicted that
parenting efficacy beliefs would moderate this relationship and consequently, the
relationship would be stronger for women with low parenting efficacy beliefs. There
was mixed support for this part of the hypothesis.
Consistent with the hypothesis, experiences that were negative relative to
expectations were associated with poorer relationship adjustment in three of the four
expectation categories, self expectations, partner expectations and social expectations;
and with poorer mood in all expectation categories. In all cases, these associations were
significant after controlling for the contribution of prenatal relationship adjustment or
prenatal mood. The exception to this pattern was the relationship between postnatal
relationship adjustment and infant expectations discrepancies, which was not
significant. This is similar to previous findings that disconfirmed expectations
pertaining to infant care-giving have not been associated with postnatal relationship
adjustment (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988) and with Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
findings that not all disconfirmed expectations have an adverse effect on adjustment.
Overall, the expectancy discrepancy results suggest that women who have less
favourable than expected experiences in four domains - the nature of caring for an infant
and the influence of parenthood on themselves, their relationship with their partner, and
their relationships with others – may experience greater difficulty adjusting to their new
93
role. Even in this sample, which made a relatively smooth transition, there was a
significant negative association between expectancy discrepancies and measures of
psychological adjustment, namely, mood and relationship adjustment. This suggests
that the effect of having optimistic expectations disconfirmed is not innocuous and it
cautions against unrealistic optimism in the face of challenging circumstances. These
results, along with those in the previous section, indicate while optimistic expectations
may be associated with positive psychological adjustment in the short term (i.e., during
pregnancy in this study), they may be associated with outcomes that are more negative
if they are unrealistic.
The results differed from the hypothesis concerning the way efficacy moderated
the relationship between expectancy disconfirmation and adjustment. The perceived
parenting efficacy mean of the sample was relatively high, with the consequence that
the median split actually produced a group that had moderate efficacy and a group with
very high efficacy levels. On average, the high efficacy group agreed with all the
statements on the efficacy measure, including that being a parent was manageable, any
problems were easily solved, they felt thoroughly familiar with the role, and they had all
the skills necessary to be a good mother. The moderate group was also skewed towards
agreeing with most items but the strength of their agreement was weaker than that of the
high efficacy group. Thus, the results speak to the nature of the relationship between
disconfirmed expectations and adjustment for women with moderate efficacy versus
women with high efficacy, rather than for women with low efficacy versus women with
high efficacy.
For the relationship between disconfirmed expectations and postnatal mood,
efficacy moderated the effect of disconfirmed expectations in relation to two types of
parenting expectations: expectations about the self and expectations about the partner.
For women with a moderate sense of efficacy, there was a weak or a non-significant
94
relationship between mood and disconfirmed expectations. For women with a high
sense of parenting efficacy, there was a significant relationship between mood and
disconfirmed expectations, such that those whose experiences were negative relative to
expectations were less content. This pattern of findings was contradictory to
predictions.
It may have been particularly discouraging for highly efficacious women to find
that the arrival of the infant did not have the expected positive effect on their well being
and relationship, despite their very positive perception of their own functioning as a
parent. Although the women thought they were doing as well as possible at parenting,
some aspects of parenthood had been less positive than they had anticipated. This
incongruity may have resulted in increased negative affect. For those with a moderate
sense of efficacy, it may have been easier to accommodate these expectancy
discrepancies. Their perceptions of their own efficacy indicated that they did not feel
that they are struggling with the parenting role but, on the other hand, they did not see
their efficacy as at its ceiling. One possibility, albeit speculative, is that moderately
efficacious mothers may believe that the aspects of parenthood that are not a positive as
expected will improve as their efficacy increases, therefore expectancy disconfirmation
is not as distressing for these women. Efficacy made a significant direct contribution to
postnatal mood in three out of four of the regressions after the expectancy discrepancy
and prenatal mood had been accounted for statistically. The effect of efficacy on mood
is consistent with Bandura’s (1997) view that an optimistic sense of efficacy is
associated with positive well-being.
Efficacy moderated the relationship between self expectations discrepancies and
relationship adjustment but not for the other expectation categories and relationship
adjustment. The pattern was the same as that for mood: for the highly efficacious group
there was a strong association between relationship adjustment and disconfirmed
95
expectations about the influence of parenthood on women’s own well-being, where
expectations that were disconfirmed in a negative direction were associated with poorer
relationship adjustment. For moderately efficacious women, there was no relationship
between relationship adjustment and disconfirmation of these expectations. It is
possible that, for highly efficacious women, discovering that parenthood had not had as
positive influence on their own well-being as expected, despite their own perceived
parenting skills, may have led them to feel less satisfied in their relationship. Again, for
moderately efficacious women, the discrepancy between expectations and experience
may have been viewed as a consequence of not yet being completely efficacious in their
new role and therefore, was not as aversive. Given that the fulfillment of partner and
social expectations is partly dependent on the actions of others, it is relatively
unsurprising that women’s parenting efficacy beliefs did not moderate the way these
expectations influenced her relationship adjustment. New mothers may have seen the
disconfirmation of these expectations as the result of the actions of others as well as
themselves.
Overall, the results of the moderator analyses were surprising. Further
investigation is needed but the findings do provide some support for Haaga and
Stewart’s (1992) view that extreme efficacy can lead individuals to overestimate the
adequacy of their skills when coping with challenging circumstances. In the context of
early parenting, coming to terms with the unexpected evidence that even though the
individual believes that she is extremely efficacious at parenting itself, the role and the
changes it brings are less than absolutely positive may result in increased negative
affect.
Implications
Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) have argued that unrealistically optimistic
expectations are associated with positive psychological adjustment in the face of
96
challenging circumstances. The results from the current study suggest that, in general,
realistic rather than unrealistic expectations may be more adaptive in the context of the
transition to parenthood. In some cases, disconfirmed expectations may only be a
problem for women who are particularly confident in their parenting abilities. Previous
studies have found benefits for optimistic expectations but have not compared these
expectations with later experiences meaning that it is not possible to determine whether
there were any adverse effects, if these expectations were proven overly optimistic
(Fournier et al., 2002; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Leedham et al., 1995). This study
compared expectations with reported experiences. Here, optimistic expectations were
associated with positive psychological adjustment during pregnancy but when these
expectations proved to be overly optimistic, they tended to be associated with poorer
psychological adjustment in women who perceived themselves as highly efficacious
parents. The adverse effects were not associated with large discrepancies. Generally,
those that had their expectations disconfirmed had experiences that were less positive
than they expected, rather than entirely positive expectations contrasting with entirely
negative experiences. This contrasts with Armor and Taylor’s (1998) assertion that if
the discrepancies between overly optimistic expectations and experiences are modest,
these discrepancies may be relatively harmless.
At a practical level, these results provide good news on the transition to
parenthood. The results indicate that many first-time mothers are optimistic about
parenthood and, on average, these expectations are matched or exceeded by experiences
four months after the birth. Furthermore, optimism during pregnancy appears to be
associated with good psychological adjustment at a time when women face a number of
challenges. One implication of these findings is that optimism may be beneficial during
the transition to parenthood. The caveat is that the optimism should be realistic. The
disconfirmation of overly optimistic expectations by less positive experiences was
97
associated with higher scores on the depression measure and less relationship
satisfaction. These results have implications for education and counselling
interventions provided to people who are expecting their first child. While naturally
there is a strong focus on preparing parents for childbirth during pregnancy, it may be
beneficial to provide education about some of the positive and negative aspects of early
parenthood (Delmore-Ko et al., 2000). This might increase expectant parents’
awareness of some of the challenges they will face, allow them to formulate strategies
on how they will cope with parenthood, and decrease the likelihood that they will
formulate unduly optimistic expectations.
All of the participants were married or in de facto relationships. The sample was
predominantly Caucasian Australian or of European origin. Caution is needed when
generalising these results to other samples. Further, only a small minority of women in
this study faced significant difficulties during the transition to parenthood. Relatively
few women had scores on the mood measure that were indicative of depression and,
while there were declines in relationship adjustment scores, most people still scored
within a range that is characteristic of good adjustment. Yet, even with these protective
factors, expectancy disconfirmation had a significant effect on adjustment. The
participants in the current research were self-selected and this may have contributed to
the overall positive adjustment of the sample. Those that were facing difficulties or
were experiencing particularly difficult pregnancies may have been disinclined to
volunteer for this research during an already testing and busy time. It is possible that
unrealistic optimism may have even more detrimental effects in women who face
greater challenges during the transition to parenthood such as single mothers, adolescent
mothers, or those with a low income or a history of depression (Helstrom & Blechman,
1998). While this study focused on the expectations of first-time mothers, recent
research has found that men also experience depression and other difficulties adjusting
98
to parenthood (Matthey et al., 2000). Future research could usefully investigate whether
disconfirmed expectations also play a role in their adjustment to parenthood.
