WJEC A2 Unit 4, Crime and Deviance Week 2: Measuring Crime How to navigate this Slide Show: Either: Click the screen icon below far right for the ‘Slide.

WJEC A2 Unit 4, Crime WJEC A2 Unit 4, Crime and Deviance Week 2: and Deviance Week 2: Measuring CrimeMeasuring Crime

How to navigate this Slide Show:

Either: Click the screen icon below far right for the ‘Slide Show’ option.

Use the left mouse button to enter each new bullet point and to move on to the next page [Press Esc to exit Slide Show at any time].

Or: use the arrows below to navigate from one screen to the next

Or click on the words on the left to go to the appropriate slide of your choice.

How to navigate this Slide Show:

Either: Click the screen icon below far right for the ‘Slide Show’ option.

Use the left mouse button to enter each new bullet point and to move on to the next page [Press Esc to exit Slide Show at any time].

Or: use the arrows below to navigate from one screen to the next

Or click on the words on the left to go to the appropriate slide of your choice.

Crime and Deviance Chapter 2: Measuring Crime 218/04/23

Accessibility StatementAccessibility Statement

This slide show has been designed to be user friendly to people with dyslexia and visual impairment.

The accessible font Arial is used.

Black font on a white background is avoided.

Instead, font colour and background have been chosen to complement each other in order to avoid stark contrasts which dyslexic readers find hinders reading.

All text is left-justified to avoid ‘rivers of white’.

This slide show has been designed to be user friendly to people with dyslexia and visual impairment.

The accessible font Arial is used.

Black font on a white background is avoided.

Instead, font colour and background have been chosen to complement each other in order to avoid stark contrasts which dyslexic readers find hinders reading.

All text is left-justified to avoid ‘rivers of white’.


Objectives of Chapter 2Objectives of Chapter 2Following this slide show you should be aware:

That crime statistics are a social construction.

That the official crime rate rose steadily for the past 100 years and peaked in mid-1990s.

That the official rate significantly underestimates the real rate of crime.

That victim and self-report studies show that there is significant under-reporting and under-recording of crime.

A fear of crime is disproportionate to the likelihood of being a victim of crime.


Crime Trend in the UK Over TimeCrime Trend in the UK Over Time

This growth in crime is generally reflected globally.

This growth in crime is generally reflected globally.

However, rates are still low in Japan, Singapore, and Scandinavian countries.

However, rates are still low in Japan, Singapore, and Scandinavian countries.

Totalitarian states tend to have lower crime rates.

Totalitarian states tend to have lower crime rates.


Reasons For The Rise in CrimeReasons For The Rise in CrimeMore state action: as policing gets better more crimes are detected.

More state action: as policing gets better more crimes are detected.

More laws: Because of more legislation on the statute book, there are more possible crimes (traffic offences, financial fraud, computer related crimes, etc.)

More laws: Because of more legislation on the statute book, there are more possible crimes (traffic offences, financial fraud, computer related crimes, etc.)

More sensitivity: People are more sensitive to reporting crimes physical and sexual violence to the police.

More sensitivity: People are more sensitive to reporting crimes physical and sexual violence to the police.

More victims: Because of increased affluence there are more things to steal. As opportunities have risen, so have crimes.

More victims: Because of increased affluence there are more things to steal. As opportunities have risen, so have crimes.


The Official Crime Rate (OCR)

In 1998, common assault, possession of a weapon, assault on a constable and harassment, were added to recorded crime.

In 1998, common assault, possession of a weapon, assault on a constable and harassment, were added to recorded crime.


British Crime Survey (BCS)British Crime Survey (BCS)

The BCS measures the amount of crime in England and Wales by asking people about crimes they have experienced in the last year.

The BCS measures the amount of crime in England and Wales by asking people about crimes they have experienced in the last year.

The BCS includes crimes which are not reported to the police, so it is an important alternative to the Official Crime Rate.

The BCS includes crimes which are not reported to the police, so it is an important alternative to the Official Crime Rate.

Victims do not report crime for various reasons. Without the BCS the government would have no information on these unreported crimes.

Victims do not report crime for various reasons. Without the BCS the government would have no information on these unreported crimes.


British Crime Survey Crime TrendBritish Crime Survey Crime Trend


Trends of Reported Crime, Trends of Reported Crime, Recorded Crime and the BCSRecorded Crime and the BCS


Recent Crime RatesRecent Crime Rates

In 2004/05 the British Crime Survey (BCS) recorded 10.9 million crimes on adults in private households in England and Wales.

In 2004/05 the British Crime Survey (BCS) recorded 10.9 million crimes on adults in private households in England and Wales.

In 2004/05 the Official Crime Rate (OCR) (crimes recorded by the police) was 5,6 million offences in England and Wales.

In 2004/05 the Official Crime Rate (OCR) (crimes recorded by the police) was 5,6 million offences in England and Wales.

