WOMEN PRINCIPALS IN CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP AT …

WOMEN PRINCIPALS IN CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP AT SCHOOLS IN DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES IN THE GAUTENG EAST

DISTRICT

by

Bhaigiavathie Naidoo

Student No. 920413151

MINOR DISSERTATION

submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS

in

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

SUPERVISOR : Prof Juliet Perumal

2013

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ABSTRACT

This study is part of the SANPAD (Southern African Netherlands Partnership

for Alternatives in Development) research project. It seeks to answer the

research question, how do women principals experience curriculum leadership

at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District? The

dawn of South African democracy gave rise to many changes and awoke

many dormant issues, one of which was the issue of equity in the workplace.

This extended into the sphere of education. There are many women who have

managed to penetrate this equity barrier and reach positions of leadership in

schools.

I conducted this research at three schools, which are located in disadvantaged

communities in the Gauteng East District in Gauteng Province in South Africa.

For this qualitative research I used observations and semi-structured

interviews to elicit data from the participants. During the analysis of this data

the following themes emerged: (1) exercising a successful leadership style; (2)

the principal as a curriculum leader; (3) socio-economic profile of community

and its impact on curriculum; (4) striking a balance between family and school

and (5) stakeholder participation and support.

This study reveals that women principals continue to experience challenges

within school; from the community outside school and in their personal lives.

Stereotyping still exists, especially in communities where men are still

privileged over women. Women principals need a support structure to

persevere as curriculum leaders. This research project concludes with

suggestions and recommendations for future research.

KEY WORDS

WOMEN PRINCIPALS

CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP

THE PERSEVERANCE OF WOMEN LEADERS

STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND SUPPORT

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DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Mogambal Chetty, and my late father,

Sathasivan Chetty, who have both always been an inspiration to me and who

have sacrificed so much to ensure that I am where I am today!

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt gratitude and sincere appreciation to: My spiritual master Bhagavan Sri Sathya Sai Baba who has been an immense

guiding force and who has inspired me to continue to seek knowledge.

My supervisor, Professor Juliet Perumal, for her unwavering academic

guidance, adept skill and diligent support throughout my research study.

My husband, Ceilan and children Yourishaa and Saihen for their patience,

encouragement and understanding. Thank you for the constant moral support

and inspiration.

The principals, School Governing Bodies and School Management Teams of

the schools who participated in this research.

My siblings, Poovan, Ranjini and brother-in-law Mogenthiran for all the

encouragement and technical assistance in the presentation of this research

report.

Southern African Netherlands Partnership for Alternatives in Development

(SANPAD) for the financial support toward this research and for the profession

development initiatives that were afforded to me. This study was part of a

larger SANPAD study entitled: Women leading in Disadvantaged Education

contexts – which was co-led by Professor Juliet Perumal and Professor Brigitte

Smit.

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DECLARATION

I, Bhaigiavathie Naidoo declare that this research report:

Women Principals in Curriculum Leadership at schools in disadvantaged

communities in the Gauteng East District, is my own work and that all the

sources that I have consulted and quoted have been acknowledged by

complete references.

This research report has not been submitted for a degree at any other

university.

______________________ Bhaigiavathie Naidoo 2013

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome B. COM Bachelor of Commerce CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CMM Curriculum Management Model D.E.T Department of Education and Training D.O.E Department of Education HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDSO Institutional Development and Support Officer MGSLG Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SANPAD Southern African Netherlands Partnership for Alternatives

in Development SASA South African Schools Act SGB School Governing Body SMT School Management Team USA United States of America

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i DEDICATION іі ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ііі DECLARATION іv LIST OF ACRONYMS v PREAMBLE x AIMS OF THE RESEARCH xii RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY xiii RESEARCH DESIGN xiii PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY xiii CHAPTER STRUCTURAL OUTLINE xv CHAPTER 1 WOMEN’S JOURNEY THROUGH THE LABYRINTH: ESTABLISHING THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE IN SOCIETY 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 THE POSITION OF WOMEN ABROAD AND LOCALLY 1

1.3 FEMINISM AND FEMINIST THEORIES 5

1.3.1 The Historical Roots of Feminist Theory 6

1.3.2 Radical feminist theory 7

1.3.3 Socialist feminist theory 8

1.3.4 Cultural feminism 10

1.4 GENDER AND LEADERSHIP 11

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1.5 WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICAN 14 SCHOOLS 1.6 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: WOMEN BREAKING 17 THE SCHOOL LEADERSHIP BARRIER

1.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES 21

1.7.1 Transformational leadership 22

1.7.2 Ethical leadership 23

1.7.3 Learner-centred leadership 24

1.8 CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP 25 1.9 DISADVANTAGED COMMUNTIES 31 CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE AND PROCEDURE OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS 35 2.1 INTRODUCTION 35 2.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 36 2.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 37 2.4 SAMPLING AND SELECTION 38

2.4.1 Research Sites 40

2.5 METHODS OF DATA GATHERING 45

2.5.1 Interviews 46

2.5.1.1 Semi-Structured Interviews 47

2.5.2 Observations 49

2.5.3 Field Notes 50

2.6 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 51 2.7 DATA MANAGEMENT 52

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2.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS 52

2.8.1 Reliability 53

2.8.2 Validity 53

2.8.3 Triangulation 54

2.9 TRANSCRIPTIONS 54 2.10 AXIAL CODING 56 2.11 ETHICS CONSIDERATION 56 2.12 SUMMARY 57 CHAPTER 3 WOMEN UNLOCKING THE DOORS TO LEARNING 59 3.1 INTRODUCTION 59 3.2 THEMES ELICITED FROM THE DATA ANALYSIS 60

3.2.1 Exercising a Successful Leadership Style 60

3.2.2 The principal as a Curriculum Leader 63

3.2.3 Socio-economic profile of Community and its Impact 65

on Curriculum

3.2.4 Striking a balance between Family and School 69

3.2.5 Stakeholder Participation and Support 72

3.2.5.1 The potential of parental power 73

3.2.5.2 The development of community involvement 76

3.2.5.3 Co-operation of the school management team and staff 78

3.3 CONCLUSION 80

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CHAPTER 4 THE LONG AND WINDING JOURNEY IS NOT COMPLETE 83 4.1 CONCLUSION 84 4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 85 4.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES 86 4.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 86 BIBLIOGRAPHY 87 LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Letter of Request 97 APPENDIX B: Consent and Confidentiality 98 APPENDIX C: Interview Questions 99 APPENDIX D: Observation Schedule 100 APPENDIX E: Observation and Record of Field Notes 101 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Biographical details of participants 40 TABLE 2: Excerpt of Analysis of Data 55

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PREAMBLE

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to investigate how women principals experience

curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities. Principals of

schools that are situated in an area characterised by socio-economic

hardships may experience unique problems with regards to curriculum

leadership in their schools.

RATIONALE

In my profession as an Institutional Development and Support Officer I interact

with principals on a daily basis, some of them are women who work in

disadvantaged communities. As a woman, I identify with these women. I can

identify with some of their experiences at home, at work and in the community.

These women are able to lead; they meet challenges, make personal

sacrifices and rely on a support system in order to persevere. My interaction

with these women gave me a deeper understanding of their feelings and

thoughts and how their experiences impact on their lives as women principals

and curriculum leaders. Moorosi (2007:509) claimed that women teachers,

especially those who are in positions of power, whose personal lives are

closely linked to their work life experience challenges. This prompted one of

the critical questions, how does the position of being female leaders affect their

personal and family lives?

There is a misconception that women do not exhibit any potential in leadership

(Smith 2008:13). This finds agreement with the statement made by Cubillo and

Brown (in Oplatka 2006:612) who declared that the position of leadership

should remain in the domain of the male. This is not only prevalent in the

private and corporate world but such perceptions also exist in public sectors

like education. Women have been excluded from management and leadership

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positions and relegated to perform menial tasks for many years. Fischer

(1996:34) has indicated that it would take many years to remove the effects of

gender disparity and discrimination against women.

Prior to 1994, education departments in South Africa subscribed to apartheid

policies such as The Bantu Education Act (No.47) of 1953 and the Extension

of University Education Act of 1959. Education, resources and budget were

allocated unequally amongst different racial groups and genders. These

policies ran parallel with traditional gender stereotypes which purported the

view that race, culture and ethnicity characterised discrimination against

women leadership (Mahlase in Moorosi 2007:509). Women were expected to

occupy a subordinate position in society and in leadership roles. Such policies

laid a favourable ground for men to dominate. In the South African context

decision making remained the responsibility of males (Kiambi in Wagadu

2008:5).

In line with the Bill of Rights and the Constitution of South Africa, which was

passed in December 1996, The Employment of Equity Act 55 of 1998 was

passed to achieve equity in the workplace through the elimination of unfair

discrimination and the implementation of affirmative action by “promoting the

employment and promotion of individuals from previously disadvantaged

backgrounds” (Government Gazette: 1996 [No.17678]). Although there have

been notable efforts to address these imbalances there still exists a minority of

women who have managed to penetrate this barrier to leadership positions in

education.

Those women who have managed to break through this ceiling are faced with

many challenges and demands in curriculum leadership which require them to

possess a range of attributes and skills. To survive such a complex

environment women principals must have the knowledge, skill, experience,

innovation and forbearance to rise above the challenges in curriculum

xii

leadership. The manner in which women principals perceive their roles and

functions as leaders of curriculum is critical to this study. South Africa is

referred to as a rainbow nation because it mirrors a mosaic of cultures,

backgrounds and communities. There are communities that are economically

privileged and communities that are disadvantaged. The experiences in

leading curriculum in schools in different communities are therefore different.

Curriculum leadership is often shaped by expectations, beliefs, preconceptions

and stereotypes associated with leadership, and gender is no exception.

This research looks at the experience of three women who are school

principals in disadvantaged communities. By combining their career histories

and views on curriculum leadership (as related by them in interviews) the study

focuses on their leadership experiences as principals of schools in

disadvantaged communities. The study further explores ways in which women

principals navigate gender and cultural challenges and highlights how these

stereotypes affect curriculum leadership styles.

AIMS OF THE RESEARCH

Through interviews and observations this study aims to capture the voices of

three female principals regarding their experiences in leading curriculum

implementation in schools in disadvantaged communities. The main aims of

the study are:

to explore the preconceptions and stereotypes of women principals in

curriculum leadership positions, in disadvantaged communities

to examine curriculum leadership styles of women principals in

disadvantaged communities

to observe the impact of preconceptions, stereotypes and beliefs on

women principals in curriculum leadership positions in disadvantaged

communities

to observe how women principals navigate challenges that they endure

xiii

The following critical questions guided the study:

What are the challenges facing women principals in curriculum

leadership positions?

How does leading a school in a disadvantaged community impact

on curriculum leadership?

What leadership styles do these principals adopt?

How does the position of being female leaders affect their

personal and family lives?

RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings of this study will be:

1. To make recommendations that would challenge stereotyping against

women principals

2. To assist one in understanding curriculum leadership

3. To showcase curriculum leadership styles of women principals

4. To describe the many experiences of women principals

5. To make recommendations for further research in gaps identified

RESEARCH DESIGN

A qualitative research methodology was best suited to conduct this study as it

provided insiders’ perspective and interaction with research participants to

elicit valid and reliable data. The three identified principals who participated in

this study were observed in their natural conditions. To complement

observations I interviewed participants in the study and thereafter compared

the participants’ responses.

PARAMETERS OF THE STUDY This research was limited to a few participants; hence the findings cannot be

used for generalisation purposes. I chose to focus on three schools with

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women as principals in the Gauteng East District. The research was gender

related, hence purposeful sampling was used. The sample chosen was also

reflective of Black women principals.

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CHAPTER STRUCTURAL OUTLINE

This research report is presented in four chapters.

Chapter 1: Overview of the Study and Literature Review: Women’s

journey through the labyrinth: establishing their leadership role in

society

This chapter provides a description of women in leadership positions

internationally and locally. Using relevant theories of feminism, leadership

styles and content on curriculum I presented a background to guide my

research. The chapter ends with a discussion of disadvantaged communities,

which was an important contextual factor in the research.

Chapter 2: Research Methodology: Structure and procedure of the

research process

In chapter 2, I focused specifically on the research design and method which

were used to underpin this study. A qualitative research paradigm was chosen.

The methods to collect data were interviews, field notes and observation of

three female principals. This chapter also provides a profile of the participants

and the sites where the study was conducted. I chose to use critical discourse

analysis to analyse the data because my data collection methods encouraged

discussion and reflection. I chose to do participant observation because it

affords the researcher the opportunity to verify their participants’ perceptions. I

also opted for semi-structured interviews because it presented the opportunity

for participants to clarify their responses.

In this chapter, I also describe how data analysis was done. Attention is drawn

to my role as a researcher and to issues of trustworthiness. I detail how

transcriptions were done. The information that was gathered from the tape-

recorded interviews and my observations was transcribed. I then assembled

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common factors from the transcriptions into codes. This elicited the themes.

Finally I explain how I dealt with ethical issues in the research.

Chapter 3: Discussion of findings: Women unlocking the doors to

learning

In this chapter I present the analysis of the data that was gathered in the

research that investigated how women principals experience curriculum

leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East

District. Common subject matter which emerged during the data analysis are

categorised under the following themes.

(1) Exercising a successful leadership style

(2) The principal as a curriculum leader

(3) Socio-economic profile of community and its impact on curriculum

(4) Striking a balance between family and school

(5) Stakeholder participation and support

I use excerpts from the interviews, my observations and the views of the

participants to explore the main aims of the research. The findings in this

chapter are expounded in line with the literature review.

Chapter 4: Conclusion: The long and winding journey is not complete

The final chapter of this research brings together the conclusions of the

previous chapters. In response to the analysis of the data, recommendations

are made to assist women principals as curriculum leaders in disadvantaged

communities.

1

CHAPTER 1

WOMEN’S JOURNEY THROUGH THE LABYRINTH: ESTABLISHING

THEIR LEADERSHIP ROLE IN SOCIETY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a summary of prior research conducted on key aspects

of the research question, which is, how do women principals experience

curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng

East District? It also serves as a foundation for this study. I have organised the

literature review on women’s role in leadership positions internationally and

locally in South Africa. I draw on radical, socialist and cultural feminist theories

that assisted in understanding the social, cultural and historical practices which

describe the three female principals in this research. The chapter then

describes women’s advancement into management and leadership positions

at schools, various leadership styles that they draw on and then on

experiences of women in curriculum leadership positions. Finally, the chapter

concludes with a description of the environment in which the schools are

located, where women experience curriculum leadership.

1.2 THE POSITION OF WOMEN ABROAD AND LOCALLY

In order to understand the local scenario of women in leadership positions

better it is important to locate this study within the context of international

literature on women in leadership positions.

2

Over the past twenty-five years there has been an increase in the number of

studies conducted on women’s views and on school leadership, however there

is a sharp awareness that they have only gained the attention of a limited

audience (Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:26). Klein, Richardson, Grayson, Fox,

Kramarae, Pollard and Dwyer (2007:103-105) maintain that the worldwide

deficiency of consistent and similar information on women’s formal leadership

positions is challenging and therefore women are the best resources in

imparting data about their experiences. This deficiency stems from research

being incorrectly perceived as a domain of the male; hence research on

women’s experiences was reported through a ‘male’ lens (Nohria and Khurana

2010:379).

According to Camerer in the Citizen (2000:12), “those women who break

through the glass ceiling have succeeded either because someone gave them

the opportunity to test their abilities, or they were courageous, or visionary, or

took a view that they will redefine who they are in society”. She reaffirms that

for women to reach top positions they have to be determined, dedicated,

endure challenges and have a good support structure.

For years women have been excluded from public presence, economically

exploited and forced into motherhood. Culturally, family responsibilities

remained the domain of women whilst men sought paid work. As women

began to climb the corporate and government strata, striking a balance

between family lives and containing leadership roles became contentious. Van

der Westhuizen (1997:545) asserts that because of their gender, internal and

external challenges that women encounter can be downgraded to

inadequacies.

Although there have been many convincing grounds for equal representation

of women in leadership, progress towards this initiative has been notably slow.

3

Grogan, Gupton & Slick and Hamilton (in Smith 2008:129) claim that women

are under-represented in educational leadership positions. Shakeshaft claims

that in countries like the United States of America (USA) and Europe, previous

literature on school leadership were inclined to overlook women (1989:49). It is

only recently that researchers began researching the role of women in

education. She further notes that presently in the United States of America it is

for the first time that women are beginning to dominate the workforce. More

women are becoming the primary breadwinners. However, leadership roles

still evade women in key institutions, although over fifty percent of women

occupy middle management jobs. It is then queried if women are “leadership

material”. The assertion made at the United Nations 4th World Conference on

Women, which was held in Beijing in 1995, was that women were significantly

marginalised in most government ranks (BPA:1995). Mathipa and Tsoka

(2001:324) agree that women throughout the world are under-represented in

leadership roles.

Nohria and Khurana claim that in the 2008 presidential election, people of the

USA deliberated Hillary Clinton’s toughness when she was emotional and at

the same time they rebuked her for being masculine. In the same vein Israel’s

first female prime minister was labelled “the only man for the cabinet” and

Germany’s current female chancellor has been hailed as “the iron frau”.