In conclusion, the consistent finding from Study 1 and Study 2 is that pregnant
women have very positive expectations of parenthood. This raised the questions of
whether only pregnant women hold the positive attitudes towards parenthood or
whether the positive views of the women in the previous two studies reflected broader
cultural attitudes towards parenting. The next two studies examined this question in
more detail. Study 3 examines younger, non-pregnant women’s expectations about
parenthood and Study 4 explores media representations of parenting.
99
CHAPTER 5
STUDY 3: YOUNG WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS
This study explores the differences between the expectations of those for whom
parenthood is imminent and those for whom parenthood is still a hypothetical event.
Consistent with previous research (e.g. Belsky, 1985; Green & Kafetsios, 1997;
Kalmuss et al., 1992), Studies 1 and 2 found expectant mothers have optimistic
expectations about parenthood. Generally, they expect that parenthood will bring many
benefits to their lives and expect to avoid a range of negative experiences that can occur
in the early stages of parenthood. For a number of reasons, these women may be
particularly motivated to formulate optimistic expectations of parenthood. As women in
the late stages of pregnancy, they were already undergoing the transition to parenthood.
They had experienced significant changes to their body, many had taken maternity leave
from their place of employment indicating they had experienced a role change, and it is
also possible that their relationships had changed as they prepared for the arrival of their
infant. Within weeks of completing the questionnaires in Studies 1 and 2 they were
faced with childbirth, a challenging, painful event and one that women often fear
(Melender, 2002). Therefore, these women may be particularly motivated to formulate
optimistic expectations of parenthood as a way of coping with any sacrifices they had
made, any discomfort they were experiencing, and any fears they had about the
remainder of the pregnancy or childbirth.
Previous theoretical and empirical work would predict that pregnant women are
more likely than non-pregnant individuals to have optimistic expectations of
parenthood. Taylor and Brown (1988) and Armor and Taylor (1998) argue that
optimistic expectations are likely to become exaggerated when individuals are faced
with adversity. While childbirth and early parenthood are not the chronic illness
situations described by these authors, many women would be aware that the perinatal
100
period could contain a number of significant physical and psychological challenges.
Yet, they appear to expect to emerge from this challenge unscathed, if not enhanced, by
the experience. Similarly, previous work has found that individuals are more likely to
form optimistic expectations when there is a particular motivation for them to do so and
that individuals’ expectations reflect their desires and wishes for what they would like
to see happen (Buehler, Griffin, & MacDonald, 1997; Lehman & Taylor, 1988).
Therefore, they may discount negative information and attend to positive information
leading to the formulation of very optimistic expectations. Women not facing these
challenges may attend to positive and negative information about parenthood and
consequently formulate more balanced rather than very optimistic expectations of
parenthood.
Taylor and Brown (1988) argue that optimistic expectations serve an important
function: the promotion of positive psychological adjustment in the face of challenging
events. If this function is not needed, does the optimistic bias disappear? Are there
times when individuals can regard their own future in a more balanced light? This
research may provide information on how the timing of an event influences the
formulation of optimistic expectations. As women in the late stages of pregnancy, the
participants in Studies 1 and 2 were at a stage where they had limited control over
whether they became parents or not. Women who are able to choose parenthood instead
of or in addition to a range of other roles may be more objective about the positive and
negative aspects of parenting.
In order to examine this issue, the current study compares the parenting
expectations of pregnant women with those of a sample of women on a university
campus who were not pregnant or parents but wanted to have children in the future. In
addition to furthering knowledge of the circumstances in which optimistic expectations
are likely to form, this study also aimed to elucidate young women’s attitudes to
101
childbearing – a topic of increasing debate. The overwhelmingly positive views of
parenthood held by the women in Studies 1 and 2 come at a time when there is
increasing concern in developed nations that women are becoming more ambivalent
about or even hostile towards parenting. This view has been expressed by social
MacNeill, 2002). This study aimed to provide some empirically-based information on
what young women expect parenthood to be like, when they expect to have children and
whether these expectations are influenced by their relationship status and age.
To participate in this study, women had to be aged between 18 and 29 years of
age, childless, and not pregnant. Women studying and working at a university
completed the parenting expectations measure used in the previous study. They were
also asked about their plans regarding children - whether they wanted to have children
sometime in the future and if so, in approximately how many years they would like to
become a parent. The expectations of the university sample were compared to the
expectations of the women recruited in Study 2, that is, women pregnant with their first
child.
In accordance with the theoretical issues outlined, it was predicted that as
106
parenthood became a more likely option or more imminent for the women in the study
they would be more likely to focus on the positive aspects of parenthood and less likely
to focus on the negative aspects. Therefore, their expectations would become more
optimistic. The first hypothesis was that the pregnant women would hold more
optimistic expectations of parenthood than the women in the university sample. Given
previous research on factors that influence the timing of childbearing, the second
hypothesis was that there would be a significant association between the university
women’s estimates of when they would have children, and their age and relationship
status. Specifically, those that were older and those in relationships would expect to
have children sooner than those who were younger and single. The third hypothesis
was that those in the university sample who were more likely to become parents sooner
- that is, those who were older and those in relationships - would have more positive
expectations of parenthood.
Increased years of education may influence women’s attitudes to childbearing,
in that, the more years they have invested in their education, the less likely they are to
have children in the near future. However, a university sample has limited variability in
this area and no significant relationships between the nature of women’s expectations
and their education levels were expected.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were 85 women from the University of Western
Australia. Participants who stated that they did not want to have children were not
included in the final sample. This was to ensure that the difference between the two
groups was the timing of when they would have children and that the differences
between their expectations would not be confounded by parenting expectations of
participants who did not want to have children.
107
The final sample consisted of 79 women aged between 19 and 29 years of age.
The women all worked or studied at the University of Western Australia. Most of the
participants were undergraduate students (85.9%), while 9.0% were postgraduate
students and 5.1% were university employees. Given that the expectations of this
sample were being compared to those of the pregnant women in Study 2, it was
necessary to examine whether the two samples differed on demographic variables. The
mean ages, mean years of education, relationship types, and ethnic backgrounds of the
two groups are displayed in Table 5.1. As expected, the university sample was
significantly younger, t(148) = -9.60, p < .001, and had significantly more years of
education, t(147) = 6.38, p < .001, than the pregnant sample. The samples also differed
in their ethnic backgrounds and their relationship types. While the entire pregnant
sample was co-habiting with their partner, only 25.4% of the university sample were in
this type of relationship. Over a third of the university sample was single. For those
that were in a relationship there was a great deal of variation in the lengths of these
relationships. The shortest relationship length was three weeks and the longest was 9
years. The mean was 33.9 months (SD = 24.52).
In order to establish whether ethnicity influenced the variables in question,
independent sample t-test was used to detect differences in expectation scores for
participants from different ethnic backgrounds within the university sample. There no
difference between expectation scores for Australian participants and expectation scores
for non-Australian participants. Likewise, there were not differences between ethnic
groups in regards to their estimates of when they would have children.
Procedure
Three recruitment strategies were used in this study. In the first strategy,
participants were approached in second, third, and fourth year psychology lectures,
given a brief explanation of the research, and invited to participate. Interested
108
Table 5.1 Demographic variables for pregnant women and university women. University group
n = 79
Pregnant group
n = 71
Age M (SD) 22.0 (2.55) 27.7 (4.47)
Years of tertiary education
M (SD)
3.06 (1.57) 1.13 (1.99)
Relationship Types 5.1% Married
20.3% De facto
36.7% Partner but not
living together
38.5% Single
60.9% Married
39.1% De facto
Ethnic Background 73.5% Australian
5.2% European
21.8% Asian
64.6% Australian
23.0% European
12.4% Other
individuals took a questionnaire, information sheet, and consent form away with them;
completed the material in their own time; and returned it in an envelope at the next
lecture. In the second strategy, first year psychology students were recruited via their
course website. These students gained course credits as remuneration for their
participation and completed their questionnaire in a quiet room. In the third strategy,
participants were recruited via the university’s general email list. Individuals who
volunteered to participate were sent a questionnaire, consent form, and information
sheet in the mail and returned through the internal mail system. The questionnaire and
information sheet used in this study are displayed in Appendix E.
Materials
The parenting expectations measure was used again in this study (see Chapter 3
for a description of this measure). The instructions were altered slightly to make them
appropriate for women who were not pregnant with their first child. Rather than asking
women to think about how they expected life to be when their baby arrived, women
109
were asked to “think about how you would expect life to be for you, if you were the
parent of an infant”. The overall alpha for the parenting expectations measure in this
sample was .94. For the subscales, the alphas were: .78 for the infant expectations, .82
for partner expectations, .86 for self expectations, and .73 for social expectations.
In addition to the parenting expectations measure, the participants were asked
about their age, their relationship status, education, whether they expected to have
children in the future and, if they did, approximately how many years in the future they
thought they would have children.