This represents a fall of 6% over the previous year.

This represents a fall of 6% over the previous year.

In 2004/05 nearly 24% of the population were the victim of some type of crime compared to 44% in 1995

In 2004/05 nearly 24% of the population were the victim of some type of crime compared to 44% in 1995


Type of Crime

Theft and handling stolen property 2,027,516

Total violent crime 1,184,702

Burglary 679,973

Criminal damage 1,185,388

Fraud and forgery 278,902

Drug offences 142,338

Robbery 121,200

Sex offences 60,946

Other notifiable offences 63,872

Total all offences 5,562,691

Official Crime Rate Figures By Crime 2004-05


Criminal CharacteristicsCriminal Characteristics

The Official Crime Rate (OCR) is compiled annually by the police for the Home Office.

The Official Crime Rate (OCR) is compiled annually by the police for the Home Office.

They show criminals are typically:• Male;• Working-class;• Youthful;• Disproportionately black.

They show criminals are typically:• Male;• Working-class;• Youthful;• Disproportionately black.

In addition they are likely to have a poor educational record, and come from a broken home.In addition they are likely to have a poor educational record, and come from a broken home.


Dark Figure of Crime StatisticsDark Figure of Crime Statistics

Sociologists argue that the Official Crime Rate of crime seriously underestimates the real or true rate of crime.

Sociologists argue that the Official Crime Rate of crime seriously underestimates the real or true rate of crime.

The British Crime Survey suggests that the true level of crime is at least twice the Official Crime Rate.

The British Crime Survey suggests that the true level of crime is at least twice the Official Crime Rate.

The difference between the official crime rate and the real crime rate is referred to as the ‘dark-side’ of crime statistics

The difference between the official crime rate and the real crime rate is referred to as the ‘dark-side’ of crime statistics


Social Construction of Official Crime StatisticsCriminal statistics are a social construction because they are the product of social processes.

Criminal statistics are a social construction because they are the product of social processes.

They involve not only offenders but reporting and the behaviour of the police.

They involve not only offenders but reporting and the behaviour of the police.

It is estimated by the BCS that only 31% of crimes are reported and recorded.

It is estimated by the BCS that only 31% of crimes are reported and recorded.


Functionalist View on StatisticsFunctionalist View on Statistics

Functionalists share the view of positivists and tend to accept crime statistics uncritically.

Functionalists share the view of positivists and tend to accept crime statistics uncritically.

The functionalist-inspired subcultural theory for example started with the view that crime is a young, working-class, male phenomenon.

The functionalist-inspired subcultural theory for example started with the view that crime is a young, working-class, male phenomenon.


Marxist View on StatisticsMarxist View on Statistics

Marxists recognise the systematic bias in favour of the powerful in the application of the law.

Marxists recognise the systematic bias in favour of the powerful in the application of the law.

As a general rule, the higher people are in the social system the less likely they are to be arrested, charged, prosecuted and found guilty.

As a general rule, the higher people are in the social system the less likely they are to be arrested, charged, prosecuted and found guilty.

Marxists stress the significant ‘dark-side’ of white-collar and corporate crime that is largely invisible and absent from crime statistics.

Marxists stress the significant ‘dark-side’ of white-collar and corporate crime that is largely invisible and absent from crime statistics.


Interactionist/Labelling Theory View of Statistics

This interpretive approach sees crime statistics as largely useless and a distortion of reality.

This interpretive approach sees crime statistics as largely useless and a distortion of reality.

They argue statistics are a social construction and tell us nothing about the real level of crime, only who compiled them and how.

They argue statistics are a social construction and tell us nothing about the real level of crime, only who compiled them and how.

Labelling theory is more interested in questions such as why some acts are viewed as more deviant than others and why some groups become labelled as deviant.

Labelling theory is more interested in questions such as why some acts are viewed as more deviant than others and why some groups become labelled as deviant.


Left Realist View on StatisticsLeft Realist View on Statistics

Left Realists are almost unique (apart from Functionalists) in accepting that official statistics have some value and should not be rejected out of hand.

Left Realists are almost unique (apart from Functionalists) in accepting that official statistics have some value and should not be rejected out of hand.

They accept the statistical view that typical offenders are young, male, working-class and disproportionately black.

They accept the statistical view that typical offenders are young, male, working-class and disproportionately black.

Using victim studies, they highlight how people (especially the poor and vulnerable) have real fears of crime.

Using victim studies, they highlight how people (especially the poor and vulnerable) have real fears of crime.


Feminist View on StatisticsFeminist View on Statistics

Feminists argue that crime statistic underplay the extent of females as victims: personal attack; domestic violence, etc.

Feminists argue that crime statistic underplay the extent of females as victims: personal attack; domestic violence, etc.

Until recently the police viewed attacks in the home as “domestics” and were reluctant to get involved.