(2010:379). A Soviet journalist nicknamed Margaret Thatcher the "Iron Lady”,

by which she later became acquainted because of her uncompromising politics

and leadership style. The qualities of assertiveness, authoritativeness and

decisiveness are characteristics associated with men. Women are expected to

nurture and care; and sustain warmth, understanding and affection, as claimed

by Bem (in Bratton, Grint and Nelson 2005:185) and reaffirmed by Kolb,

Williams and Frohlinger (2010:7-8).

Nohria and Khurana declare that generally the attitude towards women in a

group are positive but not for women who occupy traditionally male roles.

4

Women who are competent in these roles are less liked. Those women who do

well in male dominated fields are viewed as competent, but not successful.

Bias is levelled at the way women leaders are perceived and therefore women

leaders have difficulty in the way they perceive themselves (2010:379).

At an international conference held by the University Council for Educational

Administration in Nebraska in July 2011, women from nearly every country

reported that the advancement of women into leadership roles was slow. In

Pakistan women have limited access to education because social norms of

Muslim traditions are constantly reinforced. Only in Germany is it noted that

education is important to everyone (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:4).

Jansen (2007:4) contends that South African women are still struggling to

come to terms with their identity in communities. Often the suitability of women

as leaders has been questioned; therefore South African women must be seen

as those having the resourcefulness of effective leaders (Luhabe 2007:4).

Kanjere (2008:5) states that if women leaders are empowered they can

strengthen the lives of their communities through the concept of ubuntu.1

Stereotypical expectations and beliefs have restricted their opportunity in how

to lead (Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:101). According to Daft, “a stereotype

can be described as “a widely held generalisation about a group of people that

assigns attributes to them solely on the basis of a limited number of

categories”(1991:437). Cultural stereotypes and other prejudices against

women make it impossible for women to realise what they are capable of.

Gardiner et al (in Klein et al 2007:116) claim that race coupled with gender

were detrimental in women penetrating male-dominated leadership positions in

Nigeria and South Africa because of the resistance women met in having their

power respected and accepted.

The under-representation of women can be traced from the time when

feminism began making inroads into society. Rampton (2008:1) likens

1The concept ubuntu is an African Bantu word meaning ‘the awareness of being’ which is expressed in the spirit of

fellowship and cooperation, humanity and compassion (Rukuni 2007:1-2).

5

feminism to a journey that women had to travel in order to establish their own

position in the world. In the next section I review feminism and three feminist

theories which is critical because it seeks to campaign for a better life on be-

half of women.

1.3 FEMINISM AND FEMINIST THEORIES

It is imperative to examine ways in which gender is addressed in feminism and

informed by feminist theories. According to Peet and Hartwick (2009:240),

feminism encompasses various philosophies, theories and political

movements. The majority of these are critical towards existing social and

gender relations. Feminist theory investigates the situations and experiences

of women in society (Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:450). It examines origins,

characteristics and forms of gender equality that influence gender politics and

power relations. It campaigns for female rights and centres on patriarchy2,

stereotyping, equal pay and oppression. Feminist theory aims to vigorously

promote social justice in the sphere of women. By focussing on how race,

class, ethnicity, and age traverse gender, feminist theories critique the

differences between men and women. It gives voice to women by highlighting

the many ways that they have contributed to society.

Support for women’s equal political and legal rights with men was detailed by

feminism during the 1880s. Very early works by people like Rousseau3

reflected that women and men were not the same. Their roles in society where

women were wives and mothers and men became citizens were defined by

their biological differences. Women’s subordination was reflected in their

oppression to capture their thoughts in writing and their exclusion from public

2The concept "patriarch", as ‘the father and ruler of the family and tribe’, was first used during Biblical times and refers

specifically to the sons of Jacob, (as well as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and their forefathers) (Oxford Dictionary, 1969:890). 3Jean-Jacques Rousseau was one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment in eighteenth century

Europe.

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discussion. Women were expected to be dependent, protected and kept close.

It was the responsibility of women to ensure that men and children were

nurtured and nourished by them in a calm and leisured environment (Bryson

2003:5). Eagleton (2003:12) agrees with Bryson that the women’s role was

confined to the private sphere, whilst men occupied the public arena.

1.3.1 The Historical Roots of Feminist Theory

According to Bryson (2003:5-6) during the middle eighteenth century, there

emerged a ‘bluestocking’ group in Great Britain which comprised of intellectual

women who publicly discussed and published their views and thoughts about

women. Hannah More, one of its members wrote that it was more the

woman’s, not man’s responsibility to nurture virtue within the family. Women

were motivated by their sensibility instead of reason. This group further

debated that women should become more educated if they were to become

better mothers and wives. Women united their efforts to campaign for equal

rights in a succession of movements or ‘waves’.

Rampton (2008:1) claims that the success of the first wave of feminism elicited

transformation in education, healthcare and in the workplace. The first wave of

feminism was primarily driven by middle class white women. Second-wave

feminism, which began in the 1960s and continued into the 1990s, included

women of colour and developing nations. They formed camaraderie and

encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives and reject

sexist structures of power. Radical groups like the ‘Redstockings’ staged

campaigns rejecting pageants where women were subjected to parades.

Second-wave feminism linked the suppression of women with concepts of

patriarchy, capitalism and the stereotypical role of women as wife and mother.

Gender was viewed as a creation of society whereas sex was biological.

Campaigners of second-wave feminism wanted the highest levels of

government to free itself from the shackles of sexism. The third wave of

7

feminism began in the early 1990s and it is continuing. In this phase many

women are claiming to be strong and empowered, shunning victimization.

They are proud of who they are. They note the differences of ethnicity, class

and sexual orientation as vibrant, situational and temporary.

Peet and Hartwick (2009:240-241) claim that women's position and experience

of social situations are different and unequal to men's. Liberal feminists lobbied

that women can reason the same as men, but that patriarchy has historically

denied women the opportunity to express and practice this reasoning. Women

were relegated to the private sphere of the household, without a voice in the

public sphere. Even after they entered the public sphere, they were still

expected to take care of household duties and child rearing. The

circumstances in which women found themselves due to steadfast power

relationship between men and women are captured in theories of gender

oppression.

Next I review three feminist theories, which are radical, socialist and cultural

feminist theories which inform issues of gender and class. These three

theories have also assisted me to understand the historical, social and cultural

practices which represent and challenge gender relations as an essential

determining factor in the identities of the three women principals in my

research.

1.3.2 Radical feminist theory

Radical feminism is a philosophy that emphasises social dominance of men

over women. The radical feminist approach saw women’s oppression by men

as a reality in women’s life (Eagleton 2003:58). Mannathoko (in Soudien,

Kallaway and Breier 1999:453) proclaims that the oppression of women by

society is evidenced in every organisation, which is a medium for promoting

the dominance of men. This inequality between men and women is rooted in

8

patriarchy. Women were dominated by men in the private and public spheres

of their lives. The philosophy of patriarchy benefits men and oppresses women

because it divides rights, privileges and power by gender. Radical feminism

resists political and social organisations that are connected to patriarchy.

Radical feminists therefore support any cultural change that challenges

patriarchy. They want to probe how patriarchy meshes itself into society. The

force behind radical feminism is that women must be recognised as unique

and separate human beings and their importance must be equal to that of

men. Radical feminists contend that women are never recognised as positive

beings in patriarchal societies where they are oppressed. To a large extent

physical violence is used to support the system of patriarchy.

The aim of radical feminism is to confront and get rid of patriarchy by

challenging gender roles and domination of women. Eagleton asserts that if

patriarchy is eliminated, it will liberate women from an unjust society. Radical

feminists believe that patriarchy can be defeated if women acknowledge their

own value and strength, form a network of trust with other women and oppose

oppression in private and public spheres (2003:116). One of the basic beliefs

of radical feminism is that women have more in common with other women,

not considering race, ethnic group or class, than they do with men. Based on

shared suppression, radical feminists proclaimed the idea of sisterhood. This

started to unite women and reinstate a liberated female.

1.3.3 Socialist feminist theory

Socialist feminists do not accept the radical feminist aggression that women’s

oppression is predominantly rooted in patriarchy. According to Thakathi

(2001:31) social feminism is aligned to Marxist feminism because it is

capitalistic in nature. Socialist feminism has its roots in the early Marxian

9

doctrine4. It combines Marxian class study with feminist social protest

regarding women. Socialist feminists agree with Marx and Engels5 that the

working class is exploited as a result of the capitalist approach of production

(Eagleton 2003:118). Social feminism sees the impact of class relations and

the exploitive economic relations between classes and gender and contends

that this exploitation extends further from class to gender. Socialist feminists

declare that although not all women experienced oppression in the same way

they came together because they shared the same view regarding the world.

Generally, they were limited to the private sphere of household and family, and

were rarely involved in political, economic, or public social life. By the

nineteenth century women started making inroads into the sphere of public

activities, but their participation was restricted by difficulties like factory

legislation and the family wage. These associations are oppressive to women.

Women cannot be liberated from the family outside society.

It is important to understand some of the difficulties women faced in this

period. In the late nineteenth century men still held formal power over the rest

of the family, and women were mostly excluded from the public sphere. Bryson

(2003:240-241) avers that there were the laws that gave husbands control

over their wives' money and property. Women did not have the economic basis

for equality. They were prevented from owning property and did not have

sufficient resources to maintain an independent livelihood. They were

dependent on their husbands or fathers. From the labour front women were

alienated from work, often paid less and downgraded to be in subordinate

positions. Single females were expected to work in a temporary capacity, until

marriage. There were only few cases where women within the work force were

managers or occupied dominant positions within a hierarchy. Women were

4The Marxian doctrine is a political and economic philosophy in which the concept of class struggle plays a central role

in understanding society's allegedly inevitable development from bourgeois oppression under capitalism to a socialist and ultimately classless society 5Engels built upon a theory of how the rise of class society led to both the rise of the state, which represents the

interests of the ruling class in the day-to-day class struggle, and the rise of the family, as the means by which the first ruling classes possessed and passed on private wealth

10

thus rendered powerless, required only to serve others. During the 1970s

socialist feminists declared that the two interlocking and mutually dependent

systems of patriarchy and capitalism were the primary cause of oppression of

women (Eagleton 2003:57). Hence, social feminism developed in tandem with

radical feminist theory and practice.

1.3.4 Cultural feminism

Radical feminism expanded to cultural feminism, which is a theory that draws

attention away from the biological difference between males and females. It is

a theory that praises the cultural difference because it believes that the female

attributes of child-rearing, nurturing and domestic care underpin a more caring

view globally (Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:462). Cultural feminism suggests

that the positive attributes of women, which are cooperation, caring, and

nonviolence in conflict resolution forms a basis for a healthier society. Eagleton

(2003:155) claims that the sensitive and emotional reactions of women are

more beneficial to society than aggressive selfishness. This claim is reiterated

by Addams, a cultural feminist who states that in addition to women being

compassionate and more gentle they are also ‘down to earth”. She further

asserts that the confinement of women to the home will deprive society of

fairness and values (Deegan 1986:226-230). Cultural feminism commends

women’s morality and values.

The review of these theories has shown that women have been oppressed.

Radical feminist theory blames the system of patriarchy as the cause for

oppression of women and the socialist feminist theory attributes economic and

power benefits amassed to men as the reason why women were classified as

part of the working class, thus assuming women's relation to men as workers

and as producing workers (Mannathoko in Soudien et al 1999:457). Cultural

feminism supports feminine morality and values as advantageous to society.

These theories crusaded for deep, structural and cultural changes that broke

11

up the system of oppression to be replaced by socialism and more unrestricted

family systems. Feminism has laid the foundation for social transformation and

the way women are viewed as aspiring leaders in society.

1.4 GENDER AND LEADERSHIP

The perception of a woman’s leadership is often influenced through a biased

gendered lens (Nohria and Khurana 2010:379). Krook and Childs (2010:3)

define gender as “a social system that divides power”. Gender is a

construction of society. Gender bias is an important challenge for women and

organisations alike.

Literature on women’s traditional roles differs in different cultures because

ideologies are deeply embedded in cultural practices. Male domination exists

among all ethnic groups although they may take different forms according to

cultural practices (Tyson 2006:84). Historically men come from a tradition of

being dominant and women have been subjected to this domination. Women

have been left to struggle over the quality of life, despite having the potential to

exhibit values and commitment. Knowledge and experience gained as a

mother and a wife at home were not considered as sufficient knowledge in the

academic world. The manner in which women’s experiences are recorded and

replicated is different from their real experiences at home. Women have been

far too oppressed in the past. Presently women are becoming empowered

through education (Datta and Kornberg 2002:2-3 &86).

Education challenges cultural and religious practices because it describes the

roles of women differently from the traditional view. Through empowerment

women find new approaches to deal with bias in the community, at work and in

society. Women leaders need to balance their responsibilities between work

and at home. The structure of women’s leadership is often formed through the

12

development and balancing of their personal and professional responsibilities

(Klein et al 2007:116). Like men leaders, they go through the roles of leading

at work, but in addition they also have to perform their roles in caring for their

families and their homes. The approval of family and their support has made it

possible for women to assume leadership and management positions (Klein et

al 2007:108 and Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:21&42). Even after they reach

the top, people’s experiences are shaped by traditional gender expectations

and practices (Nohria and Kuhrana 2010:121). Datta and Kornberg state that it

is therefore necessary that the cultural perception regarding the need to

empower women must also change (2002:2-3 &86). The strategy for achieving

gender equality must be pursued broadly throughout the world.

The global inconsistency in gender representation in public life however, is

disquieting. This inconsistency is evident in the international, national and local

trends on women empowerment. Each draws attention to the different effects

that empowerment has on women in the context of development and social

change. Datta and Kornberg declare that the degree of women’s

disempowerment and challenges varies within and across countries. They

further state that there was a social acceptance of women like Prime Minister

Benazir Bhutto providing leadership in Pakistan. Sri Lanka and Turkey were

also predisposed to such a stance. In spite of China’s and India’s efforts

through national policies and beliefs in striving for women and men to be

treated equally, the prevalence of patriarchal structures that prevent women’s

empowerment still exists. Although India has had a female leader in

government, overall representation in government sectors is dismal. Many

important women were in the forefront of the struggle for India’s independence.

Women like the late Indhira Gandhi raised the confidence of millions of poor

women in India but her contribution to upward mobility was been curtailed

largely because of patriarchal social frameworks (2002:164).

13

Makoro (2007:53-66) reflects on the situation of women in Southern Africa as

“traditionally composed of a patriarchal order”. Damons (2008:1) has written

that the patriarchal culture which prevails at most schools has restricted the

advancement of women to senior management positions. Patriarchy is a

culture which promotes the belief that men are more privileged than women.

Such a culture favoured men as being strong, protective and rational and

ultimately the decision makers (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:2).

Gender bias manifests itself in the system of patriarchy. It is a structure of

control of man over woman, which goes beyond eras, class, areas and

different economic systems. Patriarchy can thus be described as a set of

social relations between men, which enable them to dominate women. Gender

identities that inhibit women’s empowerment are not inherent, but are acquired

through social and cultural interactions. This includes the household because it

embodies class antagonisms. It is an oppressive institution. This position is still

prevalent in most countries in Southern Africa. In her address to the

September 1995 Beijing World Conference on Women, Dr Nkosazana

Dlamini-Zuma6 said, “Women in South Africa are definitely not free. The

majority live their lives as effective minors subject to the authority of a male

relative.” This denotes that women were, and in some instances still are not

allowed to own any property, to speak in public (especially where men are

present), or to be in positions of leadership. In this situation a woman is not

equal to her husband. She is a minor answerable to all men in the family,

including her sons.

In his paper, Challenges faced by women leaders as school principals in rural

areas, Kanjere (2008:2) quotes a very prejudiced Northern Sotho proverb,

“Tsa etwa ke ya tshadi pele di wela leopeng”. In English this translates to “if a

leader is a woman, disaster is bound to happen”. If a woman assumes a

6Dr Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma was then a Paediatric Medical Officer at the Mbabane Government Hospital in

Swaziland.

14

position of leadership in a community that shares such a belief, she is already

challenged before assuming her leadership. Women in leadership positions

from these communities are subjected to prejudices because men in such

communities uphold staunch cultural beliefs. Koch and Irby (2002:23) contend

that despite the advancement in addressing gender inequalities there is still a

very slow change in many entrenched views, such as gender related

discrimination and stereotyping. Whether it is deliberate or concealed, it is

harmful to people (Benokraitis in Pooe 2007:32). In addition to women’s

subordination that reflects cultural practices, the effects of Apartheid on

education in South Africa cannot be ignored (Msane 2005:15). Wolpe, Quinlan,

and Martinez (in D.O.E 1997:15) claimed that The Bantu Education Act of

1954, which was introduced through Apartheid, was a system which

disadvantaged women because it overtly demonstrated inequality regarding

the appointment of women to management positions.

1.5 WOMEN AND LEADERSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS

Prior to 1994, gender discrimination was evident in the education sector of

South Africa. Different subject specialisations offered to teachers, salary

scales of educators and the dismissal of married women or women who

intended to marry characterised discrimination in the teaching profession. The

profession therefore became a contentious place for gender equality

(Mahlase1997:5).

Today women dominate the teaching profession in South Africa, but only a

minority hold leadership positions. Statistics obtained from a Gauteng

Department of Education statistician in December 2012 revealed that in the

Gauteng Province (where the research was conducted) only 727 of the 2164

principals in 2012, were women (Reynecke: 2012).