Results
Comparison Between the Pregnant Women and the University Women
The first hypothesis of this study was that the university sample would be less
optimistic about parenthood than women who were pregnant with their first child. To
test this hypothesis a one-way between groups multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was performed to investigate differences between the expectations of the
university sample and the expectations of the pregnant women in Study 2. The four
dependent variables were infant expectations, partner expectations, self expectations,
and social expectations. The means for each group on the dependent variables are
displayed in Table 5.2. There was a statistically significant difference between the
pregnant women and the university sample on the combined dependent variables, F(4,
145) = 3.15, Wilks’ Lambda = .92, partial eta squared = .08. When the groups were
compared on each of the dependent variables, the pregnant women had significantly
higher scores that the university sample on infant expectations and partner expectations.
Effects of Age, Relationship Status, and Education on Plans for Children and
Expectations in the University Women
It was predicted that women who were older and in relationships would expect
to have children sooner than women who were younger and single. Pearson’s
110
Table 5.2 Means, standard deviations, and results of the between-subject comparisons for the expectations scores in the pregnant sample (n = 71) and the university sample (n = 79). Pregnant Group University Group
Expectation Category Mean SD Mean SD F(1, 148)
Infant Expectations 60.55 6.74 57.01 7.78 8.81*
Partner Expectations 60.96 7.81 57.32 8.05 7.87*
Self Expectations 102.21 12.91 96.66 14.4 6.11
Social Expectations 64.96 8.21 63.34 7.84 1.59
* p < 0.012 (Bonferroni corrected alpha level for multiple comparisons).
correlations were performed to determine whether there were significant relationships
between women’s estimates of the number of years until they would have children and
their age and years of education. The mean for women’s estimates for the number of
years until they had children was 6.89 (SD = 2.93) with a range of 0 to 15 years. There
was no significant relationship between number of years of education and expectations
of number of years until childbearing (r = -.10, ns). There was a large, inverse
correlation between age and estimates of years until childbearing (r = -.58, p < .001).
A one-way between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted
to determine whether relationship status influenced expected timing of childbearing.
The independent variable was relationship status, which had three levels: single, partner
but not cohabiting, partner and cohabiting. The dependent variable was the participants’
estimates of the number of years until they would have children. Given that age appears
to have a significant influence on expected years until childbearing, it was entered as a
covariate in this analysis. The descriptive statistics for this ANCOVA are displayed in
Table 5.3. Preliminary checks were conducted to ensure that the assumptions of
normality, linearity, homogeneity of variance, and homogeneity of regression slopes
were met. After adjusting for age, there was a significant effect of relationship status on
expected years until childbearing, F (2, 76) = 3.50, p < .05, eta squared = .08. Pairwise
111
Table 5.3
Means and standard deviations for the university participants’ ages and their estimates of the number of years until they would have children. Single
(n = 30)
Partner – not
cohabiting
(n = 29)
Partner –
cohabiting
(n = 20)
Age (M, SD) 21.70 (2.19) 21.17 (1.87) 23.75 (3.13)
Years until childbearing (M, SD) 7.98 (2.54) 6.84 (2.60) 5.30 (3.31)
Adjusted means (and SE) for years
until childbearing
7.72 (.43) 6.29 (.44) 6.42 (.56)
comparisons between the estimated marginal means revealed that women in non-
cohabiting relationships expected to have children significantly sooner than women not
in relationships. The other pairwise contrasts were not significant.
The final prediction was that women who were likely to have children sooner
would have more optimistic expectations of parenthood. Pearson’s correlation was used
to determine whether age and years of education were related to expectation scores.
There were no significant relationships between expectations scores and age (r = -.04,
ns), estimated years until childbearing (r = -.02, ns), or years of education (r = -.01, ns).
A one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to
determine whether participants’ relationship status had an effect on their expectation
scores. The three groups in this analysis were single participants (n = 30, M = 277.20,
SD = 29.40), participants who were in a relationship but not living with their partner (n
= 29, M = 275.62, SD = 36.92), and those who were married or living with their partner
(n = 20, M = 268.15, SD = 36.41). There was not a significant effect for relationship
status on expectation scores, F (2, 76) = .45, ns.
Discussion
As predicted, the expectations of pregnant women were more optimistic than
112
those of the university sample. That is not to say that the women in the university
sample had negative expectations of parenthood. Like the pregnant women, they tended
to agree with positively worded items and disagree with negatively worded items but
the strength of their agreement was weaker. Consistent with the hypothesis, within the
university sample, there was a significant relationship between women’s age and their
estimates of when they would like to have children with older women estimating that
they would have children sooner than younger women. Similarly, relationship status
was linked to estimates of childbearing with women in non-cohabiting relationships
estimating that they would have children sooner than those not in relationships.
However, age and relationship status were not associated with expectations in the
university sample and, as expected, there were no significant relationships between
education levels and estimates of childbearing timing or parenting expectations.
These results are consistent with the notion that the optimism displayed by the
pregnant women reflected their own circumstances. The pregnant women were about to
become parents and as such may be particularly motivated attend to positive
information of parenthood and discount negative information leading to the formulation
of very optimistic expectations. In comparison, the women in the university sample,
who wanted to become parents in the future but still had some choice over whether this
would occur, appeared to be less optimistic. This study examined a broader range of
expectations than Silverman and Dubow (1991) who focussed on toddlers’
temperaments. However, as in their study, the findings from the current study indicate
that individuals for whom parenthood was imminent viewed the experience more
positively than those for whom the role was more distant. Based on these results, it
appears that individuals facing a challenge are more likely to focus on potential positive
outcomes than individuals who are not facing the challenge. This is consistent with
Taylor and colleagues’ view (Armor & Taylor, 1998; Taylor & Brown 1988) that
113
optimistic expectations are likely to become exaggerated when individuals are faced
with a challenging event. For the university women, who were not about to face the
challenging event of childbirth, it may have been easier to entertain the idea that their
future lives as parents may involve less than ideal experiences, which in turn led to less
optimistic expectations.
Although the expectations of the university women were less optimistic than
those of the pregnant women, the university women had positive expectations of
parenthood. These findings are similar to previous work, which has found young
people have very optimistic views on their own futures even when it relates to life
events that may be some years away (Weinstein, 1980; Fowers et al., 2001). The results
of the current study do not support the positions put forward by social commentators
and demography researchers that young women are generally ambivalent or negative
about parenting (King, 2002; Mackay, 2003; Neal et al., 1991). Here, both pregnant
women and a sample of university women expect that the role will be a positive
experience and will have a positive influence on their lives. The rationale and
methodology of the current study differed from Condon et al.’s (2000) work in that their
study examined idealisation of early parenting by adolescents and this study examined
expectations held by young women and expectant mothers. Yet, taking into account the
results of both studies, it is possible to conclude that many young people view
parenthood as a positive experience.
The current study also examined links between the university women’s attitudes
towards childbearing and their age, relationship status, and level of education. The
university sample’s estimates of when they intended to have children indicate that on
average they expect to have children within seven years from the time of the study.
Given the average age of the sample, this would mean that on average the participants
wanted to have children at around age 29. This mirrors previous findings, which have
114
indicated that university students plan to have children in their late 20s (Spade & Reese,
1991). It is a few years later than the latest available figure for maternal age at first
birth in Australia: 27.3 years (AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit, 2003).
Examining the factors associated with timing of childbirth, women’s age was
significantly associated with their estimates of when they would have children. The
older the women were, the sooner they thought they would have children. None of the
women in the sample had estimates that indicated they expected to have children in their
late 30s or into their 40s. This is interesting in light of recent media reports that women
are unaware that, even with the advances in reproductive technology, the probability of
conceiving and carrying a pregnancy to term becomes smaller as women age (Gibbs,
Horowitz, Rawe, & Song, 2002; Kalb et al., 2001). Future research may investigate
whether women are aware of the relationship between age and fertility and whether this
awareness influences their childbearing plans. Of course, intentions are often different
to actual behavioral outcomes. It is possible that as the women in this study age, they
will encounter circumstances that compete with childbearing, such as pursuing higher
education and establishing a career. These women may have children later than they
intend to. Longitudinal research in this area would be useful in order to determine how
women’s intentions and life events interact to influence the timing of childbearing.
Relationship status also significantly contributed to women’s estimates of when
they would have children. When statistically controlling for age, women who had a
partner but were not cohabiting with their partner expected to have children sooner than
those who were single. However, this relationship did not hold for women who
cohabiting with their partner. This group was older than the other two groups and there
was no significant difference between cohabiting women and the other two groups once
age was statistically controlled for. For single women, that is those that are not married
or cohabiting with their partner, it appears that being in a relationship influences when
115
they expect to have children.
Neither age nor relationship status were significantly associated with parenting
expectations. This is contrary to the hypothesis that women who were likely to have
children sooner, in this case women who had a partner or were older, would have more
optimistic expectations of parenthood. The results from this study suggest that
parenting expectations may become more optimistic when the event is inescapable but
not simply if the event is more likely or a more proximal prospect. In some ways, this
supports Taylor and colleagues’ (Armor & Taylor, 1998; Taylor & Brown 1988) view
that expectations become exaggerated in response to potential adversity. The women in
the university sample who were older and in a relationship may have been more likely
to have children sooner than other women in the university sample. However, they
were still in a position to choose whether they became parents and were not faced with
the immediate challenge of childbirth and parenthood. This may be one reason why
their expectations were not as optimistic as those of the pregnant sample. The results
suggest that expectations do not become more optimistic as an event becomes more
likely, rather they become more optimistic when an event is imminent and an individual
has no control over the occurrence of that event.
At this stage, it is only possible to assume that the difference in the timing of
parenthood led to the differences in expectations between the pregnant women and the
university women. Longitudinal research is needed to confirm this relationship. For
example, research that followed women from a stage where they were contemplating
having children in the future through to a stage where they became pregnant would lend
stronger support to the notion that the optimism of parenting expectations becomes
exaggerated when parenthood is imminent.
Due to differences in the way the pregnancy and the university sample were
recruited, it was not possible to match the two samples on demographic variables. The
116
parenthood statuses of the two groups were not the only variables distinguishing them.
The university sample was significantly younger and had significantly more years of
education than the pregnancy sample. Further, less than half of the university sample
was living in cohabiting relationships whereas the entire pregnancy sample were living
with their partner. These differences may have contributed to the differences in
expectations between the two groups. Other research has found that women’s education
level does influence their perception of parenthood (Ex & Janssens, 2000). However,
within the university sample, the relationships between expectations and age, education,
and relationship status were not significant. This suggests that the demographic
differences between the university and pregnancy sample may not be the reason for the
observed differences in expectations. However, further research is needed with samples
that are matched on demographic variables to confirm that this is the case.
Given that higher education is a pursuit that has been associated with higher
rates of childlessness and a delay in parenting (Blossfeld & Huinink, 1991; Rindfuss et
al., 1996; Wu & MacNeill, 2002), one would expect that these women might have
somewhat ambivalent attitudes to this role. However, this assumption is not supported
by these results. It is also possible that because women were asked to comment on their
own futures, they gave responses that were motivated by their own hopes and desires
for their future lives as parents. In other words, the university sample may also have
endorsed positively biased expectations. Other research has demonstrated that young
people have overly optimistic expectations about a number of aspects of their lives
(Weinstein, 1980). One way to get a more objective assessment or to examine the
extent to which the women’s parenting expectations reflect a positive bias regarding
their own futures may be to ask what they expect parenthood to be like for the average
individual. If their expectations for the average individual were lower than their
expectations for themselves, it would suggest that parenthood is another area where
117
individuals are prone to displaying a positive bias when predicting their own futures.
The very positive parenting expectations of the women in the previous two
studies come at a time when there is growing concern that young people view parenting
as a negative experience. In a sample of women on a university campus, it was found
that these women also have positive expectations about parenthood, although not as
positive as the pregnant sample. The findings do lend support to the notion that
expectations are likely to become very optimistic when individuals are faced with an
event over which they have limited control and which may be difficult or have negative
outcomes. However, the results also suggest that the positive views of parenthood held
by the pregnant women in Study 2 are more widespread and are to some extent shared
by younger women. The next chapter explores further the cultural context in which the
expectations of the women in the three studies conducted thus far were formulated.
118
CHAPTER 6
STUDY 4: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF IMAGES IN PARENTING MAGAZINES
The previous studies have revealed that both pregnant women and those for
whom parenthood is less imminent have positive expectations about parenthood. This
prompts questions about how expectations of parenthood are constructed. Why do
people have predominantly favourable images of a major life transition that they have
not yet experienced? Why are these images socially shared (i.e., held by many people)?
Widely held expectations form part of the cultural context within which lives are lived
and futures planned. Yet, relatively little research attention has been paid to the ways in
which early parenthood is represented within Western societies and to the content of the
information sources used by new parents. One way to address these questions is to
examine the content of media devoted to the transition to parenthood. Media content
can reflect the cultural context in which it was produced (Riffe, Lacy, & Fico, 1998).
For example, Lee (1997) suggests that media images of parenthood reflect the cultural
value that new mothers should experience “unalloyed happiness and love” (p. 99). In
addition, people select and use media sources to satisfy their individual needs and
desires (Rubin, 1994). For example, first-time parents often have limited direct
experience with infants and report relying on parenting books and magazines, amongst
other sources, for parenting information (Carruth & Skinner, 2001; Deutsch, Ruble,
Fleming, Brooks-Gun, & Stangor, 1988). In this way, media sources may shape,
influence, or reinforce the expectations or attitudes that individuals hold about a
particular issue. Therefore, examination of media representations of parenting may
inform of the cultural context in which parenting expectations are formed and of the
nature of an information source used by new parents.
Images of infants, young children, and their parents appear to be widely used
within the media. Indeed, in Australia and other countries, there are magazines devoted
119
to pregnancy, parenting infants, and parenting in general. While the transition to
parenthood can have profound implications for women, limited attention has been paid
to the way it is presented in the media. This is despite the fact that media content has
been examined with reference to a broad range of other issues relating to women,
including media representations of feminine attractiveness and gender roles (Bartsch,
23.4, df = 2, p < .001). For infants, mothers, and fathers positive emotions were
displayed in close to 90% of cases.
Division of Caregiving Responsibility Between Parents and Others
Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 are related and the results will be examined together.
Hypothesis 2 was that women would be portrayed with infants more often than fathers
would be portrayed with infants. There were significant differences in the frequency
131
Table 6.3 Percentages for emotions displayed by mothers, fathers, and infants in magazine images. Key Figures
Infants Mothers Fathers na = 807 na = 559 na = 112
Emotion Smiling/joyful 35.6% 58.5% 48.2%
Relaxed/calm 53.0% 34.2% 41.1%
Frowning 6.9% 7.0% 10.7%
Crying 1.6% 0.4% 0.0%
Funny/strangeb 2.8%
Note. In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group. a Represents the number of key figures for whom it was possible to code their affect. b This category was used for infants only.
with which infants were presented with their mothers, fathers, or both parents (χ2 =
33.2, df = 2, p < .001). Mothers were shown with infants in 25.4% of images, fathers
were shown with infants in 3.1% of images, and both parents were shown with infants
in 2.1% of images. The remaining percentage consists of images where parents were
depicted without their infants, infants were depicted without their parents, or expectant
parents were depicted.
Hypothesis 3 was that mothers would be involved in care-taking behaviour more
often than fathers. Table 6.4 displays the types of behaviour parents were engaged in
within the images sampled. Overall, mothers were more likely to be portrayed carrying
out infant caregiving tasks and domestic duties and fathers were more likely to be
portrayed carrying out social and self-care behaviour (χ2 = 16.39, df = 1, p < .001).
Hypothesis 4 was that in images of mothers, fathers, and infants, the presence of
others would be uncommon. Others such as grandparents, health professionals, and
other children and adults were portrayed with infants and their parents in 5.8% of
images (χ2 = 78.4, df = 1, p < .001).
132
Table 6.4 Percentages for parent behaviours in the magazine images.
Mothers Fathers
Behaviour n = 662 n = 129
Infant Care & Domestic
Nurturing 41.6 31.8
Domestic Chores 2.3 0.8
Care-Giving 7.9 4.7
Total 51.8 37.3
Social & Self-Care
Self-Care 14.4 9.3
Health-Care 3.5 0.0
Social Interaction 7.9 33.3
Work Related 0.8 1.6
Pregnancy and Labour 7.9 NA
Total 34.5 44.2
Note. Figures in table do not add up to 100 because non-meaningful behaviour (e.g. staring directly at camera with no other behaviour depicted) was not included in this analysis. In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group.
Physical Appearance of Key Figures
Hypothesis 5 was that the appearance of parents, including expectant parents,
and infants would be idealised.
Clothing and grooming: Table 6.5 displays the percentages for clothing and
grooming criteria for mothers and fathers. In the vast majority of cases, mothers and
fathers were presented in clean clothes and were neatly groomed. Parents were
generally presented in casual wear rather than clothing that may indicate they had
another role, such as business attire.
Infants’ clothing and appearance were also presented in a positive manner.
Infants were presented with clear skin significantly more often than they were presented
with irritated skin or rashes (93.2% vs. 6.8% of cases; χ2 = 73.96, df = 1, p < .001).
133
Their clothing was clean in 98.9% of cases (χ2 = 96.04, df = 1, p < .001) and their skin
was clean in 97.0% of cases (χ2 = 88.36, df = 1, p < .001). In 60.1% of images, infants
were fully clothed. In the remainder of the images infants were wearing nothing
(21.5%), a nappy (9.1%), were wrapped in a towel or blanket (6.2%), or were wearing a
costume (3.1%).
Table 6.5 Percentages for clothing and grooming variables for mothers and fathers.