15

Some women entered the profession to get a foot in the door of the teaching

profession and some saw it as a link between mothering and teaching as early

expectations of subservience and cultural reproduction. Others saw it as a way

to change the ways in which children were educated. Documented studies also

indicate that women showed a reluctance to progress to principal positions

because they had no intention of becoming principals, but they had finally

moved into the job because ‘something had to be done’(Van der Westhuizen

1997:545).

Reynolds (2002:51) states that during the 1990s South African women

dominated the teaching profession; however their presence in school

leadership positions was under-represented. South Africa has attempted to

address gender inequality through the formulation of the Employment of Equity

Act of 1998. The purpose of the Act is to achieve equity in the workplace by

promoting equal opportunity and fair treatment in employment through the

elimination of unfair discrimination. The Act stipulates that no person may

unfairly discriminate, directly or indirectly, against an employee in any

employment policy or practice, on one or more grounds including race, gender,

pregnancy, marital status, family responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour,

sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, Human Immuno Deficiency Virus

(HIV) status, conscience, belief, political opinion, culture, language, and birth

(Government Gazette, Vol. 400, No.19370).

Despite the introduction of this Act, the under-representation of women in

positions of leadership in government and non-government organisations is

still prevalent in South Africa (Perumal 2007:2). The present South African

Cabinet Constitution lends credence to Perumal’s assertion. There are 22

male Ministers and 14 female Ministers as well as 18 male Deputy Ministers

and 15 female Deputy Ministers (http://www.info.go.za- government

communication and information system). Kloot (2004:471-472) states that

16

there is an absence of women in most senior managerial positions, although

they have the necessary qualifications.

Apart from literature on gender differences, gender leadership and

management in education has not featured prominently. Attention has been

cast on the patriarchal culture which relegated women to subordinate roles and

damaged their self-perceptions (Thornham 2007:23). This has invariably

resulted in the oppression and suppression of women and their rights. Fischer

claims that the upward mobility of women in education has not been given the

appropriate recognition it deserves (1996:36). Cotter (2004:129) agrees that

the prevalence of male dominated management positions, which seems to be

an accepted norm, disregards the experience and qualifications of females.

Gumbi (in Wagadu 2008:6) states that in Australia in 2000, women in

executive leadership were 34.6% compared to 65.4% men. In the USA the

majority of teachers and educational administrators are women, yet only a

small portion of them occupy formal leadership roles. A survey conducted in

Uganda in 2006 shows there is a distinct under-representation of women in

leadership in schools. Only 20% of the heads, which we refer to as principals,

in government schools were women and in government-registered private

schools they occupied 10% of the position of principal. One of the reasons that

Kiamba (in Wagadu 2008:2) espoused for this is that traditionally there exists a

male dominant culture in Uganda. Consequently, men have the decision-

making power and authority regarding strategic direction, and allocation of

resources.

Chisholm (2001:391) advocates that the reason why women lack confidence in

their leadership stems from race and gender issues. This view is reinforced by

Bratton et al (2005:191) who contend that women leaders are often criticised

by their subordinates because of stereotypes like patriarchy. These views

predispose women into thinking that they are not competent. According to

17

Snyder and Tadesse (1995:44) the progress of women as a whole will be

impeded if there remains unwavering feelings and thoughts about the

competency of women. The progress of women into leadership and

management positions was previously deterred, not by lack of ambition or

motivation but, by family commitments and preconceived expectations.

Christman (in Klein 2007:109) surmises that there is an almost pessimistic

anticipation for women who aspire to leadership positions. Women therefore

have the added challenge of dispelling this view in addition to proving their

capability as effective leaders.

1.6 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: WOMEN BREAKING THE

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP BARRIER

The concepts leadership and management are used interchangeably, yet they

mean two different things. The duties, responsibilities and roles of a leader are

dissimilar to that of a manager. The ability to do the right thing at the right time

describes leadership, whilst the ability to getting things done through others

depicts management (Wolpe et al in D.O.E 2007:15). Razik and Swanson

assert that leadership is a mutual relationship between leaders and followers

whereas management is an authority relationship between a manager and a

subordinate (2010:356). Leaders look to the future to derive success whilst

managers derive success from within and from the present.

Leadership provides the vigour and the force needed for accomplishing

success. Gauthier (in Grogan and Shakeshaft 2011:2) defines leadership as a

process, not a person, of getting people to work together towards achieving a

common goal. This finds agreement with Gunter (2001:74) who claimed that

this relationship must be geared towards a social vision and change in order to

achieve a common goal. Kaplan (1994:3) maintains that leadership is a

discipline whereby a leader recognises the importance of others over him or

18

herself. It stems from values, action and power. He further states that

leadership must impact on organisational performance. Leadership is about

inspiring and giving direction to all stakeholders towards attaining and

maintaining the vision and mission of the school. Furthermore it creates the

environment for effective learning.

Within the school context, management is about ensuring that the school

achieves its set targets and objectives. It embraces performance management,

staff development, constructive assessment and planning. The effect of

leadership and management in a school is evaluated by their effect on the

excellence and standards of the school. Both are necessary for the success of

the school. The success of educational leadership in schools is influenced by

many variables, of which management and leadership is crucial (Clarke

2007:1). Effective leaders will build capacity for improvement through

collaboration within schools and with stakeholders of schools. Effective

leadership is often associated with the school effectiveness tradition in relation

to a quantifiable measure of outcomes like examination results. Loock

maintains that in order to improve and sustain the delivery of quality education

in schools, it is highly imperative to address leadership effectiveness in these

institutions (2007:5).

In all schools the principal is the one who holds formal authority for

management and leadership of the school. School leadership is shaped by

expectations, beliefs, preconceptions and stereotypes associated with gender.

Much literature published makes reference to leadership having male

connotations. Eggins (1997:12-13) postulates that the idea of leadership has a

masculine implication and images of leaders are often that of male. Beeka also

advances such a view by stating that authority is central to a masculine style of

leadership that is vested in the school principal (2008:161). Leadership is an

aspect that poses a challenge to women principals.

19

According to Grogan in Smith (2008:36), female leadership is interactive

leadership; it is relational, power-shared, learning-focussed, authentic, moral

and a synergised leadership. Women leaders prefer a horizontal rather than a

vertical style of leading. Vertical leadership refers to an individual who is in a

formal position of power, such as being the hierarchical head of a division.

Horizontal leadership refers to information and communication passed along in

the form of networks or webs. Female leaders work in forming webs, rather

than pyramids in their institutions. Women’s lived experiences as leaders differ

from that of men’s. Although we know that all women do not lead in a particular

way, there are methods and preferences that characterise the leadership of

many women. Women use power to strengthen relationships. Women leaders

use the foundation of family to characterise their work. Their mothering skills

are often used to support, encourage and protect their learners at school.

During conversations women principals often share their experiences of their

home in relation to their school (Earley and Weindling 2004:71).

Klein et al (2007:116) maintain that some women fall back on their religious

beliefs to understand how spirituality affects their lives as leaders. Studies

have shown that African women principals include ministerial and spiritual

aspects in their leadership. They attribute their success and ability to tolerate

difficult and conflicting times to their spirituality. In so doing their behaviour

serves as a model and inspiration for their teachers to remain strong and

innovative. Many believe that spirituality is a search for inner peace and self

understanding. Eagly and Carli state that women are perceived to be more

religious and empathetic towards the less-fortunate than men (2007:46).

Grogan and Shakeshaft agree that research done among women principals in

the USA, found that women principals relate spirituality to the way they model

behaviour and inspire others. It assists them to explore others’ worlds because

the lives of children are directed to the social context in which they develop,

not just the school (2011:5&14-19). Moral leadership which includes purpose,

ethics and beliefs can help in transforming a school from a formal organisation

20

to a community and inspire commitment. Women principals are moved by

watching children develop. Many women learn leadership by being curriculum

coaches, curriculum instructors and from their knowledge of teaching.

Tyson (2006:85) posits that society categorised women as being trained to

nurture rather than lead. Cultural definitions of femininity classify women as

being sensitive, conformists, are dependent and lack assertiveness. School

principals are expected to be assertive, aggressive and competitive. These are

traits recognised as natural in men but as negative in women. In contrast

women were viewed as feeble, nurturing and submissive in nature. There are

those who believe that motherhood tends to interfere with women’s

commitment and willingness to enter into a profession.

Msane contends that organisations are not very willing to employ women

because it is presumed that women cannot enter into leadership occupations

and integrate them with full family responsibility at the same time. This was

used to justify why men monopolised positions of power socially, culturally and

educationally (2005:15). Traditionally, women remained oppressed and

powerless because they were denied the educational and occupational

opportunity to gain economic, political and social power. Hence, women

wrestle a constant battle against discrimination at a societal and at an

organisational level.

Research conducted on gender differences in school management and

leadership indicates that there are no striking differences found in the way

tasks are viewed or performed in school management practices. What is

significant is that there are gender differences in leadership styles when tasks

are executed (Msane 2005:15). The choice and implementation of the correct

style of leadership can also be a challenge to women leaders because

leadership styles reflect their own character. The feminine characteristics of

caring, communication and collaboration were once thought to be weaknesses

in leadership (Grogan in Smith 2008:36).

21

1.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES

The three common traditional management and leadership styles are

autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. In brief, Harris and Lambert (2003:27)

describe autocratic leadership as a top-down approach. In a school this style

of leadership is noted for information flowing from the principal in the form of

delegation, to teachers in one direction. The principal depends on the

teachers’ compliance for success. In contrast the democratic approach is

characterised by two-way communication between the principal and educators.

All stakeholders are part of the decision making process. According to Daft

(2005:55) a democratic leader delegates, encourages participation and

depends on other staff members’ influence. Collaboration ensues in a

stimulating environment under democratic leadership. Such an environment

favours effective teaching and learning. The laissez-faire style of leadership is

where leaders allow group members to make the decisions. This type of

leadership is characterised by little guidance from leaders, but leaders provide

the tools and resources needed for group members to solve problems on their

own.

Gunter states that the choice of behaviour and specific tasks which facilitate

accountability for school improvement is defined by leadership (2001:31). She

further maintains that the existence of a variety of leadership styles works to

the benefit of a woman principal because women leaders gravitate towards

various forms of collective leadership. In the discussion that follows I focus on

leadership styles that are common and that contribute positively to effective

schooling and curriculum delivery.

It is also important to note that different situations require different leadership

approaches or styles.

22

1.7.1 Transformational leadership

The premise of transformational leadership is that schools are actually

outcome focussed organisations, which strengthen the power structure of a

leader. Transformational leadership ensures that the culture of a school is

predisposed to self-improvement and to necessary change which is needed for

improvement (Gunter 2001:75). If a new principal in a school does not

understand the culture of the school and what needs to change, he or she will

be detached from lobbying sufficient support to move the school forward. A

leader must be visibly committed. Best leaders devolve power, rather than

wield it. They think on their feet. The key to successful leadership is

developing the appropriate personal qualities in potential leaders. Schools

have unique goals, committed employees and very transparent boundaries.

Transformational leaders help staff to develop and share understandings about

the school and its activities. According to DuBrin (2004:82) transformational

leaders are charismatic, visionary, and innovative and give positive feedback

to their staff.

Davies concurs with DuBrin, stating that the purpose and the school’s vision is

a key aspect of transformational leadership (2009:45). Generally, people are

motivated by goals because goals help them to make work more meaningful

and feel a sense of identity. Group goals also help to create high performance.

The personal attention that a leader devotes to his employees also increases

enthusiasm, optimism and reduces frustration. Therefore, transformational

leaders provide stimulating environments which support and sustain

performance of administrators, teachers and learners.

Gunter (2001:73-75) further maintains that transformational leadership

emphasises vision building and establishes commitment to decided goals. The

provision of intellectual stimulation and individual support and guidance is

made possible by transformational leadership. High expectations of staff are

23

encouraged by this form of leadership because it is induced by improvement of

learners’ results. Attention is drawn to the performance of staff involved in

activities that affect the quality of teaching and learning. The promotion and

development of their schools as learning communities is another key attribute

of transformational leadership.

1.7.2 Ethical leadership

Davies maintains that this type of leadership goes beyond the educational

administration at schools. It is about the humane or compassionate part of a

person (2009:53-55). When a leader is challenged by someone’s demeanour,

he or she will have to react in a manner that is diplomatic and delicate. A

certain degree of respect must be accorded. In the South African context a

leader must respect people as people come first. This is in line with the

Constitution of South Africa, which emphasises human dignity, the

achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights (Government

Gazette 108 of 1996). Schools as government institutions must serve the

interest of the people first. In a teachers’ strike, for example, the principal must

respect the constitutional rights of teachers and learners. Leaders will look for

ways in which learners are changed by what they learn in order that they

become richer, deeper human beings. O’Sullivan and West-Burnham

(2011:171) agree that moral or ethical leadership is about school leaders

ensuring that social values transcend beyond the school into the community.

Bureaucratic procedures must be infused with human values. Earley and

Weindling state that ethical leadership is about accountability and effective use

of resources (2004:71). It is especially important for induction of new teachers.

Whilst acknowledging the demanding nature of teaching and learning the

leader must be considerate. This type of a leader is proactive rather than

reactive.

24

1.7.3 Learner-centred leadership

This style of leadership is based on the premise that leaders work with and

through others. The principal relies on the School Management Team (SMT)

who in turn relies on educators to deliver upon agreed curriculum in agreed

timeframes (Davies 2009:59-64). O’Sullivan and West-Burnham state that

learner-centred leaders should lead by example. The teachers and the

principal of a school are learner-centred leaders (2011:46). Coming early to

school, being on time for meetings and dressing appropriately are role models

for others. There is constant observation of the principal within and outside the

school. The proceedings of the school must therefore be monitored and the

principal engaged in dialogue with the community of the school. Monitoring is a

way of checking on learners’ progress. Direct knowledge on teaching practices

and classroom activities is gained. The identification of teachers’ strengths and

weaknesses is assisted by monitoring. Learner centred leadership is about

developing one’s colleagues. Learner-centred leaders use dialogue as an

avenue in which opportunities are created for teachers to talk about teaching

and learning, sharing ideas and challenges. It is healthy because it influences

what goes on in the classroom.

Schools are busy and dynamic places. According to Landsberg, Kruger and

Nel, school principals can make schools become and maintain a supportive

caring community. Schools need special leadership because each school has

its own unique atmosphere. All stakeholders involved with the school may not

always agree, hence it is the duty of school principals to nurture commitment

and harmony to ensure that the schools are purposeful for all involved

(2005:21). The values and beliefs of a principal are important. Sergiovanni

(2000:166) posits that there can be no leadership if there is nothing important

to follow. In order to run effective schools many successful principals maintain

that a school culture needs to be established with parents, teachers and

25

learners working together. Parents and community, teachers and learners

must have faith in the school to guarantee its success.

Dalton, Fawcett and West-Burnham (2001:5) declare that school leadership

concerns change and improvement and to achieve this leaders must be able to

inspire and persuade their followers. A leader needs to be consistent and fair,

promote mutual respect and be able to negotiate and compromise. There is no

one leadership style that can be advocated for all schools. Circumstances will

dictate the style required (Hersey and Blanchard 2001:4). What is important is

how the style of leadership impacts on curriculum, which is the core business

of the school. According to Oplatka (2006:258-259) curriculum leaders must

also be able to shift leadership styles to accommodate different situations.

1.8 CURRICULUM LEADERSHIP

Ylimaki (2011:121-2) claims that curriculum encompasses content,

assessments, activities and programmes that are created by teachers,

learners and administrators. Socio-cultural, political and a person’s own

assumptions influence the meaning he or she gives to curriculum.

Principals previously had very little time to co-ordinate activities in curriculum

and instruction and even less time to observe teachers in class. Their

complaint was that managerial activities, attending to scheduled and

unscheduled meetings and the daily operations of the school took up a lot of

their time. Subsequently principals’ attention on curriculum has increased.

Many principals perceive conceptual leadership as denoting knowledge or

curriculum, instruction, teaching and learning. The culture of the curriculum

must have an impact on the learners’ lives. According to Cornbleth curriculum

is an integrated interface of planning, performance, policy and socio-cultural

systems. It is a product of social activity that is influenced by contextual factors

26

inside and outside the classroom (1990:24&27). Content and learning activities

in the curriculum must be related and have significance to learners and

teachers. Joseph (2011:38) maintains that curriculum encompasses all the

activities within the school that supports the holistic development of the

learners. It must surpass syllabus completion and school assessment so that

we develop learners who are physically, intellectually, personally and socially

equipped to meet the challenges of society. Curriculum must equip learners

with skills, knowledge, experience and attitudes to meet the challenges of the

social world.

Busher and Harris see curriculum as values-based. Teachers, learners and the

principal come with their own implicit or explicit values which influences

curriculum (2000:62). Crow, Matthews and McCleary (1996:12) declare that

the success of a principal’s leadership depends on a school’s situational

characteristics. Curriculum leadership is a shared experience which has its

own uniqueness at each teaching site. As a shared occurrence, it is presumed

that the different stakeholders will make contributions that impact on how it is

shaped (Macpherson and Brooker 1998:1). Razik and Swanson claim that

educational leadership is often challenged to draw up a curriculum that caters

for the needs of the learners who are influenced by parents and communities

(2010:24). In order for curriculum leaders in schools to perform effectively, they

need to develop coherent policies and practices.