Key Figure
Mother Father
% %
n = 593a n = 118b
General appearance Neat 80.3 85.6
Disheveled 19.7 14.4
n = 545c n = 106d
Clothing cleanliness Stained 1.7 4.7
Clean 98.3 95.3
n = 557e n = 118f
Clothing type Formal/evening wear 1.4 3.4
Business attire 3.8 11.0
Smart casual 53.5 45.8
At home casual 27.8 20.3
Medical gown 1.1 1.7
Exercise wear 9.7 9.3
Nothing 2.7 8.5
Note. Sample sizes exclude occasions where it was not possible to code the appearance of the key figures (e.g., where the image was too blurred). In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group. a χ2 = 36.84, df = 1, p < .001. b χ2 = 49.91, df = 1, p < .001. c χ2 = 93.16, df = 1, p < .001. d χ2 = 81.99, df = 1, p < .001. e χ2 = 92.76, df = 6, p < .001. f χ2 = 93.39, df = 6, p < .001.
Ethnicity: Caucasian infants, mothers, and fathers were portrayed significantly
more often than infants, mothers, and fathers from other ethnic groups (infants: χ2 =
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy
beliefs on adjustment
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold prior to the birth of their first child, and how these expectations match reality when the baby arrives. Most people would agree that the transition to parenthood is one of the most significant transitions of adulthood. Being a parent is a role that is emotionally, intellectually, and physically demanding, as well rewarding. This research is investigating people’s expectations when they become parents for the first time. In this study, we are developing a questionnaire about parenting expectations. The questionnaire developed in this study will be used in future research. As a participant in this study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on the expectations you have about how life will be when you become a parent. The questionnaire covers expectations in a range of areas including your feelings about yourself, your relationships with other people in your life, and your daily routines. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected].
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet and the consent
form attached to it for your own records. 2. Read and sign the consent form attached to this questionnaire. 3. Fill in the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and questions
carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope
provided and post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage.
Thank you for participating in this research project. If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by phone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected]
190
Parenting Expectations CODE: Age:_______________________________ How many weeks pregnant are you? ____________________ Marital status: Single Married De facto Instructions: For this questionnaire you are asked to think about your expectations about being a parent. The questionnaire consists of a number of statements about expectations of how your life is going to be when your baby arrives. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree that you will continue your social activities as usual when your baby arrives. Try not to spend too much time on each question. If a question does not apply to you (for example if it asks about breastfeeding and you do not plan to breastfeed your baby or if it asks about a partner and you are single) just write “NA” next to the question. Remember each statement is about how you expect life to be when your baby arrives. Your task is to decide whether or not you agree with the statement and then to circle the appropriate response. 1. I will not have time to do the housework that is usually my responsibility.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
191
4. I will be worried about my personal appearance.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will have more things to talk to my partner about.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will find myself worrying about my baby’s health.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. I will have stronger feelings of love for my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
192
12. I will feel pride in my baby’s development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. I will resent not having enough time to myself after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
14. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. Being a parent will make me feel like I have a purpose for living.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
193
20. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. I will have no difficulties in becoming comfortable caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
22. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. I will worry about my loss of figure.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My feelings will be more intense.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. I will feel less desire to work outside the home.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
194
28. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
30. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will find breastfeeding embarrassing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. Daily life will be no more difficult after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. I will have increased contact with my neighbours.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
195
36. Meals will be off schedule.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will receive uninvited advice from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
38. There will be increased money problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will feel a new positive appreciation of my own parents.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. There will be an interruption of routine habits of sleeping, going places, etc.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. I will be unable to sleep after going to bed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
196
44. My partner will respect me more.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. There will be a reduced feeling of privacy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
46. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. My partner and I will spend a great deal of time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
197
52. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
54. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will be more sensitive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
56. Being a parent of a baby will involve a lot of hard work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
57. My life will change in a way that seems scary.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
58. I will feel healthier.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
59. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
198
60. My partner will give me the emotional support that I need.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
61. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
62. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
63. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
64. My partner and I will argue less about how we spend our money.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
65. I will be responsible for most of the child-care tasks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
66. I will have increased appreciation for religious tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
67. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
199
68. I will feel more physically attractive compared to before I was pregnant.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
69. I will see my extended family less than I did before I was pregnant.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
70. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
71. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
72. I will feel physically tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
73. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
74. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
75. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
200
76. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
77. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
78. Breastfeeding will come very naturally to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
79. My circle of friends will become smaller.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
80. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
81. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
82. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
83. Being a parent of a baby will be very time consuming.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
201
84. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
85. I will not get much sleep at night.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
86. I will feel a greater desire to work outside the home.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
87. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to
the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
88. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
89. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
90. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
91. I will strengthen old friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
202
92. For financial reasons, it will be necessary for me to work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
93. With all the changes that the birth of a baby brings, I will sometimes feel like I don’t know
myself anymore.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
94. I will enjoy the care-taking responsibilities involved in being a mother.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
95. It will be difficult to breastfeed my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
96. I will be more interested in sex.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
97. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
98. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
99. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
203
100. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
101. I will love my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
102. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
103. I will feel a new positive appreciation of my in-laws.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
Instructions: In the next section, please complete each question by putting a circle around the answer that most closely applies to you. Work quickly and please remember to answer each question. The aim is to record how you have been feeling during the past month. If you have not considered some of the questions during the past month, go ahead and answer them on your present feelings. 1. Have you been worrying that you may not be a good mother?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
2. Have you been worrying about hurting your baby inside you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
3. Has it worried you that you may not have any time to yourself once your baby is born?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
4. Have you regretted getting pregnant?
1 2 3 4 Never Rarely Often Very often
5. Has the thought of wearing maternity clothes appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Very much A lot A little Not at all
204
6. Have you been feeling happy that you are pregnant?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
7. Has the thought of having several more children appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
8. Have you felt that pregnancy was unpleasant?
1 2 3 4 Very much A lot A little Not at all
9. Have you been looking forward to caring for your baby’s needs?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
10. Have you been wondering whether your baby will be healthy and normal?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
11. Have you felt that life will be more difficult after the baby is born?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
12. Has the thought of breast-feeding your baby appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Your responses will be used to develop a shorter version of this questionnaire that will be used in future research. We are interested in any feedback you may have about the questionnaire. In particular were there any questions that were ambiguous, that is you were not sure what they were asking? In your opinion were there any irrelevant questions? Did you think any of the questions were inappropriate? If you wish to make a comment please do so in the space below.
205
APPENDIX C
STUDY 2 PRENATAL INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
The University of Western Australia Department of Psychology 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Fax (08) 9380 1006 Telephone (08) 9380 3719
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold before the birth of their first child, and how these expectations match reality when the baby arrives. Most people would agree that the transition to parenthood is one of the most significant transitions of adulthood. Being a parent is a role that is emotionally, intellectually, and physically demanding, as well rewarding. This research is investigating people’s expectations when they become parents for the first time. As a participant in this study you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on two occasions, once while you are pregnant and again about four months after the birth of your baby. The questionnaire in this phase of the study covers several areas: 1. Some general information about yourself including your age, your education, and your
employment. 2. The expectations you have about being a parent. 3. Your relationship with your partner, family members and friends. 4. How you have been feeling. 5. Your coping resources. 6. The types of entertainment and information you have been watching and reading during
your pregnancy. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. Approximately four months after the birth of your baby you will be contacted by telephone and asked if you are willing to participate in the second phase of the study. If you are willing to participate again a follow up questionnaire will be sent to you. If at any time you wish to withdraw from the study, you are free to do so without prejudice.
It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study, you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any concerns about this study, or if you require further information, please do not hesitate to contact: Kate Harwood, phone 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected]. Keep this information sheet for your own records.
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet and the consent form
attached to it for your own records. 2. Read and sign the consent form attached to this questionnaire. 3. Complete the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and questions
carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope provided and
post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage. 5. Please return the questionnaire within two weeks of receiving it. If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by telephone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected]. We will contact you approximately four months after the birth of your baby to find out how everything is going and to send out the follow-up questionnaire.
Thank you for participating in this research project.
207
Prenatal Participant No. Date: 1. What is your age?
2. What is your ethnic background?
3. What is your Occupation?
4. What is the highest level of education that
you have obtained?(tick the appropriate box)
Secondary School up to Year 10 Secondary School up to Year 12 TAFE University degree Postgraduate degree
5. Are you employed currently? Yes No
Employment status: Full-time Part-time
Casual On Maternity Leave
6. Do you plan to return to work after the birth of your baby? Yes
No If yes, how long after the birth do you plan to return to work?
7. What is your relationship status?
Married De Facto Relationship
8. How long have you been married to/lived with your partner?
9. What is your partner’s age?
10. What is your partner’s ethnic background?
11. What is your partner’s occupation?
12. What is the highest level of education that
your partner has obtained?
Secondary School up to Year 10 Secondary School up to Year 12 TAFE University degree Postgraduate degree
208
13. Is your partner employed
currently? Yes No
Employment status: Full-time Part-time Casual
14. What is your baby’s due date?
15. How many weeks pregnant are you?
16. Was your pregnancy planned?
Yes No
If yes, how long have you been trying to become pregnant?
17. Have you experienced any complications or problems
during your pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the problems/complications? 18. Did you use any reproductive technologies to assist with conception (e.g. IVF, GIFT)?