Glatthorn, Boschee and Whitehead (2006:258) state that the initial step in

curriculum leadership is to get an in-depth understanding of the norms,

patterns and structures that hinder or make curriculum change possible.

Curriculum leaders must familiarise themselves with the structures, content,

discourses and hierarchies in curriculum. Strong leadership in curriculum

development is an essential element of any school improvement strategy, and

current principals play a vital and ever-expanding role in the process.

Curriculum leadership includes activities which are related to the knowledge,

27

skills and attitudes that are required for improved teaching and learning. It is a

shared occurrence between all stakeholders of the school that ultimately

shape the practice of curriculum leadership by organising and co-ordinating

organisational activities. Every school should have dedicated curriculum

leaders.

Hugh (in Busher and Harris 2000:61) maintains that the curriculum leadership

role calls for more creativeness, collaboration, motivation and modelling from

the principal. A curriculum encompasses activities within a school that promote

physical, social, personal and intellectual development of the learners.

Therefore leaders need to generate policies and preparations that are

coherent. In addition, curriculum leaders need to encourage and display

openness, trust and communicate effectively. Zenger claims that trust is the

foundation upon which all relationships within an organisation are built

(2010:250). Curriculum leaders play an important role in changing the internal

conditions of the school. They are uniquely placed in that they can bring about

change within the school. They are in a position that can create a culture of

teaching and learning that are values-based. Curriculum leaders also have the

opportunity to manage everlasting communities. Joseph (2011:3) posits that

curriculum is a process for transforming educational aims and practice through

inquiry and introspection. Therefore, it encompasses values, vision,

interactions, practices and introspection.

Glatthorn et al (2006:258-259) further state that curriculum leaders should

therefore; develop a network of support with other curriculum specialists. They

must also be able to take risks and continue to improve their skills to bring

positive changes to curriculum. Formulating a shared vision and developing a

strategic plan for its implementation are necessary for the success of a

curriculum leader. The involvement of the parents and communities are central

to shared-decision making process in the school.

28

Joseph claims that the concept of curriculum should include practice,

interactions, values and visions and personal reflections (2011:3). Principals

should therefore be knowledgeable on how the curriculum acquired by

learners contributes to their growth and development. The emphasis on

supervision by the principal should shift from inspection to that of teacher

needs and development. At an instructional level, principals must work with

teachers to synchronize the implementation of curriculum across all grades to

ensure standards are maintained. Staff development and empowerment are

important for curriculum implementation. The involvement of teachers in

deliberations benefits the curriculum. The curriculum must open up the

planning process to all those who want to participate. Meeting the needs of

learners is a huge challenge at schools in the present day.

Classrooms and schools have their own cultures largely influenced by those

that are closest to them. Policies that dictate curriculum may be the same, but

implementation is different. Bobbitt (in Jackson 1992:11) contends that the

school is an extension of society and those skills and knowledge lacking in

society must be addressed by the school. Joseph agrees that people may

share similar understandings of their societies and hold shared values, but

their own individual understanding of events and practices are interpreted

differently (2011:27&186). Therefore, what is taught in the classroom is a

collection of an individual’s understanding and values which are influenced by

family culture, race, gender, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, religion

and their own creativity and imagination. The curriculum of a school would

have a greater impact on the lives of its learners if its beliefs and practices

were consistent and sustained throughout the school. Learners would have

difficulty in articulating the vision of the school and the goals of learning if they

have to engage in many different cultures in one day. A school community that

understands the educational mission of the school would be dedicated by the

same vision and would work harmoniously. A curriculum that can embrace

29

indigenous traditions and cultures across all levels is inclusive and relevant to

those learners.

Curriculum leadership involves issues of communication and consultation. This

normally will pose a challenge to the arrival of a new principal. In time

principals and staff begin to find each other as they work towards delivery of

curriculum. Hence, a lot of emphasis on interpersonal skills, relationships and

teamwork are necessary as they are school contextual factors that impact on

curriculum. Duignan (2006:22) claims that the principal needs to operate on

two levels. The first is on the professional and socialisation level. This is the

prior learning on a principal’s role and his or her own experience from

schooling, teaching and attending formal training. The second is at an

organisational socialisation level where principals display knowledge, values

and behaviours required to perform their specific tasks within the school

context. The weak manager will struggle and tend to function on his or her own

Support is the cornerstone for successful curriculum delivery in education and

collaboration is the means to attain this support. Although collaboration is not

always easy, it can be very rewarding. Friend and Cook (2009:5) perceive

collaboration as a voluntary activity when two or more people or parties work

towards a common goal. Van der Mescht and Tyala (2008:221) claim that

participation from all the stakeholders at schools must be encouraged. A good

relationship between the principal and the chairperson of the school governing

body (SGB) is cemented by mutual respect and a common view in the way a

school should operate. Support from the SGB goes a long way in helping to

remove the feeling of isolation. The SGB is made up of teachers, parents and

co-opted members with specific skills and expertise that can provide

assistance to the school. Coming from different backgrounds they provide an

array of experience and expectations of education.

According to Busher and Harris (2000:96) the role of the SGB is vital because

they can influence curriculum implementation and discipline control.

30

Chairpersons of governing bodies must therefore be keen, interested and

accessible. They must be the ‘critical friend’ of the school. After all they are a

vital link between the school and the community. They bring knowledge of the

community into the school. Effective heads recognise that an effective and

efficient governing body can make a difference; they add value and make

significant difference to the effectiveness of the school. A delegated team

management is essential for a successful school. Good teamwork can be

strengthened by having proper procedures and good communication systems

with everyone involved in the well-being of the school.

In addition, the principal still has to manage and lead curriculum, which is not

an easy task. An effective leader is one who aligns his or her own role with that

of the organisation’s goals. To do this Earley and Weindling (2004:61) assert

that they must be driven by their own passion and values, which involve high

expectations, teamwork and commitment, inclusivity, shared educational

values and beliefs, understanding and engagement with stakeholders.

Duignan (2006:1) states that school leaders are often confronted by external

and internal challenges and expectations because they are accountable for

high standards of curriculum delivery and meeting the expectations of a

school-community. Educational leaders have the responsibility of ensuring that

learners at their schools receive the kind of education that will prepare them for

life and become better citizens. They must be able to make a difference in their

own and in community lives.

Duignan maintains that leaders cannot achieve everything by themselves; they

need to work with and through others to achieve the school’s vision and goals

(2006:22). The intention and content of a vision helps to motivate all members

of a school community to come together. An inspirational vision and clear

purpose must be linked to practice by the leader. Curriculum leadership

encompasses a shared vision (MacNeill 2003:7). Shared relationships grow

out of a shared vision. Principals must develop effective relationships and

31

create opportunities of leadership for others within the school context.

Delegating authority, empowering and trusting others with tasks underpins a

leader-staff relationship. The traditional school operated on rigid educational

policies and practices. With the emphasis now that the school is a social

movement, it disrupts practices of the past. Schools have become areas of

community involvement. MacNeill maintains that curriculum leadership must

include the entire school community (2003:5).

Relation-building in a school community gives stakeholders a sense of

belonging. According to Chrispeels (2004:3-5) when principals share

leadership with the school community, an effective environment for learning is

enabled. The opportunity for networking and trusting relationships are

developed. The fundamental issue in a school community is how best

relationships serve the needs of learners and their parents. As a curriculum

leader the principal must be sensitive to the accepted beliefs and norms of

people in the school community. It is therefore necessary that the curriculum is

developed to fit the needs of the community. Davies (2009:45-46) states that

schools occupy the minds and hearts of parents because that is where their

children spend most of their formative years in learning. Earley and Weindling

(2004:72) have noted that in the United Kingdom the metaphor of a school as

a family is common. The school is a haven for children from disadvantaged

homes and disadvantaged communities because such schools draw attention

away from social challenges and focus on academic work. Through

government funding such schools are also on nutrition and social programmes.

1.9 DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES

A disadvantaged group or community is characterised by a deprivation of

resources and barriers that it faces. These barriers may vary from group to

group. Traditionally, “disadvantaged” was used to describe a particular group

32

of people’s class. Rural areas are often categorised as disadvantaged

because they have the same deprivation characteristics as disadvantaged

communities (Herselman 2003:950).

According to Homel, Elias and Hay (2001:1) when we speak of disadvantaged

communities we should not just concentrate on individuals and families but

also on neighbourhood characteristics because these are critical ingredients

for describing what disadvantaged communities are. People coming from such

communities need each other to form a base of support. These areas of

support can be found in one’s own family, one’s culture and the neighbourhood

(Mayer 2003:6-7). Peet and Hartwick claim that people from disadvantaged

communities do not have the means to meet the basic needs of life. This

includes sufficient food to maintain good health, a healthy place to live and

affordable services available to everyone, being treated with dignity and

respect. Development is about emancipation from within the self (2009:1-2).

Price-Robertson (2011:10) agrees that community disadvantage represents

people living in certain areas that are unable to achieve positive results in life

due to a host of factors.

Meece and Eccles (2010:318) maintain that characteristics such as education,

employment and substance abuse within such communities are highlighted as

a result of the effects of their social and environmental circumstances. These

communities are subjected to weak social systems, have no or poor role

models and little or no opportunities to improve themselves. Educational

attainment in such communities is influenced by socio-cultural factors such as

ethnicity, economic status and parental education. In spite of many years of

educational reforms there still persists disparity in achievements of learners

from disadvantaged groups or communities (Shields 2009:53). Parents who

speak a language different from the language of teaching and learning cannot

offer assistance to their children. Cunningham and Cordeiro state that parents

33

who are not proficient in the official language will expect the school to have full

control and influence over their children’s schooling (2003:101).

According to Price-Robertson (2011:10-11) previously the term disadvantaged

was associated with economic factors like unemployment and income.

Recently, the term disadvantaged is viewed as a multifaceted problem. Social

exclusion is one such problem. Social exclusion happens when a community

of people endure a combination of setbacks such as poor housing, bad health,

unemployment, poor skills and high crime environments. Generally,

disadvantaged people have a poor level of education. They do not trust the

school and other institutions of learning. They do not respond well to pressure

and are not confident in their ability to achieve. They are put off when they are

confronted with things that are too theoretical, complicated or not taught well.

Orstein, Pajak and Orstein (2007:338) contend that certain characteristics of a

disadvantaged group itself make it difficult for them to progress. The

assistance offered by the outside society could mean contradicting their own

culture thereby resulting in their reluctance to accept help. Education is

therefore necessary to change the mindset, raise the self-esteem and inspire

confidence in such a group. A higher priority on community involvement within

the educational milieu should be placed. Parental and community involvement

have a positive effect for change. The school can provide the cement for

bonding because it is a place where people can share traditions, values and

experiences to achieve a common goal. Orstein (in Orstein et al 2007:188)

further indicates that the moral development of the child is stimulated by a

balance between the school, home and broader society.

Chapter one provided a foundation for this study. Although some women have

triumphed in attaining leadership positions, there is still an under-

representation of women in curriculum leadership positions internationally and

locally. Journeying from the waves of feminism to the context in which

34

principals in this study work, women have to prove their capability as leaders,

rise above stereotypical misconceptions and choose leadership styles which

can assist them in becoming effective curriculum leaders. This chapter

elucidated that curriculum leadership is a shared practice and the contributions

made by different stakeholders have an impact on the school’s curriculum. The

chapter concluded with a description of disadvantaged communities. This was

necessary because schools in this research are located in disadvantaged

communities.

In Chapter Two the research methodology is discussed.

35

CHAPTER TWO

STRUCTURE AND PROCEDURE OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will focus on the research methodology that I used in conducting

my research to investigate the research question, how do women principals

experience curriculum leadership at schools in disadvantaged communities in

the Gauteng East District? Imenda and Muyangwa (2000:89) claim that

research methodology illustrates the direction of inquiry of the study. This

chapter will focus on the following elements of the research methodology

Research design

Sample and selection of research participants

A description of the participants and research sites

Methods used to collect data

Critical Discourse Analysis

Data Management

Trustworthiness

Transcriptions

Axial Coding

Consideration of ethics, anonymity and confidentiality

The research design links the data gathered to the research question and

ultimately to a conclusion. Mouton contends that the research design provides

the guidelines and assists the researcher to reach the aim of the research

(2002:107).

36

2.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

According to Yin (2011:75) ‘research designs are logical blueprints’. The

design entails the research questions, how data is collected and what

strategies are used to analyse the data so that the research questions are

spoken to. Denzin and Lincoln state that the research design outlines the

rationale for the study, the information that will be used to explore the research

question and which methods will be best suited to obtain this information

(2011:245). I used qualitative research to conduct this study. This research

design allowed me to connect to the sites, the participants and stakeholders of

the schools where the study was conducted. I conducted interviews and then

shadowed the principals in the research to corroborate what was stated in the

interviews. Henning (2004:20) contends that a researcher must spend a good

deal of time in the natural setting among those involved in the study.

The shadowing of principals in the school setting was necessary because it

provided a source of rich and detailed descriptions of their real-life situations.

Denscombe (2003:89) posits that the interpretation of cultures and events are

shaped by one’s own beliefs, experiences and values. As a researcher in

these particular sites I was obliged to do some introspection. As a woman,

belonging to the Hindu religion I could align myself to some of the beliefs,

events and experiences of the participants in this research. A Hindu woman is

expected to nurture and provide a supportive, caring and spiritual environment

for her husband and children at home.

Henning further states that it is important for the researcher to gather as much

data as possible in its natural setting in order to understand and interpret the

data accurately (2004:20). McMillan and Schumacher (1997:3) claim that

qualitative research makes it possible for the behaviour of people to be

investigated as they occur in their natural conditions.

37

2.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

The aforementioned claims by Henning and McMillan & Schumacher credited

a qualitative research methodology to be used to conduct this study. According

to Merriam, a qualitative research approach is exploratory, descriptive and

helps to accumulate a lot of data (1998:6). It is an educational research

method in which the researcher relies on data obtained from participants.

Fraenkel and Wallen (2003:450) contend that the three main methods that are

used to gather data are observations, interviews and field notes. This type of

research brings the researchers closer to the fields they are researching. It is

an interpretative, natural approach because it provides descriptions and

records of social interaction in natural settings. According to Creswell the

researcher conducting a qualitative research study will spend hours in the field

in order to obtain data (1998:4). As a qualitative researcher I wanted to gather

a wealth of information on women in curriculum leadership and understand the

meaning that they make of their world and their experiences. A growth of deep

understanding of people’s feelings, experiences and circumstances can be

achieved through qualitative study. This justifies the assertion by Davies that in

qualitative research it is easy for researchers to get involved in the participants’

lives (2007:191).

In addition to the collection of data, the qualitative research methodology also

details how a researcher arranges and interprets information. In comparison to

quantitative data collection and analysis, there are no obvious or established

methods or rules in qualitative data collection and analysis (Ritchie and Lewis

2003:200). The whole rather than the parts is emphasised. Lichtman supports

the assertion made by Ritchie and Lewis that qualitative research is dynamic

as it does not follow any specific way of doing things (2010:15).

The qualitative research methodology is an inductive approach to research

whilst the quantitative research method is deductive in nature. Qualitative

researchers ask “why” questions. They ask new questions and find different

38

ways of answering them. In qualitative research the participants in the

interviews often relate their stories. Qualitative research involves studying

things as they exist, rather than in a controlled environment. Lichtman

(2010:15) asserts that such an environment is conducive for observations.

The “variables” in a qualitative study are not controlled as in the case of

quantitative research. A narrative account of events is captured. The questions

are also open-ended and responses can be probed further. Henning (2004:3)

claims that the researcher has the autonomy in capturing this data when it

happens.

To achieve this, I used interviews to get participants to share their experiences

and the impact that these experiences have had on their lives. The participants

that were chosen satisfied pre-determined criteria which will be expounded

further in this chapter. Groups studied in qualitative research are smaller and

the sample chosen is purposeful.

2.4 SAMPLING AND SELECTION

I chose purposive sampling for this research report. Purposive sampling is

beneficial because it allows the researcher to pinpoint people or events which

will justify the research. The researcher focuses on cases that will shed light

on the research question. Hence, purposive sampling is efficient because it

can provide more information from chosen samples than from those chosen in

probability sampling (Denscombe 2003:15-16). Mouton maintains that

purposive selection also provides the researcher the opportunity to choose the

sites that have features or processes relevant to the research study

(2002:104). This view is supported by Yin (2011:88), who claims that in

purposive sampling the samples are chosen in an intentional method because

it will provide the most relevant and sufficient data on the topic. In purposive

sampling the researcher must be acquainted with some of the participants or

39

experiences and deliberately selects them because they are distinguished as

examples that can provide valuable data to the research. Criteria used for

purposive sampling are usually established very early in the research. Ritchie

and Lewis (2003:80) contend that the criteria are informed by the aims of the

research, existing knowledge and gaps in knowledge about the study Gray

cautions that if important aspects are unintentionally omitted in the criteria;

purposeful sampling can be unhelpful (2009:153).

Purposive sampling was appropriate, focussed and represented a particular

group. Women featured in this study were from schools in disadvantaged

communities. The sample was limited by the nature of the study. Therefore,

participation in this study was limited to three women principals. Two principals

were from secondary schools and one was from a primary school. I

approached many female principals from three different disadvantaged

geographic areas within the Gauteng East District to participate in this

research. The three participants who responded favourably were chosen.