Yes No If yes, state which procedure was used:
19. Have you ever had a miscarriage? Yes No
If yes, how many?
20. Have you ever had a termination? Yes No
If yes, how many?
21. Do you plan to breastfeed your baby? Yes No The following pages consist of a number of questionnaires. Please read the instructions of
each questionnaire carefully then answer the questions. Thank you.
209
Social Provisions Scale (Russell and Cutrona, 1984) Instructions: In answering the following questions, think about your current relationships with friends, family members, co-workers, community members, and so on. Please indicate to what extent each statement describes your current relationships with other people. Use the following scale to indicate your opinion.
1 Strongly Disagree
2 Disagree
3 4 Strongly Agree Agree
So, for example, if you feel a statement is very true of your current relationships, you would respond with a 4 (strongly agree). If you feel a statement clearly does not describe your relationships, you would respond with a 1 (strongly disagree). Rating 1. There are people I can depend on to help me if I really need it. _____
2. I feel that I do not have any close personal relationships with other people. _____
3. There is no one I can turn to for guidance in times of stress. _____
4. There are people who depend on me for help. _____
5. There are people who enjoy the same social activities I do. _____
6. Other people do not view me as competent. _____
7. I feel personally responsible for the well-being of another person. _____
8. I feel part of a group of people who share my attitudes and beliefs. _____
9. I do not think other people respect my skills and abilities. _____
10. If something went wrong, no one would come to my assistance. _____
11. I have close relationships that provide me with a sense of emotional security and wellbeing. _____
12. There is someone I could talk to about important decisions in my life. _____
13. I have relationships where my competence and skills are recognized. _____
14. There is no one who shares my interests and concerns. _____
15. There is no one who really relies on me for their well-being. _____
16. There is a trustworthy person I could turn to for advice if I were having problems. _____
17. I feel a strong emotional bond with at least one other person. _____
210
18. There is no one I can depend on for aid, if I really needed it. _____
19. There is no one I feel comfortable talking with about problems. _____
20. There are people who admire my talents and abilities. _____
21. I lack a feeling of intimacy with another person. _____
22. There is no one who likes to do the things I do. _____
23. There are people who I can count on in an emergency. _____
24. No one needs me to care for them anymore. _____
211
EPDS (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987)
Instructions: As you are pregnant, we would like to know how you are feeling. Please underline the answer which comes closest to how you have felt in the past 7 days, not just how you feel today. Here is an example, already completed: I have felt happy: Yes, all of the time Yes, most of the time No, not very often No, not at all This would mean, “I have felt happy most of the time” during the past week. Please complete the other questions in the same way. In the past 7 days: 1. I have been able to see the funny side of things
As much as I always could Not quite so much now Definitely not so much now Not at all
2. I have looked forward with enjoyment to things As much as I ever did Rather less than I used to Definitely less than I used to Hardly at all
3. I have blamed myself unnecessarily when things went wrong Yes, most of the time Yes, some of the time Not very often No, never
4. I have been anxious or worried for no good reason No, not at all Hardly ever Yes, sometimes Yes, very often
5. I have felt scared or panicky for no good reason Yes, quite a lot Yes, sometimes No, not much No, not at all
6. Things have been getting on top of me Yes, most of the time I haven’t been able to cope at all Yes, sometimes I haven’t been coping as well as usual No, most of the time I have coped quite well No, I have been coping as well as ever
212
7. I have been so unhappy that I have had difficulty sleeping
Yes, most of the time Yes, sometimes Not very often No, not at all
8. I have felt sad or miserable Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Not very often No, not at all
9. I have been so unhappy that I have been crying Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Only occasionally No, never
10. The thought of harming myself has occurred to me Yes, quite often Sometimes Hardly ever Never
213
DAS (Spanier, 1976) Instructions: Most people have disagreements in their relationships. Please indicate the extent to which you and your partner agree or disagree on each of the items on the list below. Use the following scale to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement.
5 Always agree
4 Almost
always agree
3 Occasionally
disagree
2 Frequently
disagree
1 Almost always
disagree
0 Always disagree
1. ______ Handling family finances
2. ______ Matters of recreation
3. ______ Religious matters
4. ______ Demonstration of affection
5. ______ Friends
6. ______ Sexual relations
7. ______ Conventionality (correct or proper behaviour)
8. ______ Philosophy of life
9. ______ Ways of dealing with in-laws
10. ______ Aims, goals, and things believed important
11. ______ Amount of time spent together
12. ______ Making major decisions
13. ______ Household tasks
14. ______ Leisure time interests
15. ______ Career decisions
Instructions: Please indicate below approximately how often the following circumstances occur between you and your partner. Use the scale below when making your responses.
5 Never
4 Rarely
3 Occasionally
2 More often
than not
1 Most of the
time
0 All the time
16. ______ How often do you discuss or have you considered divorce, separation, or
terminating the relationship?
17. ______ How often do you or your partner leave the house after a fight?
18. ______ In general, how often do you think that things between you and your partner are
going well?
19. ______ Do you confide in your partner?
20. ______ Do you regret that you ever married or lived together?
21. ______ How often do you and your partner quarrel?
22. ______ How often do you and your partner “get on each other’s nerves”?
214
23. Do you kiss your partner? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every day Occasionally Rarely Never
24. Do you and your partner engage in outside interests together? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every day Occasionally Rarely Never
How often would you say the following events occur between you and your partner?
1 Never
2 Less than
once a month
3 Once or twice a month
4 Once or
twice a week
5 Once a day
6 More often
25. ______ Have a stimulating exchange of ideas
26. ______ Laugh together
27. ______ Calmly discuss something
28. ______ Work together on a project
Instructions: These are some things about which couples sometimes agree and sometimes disagree. Indicate if either issue below caused differences of opinion or has been a problem in your relationship during the past few weeks. (Circle yes or no) 29. Being too tired for sex Yes No 30. Not showing love Yes No 31. The numbers on the following line represent different degrees of happiness in your
relationship. The middle point, “happy”, represents the degree of happiness of most relationships. Please circle the number that best describes the degree of happiness, all things considered, of your relationship.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extremely unhappy
Fairly unhappy
A little unhappy
Happy Very happy
Extremely happy
Perfect
215
32. Please circle the number of one of the following statements that best describes how you feel
about the future of your relationship.
5 I want desperately for my relationship to succeed, and would go to almost any length to see that it does
4 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do all that I can to see that it
does
3 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do my fair share to see that it does
2 It would be nice if my relationship succeeded, but I can’t do much more than I am
doing now to make it succeed 1 It would be nice if it succeeded, but I refuse to do any more than I am doing now to
keep the relationships going
0 My relationship can never succeed, and there is no more that I can do to keep the relationship going
216
PSOC –Efficacy Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman, 1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989)
Instructions: Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by circling the appropriate response. 1. I will make a fine role model for a new mother to follow in order to learn what she would
need to know to be a good parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. The problems of taking care of a baby are easy to solve once you know how your actions
affect your baby, an understanding I will acquire.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. Being a parent is manageable, and any problems are easily solved.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. I will meet my personal expectations for expertise in caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my baby, I will be the one.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. It will not take me long to become thoroughly familiar with the role of being a mother.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I honestly believe that I have all the skills necessary to be a good mother to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
217
Parenting Expectations
Instructions: This questionnaire consists of a number of expectations commonly held by first-time parents. You are asked to think about what you expect life to be like when your baby arrives. Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will feel tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree with the statement that you will feel tired and fatigued when you are a parent of a baby. 1. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
218
6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
219
14. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
220
22. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
221
30. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
222
38. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to
the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
223
46. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
224
54. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
225
Entertainment and Information Use
Please indicate the extent to which you have been watching or reading the following types of entertainment and information recently. Please use the following scale to make your responses.
0 1 2 3 4 Not at all Rarely Occasionally Nearly every
day Every day
1. Books about parenting and pregnancy ____ 2. Talk shows on TV, e.g. Oprah, when they cover pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 3. News and current affairs programmes covering pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 4. TV comedies with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 5. TV dramas with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 6. Films with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 7. Internet sites about pregnancy and parenting ____ 8. Magazines devoted to pregnancy and parenting e.g. Mother & Baby, Pregnancy ____ 9. Articles about pregnancy/ parenting in women’s magazines e.g. New Idea,
Australian Women’s Weekly ____ 10. Newspaper articles about pregnancy/ parenting ____ 11. Advertisements with parents and their children ____ 12. Advertisements for childcare products and toys ____
226
To answer the questions below think about the images of pregnancy and parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 1. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 2. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or unfulfilling
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 3. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
Happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
Depressing 4. Taking into account your own experiences during pregnancy, how accurate do you think
media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
227
APPENDIX D
STUDY 2 POSTNATAL INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009
The University of Western Australia Department of Psychology
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering further participation in this research project. Your participation in the first phase of this study is greatly appreciated. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold before the birth of their first child, and how they feel about these expectations after the baby arrives. In order for us to achieve this aim, your participation in the second phase of this study is particularly important. As in the first phase of the study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire. The first phase of the study was interested in your expectations about being a parent. This phase of the study is interested in the experiences you have had since the birth of your baby. The questionnaire in this phase of the study covers several areas: 1. Your parenting experiences. 2. Your relationships with your partner, family members, and friends. 3. How you have been feeling. 4. Your coping resources. 5. The types of entertainment and information you have been watching and reading
during your pregnancy. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected]. Keep this information sheet for your own records.