Although the sample is limited the process had to be objective so that the

sample can stand the test of independent scrutiny.

I chose Gauteng East District because it has many schools located in

disadvantaged communities, the schools were easily accessible and arranging

meetings with participants, interview schedules and observations were

manageable. As an Institutional Development and Support Officer (IDSO) in

the same district, I was afforded the opportunity to familiarise myself with the

environment of the schools and I also knew that the chosen participants could

provide valuable data pertaining to the research study according to

predetermined criteria. All participants in the research had to be female; they

had to be principals of schools and they had to be leading curriculum in

disadvantaged communities.

To reduce the effect that my position as an IDSO in the same district would

have on the interview process and the data collection I explained that the

40

research is done as my own choice and that the participants should not feel

coerced into the study. I also visited them at their schools on a few occasions

prior to the interviews and observations to build trust and encourage them to

feel comfortable and relaxed during my presence. My position as an IDSO also

assisted my role as a researcher. The SGB, SMT and principals were

accommodating and willing to participate in the research. The principals

agreed to be shadowed and granted me access to their schools whenever I

requested to visit the school sites to conduct observations. They had arranged

in advance with their staff not to be disturbed during the interviews. Initially, I

was doubtful about the sincerity in their responses during the interviews.

However, my observations and field notes confirmed their honesty.

Table 1 outlines the biographical details of the research participants.

SCHOOL NAME

(pseudonym)

PARTICIPANT

(pseudonym)

GENDER AGE RACE

Daffodil High Annah Female 40 Black

Zinniah

High

Busisiwe Female 47 Black

Sunflower

Primary

Cynthia Female 60 Black

The information reflected in Table 1 was gathered from the three participants

during interviews, which was part of the data collection process. The sites

where the research was conducted were also purposefully chosen.

2.4.1 Research Sites

Photographs that capture the environment in which the research sites are

located are included in this section of the research report. The three sites were

41

given pseudonyms because they are schools that can easily be identified.

They are referred to as Daffodil High, Zinniah High and Sunflower Primary.

Photograph 1 Photograph 2

Photograph 1 depicts the rubbish thrown on one of the corridor roofs of

Daffodil High. It evidences neglect, lack of care and respect for school

property.

Photograph 2 captured a hanging ceiling, which poses a safety hazard to

learners in this school.

Photograph 3 Photograph 4

Photograph 3 is proof that school desks have holes due to defacement by

learners. This makes writing at the desks extremely difficult.

Photograph 4 describes the rural area where Zinniah High is located. The

community is located over thirty minutes from the nearest town.

42

Photograph 5 Photograph 6

Photograph 5 shows that people of this community also live in low cost

houses. Access to electricity is a luxury.

Photograph 6 is evidence that filth is strewn around and nobody seems to

care.

Photograph 7 Photograph 8

Photograph 7 and photograph 8 are images of the two classrooms that are

currently being restored at Zinniah High. There is apathy towards pride and

care by learners and parents of the school.

Daffodil High is located far east of the Gauteng Province. It is surrounded by

informal settlements and low cost houses. Houses in the community do not

have electricity. Although the main road is tarred, the ones leading from the

43

school to the homes of learners are corrugated, and in many instances no

bigger than pathways. It is difficult for vehicles to traverse these roads; hence

residents need to walk long distances to reach public transport. The roads are

strewn with rubbish, which has a detrimental effect on the health of the

residents. Youth and idle adults are a common sight on the roads, denoting

unemployment in the area. Many of the houses are make-shift. They are built

of used metal sheets, old timber, and cardboard, plastic and even car doors.

Stones, pumpkins and tyres are generally seen to hold down the roofs of these

dwellings. The dwellers do not have funds to take proper care of their houses.

On rainy days, rain drips through holes and partitions, making life extremely

uncomfortable. These buildings accommodate up to sixteen family members in

one small room. There is seldom enough food for all family members. Poverty

is rife. Many residents rely on food parcels and second hand clothes from

social services and the generosity of religious organisations. Daffodil High is

also sandwiched between three taverns. Learners are enticed to consume

liquor, although many are under the legal age to indulge in this practice. Drugs

are also a huge challenge in the area. Police often burn down ‘dagga’ plants,

but do not succeed in combating the problem.

Daffodil High also experiences challenges within the school. Electricity at the

school is often cut off by the local municipality because of unpaid bills. Grass

behind the last block of classrooms of the school is uncut; the toilets reeked of

urine and learners use them as a smoking hide-out. There is insufficient

furniture for teachers and learners. In some classes learners were observed

sitting on oil drums, paint tins and their school bags. The floors have holes in

them and the notice boards are devoid of covering. The ceilings in four of the

classrooms were hanging loose, posing a safety threat to learners. The school

desks were also full of holes and some were broken off their hinges. This

makes writing at the desks extremely difficult. Broken window panes were a

common sight. These were indications that learners simply did not care for

44

school property, teachers were not instilling good practices and parents did not

view the school as part of the community.

Zinniah High is situated in a rural area bordering Mpumalanga and Gauteng

Provinces. It is a school that is part of a disadvantaged community, plagued by

homelessness, hunger, unemployment and illiteracy. The community is located

over thirty minutes from the nearest town. The community is small and it takes

twenty minutes to walk through the entire area. There is only one road into the

township. The socio-economic problems of the community namely; poverty,

unemployment, illiteracy and substance abuse far exceed their commitment to

improving their lifestyle. People of this community lack financial (money),

physical (proper housing and transport) and cognitive (ability and acquired

skills to deal with everyday life) resources. Access to electricity is a luxury and

the social grant that majority of the residents receive is much awaited every

month. Residents live in informal and low cost houses. The area has one

community centre, but lacks recreational facilities. There is no library for

learners to access reading material. Many learners come from child-headed

families within the community. The result of this is that there is no adult

supervision at home. Learners from this community rely heavily on the school

nutrition programme and often the meal they have at school is the only meal

for the day. Livestock roam the streets. Men of all ages are usually seen

walking aimlessly or standing around, chatting during the day. There appears

to be a very lackadaisical attitude about life. Nobody seems to care that there

is filth strewn around their houses. Members of the community are often in

need of healthcare and social assistance. Many are single parents or

guardians. Zinniah High is made up of brick and mortar and mobile

classrooms. Like Daffodil High there is no care or community involvement in

the school. Two classrooms were burnt during a storm; others are in need of

repairs.

45

Sunflower Primary is located in a slightly better area. The roads around the

school are tarred and there is access to the local transport. Houses are old

and in a state of disrepair. The community in which the school is based is

weighed down by socio-economic challenges. Substance abuse is rife and

unemployment also plagues the community. There are two taverns on the

same road as the school. Children are thus exposed to alcohol very early in

their lives. There are many teenage pregnancies in the community. The

community also has many child-headed families, or children living with

caregivers.

The young mothers of the community often leave their children in the foster

care of their grandmothers, whom themselves are in need of medical and frail

care. Members of the community are also affected by HIV/Aids (Human

Immunodeficiency Virus /Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).

Government social grants are the only source of income for members of this

community. Community members do not show much interest in the school and

often rely on the school to educate the children in all aspects of life. Learners

are also on the school’s nutrition programme.

2.5 METHODS OF DATA GATHERING

Data is a collection of systematic information gathered from experience and

observation. It is the basis for any research study. Interviewing, observing,

collecting and examining materials and feeling are field-based activities which

are tools used to gather data for qualitative research (Yin 2011:129). Henning

states that it is preferable to use two or three methods of data sources in

qualitative research to ensure variety (2004:6). In this research data was

collected by means of semi-structured interviews, observations and field notes.

The combination of interviews and observations afforded me the opportunity to

enter into the life worlds of the people under study. For this research, women

46

in curriculum leadership positions from three different schools, situated in

disadvantaged communities, were interviewed. I scheduled times with the

principals to conduct the interviews and observations at the schools.

2.5.1 Interviews

According to Babbie and Mouton (2006:277) interviews provide a thick

description of information, presenting the reader with detailed descriptions to

inform judgements. Maree agrees with Mouton and adds that it is an

interaction between two people with one person asking another a number of

questions to elicit as much information as possible and the other person

responding by narrating his or her ideas, beliefs, opinions and views on the

subject. He further claims that interviews are a method of seeing the ‘world

through the eyes of the participant’ (2007:87).

Cormack states that interactions in interviews are purposeful because the

participants engage in a negotiated interaction with an intended outcome

(2000:294). Interviews are used to gather information on the interviewee’s

attitudes, preferences, values and knowledge. Interviews are usually

conducted with smaller number of participants as compared to questionnaires.

For this research, the interviews were conducted at the school sites, after

school hours over a period of three months. The interviews in this research

study focussed on participants’ experiences within school, outside the school

(in the community); and how their personal lives were influenced by their

responsibilities as curriculum leaders. A friendly, open interactive atmosphere

prevailed throughout the interviews. This gave the participants the opportunity

to express themselves freely. They reflected on events, experiences and

situations that provided opportunity to understand their behaviour in context.

According to Maree (2007:87) the role of the interviewer in the interview can

be challenging. The interviewer has to pose the questions, listen to the

47

responses and capture them and observe body language of the interviewee. If

conducted properly, the data elicited during the interview can provide a wealth

of information on the meanings people ascribe to their lives and behaviours.

Gray (2009:370-371) contends that interviews can be separated into five

categories which are focused interviews, non-directive interviews, informal

conversational interviews, structured interviews and semi-structured

interviews.

Initially I had chosen to conduct structured interviews, however, during the first

interview I realised that the language used by the respondents and their

answers necessitated further probing and clarification of responses. According

to Gray (2009:373) semi-structured interviews allows for probing of more

details, if the response is not clear.

2.5.1.1 Semi-structured Interviews

Maree (2007:87) states that semi-structured interviews are synonymous with

qualitative research. It is normally used to substantiate what has been

obtained from other sources of information. Yin maintains that this type of

interview takes on a relaxed approach, which leads to a social relationship. It

allows for mutual interaction. It is usually quick. The researcher has a list of

pre-determined questions, but will not necessarily follow the order or deal with

all of it. He or she is flexible regarding the order in which issues are covered

(Yin 2011:135). The answers are open-ended and the interviewee is given the

opportunity to elaborate on aspects of significance. Semi-structured interviews

allow for queries and explanations to responses given. They assist the

researcher in trying to understand the participant’s world. The interview is

tape-recorded and notes can be taken.

Denscombe (2003:167-8) contends that one-on-one interviews are a common

feature of semi-structured and unstructured interviews. It is the meeting

48

between one researcher and one participant. It is also easier to arrange a

scheduled time between two people. The process is uncomplicated because

the information or data comes from one source. The researcher needs to guide

only one person through the interview and grasp only one person’s ideas.

I chose semi-structured interviews because it allowed me to ask

predetermined questions and to seek further clarity on some of the responses

that the interviewees gave. A set of 24 questions were drawn up before the

interview, this subscribes to one of the characteristics of structured interviews

and semi-structured interviews where the researcher draws up a list of

questions in the form of a questionnaire that will be asked in the interview. The

same questions are posed to all interviewees and the interaction between the

researcher and the respondent is minimal. Questions on the list were divided

into three parts. The first part required participants to provide biographical

information, the second part focussed on leadership and curriculum and the

last part focussed on the participants’ views on disadvantaged communities

(Refer to Appendix C).

At the beginning of each interview I gave each of the participants a copy of the

questions that would be used in the interview. They had a few minutes to

peruse the questions before we started the interview. All participants in the

research granted me permission to audio-tape their interviews. Each interview

lasted between 85 to 110 minutes. As stated earlier, during the interviews

some of the phrases and responses given by the participants were unfamiliar,

vague or required further probing because as the researcher I needed to give

meaning to their response.[In one interview the participant said, that school was

just a fanta fun bus school, when I probed further she explained that; A Fanta fun bus

school is a school where anyone is doing whatever he wants to do, learners, teachers, so they

did everything, there was no systems in that school. In another interview the participant

mentioned this pull-down syndrome, which she explained was a pessimistic attitude

displayed by someone].

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This necessitated the initial intention of using structured interviews to change

to semi-structured interviews. Observations were used to complement the

interview.

2.5.2 Observations

The rationale for using observations in addition to interviews was intended to

increase the trustworthiness of the study. Maree (2007:84) states that

observation affords us the opportunity to gain an inner view of people’s

behaviours in different situations. Observations can be done secretly or openly

(Gray 2009:397). Observations are about perceiving what we witness. When

we observe people in their natural environment it is easier to understand their

nature and how they relate amongst each other in groups. Yin (2011:143)

contends that observations are done through the researcher’s own eyes and

ears therefore; the findings are a primary source of data. Before an

observation is carried out, the researcher decides on a particular aspect that

he or she wants to observe, how the observation will be recorded (tape

recorder, video, notes), how much time will be spent on the observation and

where the observation will be carried out (Lichtman 2010:168).The two

commonly used types of observations are structured observation and

participant observation.

I chose to do participant observation. The purpose of participant observation is

to create data by observing and listening to people in their natural environment

and noting what meanings and interpretations they make of their own

activities. With participant observation the researcher becomes a member of

the group being researched as he or she begins to understand the situation by

experiencing it. The challenge here is for the researcher to maintain a distance

as an “outsider”. The advantage of participant observation over a

questionnaire is that the researcher can verify if their participants’ perceptions

are correct, if they are true in what they say. In observation there is a high level

50

of personal involvement of understanding the data accumulated. It can prove a

challenge to report this as a true reflection of events.

The three participant principals were informed in advance that I would be

observing them on a specific day. Appendix D shows the observation schedule

that was used to shadow principals. A minimum of three hours was spent on

each observation as I ‘shadowed’ the three principals. This also necessitated

me observing their morning briefings, one School Management Meeting, one

staff meeting; and one of them administering a class written assessment test.

My observations were recorded as field notes. Appendix E outlines what was

going to be observed.

2.5.3 Field Notes

According to Maree (2007:85) field notes can be categorised as anecdotal

notes, running notes and planned observation. Anecdotal notes describe the

actions exhibited during the observation. These are short phrases or words

that are unbiased; they do not capture any reflections of the observer or

researcher. Running notes follow a succession of events as they occur. The

behaviour is captured in relation to the circumstance in which it takes place. I

used anecdotal notes and running notes during my ‘shadowing’ of the

principals. I recorded what I saw and heard. The sites used in the research,

the atmosphere and the people that engaged the participants were described. I

captured the physical reactions of the three principals in the different

situations. I also made personal notes of what I felt about specific incidents.

These included facial expressions, body language and verbal remarks.

These methods of data collection align with discourse analysis as it makes

provision for rich descriptions of data and the stimulation of provoking

questions (Cox, Geisen and Green 2008:53).

51

2.6 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

According to Fairclough and Wodak (in Van Dijk 2006:352) the main view of

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is that it is a type of social action, which

focuses on society and its culture, its challenges and it forms a link between

society and content. Discourse analysis can be interpreted and explained. A

study and analysis of printed and verbal texts is conducted to understand the

origination of power, bias, dominance and inequality and how it influences

social, political and historical structures. Fairclough claims that transcripts can

be analysed in relation to symbols and representations. He further maintains

that the analysis of written text is possible because it encapsulates grammar,

sound, semantics and vocabulary (1995:57).

Maree (2007:102) affirms that discourse analysis offers a reason why written

and spoken language is the way it is. He further indicates that there is flexibility

of language in the way that one expresses oneself through the use of words.

There develops a relationship between the reader and the writer as the reader

accesses information through interpretation. Language chosen in critical

discourse is purposeful. It conveys discourse through space and time. This

critical discourse analysis is aimed at finding a relationship between how

events and practices are shaped by the influence of discourse and power

(Fairclough 1993:135). Van Dijk (in Schiffrin, Tannen & Hamilton 2001:357)

states that the intention of critical discourse analysis is to ‘understand, expose

and ultimately resist social inequality’. It favours ways in which versions of

reality, which are veiled in written and oral words, are revealed. The critical

theoretical approach relies on a combination of observation and interviewing

methods which encourages discussion and reflection (Van Dijk in Schiffrin et al

2001:254). It affords the researcher and the participants the opportunity to

critique society and culture. In education researchers and developers can use

this approach to understand the needs of teachers, learners and curriculum

52

development. In addition critical discourse analysis is used to explain how

gender differences are widened, supported and refuted.

I used the critical discourse analysis to assist me in learning about people from

people. There was a need to understand the meaning participants assigned to

concepts and how they and I (as the researcher) interpreted certain situations.

2.7 DATA MANAGEMENT

My role in this research report was to obtain information of the principals’

experiences and to give meaning to their responses, without judging them. A

tape recorder was used to record the interviews, after the participants acceded

to this request. A transcript of each of the interviews was also done. This was

to be used as evidence, in case participants refused to be tape recorded. The

findings show that there are correlations in the experiences of the women

principals who participated in this study.

Maree (2007:80) and Patton (2001:14) claim that in qualitative research, the

researcher becomes the ‘instrument’ that gathers data. When many methods

such as document analysis, observation and interviews are used to gather

data, it enhances trustworthiness.

2.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS

Both reliability and validity are significant for qualitative research because they

assist in describing the data. According to Ritchie and Lewis (2003:270)

reliability means that the results are guaranteed and validity means the extent

to which the research design is scientifically sound or correctly conducted.