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet for your own
records. 2. Read and sign the consent form on the next page of this questionnaire. 3. Complete the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and
questions carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope
provided and post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage.
If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by telephone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected].
Thank you for participating in this research project.
229
Postnatal Participant No. Date: 1. What is your baby’s date of birth?
2. What was your baby’s weight at birth?
3. What sex is your baby?
Male Female
4. Did you experience any complications during your
pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the complications?
5. Did you experience any complications during your
labour? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the complications? 6. Do you have any ongoing health problems due to
complications during your labour and/or pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the health problems? 7. Has your baby experienced any health problems? Yes No If yes, could you describe the health problems:
230
8. Are you employed currently? Yes No
Employment status:
Full-time Part-time Casual On Maternity Leave
9. Is your partner employed currently?
Yes No
Employment status:
Full-time Part-time Casual
10. Are you breastfeeding your baby? (tick the most appropriate response for you) a) Yes, I am breastfeeding currently b) I did not breastfeed at all c) I am not breastfeeding now, but I did initially If you ticked c) how old was your baby when you stopped breastfeeding?
The following pages consist of a number of questionnaires. Please read the instructions of each questionnaire carefully then answer the questions. Thank you.
231
Social Provisions Scale (Russell and Cutrona, 1984) Instructions: In answering the following questions, think about your current relationships with friends, family member, co-workers, community member, and so on. Please indicate to what extent each statement describes your current relationships with other people. Use the following scale to indicate your opinion.
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
Agree
4
Strongly Agree
So, for example, if you feel a statement is very true of your current relationships, you would respond with a 4 (strongly agree). If you feel a statement clearly does not describe your relationships, you would respond with a 1 (strongly disagree).
Rating 1. There are people I can depend on to help me if I really need it. _____
2. I feel that I do not have any close personal relationships with other people. _____
3. There is no one I can turn to for guidance in times of stress. _____
4. There are people who depend on me for help. _____
5. There are people who enjoy the same social activities I do. _____
6. Other people do not view me as competent. _____
7. I feel personally responsible for the well-being of another person. _____
8. I feel part of a group of people who share my attitudes and beliefs. _____
9. I do not think other people respect my skills and abilities. _____
10. If something went wrong, no one would come to my assistance. _____
11. I have close relationships that provide me with a sense of emotional security and wellbeing. _____
12. There is someone I could talk to about important decisions in my life. _____
13. I have relationships where my competence and skills are recognized. _____
14. There is no one who shares my interests and concerns. _____
15. There is no one who really relies on me for their well-being. _____
16. There is a trustworthy person I could turn to for advice if I were having problems. _____
17. I feel a strong emotional bond with at least one other person. _____
18. There is no one I can depend on for aid, if I really needed it. _____
19. There is no one I feel comfortable talking with about problems. _____
232
20. There are people who admire my talents and abilities. _____
21. I lack a feeling of intimacy with another person. _____
22. There is no one who likes to do the things I do. _____
23. There are people who I can count on in an emergency. _____
24. No one needs me to care for them anymore. _____
233
EPDS (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987) As you have recently had a baby, we would like to know how you are feeling. Please underline the answer which comes closest to how you have felt in the past 7 days, not just how you feel today. Here is an example, already completed: I have felt happy: Yes, all of the time Yes, most of the time No, not very often No, not at all This would mean, “I have felt happy most of the time” during the past week. Please complete the other questions in the same way. In the past 7 days: 1. I have been able to see the funny side of things
As much as I always could Not quite so much now Definitely not so much now Not at all
2. I have looked forward with enjoyment to things As much as I ever did Rather less than I used to Definitely less than I used to Hardly at all
3. I have blamed myself unnecessarily when things went wrong Yes, most of the time Yes, some of the time Not very often No, never
4. I have been anxious or worried for no good reason No, not at all Hardly ever Yes, sometimes Yes, very often
5. I have felt scared or panicky for no good reason Yes, quite a lot Yes, sometimes No, not much No, not at all
6. Things have been getting on top of me Yes, most of the time I haven’t been able to cope at all Yes, sometimes I haven’t been coping as well as usual No, most of the time I have coped quite well No, I have been coping as well as ever
234
7. I have been so unhappy that I have had difficulty sleeping
Yes, most of the time Yes, sometimes Not very often No, not at all
8. I have felt sad or miserable Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Not very often No, not at all
9. I have been so unhappy that I have been crying Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Only occasionally No, never
10. The thought of harming myself has occurred to me Yes, quite often Sometimes Hardly ever Never
235
DAS (Spanier, 1976) Instructions: Most people have disagreements in their relationships. Please indicate the extent to which you and your partner agree or disagree on each of the items on the list below. Use the following scale to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement.
5 Always agree
4 Almost
always agree
3 Occasionally
disagree
2 Frequently
disagree
1 Almost always
disagree
0 Always disagree
1. ______ Handling family finances
2. ______ Matters of recreation
3. ______ Religious matters
4. ______ Demonstration of affection
5. ______ Friends
6. ______ Sexual relations
7. ______ Conventionality (correct or proper behaviour)
8. ______ Philosophy of life
9. ______ Ways of dealing with in-laws
10. ______ Aims, goals, and things believed important
11. ______ Amount of time spent together
12. ______ Making major decisions
13. ______ Household tasks
14. ______ Leisure time interests
15. ______ Career decisions
Instructions: Please indicate below approximately how often the following circumstances occur between you and your partner. Use the scale below when making your responses.
5 Never
4 Rarely
3 Occasionally
2 More often
than not
1 Most of the
time
0 All the time
16. ______ How often do you discuss or have you considered divorce, separation, or
terminating the relationship?
17. ______ How often do you or your partner leave the house after a fight?
18. ______ In general how often do you think that things between you and your partner are
going well?
19. ______ Do you confide in your partner?
20. ______ Do you regret that you ever married or lived together?
21. ______ How often do you and your partner quarrel?
22. ______ How often do you and your partner “get on each other’s nerves”?
236
23. Do you kiss your partner? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every
day Occasionally Rarely Never
24. Do you and your partner engage in outside interests together? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every
day Occasionally Rarely Never
How often would you say the following events occur between you and your partner?
1 Never
2 Less than
once a month
3 Once or twice a month
4 Once or
twice a week
5 Once a day
6 More often
25. ______ Have a stimulating exchange of ideas
26. ______ Laugh together
27. ______ Calmly discuss something
28. ______ Work together on a project
Instructions: These are some things about which couples sometimes agree and sometimes disagree. Indicate if either issue below caused differences of opinion or has been a problem in your relationship during the past few weeks. (Circle yes or no) 29. Being too tired for sex Yes No 30. Not showing love Yes No 31. The numbers on the following line represent different degrees of happiness in your
relationship. The middle point, “happy”, represents the degree of happiness of most relationships. Please circle the number that best describes the degree of happiness, all things considered, of your relationship.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extremely unhappy
Fairly unhappy
A little unhappy
Happy Very happy
Extremely happy
Perfect
237
32. Please circle the number of one of the following statements that best describes how you feel
about the future of your relationship.
5 I want desperately for my relationship to succeed, and would go to almost any length to see that it does
4 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do all that I can to see that it
does
3 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do my fair share to see that it does
2 It would be nice if my relationship succeeded, but I can’t do much more than I am
doing now to make it succeed 1 It would be nice if it succeeded, but I refuse to do any more than I am doing now to
keep the relationships going
0 My relationship can never succeed, and there is no more that I can do to keep the relationship going
238
PSOC –Efficacy Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman, 1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989)
Instructions: Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by circling the appropriate response.
1. I would make a fine role model for a new mother to follow in order to learn what she would
need to know to be a good parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. The problems of taking care of a baby are easy to solve once you know how your actions
affect your baby, an understanding I have acquired.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. Being a parent is manageable, and any problems are easily solved.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. I meet my personal expectations for expertise in caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my baby, I am the one.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Considering how long I’ve been a mother, I feel thoroughly familiar with this role.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I honestly believe that I have all the skills necessary to be a good mother to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
239
Parenting Experiences
Instructions: This questionnaire consists of a number of statements that relate to the experiences of early parenthood. We are interested whether you have experienced any of the feelings or situations listed below. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I have felt tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree that you have felt tired and fatigued since the birth of your baby. 1. I have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner helps out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
240
6. Being a parent makes me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. Caring for a baby is very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding makes me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent is the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There is unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner shows too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
241
14. I feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. My partner gets on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives are closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent makes me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I am disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner is able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
242
22. My family and friends have helped me out since the baby was born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother makes me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life has changed for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. My partner shows less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent is the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I am less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
243
30. I feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I returned to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. My partner and I have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner is less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I am able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I am satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
244
38. I have formed new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby has caused difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I have continued my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. My partner and I enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There is not enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to the
movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I have become too dependent on others since the baby was born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
245
46. I have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby makes bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life lacks variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent have restricted my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. Being a parent has increased my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent makes me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby is fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
246
54. Being a parent fits into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
247
Entertainment and Information Use
Please indicate the extent to which you have been watching or reading the following types of entertainment and information recently. Please use the following scale to make your responses.