Reliability and credibility are crucial to the trustworthiness of the research

53

findings. In quantitative studies the instruments of reliability and validity are

used to test the hypotheses, but not in qualitative studies (Patton 2001:14).

2.8.1 Reliability

Reliability refers to the dependability of the findings. In qualitative research, the

researcher is an essential part of the research instrument. In qualitative

research the exact results would not be possible due to situations differing.

The researcher tries to show if similar findings would be made by other

researchers on different occasions (Ritchie and Lewis 2003:273). Therefore,

the construction and description of meaning and understanding of participants

in a particular social setting is essential (Wolcott 1995:167). The popularity of

reliability in qualitative research gains momentum when coders share an

interest in comparing coding. Reliability, together with validity determines if the

research is credible.

2.8.2 Validity

When data and its results are quality checked, validity ensues (Creswell and

Clark 2007:133). Validity in research is the appropriate collection and

interpretation of data so that conclusions drawn depict the real world as it was

studied. Arksey and Knight (in Gray 2009:375-6) state that validity is supported

by:

using interview methods that encourage rapport and build trust so that

participants can articulate themselves.

encouraging participants to elaborate on their responses.

drawing up questions that stem from literature.

making sure the interview lasts long enough so that the area under

discussion is sufficiently probed.

To ensure that this research satisfied credibility criteria I correlated the

research question, available literature, data collection and data analysis to

54

raise valid arguments, findings and reports. To achieve validity I posed the

same set of questions to each interviewee. Each interviewee was given the

luxury of time and freedom of expression when responding. They were not

coerced into a particular response. For accurate capturing of data, a digital

audio recorder was used. There was thorough involvement to get an in-depth

understanding of the field situation through observations, field notes and

interviews. Reliability, validity and credibility are further improved by

triangulation, where different sources of data are examined, compared and

cross-checked.

2.8.3 Triangulation

Triangulation is actually a strategy or test used for improving the validity and

reliability of research findings. It is a valid procedure where researchers search

for a combination of many different sources of information to form themes or

categories in a study (Creswell and Miller 2000:126). According to Golafshani

(2003:604), the use of several methods like observation, interviews and

recordings leads to more valid and reliable findings. Maree claims that

triangulation also minimises the threat of bias and ‘chance associations’ when

data is gathered. After data is gathered it must be transcribed to enable the

researcher to scrutinise, read and understand the information gathered

(2007:39&104). Through the interviews, observation and field notes, multiple

sources of data were acquired for this study, thus enabling triangulation to

occur by confirming the emerging findings.

2.9 TRANSCRIPTIONS

A documentation of what transpired in the interview and audio recorded is

referred to as a transcription. In conducting my qualitative research within a

critical discourse paradigm, I relied on my interview notes and my field notes

55

which I made during my observations. Whilst the participants’ facial

expressions and gestures were still clear in my mind I noted them down to

avoid loss or reduction of data. After each interview I also transcribed the

audiotape recordings myself in order that no detail was left out during

capturing. I then read the transcription over to note similar phrases and words.

I noted complementary and conflicting statements that were captured in my

notes.

Then I copied the interview data onto a page that was divided into three

columns. On the left hand side I had a column that denoted the researcher and

the interviewee, in the middle I captured the question posed to the interviewee

and the response of the interviewee and in third column I coded the

information as I identified common factors that contributed to curriculum

leadership of female principals in disadvantaged communities (an extract of

this is recorded as table 2). Thereafter, I added a fourth column for the themes

that emerged. Mouton (2002:111) contends that during analysis of data,

patterns and themes are identified from which we draw conclusions.

Table 2: Excerpt of Analysis of Data

ENTITY QUESTION CODE THEME RESEARCHER What in your opinion makes this

a disadvantaged community?

INTERVIEWEE Ya it is a disadvantaged community because majority of learners, no I’m sorry, of parents, they are illiterate and they are not working and ...

stakeholder stakeholder, illiteracy unemployment

Socio-economic profile

INTERVIEWEE People say you can’t bring people here you know we’re not working, we’re hungry so take us here so that we can be able to get money so we can feed our families...

Hunger

Socio-economic profile

Davies contends that the stage after transcriptions is most fundamental to a

successful research, but is not easy (2007:191-193). This is coding of the data.

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2.10 AXIAL CODING

The identification of emergent themes from the transcripts provided the

framework for coding. Davies (2007:193) states that the shape of the coding is

established by responses of the participants. The perspectives from each

interviewee must then be compared and related (Creswell and Clark

2007:132). Mahomed (2003:6) claims that responses will then be grouped into

themes and categories and this information will further lead to patterns and

theories. Lichtman (2010:10) concurs that themes and coding are elicited

during the analysis process.

The responses provided by the principals who participated in this study

directed the division of information into sections. Each recorded response was

rechecked and relevant statements were coded. Coding was used to form

categories. Once the information was assembled into codes, broader themes

emerged. Prior literature reviewed, together with the data that was gathered

directed the emergence of themes.

2.11 ETHICS CONSIDERATION

Researchers must be cognisant of ethical principles when conducting

research. Ethics in research refers to moral principles, rules or standards that

guide the research. Gray (2009:192) maintains that during the process of

collecting and analysing data and publishing the findings researchers need to

respect the rights and dignity and privacy of the participants in the research

project.

Ethical clearance was acquired by the Ethics Committee in the Education

Faculty of the University of Johannesburg. A letter requesting permission to

conduct research was sent to the provincial department of education and to

the director of the district office where the schools are located (Appendix A). A

57

letter of consent was completed by each participant (Appendix B). This letter

also assured the participants that information gathered in the research will be

used for educational purposes only. Participants were guaranteed their

anonymity and confidentiality through the use of pseudonyms. The letter of

consent also ensured participants of the research that information gathered

from the research will be kept confidential.

Pseudonyms are also used to maintain the confidentiality and ensure

anonymity of schools used in this research. The three principals who

participated in this study are introduced and henceforth will be referred to as

Annah, principal of Daffodil High; Busisiwe, principal of Zinniah High; and

Cynthia, principal of Sunflower Primary.

After permission was granted by the relevant structures, I negotiated dates and

times with the principals of the three schools. The respective school governing

bodies and Institutional Development and Support Officers of the schools were

also informed of the research. A preliminary visit was made to each school to

inform the principal of the purpose and scope of the research. Participants

were informed prior to the interview what the interview would entail.

Permission was also sought to ‘shadow’ the participants in order to observe

them in practice. Participants were told that they could withdraw from the

research if they felt uncomfortable and they were assured that they will go

through the transcripts for member checks.

2.12 SUMMARY

This chapter outlined the methodology and my role as a researcher in the

research study. The rationale for choosing qualitative research was explained

and described. The sample size and reasons for purposive sampling were also

described. The methods of data collection, analysis of data, ethics and

trustworthiness were also key features in this chapter. I found that the use of

58

field notes, interviews and observations were valid and reliable methods of

data collection because I was able to elicit relevant information for the

research study.

Chapter Three describes the data gathered and a discussion of the findings of

the research.

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CHAPTER THREE

WOMEN UNLOCKING THE DOORS TO LEARNING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter I analyse the data that I gathered during my exploration into the

leadership experiences of three women who are school principals in

disadvantaged communities in the Gauteng East District. The aim is to give

meaning to the data and draw conclusions from the research. Chapter Three

links the data gathered with the literature on the topic.

The research attempted to answer the critical questions outlined in the aims of

the research which were;

What are the challenges facing women principals in curriculum

leadership positions?

How does leading a school in a disadvantaged community impact

on curriculum leadership?

What leadership styles do these principals adopt?

How does the position of being female leaders affect their

personal and family lives?

The aim of this chapter is to outline the many experiences of women principals

as curriculum leaders within the school, around the school and in their private

lives. The following themes and sub-themes emerged from their responses in

relation to how these three female principals negotiate their roles as curriculum

leaders in disadvantaged communities.

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3.2 THEMES ELICITED FROM THE DATA ANALYSIS

(6) Exercising a successful leadership style

(7) The principal as a curriculum leader

(8) Socio-economic profile of community and its impact on curriculum

(9) Striking a balance between family and school

(10) Stakeholder participation and support

The potential of parental power

The development of community involvement

Co-operation of the school management team and staff

3.2.1 Exercising a Successful Leadership Style

During the interviews I asked the question, “How would you describe your

leadership style?” In their responses the three participants claimed that they

employ many leadership styles as principals. The situation dictated the

leadership style that was used. This confirms Hersey and Blanchard’s

assertion that each undertaking is different; hence it requires a different

leadership style (2001:4). This is what the participants said:

Annah: I’m using all the styles of leadership. It depends upon the situation if there are

matters that need democratic vision, I consult with the SMT but in cases of emergency, I apply

an autocratic leadership style.

Busisiwe: you cannot say you adhere to only one leadership style; you are a democratic

leader, at the end of the day there are situations that wants you to be an autocratic leader

when you give instructions.

Cynthia: It’s a combination, maybe it’s a combination but still democracy, it appears.

Shakeshaft (1989:166) contends that there is either a subtle or an obvious

leadership style that women may employ in their routine, which may be

different to that of men. Busisiwe and Annah assert that they use many

leadership styles in a day. These principals further indicated that policy

compliance necessitates the autocratic style of leadership. Late coming of

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educators, teaching and attending to class on time are not negotiable. These

principals lead by ensuring that they are punctual at all curriculum related

activities of the school. This bears testimony to O’Sullivan and West-

Burnham’s statement that learner-centred leaders lead by example (2011:46).

Busisiwe comes across as being very stern but indicates that her teachers and

personnel staff are welcome to come and discuss any issue with her: Always

when you need my assistance my office door is open, come and ask.

The responses from the three participants in this research indicate that they

use the contemporary leadership styles in the execution of their duties and

responsibilities. These leadership styles are proving to be more effective.

This was confirmed during the staff meetings and morning briefings that I

observed at the three schools. The transformational style of leadership was

one method of empowering other stakeholders of the school. Busisiwe also

employed a laisezze-faire style of leadership in allowing teachers to run with

projects. The necessary resources were made available, but reports were

necessary. Cynthia at Sunflower Primary exercises an ethical type of

leadership as I observed that she exhibits humaneness and compassion to her

learners and community (Davies 2009:53-55). The ethical, strategic, learner-

centred and transformational styles were evidenced as these principals

empowered their stakeholders, encouraged collaboration and engaged in

dialogue with others.

The remarkable feature that emerged from these interviews was the moral and

spiritual aspect of these women principals. Cynthia said that cultural

background dominates at her school and prayer was part of that background.

This was confirmed in my observation at the school. I noted that Cynthia

begins the school day with hymn singing at assembly and draws inspirational

quotations from the Bible. This substantiates Klein et al’s claim that women

principals of African descent usually include a spiritual aspect in their

leadership (2007:116). Busisiwe talks about being prayerful and reminds

learners that when you are a prayerful person, you keep on praying. She indicated that

62

she is a Christian and she prays very hard. She also encourages learners to

pray, before the examinations and at home. She is also very involved in her

local church. The attributes of these participants find agreement with the view

of Cranwell-Ward, Bacon and Mackie who state that inspiration is drawn from

a spiritual aspect (2002:243). Eagly and Carli concur with the claim made by

Cranwell-Ward et al that women are perceived to be more religious and

empathetic towards the less-fortunate than men (2007:46). Background,

family, peers and experience of life generally help to shape that we are and

how we develop values in life (Duignan 2006:74). Like Busisiwe, Annah is also

an active member in her church. During her interview she indicated that her

father was a priest and he was very supportive of her schooling.

These principals also displayed a caring, nurturing aspect of their personality

in their association with learners. During the matriculation camp Annah

approached local companies to supply toiletries for the girls. Busisiwe decided

to stay over in the matriculation camp of 2011 with her learners to ensure that

feminine hygiene and health needs of learners were catered for. Like Annah,

she also took the initiative to approach local companies to secure toiletries for

her learners. In addition, she ensured that surplus from the school nutrition

programme was sent to child-headed homes and homes where parents were

unemployed. During this research study she was observed on the road in the

morning, urging learners to get to school punctually. This observation confirms

that the gender context of the workplace does make a difference in leadership

styles as contended by Klein et al (2007:116). They claim that women tend to

take a more personal interest in the workplace than men. Women are also

more inclined to engage in one-one contacts.

Traditionally women are expected to nurture and provide nourishment for

children. During this research I found this quality to be strength rather than a

weakness amongst the participants. In October 2011, when a tornado struck

the area, where Daffodil High is located, Annah took it upon herself to

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establish if learners of her school were accounted for. In addition, she took a

roll call of all learners affected in the area. This praises the cultural feminist

theory that women lead by their caring and ethical nature. Gilligan (in Begley

1999:275) in support states that the moral development of women is shaped

by the knowledge and associations that they make and maintain in their private

life.

Cynthia shows concern for her learners and their well-being. This was

observed whilst I ‘shadowed’ her. She enquires if learners have food to eat at

home, reminds learners to thank God for the food they eat and on occasion

asks about the health of their grannies. This confirms the view of Grogan and

Shakeshaft (2011:14) that women leaders use their personal strengths and

their spirituality to understand the ‘world’ of others. This also supports Eagly

and Carli’s statement that women are more compassionate towards the less-

fortunate and are attentive to moral problems (2007:46). By infusing their

values based on religion and ethnicity into the curriculum, curriculum leaders

strengthen relationships with their communities (Busher and Harris 2000:95).

3.2.2 The principal as a Curriculum Leader

Cunningham and Cordeiro (2003:218-219) assert that curriculum as a whole is

“the school’s philosophy, what a curriculum looks like and putting the vision

into practice”. The interviews indicated that the three principals’ understanding

of curriculum was limited to academic programmes of syllabus completion and

school based assessment. This was Cynthia’s response, first you got to

understand the curriculum and department knowledge on child psychology and then know how

the child learns … you can plan your curriculum until you reach the optimum. I did not

understand what her response meant. Upon further probing, she understood

curriculum leadership to be about leading curriculum, understanding it and

understanding child psychology. In her view curriculum leadership is about

implementing whatever new techniques are learnt and brought to the institution

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whereas curriculum management is about managing what is already planned.

In order to manage curriculum she found it necessary to attend courses, she

discussed issues with the SMT and felt she needed to be knowledgeable

about national curriculum issues. This understanding finds alignment in

Glatthorn et al’s claim that curriculum leaders must acquaint themselves with

the structures, content, discourses and hierarchies in curriculum (2006:258).

According to Annah curriculum management was to ensure that there were

pace setters and a management plan to monitor syllabus completion and

workloads per educator according to policy. She further stated that it was

about strategies to curb teacher absenteeism, which was also part of

curriculum management. Annah maintained that a curriculum leader is one

that develops others, and exposes educators to new methods in curriculum

and one who gives others an opportunity to lead. This was confirmed in the

morning briefing which I observed. Teachers responsible for various aspects of

the curriculum were required to provide short reports during the briefing

session. A member of the SMT reported that the level of noise during change

of lessons was extremely high. She suggested that teachers, instead of

learners could move from class to class. This was discussed; the suggestion

voted on and then it was to be implemented. Annah also afforded support staff

the opportunity to report. A member of the maintenance staff reported the

frustration the cleaning staff experienced during the weekends. He indicated

that opportunities like this, where they were given a platform to speak made

them feel part of the school.

Busisiwe said curriculum leadership is about monitoring with regard to the

Curriculum Management Model (CMM). The CMM is a management tool that

was introduced in Gauteng East District by the District Director in 2009 to

monitor and track syllabus completion and school based assessment at a

school. It has levels of monitoring, development and support built into it so that

different levels of management can ascertain how much curriculum has been

covered and the level of competency per grade and per class. Busisiwe bases

65

her leadership on the use of this tool. When asked where or when she

developed the notion of curriculum leadership, she stated that she was a

Business Studies senior marker of the Grade 12 examinations. Her interaction

with other markers, the sharing of knowledge and the team spirit they shared

informed her opinion of curriculum leadership.

In their responses each participant indicated some notion of curriculum

leadership. A lot of emphasis was placed on the completion of syllabus and

school based assessment. There was a heavy reliance on the use of the CMM

tool. Although the participants performed other curriculum leadership roles

such as collaboration, holding developmental workshops, managing learner

welfare and resolving conflict at their schools only one of the participants was

aware that they form part of curriculum leadership. For example, one of the

participants said, I just tell them that you know we are here for the learners we are not here

to make friends or to be a family. In this firm statement she had performed one of

the curriculum leadership roles in ensuring that the value and behaviour

required to perform the task of teaching within the school context is met, as

stated by Earley and Weindling (2004:16).

Paying attention to belief systems and values (initiation of boys of Zinniah

High), encouraging positive behaviour and initiatives (community involvement

in cultivating flowers at Daffodil High), and catering for some basic needs

(ensuring the nutrition of learners at home at Sunflower Primary) constitute

curriculum. This is advocated by Joseph, who states that curriculum is affected

by influences from outside the school society (2011:141). The disadvantaged

communities in which these schools are situated are one such influence.