0 1 2 3 4 Not at all Less than usual About the same
as usual More than
usual Much more than usual
1. Reading books about parenting and pregnancy
____ 2. Watching talk shows on TV, e.g. Oprah, when they cover pregnancy/ parenting issues
____ 3. Watching news and current affairs programmes covering pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 4. Watching TV comedies with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children
____ 5. Watching TV dramas with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 6. Watching films with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children
____ 7. Reading internet sites about pregnancy and parenting
____ 8. Reading magazines devoted to pregnancy and parenting e.g. Parenting, Pregnancy
____ 9. Reading articles about pregnancy/ parenting in women’s magazines e.g. New Idea,
Australian Women’s Weekly ____
10. Reading newspaper articles about pregnancy/ parenting
____ 11. Advertisements with parents and their children
____ 12. Advertisements for childcare products and toys
____
248
To answer the questions below think about the images of pregnancy and parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 5. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 6. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or unfulfilling
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 7. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
Happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
Depressing 8. Taking into account your own experiences of pregnancy and parenthood, how accurate do
you think media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
249
APPENDIX E
STUDY 3 INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY
35 Stirling Highway Crawley, Western Australia
Facsimile: 9380 1006 Kate Harwood Telephone: 9380 3719
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The broad aim of this project is to examine the parenting expectations and self-efficacy beliefs of first-time mothers, how expectations match later experiences, and the effect of these factors on adjustment to parenthood. So far, we have examined the expectations of women who are pregnant with their first child and we are interested in how these expectations compare to perceptions of parenthood held by women who are not about to become a mother. Even people who are not parents have either direct or vicarious experience with parenting. We have all been parented, know people that are parents, or have observed parenting in our daily lives or in the media. For this study, we are interested in your perceptions of what life as a parent would be like. As a participant in this study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on your perceptions of what life as the parent of an infant would be like for you. The questionnaire contains a number of statements tapping how you think being a parent would affect different aspects of you life including your feelings, your relationships, and your lifestyle. You will be asked whether you plan to have children in the future and if so at approximately what age you would like to have children. We will also collect some demographic information such as your age, level of education, and ethnic background. The questionnaire should take approximately 10 to 15 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. Psychology 100 students will receive half a credit point for participation in this study. It is hoped that the findings from this study, combined with the findings of studies we have already conducted with women going through the transition to parenthood, will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study, you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected].
250
Participant No.
Background Information Instructions: Please answer the following questions about yourself.
Date: 1. What is your age?
2. What is your ethnic background?
3. What degree are you enrolled in?
Alternatively, if you are not a student, what is your occupation?
4. What year of your degree are you
enrolled in? (If applicable)
5. Do you have any other qualifications e.g. university
degree, TAFE diploma? Yes No
If you answered yes, please list your qualifications: 6. What is your relationship status?
Single Single, but have a boyfriend/girlfriend De Facto Relationship/Living with my
partner Married
If you are in a relationship at the moment, please state how long you have been with your partner: 7. Do you want to have
children at some point in the future?
Yes No
If you answered yes, approximately how long from now (in years) would you like to have children?
251
Perceptions of Early Parenthood This questionnaire consists of a number of parenting expectations commonly held by first-time parents. We are interested in your perceptions of what life as a parent of an infant would be like. Think about how you would expect life to be for you, if you were the parent of an infant. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will feel tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree with the statement that you will feel tired and fatigued when you are a parent of a baby.
1. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
252
7. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
14. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
253
16. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
22. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
254
25. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
30. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
255
34. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
38. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
256
43. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example,
going to the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
46. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
257
51. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
54. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
258
Perceptions of Parenting in the Media We are interested in your impressions of how being the parent of a young infant is portrayed in the media (including, television programmes and advertisements, advertisements and articles in newspapers and magazines, internet sites). To answer the questions below think about the images of early parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 1. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 2. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or
unfulfilling experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 3. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
depressing 4. Taking into account your own experiences of pregnancy and parenthood, how
accurate do you think media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
259
APPENDIX F
STUDY 4 CODING INSTRUCTIONS AND CODING SHEET
Coding Instructions Key figures:
Adults presented alone will be coded as parents unless something about their appearance denotes that they are portraying another role: e.g., stethoscope conveying the person is a health professional.
Pregnant women are coded As are expectant fathers: denoted by references in the text. Code infants: Toddlers or older children not coded unless they are in an image with
an infant. Parents of infants coded: If parents are portrayed with older children and no infant,
do not code. Do not code images so small that it is impossible to determine affect, clothing,
cleanliness etc. Do not code images that present only part of a body (e.g. infant’s foot or pregnant
woman’s stomach) making it impossible to derive meaningful information. Not applicable: Circle NA when the category does not apply e.g. asks for information about father when father is not present, or asks for information about clothing when baby is naked. Can’t determine: Applies when it is impossible to code a variable due to:
The way the photo is cropped (e.g. only face seen making it impossible to code clothing type)
The relevant figure is out of focus (e.g. cannot determine affect because facial features are blurred)
Figure is facing away from the camera (e.g. can code behaviour but not affect because figure has back to camera)
Parent appearance: Smart casual vs. at home casual distinction:
Sheet lists t-shirts as at home casual but code as smart casual if there are factors suggesting a higher dress standard e.g. well groomed hair & makeup, clothing & accessories worn with the t-shirt.
Baby appearance: Clean vs. dirty skin:
Counted suds/bubbles from bath as clean. Counted saliva as dirty
Attachment variables: Code these variables when a parent and infant are featured.
Congruent parent & baby affect counted as both expressing a positive emotion (e.g. one was calm and one was joyful) or both expressing a negative emotion. Incongruent coded when one key figure was expressing a negative emotion and the other was expressing a positive emotion.
For parent attachment behaviour “parent holding baby away from body” does not
260
apply to situations where the parent is holding the baby away from their body for the purposes of caretaking activities e.g. bathing, feeding.
Code “not applicable” if one or both faces are not visible. For baby attachment behaviour, if there is no sign that the baby is either trying to
maintain contact or trying to resist contact (e.g. being passive while being held by a parent) code as “not applicable”.
_________ Photograph type: 1 = Professional 2 = Amateur
_________ Key figures: 1 = Baby 2 = Mother 3 = Pregnant woman 4 = Father 5 = Pregnant woman & expectant father 6 = Mother & Father 7 = Mother & Baby 8 = Father & Baby 9 = Mother, father, & baby 10 = Mother, baby, & other children 11 = Father, baby, & other children 12 = Mother, father, baby, & other children 13 = Mother/pregnant woman with health professionals 14 = Baby with health professionals 15 = Mother, father, & baby with other adults 16 = Mother with other adults 17 = Father with other adults 18 = Mother & father with other adults 19 = Mother & baby with other adults 20 = Mother, father, baby with other adults and/or children
21 = Baby with another child/other children 22 = Pregnant woman with another child/other children 23 = Pregnant woman, expectant father, & another child/other children 24 = Expectant father 25 = Expectant father, pregnant woman, & health professionals 26 = Infant with another infant 27 = Baby with another adult 28 = Mother, infant, other adults & children 29 = Mother, father, infant & health professional/s 30 = Mother, father & health professional 31 = Pregnant woman, older child/children, & another adult 32 = Mother, infant, & health professional 33 = Pregnant woman with other pregnant women/another pregnant woman 34 = Infant with another adult & older children 35 = Pregnant woman with another adult
_________ Ethnicity key figures: 1 = Caucasian 2 = Other 3 = Aboriginal 4= Not sure Baby _________ NA Mother _________ NA Father _________ NA Parent affect: 1 = Smiling, joyful 2 = Relaxed, calm, serene 3 = Frowning, tense, anxious, stressed 4 = Crying 5 = Can’t determine Mother_________ NA Father _________ NA
_________ NA Attachment: Congruent parent & baby behaviour: 1 = Presence of mutual gaze between parent and baby 2 = Baby or parent avoiding eye contact - parent looking at baby and baby looking away or vice versa 3 = Joint attention (including looking at camera together) 4 = Congruent parent and baby affect 5 = Incongruent parent and baby affect
A1_________ A2_________ NA Baby attachment behaviour: 1 = Contact maintaining behaviour – looking towards parent, reaching for parent, clinging/holding on to parent. 2 = Contact resisting behaviour – turning away from parent in distress, disinterest in parent, pushing parent away.
_________ NA
Parent attachment behaviour: 1 = Parent holding baby close to body 2 = Parent holding baby away from body _________ NA