3.2.3 Socio-economic profile of Community and its Impact on

Curriculum

The social stigma associated with disadvantaged communities has manifested

itself in these schools. When asked the question what makes this a

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disadvantaged community Annah replied, I would think it is the standard of living,

around here. We got shacks, people who are staying in shacks, and those people staying in

RDPs and the level of education... . Busisiwe classified the community as

disadvantaged because most of the parents are illiterate. She stated that, the

community is not ‘enlightened. We had a problem with these classes, so the contractor

decided to bring skilled workers ... but, he was rebuked and told, “you can’t bring people here,

you know we’re not working!. In explaining the situation further Busisiwe indicated

that unemployment was so rife that the community would seize any opportunity

to find paid work. This confirms the view purported by Mayer (2003:3) that

people see themselves as disadvantaged when they are refused access to

autonomy, incentive, self-respect and responsibility, community of support,

health, education, information, employment, capital and support systems.

When Cynthia was asked if Sunflower Primary is located in a disadvantaged

community she replied that because there is a shopping complex and a taxi

rank close to the school, she would not label the community as disadvantaged.

In retrospect she changed her response and said ... but unemployment makes it a

disadvantaged area. She indicated further in the interview that learners lived in

shacks, did not receive support at home and were left in the care of their

grannies; hence the change in her response. (A shack is a type of small

house, usually in a state of disrepair).

The grim reality of these schools located in disadvantaged communities is that

they have to contend with issues relating to a challenging external

environment. The challenges experienced at these schools were

unemployment, child-headed families, children reared in foster care, teenage

pregnancy and substance abuse.

Busisiwe indicated that these characteristics of a disadvantaged community

have a negative impact on the curriculum because they do not contribute to

stimulation, support and academic aspirations of learners. This view finds

alignment with the assertion made by Ornstein, Pajak and Ornstein that a

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balance between the school, home and broader society would encourage

moral growth of a child. The school must commit to a higher purpose in

addition to promoting academic grades (2007:235&188).

Busisiwe said that parents are unaware of their children’s whereabouts; they

do not know when their children write examinations or what time they wake up

to go to school. Busisiwe indicated that the reason for this is that parents work

as domestic workers and miners away from home. They remain at their places

of work and only come home once a month. There is little parental support,

monitoring and motivation. Locating parents for their signatures and consent

on school related matters was a huge challenge in these communities. The

three participants in this research had to take on the added social

responsibility of ensuring that learners attend school regularly and have

sustenance.

Cynthia emphasised that the school nutrition programme initiated by the

government for learners is a huge help. The school nutrition programme is

especially geared to provide nutrition to learners who come from

disadvantaged communities. Cynthia said she usually sends the surplus food

from the nutrition programme home with the extremely poor learners because

the school meal is sometimes the only meal they have for the day. This was

confirmed during my observation, as I walked with her around the school and

she verbally reminded some learners not to forget to pick up their food parcels

after school. The sad truth is that Daffodil High is not on such a programme.

The principal had to appeal to local churches and to other schools in the area

to assist in providing some nutrition to the learners. Learners who are hungry

are often unmotivated, unhappy and lack self-esteem (Kamper 2008:2).

Annah related an incident when she had to drive to the neighbouring township

in search of a Grade 12 learner who missed her examination, only to discover

that she had no taxi fare to attend school. She drove her back home and

telephoned the examination section of the district office to report the absence

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of the learner at the examinations. She then secured a doctor’s note so that

the learner got an opportunity to write the supplementary examination. The

principal had informed the parent, but the parent did not understand the

seriousness of the situation. Bobbitt (in Jackson 1992:11) is of the view that

the school is an extension of society and those skills and knowledge lacking in

society must be addressed by the school. This view is emphasised by social

re-constructionists, who believe that it is the responsibility of curriculum to

ensure that society enjoys better opportunities (Jackson 1992:15).

Cynthia is of the opinion that infusing sexual education into the curriculum will

assist in educating the community about HIV/Aids and teenage pregnancy. As

she indicated in the interview teenage pregnancy is highly prevalent in the

community of Sunflower Primary.

Annah believed that the curriculum needs of the school must be informed by

the community. She said that there are Reconstruction and Development

Programme7 (RDP) houses within the community. These houses do not have

wardrobes and cupboards. If learners were encouraged to take subjects such

as woodwork and technical subjects they would gain the appropriate skills and

knowledge that would help create jobs and improve the standard of living. In

addition, Annah mentioned that other subjects such as entrepreneurship and

agriculture would be beneficial because the community spends a large sum of

money on flowers for funerals. Learners could engage in the production and

selling of these flowers. She further shared in the interview that she was

excited about a joint initiative between the community and the school where

the community can use the school yard to plant flowers for such occasions.

This corroborates the view of Crow et al that principals’ leadership has a

profound impact on learner achievement in schools located in low socio-

economic areas with high learner numbers. Knowing the community in which

7The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was an integrated strategy for growth and development that

was introduced by the South African Government in 1994 to address problems of poverty and inequality in South African society (Christie 2008:73).

69

the school is based, their social customs and the families of the learners can

assist curriculum planning and leadership (1996:12). Gray (in Chrispeels

2004:283) notes that while there is no conclusive research that disadvantaged

communities affect achievement and improvement, it is a contributory factor.

3.2.4 Striking a balance between Family and School

In order to ascertain if women principals are able to balance family

responsibilities and work I asked the question, “how does your professional

roles and responsibilities impact on your family, and on you?” These were the

responses from the interviewees.

Annah: I don’t consult a husband who says no you must attend this or you cannot do that, so

I’m independent I can do anything I want. She has the support of her sisters and

mother with whom she could leave her children the entire day to attend work or

church. Annah further revealed in the interview that, when I wake up in the morning

water is ready, they are so supportive ... if I got to do things like my involvement in the church,

at school and partly in the community, I’ll run around. Her position had brought many

comforts to her family, one of which was providing medical aid for her mother.

Her siblings were prepared to go to an extent that they would do anything to

make her life comfortable. When I said to my sisters to look for a person to do ironing for

me they said no you can bring your ironing to us and save that money. You are taking care of

our mother, paying the medical aid. Her achievement of being the only female in her

family to have matriculated, to teach, to have a stable job and have a house in

the suburbs has made her family proud of her. The moral quality of women, as

espoused by Eagly and Carli (2007:46) is once again demonstrated by the

attribute of Annah. However, she indicated that her time spent with her

children was very minimal. This affirms the statement made by Van der

Westhuizen that striking a balance between family lives and leadership roles

becomes controversial when women ascend to higher positions (1997:545).

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Busisiwe also does not have a husband to answer to. She has the support of

her mother and sister. Holding a leadership position in a school does impact

negatively on her family life. There were occasions when her son came home

from university to visit for the weekend, but she could not spend time with him

because of school related meetings and commitments. The responses of

Annah and Busisiwe indicate that they perceive husbands as restrictive in their

lives, refuting Bryson’s statement that women were dependent on their

husbands or fathers for a livelihood (2003: 240-241).

Cynthia has a husband who is understanding and knows what is expected of

her although she indicated there are times when there were problems at home

that impacted at school. She indicated that the vast amount of work that needs to be

done at school, it impacts on my family life, sometimes I’ve got to knock off late to cover up the

work, but I do make arrangements… . The family, they feel sometimes neglected, yes

sometimes they feel neglected. She has a daughter who is left to attend to the

duties normally expected of her at home.

The negative impact of climbing the career ladder also meant the loss of

friends for Annah, who said, the people I schooled with, the neighbours, my peers

unfortunately I’m the only one in my own street who managed to get a matric, go to university

and they just moved themselves away from me. I ended up not having friends.

The option of sacrificing family life in favour of work can be interpreted as

woman principals refusing to be judged as incompetent or failing to succeed.

Failure to succeed would mean propagating the perception that women are

less competent than men to hold leadership positions. Women principals in

this study were virtually absent mothers to their children, ultimately going

against the social and cultural expectation of women being relegated to

particular roles like child rearing and performing household chores (Kolb et al

2010:7 and Tyson 2006:85).

It is extremely difficult to maintain a balance between family and school life.

Although their marital status differed the three principals indicated that being

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principals meant sacrificing family time and duties in favour of school.

Regardless of their challenges, these principals still manage to chisel a

pathway forward in their careers and one of the reasons why they remain

steadfast is because they have drawn on inspiration and support from family

and their religious beliefs (Klein et al 2007:116).

It was interesting to note that teaching was not the preferred choice as a

career for any of the participants. The prospect of a bursary enticed two of

them to take teaching as an alternative career choice. Annah revealed in the

interview that she enrolled for a Bachelor of Commerce (B.COM) Degree.

However, she was offered a bursary from the Department of Education and

Training (D.E.T) and the condition of the bursary was that she sign a contract

with the D.E.T. Busisiwe recounted that initially she wanted to be a social

worker but unfortunately her family did not have money for tuition and

boarding. A student studying to be a social worker was supposed to go to a

residential university. A friend had persuaded her to pursue a career in

teaching. Cynthia had worked in the private sector first and became a teacher

after she studied as an Adult Based Education and Training learner.

From the interviews it emerged that all three women were motivated to enter

the teaching profession and to aspire to higher positions of leadership by

women. This is what they indicated in their interviews.

Busisiwe: I was inspired by my friend …she was a principal at Sun Secondary School

(pseudonym), she was the first Black principal … she was telling me about her challenges, I

was saying, I can handle such challenges.

Annah: you know what inspired me to be a principal, there was this … film… Iyzo, Iyzo… this

school was in tatters … There were no systems in place. Drugs. Learners were raped during

the day in the school premises. Until Nambita came and she just put order to the school and

the school became the best school in the township … you know female teachers can make it. I

can make it as well in the township … and I just told myself that one day I can make it and one

day I will be principal myself and practice what I have seen and it’s working.

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Cynthia: yes our pervious deputy. She encouraged us to learn, to improve our qualifications

tell us go to this meeting, go, it will empower you.

In addition, the three principals had a strong internal motivation and believed

that they have what it takes to make good principals. This concurs with Dalton

et al who state that an understanding of one’s inner strengths and weaknesses

enables one to overcome and address one’s limitations and instils self-belief

(2001:20).

3.2.5 Stakeholder Participation and Support

The term stakeholder refers to someone who has a vested interest in

something ‘or an important connection with and is affected by its success or

failure’ (Longman Dictionary 2006:1501). In the context of schools

stakeholders comprise parents and community, teachers, learners, SGBs and

the officials of the Department of Education. Parliament passed the South

African Schools Act, (SASA of 1996) which regulated the establishment of

SGBs because stakeholder participation and involvement is crucial in

addressing the needs of the school (MGSLG 2010:6&11). With the dawn of

democracy in South Africa, citizens have a say in how the government

responds to building better schools and supporting teaching and learning.

In the biographies of the three female principals there is an agreement that

stakeholder participation and support was almost absent during their schooling

in the 1970s and 1980s when they were learners. Annah recounted that during

her schooling stakeholder involvement was very minimal. She said, during our

schooling period the involvement of stakeholders was not as visible as it is now. Yes, we did

have school committees, but they had no legal status. You see parents were doing it out of

free will and they had the passion to help their children. Busisiwe indicated a similar

experience regarding stakeholder support during her schooling. She said, there

was no support at all to an extent that I cannot tell you who the inspector of the school was.

The welfare of learners was relegated to the duty of the school. During their

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schooling, between1970 to 1993, the three principals also shared similar

experiences of the existence of school parent committees which were not

legislated. This period was characterised by Apartheid, when education in

South Africa was racially divided according to different education departments.

The government was solely responsible for the administration and resource

allocation of schools. Parents belonged to parent committees, but did not have

the power to influence decisions of the school their children attended.

South African democracy saw the death of Apartheid and heralded

opportunities to constitute one unified national system of education. With

transformation arose many challenges which schools could not deal with

effectively on their own. A need for a broader and more integrated approach to

schooling developed. This included connecting the school to its community

and other stakeholders in order to improve teaching and learning (Witten

2009:18). There was a need to gain a better understanding of how the system

of education worked. This saw the development of school policies which are

rules and procedures, drawn up in line with the Constitution of the country to

assist schools deal with issues and situations pertaining to learners. SGBs

were vested with many decision-making powers, which included the

formulation of admissions policy, language policy and school fees policy

(Christie 2008:123). As mentioned in the literature review SGBs are crucial

because they are very influential in curriculum implementation, maintenance

as well as maintaining discipline. They provide the channel for articulating

parental concerns and soliciting support of the parents and community (Busher

and Harris 2000:96).

3.2.5.1 The potential of parental power

SASA provided the legislative framework for the establishment of

democratically elected SGBs, of which parents are in the majority. Conley

posits that the link between the school and parents are developed by the ‘glue’

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of the SGBs (2003:185). Support from the SGBs is fundamental to curriculum

leadership. From the interviews it emerged that getting parents involved in the

schooling of their children was a huge challenge as it was not a practice in the

past. Christie contends that disadvantaged schools are least supported

because poverty is rife and in turn poor people are rendered powerless to

voice their opinions (2008:101). Annah remarked that at Daffodil High the

parents’ level of education is the reason for this, if you can see their level when they

attend meetings, they agree to everything ... but they don’t commit themselves to what they

have agreed upon. She further expounded that at meetings, parents listen

attentively and agree to suggestions and implementation of plans; however

when their assistance is required, they are absent. An example given by

Annah was the commitment of parents to assist with monitoring the punctuality

of learners. In the parents’ meeting unemployed parents agreed that they will

be on the road in the morning to urge learners to get to school on time. Only

the SGB chairperson and a member of the SGB did this, for one week only.

This supports the view expressed by Cunningham and Cordeiro who state that

parents who are not proficient in the official school language will expect the

school to have full control and influence over their children’s schooling

(2003:101).

At Zinniah High attendance at parents’ meetings was also very poor. The

similar experience of the other two schools in this study verifies that parents’

participation and attendance at parents’ meetings in schools in disadvantaged

communities is minimal (Lupton 2004:13). When asked how the principal

communicated with parents regarding memoranda, she said, you don’t give them

memos to read you read for them and explain the meaning. If their children get

homework they cannot help them because the level of parent literacy is low.

Parents refused to volunteer their services at school; Busisiwe said, they’ll tell

you that ... we cannot just come to school without getting anything. They expect that their

children will come out of the school being better whereas they don’t give support to their

children. Efforts by their children to study were thwarted, parents say, switch off the

light, we don’t have money for electricity. Parents of the community where this school

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is situated do not actively participate in the education of their children. The

socio-economic status of parents in these communities influences the interest

they show in the education of their children. Hunger, lack of clothing and basic

amenities outweighs the benefits of schooling and learning in such

communities. These characteristics support the statements made by Homel et

al (2001:1) and Kamper (2008:3) who observe that the environmental

conditions of poverty are a challenge because learners are often hungry, are

not properly clothed, do not have parental support, proper study facilities, and

lack motivation to study.

Parents of Zinniah High joined the SGB with the hope that they could benefit

from the funds of the school. When they learnt that school funding is governed

by the South African Schools Act8 they became disinterested and eventually

resigned as members. When schools are allocated funds by the government,

government controls the manner in which funds must be utilised. This indicates

that parents, community and the school did not share the same meanings,

beliefs and norms of curriculum as purported by Cornbleth (1990:30) and

Conley (2003:198). Cornbleth and Conley claim that the school is influenced

by contextual factors which include parents and members of the SGB.

Cynthia declared that the caregivers of learners at Sunflower Primary school

are very old. Learners were left in the foster care of their grannies or relatives

whilst their mothers spent their time at a neighbouring settlement. The

grannies had taken on the added responsibility as caregivers; in spite of their

own need for medical attention. Cynthia also stated that they were prepared to

take on this added responsibility because they receive foster care grants for

these children. This supports the view of Kamper who states that

disadvantaged communities consist of parents who “are often in need of health

or other social care; have low educational qualifications or are illiterate and are

8Section 27.2 of the South African Schools Act (SASA of 1996) states that members of SGB cannot be remunerated

for duties performed.

76

often single or act as substitute parents” (2008:2). The principal indicated that

girls became pregnant as early as Grade 8 and she assumed that the father

could be a learner himself. The absence of parental involvement at Sunflower

School was very noticeable. These comments made by Cynthia bears

testimony to the statements made by Davidoff and Lazarus; that there are

many mothers who do not marry their children’s fathers, therefore the children

are left with their grandparents (2002:5). These unconventional effects of

family life can cause schools to become ‘stuck’ because disadvantaged

communities offer almost no support to the school in any way.

From the interviews with the principals at Daffodil High and at Zinniah High it

emerged that parents assumed the principal was a male and were astonished

to discover that the leadership was in the hands of a female. This affirms the

statement made by Beeka that authority is fundamental to a masculine style of

leadership (2008:161). At Zinniah High Busisiwe indicated that the chairperson

had remarked, “For Zinniah High to be a successful school, a male is needed, a female

cannot do anything with that school”. At Daffodil High a parent exclaimed, “oh that

woman was the principal ..., no things have changed, gone are those days by when you are

looking for a principal, you will get a huge man”. This also confirms previous literature

regarding the expectation of some ethnic groups that males are expected to

lead (Datta and Kornberg 2002:2-3).

3.2.5.2 The development of community involvement

All three participants commented on the negative effect that the community

has on curriculum. Drugs have invaded Daffodil High. Drug abuse had become

so rampant that teachers at the school could not distinguish the drug pedlars

from the drug users. Efforts to rehabilitate learners who abuse drugs were

futile because they returned to an environment that influenced the abuse of

drugs. In the interview with the principal, Annah stated that during parents’

meetings, parents indicated they were stressed about drug abuse, but did not

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make the effort to prevent their children from becoming users. The principal

noted that the active involvement of social workers in this community was

almost non-existent.

The community, in which Zinniah High is located, is still steeped in the

traditional custom of sending boys to initiation schools. Traditionally, boys from

African cultural groups of Ndebele, Pedi and Xhosa are taken into the

mountain schools where they are circumcised and initiated into manhood by

traditional masters. Up until 2010, over half the number of boys enrolled for

Grade12 examinations could miss a whole term of school in order to attend

initiation school. The principal said, looking at this area most of the time they don’t take

education seriously, what they take serious is their culture just like taking the boys to the

initiation school. She further indicated that the community would save huge

amounts of money towards the purchase of furniture and clothing for their

sons’ transition to manhood, rather than using that savings to educate their

daughters. Busisiwe indicated that the community is unaware of the fact that if

they invest in their children’s education, the skills that are acquired can benefit

the community. This indication by the principal confirms the view by Kock and

Irby who state that many entrenched views on gender discrimination are still

evident (2002:23). It also confirms the beliefs that in some cultures men are

more privileged than women (Kiamba in Wagadu 2008:2).

The interview with Cynthia revealed that community involvement at Sunflower

Primary is negligible and one of the reasons purported for this was that the

caregivers were elderly citizens. Cynthia indicated that whilst they were in the

process of still understanding policies, they could not actively contribute to the

decisions of the school. The parents indicated to Cynthia during her

interactions with them that they felt that they were too old to get involved in the

running of the school.

Managing people is always more difficult than managing the curriculum. The

definition of curriculum as mentioned earlier in the literature review

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encompasses all the activities and programmes that are taught to children at

school. Parents and community involvement is key in the choices and activities

of the school (Glatthorn et al 2006:258). The interviews confirm Cornbleth’s

view that curriculum is a product of social activity that is influenced by

contextual factors inside and outside the classroom. Curriculum is an

integrated interface of planning, performance, policy and socio-cultural

systems (1992:24&27). It is one of the responsibilities of principals to manage

teachers under their leadership and to create parental partnerships. The

strategy is to locate strength in the SGB and to empower them through

development (Busher and Harris 2000:111).

3.2.5.3 Co-operation of the school management team and staff

During the observations and interviews with the principals, I gathered that all

three of them experienced some resistance from the staff at their schools. The

degree of resistance from staff members at the three schools varies from open

defiance to subtle non-compliance. At Daffodil High one of the Heads of

Department did not honour a Saturday planning meeting. Annah remarked in

the interview of the incident, I don’t know if Mr March (pseudonym) is defiant or what, but

for example on Saturday he didn’t come, he didn’t say a word. The principal decided not

to pursue the issue for the sake of harmony but noted his behaviour. Busisiwe

said she felt demoralised by the gossiping she witnessed at Zinniah High, but

tried to channel this negative behaviour positively by expressing her

commitment to the vision of the school through her duties and responsibilities

as a principal. Initially, she experienced extreme resistance from her SMT. In

the interview she related incidents where SMT members distanced themselves

from decisions taken at management meetings and discussed these issues

outside the meetings with other teachers of the school. She had to call a

special meeting to address the need to work as a SMT instead of a school

management gang.

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Cynthia indicated that at Sunflower Primary resistance was also felt. She

stated, as educators sometimes you have this pull-down syndrome just to make you stress a

bit. During the visit of the Institutional Development and Support Officers to the

school, I observed that the deputy principal walked into the principal’s office

and used the telephone without any courtesy to those present. The principal

later remarked to the IDSOs that despite her addressing the issue previously,

he paid no heed. My observation of the staff meeting at the same school

confirmed what the principal said. The staff did not take the principal seriously,

confirming what the principal had said. Whenever the principal started to talk

she was interrupted by a member of staff. Although she remained calm, her

facial expression revealed her exasperation. During this meeting the deputy

principal, a male aged 39 years, insisted that the meeting should not proceed

until the other two male teachers were present. He expressed his wish to go

out and look for them. With much urging from the principal he resigned to his

chair and allowed the meeting to continue. He challenged the principal on

issues of communication and collaboration regarding submissions of reports

that were made to the district office. He stated he wanted accountability and

evidence from the district office that submissions were not made.

During the meeting I also observed that male staff members in particular

showed no respect or any form of professionalism towards the principal. They

were verbose in their approach, did not observe protocol and openly

challenged the principal on various issues (I got the impression that they

purposely did this because of my presence as an observer).The behaviour

exhibited by them lends credence to the claim made by Greyvenstein; that

females in leadership face disturbing resistance in the form of insubordination

and sabotage (2000:31). Feelings of isolation were felt by all three principals.

The deputy principal, other management team members and teachers were

not assisting to reduce this isolation.

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At Daffodil High Annah initially experienced a feeling of isolation because she

was trying to put systems in place. The members of staff were used to early

departure and late submission of learners’ assessment, hence their

resentment to Annah because she implemented policy and required them to

adhere to timeframes. She also felt alone because she was a new comer to

the school. At Zinniah High Busisiwe experienced a feeling of being alone in

school management team meetings. She indicated that she would discuss

certain issues with her management team and later would find them discussing

the issue out of the meeting. She felt excluded from the group. She also found

herself alone in the mornings to monitor punctuality of learners. At Sunflower

Primary I observed that members of staff were trying to intimidate Cynthia, the

principal. She was expected to respond to issues of communication and

submission and there was nobody that was willing to accept responsibility for

their negligence regarding the submission of work. According to Daresh and

Arrowsmith, heads of schools can feel very alone if they do not form

associations with key stakeholders of their institutions (2003:95).

3.3 CONCLUSION

In this chapter I presented the data collected during my research. I have tried

to use the data to understand how curriculum leadership is experienced by

women principals. What emerged from the analysis of the data gathered at the

three schools was that the participants’ experiences were influenced by a

variety of factors. These factors emanate from their experiences within the

school; in the community outside the school; and from their personal lives.

There are factors which encumber their leadership positions. Within the school

there are subtle stereotypical behaviours exhibited by some staff members

who ponder if women are ‘leadership material’ as questioned by Shakeshaft

(1989:49). It has also emerged that these women do not get the full co-

operation and support from all staff members which will enable them to

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effectively lead curriculum. There is agreement with all three principals that

stakeholder collaboration is necessary for successful curriculum leadership.

The data analysis also revealed that parents and the community do not

provide the necessary support needed for successful curriculum

implementation. As principals of schools in disadvantaged communities they

are clearly faced with challenges outside the school as well. The communities

are afflicted with unemployment, lack of adequate resources, poverty and a

high rate of teenage pregnancies, substance abuse and poverty. Community

morale is often low. The principal’s role is challenged to generate responsibility

and co-operation of parents and community, teachers and learners. Efforts to

involve parents and the community into the culture and management of the

schools have yielded very little success. Women principals in this research

often felt that they have to ride the journey alone.

The analysis from this study also uncovered that the support of families was

instrumental in women fulfilling their roles as principals. It was easier for two of

the participants to pursue their professional roles in the absence of a husband,

whilst the third participant has a supportive husband. This refutes the view

purported by Bryson (2003:240-241) that a woman can be powerless,

expected only to serve others. The participants in this research declared that

one cannot perform the role of mother and fulfil work obligations of a principal

without there being some sacrifice. It must be noted that they do feel guilty

because work commitments have resulted in them failing to fulfil their

conventionally prescribed roles as mothers to their own children. This affirms

the statement by Nohria and Khurana that prejudice is levelled at the way

women leaders are perceived and therefore women leaders have difficulty in

the way they perceive themselves (2010:379).

The information analysed in this study also assists one in understanding why

radical feminists believe that patriarchy can be defeated if women

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acknowledge their own value and strength. The participants in this research

have also demonstrated another belief of radical feminism; that women have

more in common with other women regardless of race, ethnic group or class.

The positive female attributes of child-rearing, nurturing and domestic care as

advocated by cultural feminism have been demonstrated by these participants

(Lengermann in Ritzer 2012:462). In disadvantaged communities wherein

these schools are located, women’s morality and values are commended for

endeavouring to uplift society (as campaigned by cultural feminism).

Finally the data analysis revealed that the participants were determined to

succeed in spite all the challenges they faced.

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CHAPTER FOUR

THE LONG AND WINDING JOURNEY IS NOT COMPLETE

Chapter Four deals with the conclusion of the research study,

recommendations and suggestions for future research. The experiences

encountered by female principals in curriculum leadership positions have been

elucidated in this research.

This study revealed that females in curriculum leadership positions in schools

in disadvantaged communities do face similar challenges. The experiences of

women principals in their positions as curriculum leaders were expounded in

relation to their work and at home. The study highlighted that women rely on

their own values to assist them in their leadership. Stakeholder participation at

all levels is unavoidable and critical for curriculum implementation to be

successful. The three participants in this study encouraged and involved their

staff and members of the SGB in discussions and decision making relating to

the school, although support did not manifest itself tangibly. Their predicament

as curriculum leaders is further compounded because disadvantaged

communities are not well conversant of community roles at schools.

The study emphasised that female leaders have to make personal

compromises that impact on their family life. The participants of this study were

determined to maintain a balance between work and their personal lives. A

supportive spouse and family made this possible in this study. The three

women share the same curriculum leadership styles when it comes to policy

implementation and decision making. It was also evident from the data

analysis that they use transformational, ethical and learner-centred leadership

styles in the execution of their duties and responsibilities as curriculum

leaders. By infusing their values based on religion and ethnicity into the

84

curriculum, they were able to strengthen relationships at school and within the

school communities.

4.1 CONCLUSION

Although there is some progress, more still needs to be done in order to

balance the gender equality scales in school leadership. Women, as

curriculum leaders are creating environments within their schools where

inclusive curriculum implementation is becoming a reality. The fact that the

participants in this study see their challenges as room for improvement

indicate that they have confidence in themselves because they believe that

they ‘can make it’.

Social expectations of women need to change. Women should be judged by

what they can do, not by their gender. Women should not be pressured into

choosing between work and home. They can accomplish both with

encouragement and support. This study reveals that women principals will

continue to experience challenges within school; the community outside

school; and in their own personal lives as long as society does not give them

the support and continue to stereotype them. People who are less informed

can easily be led astray by stereotyping (Eagley and Carli 2007:84).

In conclusion, there are many misconceptions around women principals and

their abilities to lead. As long as society continues to ascribe negative

connotations such as gender to positions of leadership, disparity and

inequalities in relation to women being appointed to leadership and

management positions will continue to exist (Reynolds in Kgomo 2006:2).

Women principals will continue to face challenges in disadvantaged

communities, unless these communities are educated and willing to have a

change of mindset regarding cultural beliefs and practices that impede

progress and ultimately impact on curriculum. The concept of curriculum is

85

broad and has many facets. Its very nature invites stakeholder participation,

consultation, a vision, teamwork and commitment. Unless it is properly

understood by all those involved the benefits cannot be fully experienced.

Achieving gender equality in curriculum leadership positions in South African

schools is still an enormous task. This research has also revealed that it is

difficult to separate the borders between private and professional lives of

women in curriculum leadership.

4.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

As a member of this District Office this study has drawn my attention to the fact

that as a district we highlight the roles and responsibilities of principals

according to SASA. We have been remiss in acknowledging that the

curriculum aspect has many ramifications in the day-to-day operations of the

school. Hence;

the local district wherein these three schools are located should hold

workshops that promote the roles and responsibilities of the curriculum

leader.

stakeholder involvement must be encouraged. This can be done by

holding regular community and stakeholder meetings.

there is a dire need for disadvantaged communities to be educated. The

South African Government should therefore expand its social

endeavours in raising the level of community obligation to their role in

schools within their communities.

twinning schools located in disadvantaged communities with schools in

urban and ‘town’ communities is necessary for sharing knowledge on

curriculum and curriculum leadership.

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4.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES

This research study reveals that there is obviously a gap in literature on

women in curriculum leadership positions and the effect of disadvantaged

communities on curriculum in schools. Further research should therefore focus

on the following aspects.

1. The supporting role that community organisations, Non-Governmental

Organisations and government departments can play to highlight the

challenges confronted by women principals in disadvantaged

communities.

2. The impact of gender stereotyping prevalent in schools located in

disadvantaged communities.

3. Changing the mindsets concerning women principals who lead in

schools in disadvantaged communities.

4. The need for the South African government to be more proactive in their

gender transformation policies and ensure that it reaches as many

women in all spheres of life.

4.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The results of this research are only valid for the sample studied, it cannot be

generalised. Numerous limitations such as race, education, marital status and

leadership styles challenge it. Women in curriculum leadership positions

endure an array of optimistic and unconstructive experiences.

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APPENDIX: A LETTER OF REQUEST 21 Bennie Jacobs Avenue

Norkem Park Kempton Park

1618 19 September 2011

The District Director Gauteng East District Gauteng Department of Education Dear Madam This letter is to request permission to conduct interviews with 3 school

principals in Gauteng East District.

I am currently completing my Master’s Degree in Education at the University of

Johannesburg on a part time basis. My research study focuses on the

experiences of female principals in leading curriculum at their schools in

disadvantaged communities. In order to obtain relevant and valid information

on this study, the participation of female principals from schools in these

communities is essential.

My proposed research will be based on interviews and observations, which I

will arrange at times that would not impact on the teaching time of the

principals. The research would be conducted at the schools.

Confidentiality and anonymity will be respected in the interviews and the

report.

Should you have any further queries or questions, please contact me on

0845142158 or my supervisor Professor Juliet Perumal on 083 428 6355.

Hoping that you would consider my request favourably.

Thank you _________________ Bhaigiavathie Naidoo

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APPENDIX: B CONSENT AND CONFIDENTIALITY

Part A: Letter of Consent (To be signed by all research participants) I …………………………………………. have consented to participate as a research subject in Bhaigiavathie Naidoo’s MEd research. I understand that the data collected and analysed as a result of the research will form part of the main body of her Master’s Research Report to be submitted to the School of Education at the University of Johannesburg. I also understand that her study will be used for educational purposes. I understand that I will be guaranteed anonymity during the actual research process as well as the final research report. Pseudonyms will be used to guarantee anonymity. By signing this letter, I consent to the following – [Tick the relevant blocks]: The researcher observing school relationships The researcher taking field notes Taking part in interviews Engaging in ad hoc discussions with the researcher That the interviews will be audio-taped I expect to be given a copy of this consent form to keep. …………………………… ……………….. Signed: Research Participant Date: Part B: Guarantee of Confidentiality I, Bhaigiavathie Naidoo, hereby guarantee anonymity and confidentiality to …………………………………………. in her participation in my MEd research. This confidentiality will be guaranteed during and after the research process as well as in the final research report. ……………………………………. ……………...…… Researcher: Bhaigiavathie Naidoo Date:

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APPENDIX: C INTERVIEW QUESTIONS BIOGRAPHY: 1. How old are you? 2. When and where did you matriculate? 3. Do you see/find a difference in your schooling and schooling here today?

(ethnicity, environment, stakeholders etc) 4. How old were you when you became school principal? 5. Who/What inspired you to become a school principal? 6. In your schooling career did you meet any female in a leadership position

that had any impact on you, positive or negative? 7. How did you get involved with education? 8. What are your post -matric qualifications? 9. What did you think of your interview process? 10. What is the demographic profile of your school? (student and staff

composition)

LEADERSHIP 11. What are your conceptions on curriculum leadership? 12. Where did you develop the notion of curriculum leadership? 13. Do you see a difference in being a curriculum leader and a curriculum

manager? 14. What are you roles and responsibilities as a curriculum leader? 15. How would you describe your leadership style? 16. What in your opinion would be a leadership style that works? 17. Given that you are a female leader, is there a difference in the manner that

males and females respond to you? 18. How do you respond to this challenge? 19. What do you think attributes to this? 20. How does your professional roles and responsibilities impact on your

family and on you? DISADVANTAGED COMMUNITY 21. What in your opinion makes this a disadvantaged community? 22. Does a disadvantaged community affect you as a curriculum leader in any

way? 23. What would you say about the implementation of curriculum in a

disadvantaged community? 24. What are your views on the Government’s efforts on promoting equal

opportunity and fair treatment in the workplace?

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APPENDIX: D OBSERVATION SCHEDULE DATE: NAME OF SCHOOL:

TIME ACTIVITY COMMENTS

7:00-7:30 Observing morning activities of principal

7:30-7:45 Sit in on morning briefing ( staff or SMT) Observe principal’s handling of curriculum related issues during discussions. Observe her non-verbal reactions.

7:45-12:00 Shadowing of principal. Record field notes of her monitoring of curriculum. What styles of curriculum leadership does she employ during her monitoring? How does she communicate? Does the leadership style have any impact on managing curriculum at her school? Does she display any of the female attributes as mentioned in the literature review?

12:00-13:00 Reflection on and addition to notes

13:00-13:30 Conversation with principal for clarification

13:30 Departure

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APPENDIX: E OBSERVATION AND RECORD OF FIELD NOTES DATE: NAME OF SCHOOL:

TIME:

ACTIVITY OBSERVED: NOTES

Number in attendance

Designation of those in attendance

Aspect/ topic of meeting/ briefing

Atmosphere that prevailed

Procedure

Record of facial expressions, gestures and attitudes

Principal’s leadership style/s observed

Impact on the members of the meeting/briefing

Any undertones observed