Until recently the police viewed attacks in the home as “domestics” and were reluctant to get involved.

Many female victims of physical and sexual attack are reluctant to report offences. (See Chapter 8 for more detail).

Many female victims of physical and sexual attack are reluctant to report offences. (See Chapter 8 for more detail).


Underreporting of CrimeUnderreporting of Crime The British Crime Survey found that:The British Crime Survey found that:

44% of crime victims felt the incident was not sufficiently serious to report.44% of crime victims felt the incident was not sufficiently serious to report.

33% claimed the police would be unsuccessful in solving the crime, so felt it was not worth reporting it.

33% claimed the police would be unsuccessful in solving the crime, so felt it was not worth reporting it.

22% did not report the crime as they felt the police would not be interested.22% did not report the crime as they felt the police would not be interested.

4% did not report crimes because they were fearful of reprisals. 4% did not report crimes because of inconvenience.4% did not report crimes because they were fearful of reprisals. 4% did not report crimes because of inconvenience.


Underreporting (Continued)Underreporting (Continued)

Some crimes are not reported because they are victimless, e.g. drug-taking, smuggling, prostitution, etc.

Some crimes are not reported because they are victimless, e.g. drug-taking, smuggling, prostitution, etc.

Some crimes are not reported because of the humiliation felt by the victim such as rape, domestic violence, etc.

Some crimes are not reported because of the humiliation felt by the victim such as rape, domestic violence, etc.

Corporate and white-collar crime is extremely difficult to detect and thus report.

Corporate and white-collar crime is extremely difficult to detect and thus report.


Under-recording: Police as ‘Filters’Under-recording: Police as ‘Filters’

Moore, Aiken and Chapman (2000) see the police as filters, only recording some of crimes reported to them.

Moore, Aiken and Chapman (2000) see the police as filters, only recording some of crimes reported to them.

Seriousness: the offence may be regarded as too trivial.Seriousness: the offence may be regarded as too trivial.

‘Social status’ of the victim: important people tend to get a more favoured response than the poor, down and outs and homeless.

‘Social status’ of the victim: important people tend to get a more favoured response than the poor, down and outs and homeless.

Classifying the crime: (minor ‘assaults’ may not be investigated but ‘aggravated assaults’ usually are).Classifying the crime: (minor ‘assaults’ may not be investigated but ‘aggravated assaults’ usually are).


Police as Filters (continued)Police as Filters (continued)

Discretion: each police officer has the discretion to press charges or let the individual off – even if they are known to be ‘guilty’.

Discretion: each police officer has the discretion to press charges or let the individual off – even if they are known to be ‘guilty’.

(Those whose demeanour is deferential, co-operative and polite are more likely to be let off for minor offences. Consider here Aaron Ciçourel’s ‘negotiation’, Howard Becker’s labelling theory and Skolnick’s ‘canteen culture’).

(Those whose demeanour is deferential, co-operative and polite are more likely to be let off for minor offences. Consider here Aaron Ciçourel’s ‘negotiation’, Howard Becker’s labelling theory and Skolnick’s ‘canteen culture’).

Promotion and relations at work: Police officers have to tread a tightrope between trying to impress senior officers and not appearing too keen (as this makes more work for their colleagues).

Promotion and relations at work: Police officers have to tread a tightrope between trying to impress senior officers and not appearing too keen (as this makes more work for their colleagues).


The ‘Cuffing’ of CrimeThe ‘Cuffing’ of Crime

The dishonest practice of not recording crimes is known inside the police as ‘cuffing’ or ‘Spanish practices’.

The dishonest practice of not recording crimes is known inside the police as ‘cuffing’ or ‘Spanish practices’.

It is suggested by some that the fall in crime in the 1990s was manipulated by police ‘cuffing’ rather than a real fall in crime rates.

It is suggested by some that the fall in crime in the 1990s was manipulated by police ‘cuffing’ rather than a real fall in crime rates.


Victim StudiesVictim StudiesThese are surveys of people who are asked to report all cases where they have been a victim of crime recently.

These are surveys of people who are asked to report all cases where they have been a victim of crime recently.

Examples can be local like the Islington Crime Survey (1986 and 1995) or national like the British Crime Survey (annually).

Examples can be local like the Islington Crime Survey (1986 and 1995) or national like the British Crime Survey (annually).

Victim surveys give a clearer idea of the extent of crime, who is likely to be a victim and people’s fears about crime.

Victim surveys give a clearer idea of the extent of crime, who is likely to be a victim and people’s fears about crime.

They also highlight the risk of repeat victimisation of victims.They also highlight the risk of repeat victimisation of victims.


British Crime SurveyBritish Crime Survey

An annual survey conducted by the Home Office of 40,000 households with data fed into laptops.

An annual survey conducted by the Home Office of 40,000 households with data fed into laptops.

Does not include corporate or workplace crime, victimless crime or crimes against people under age of 16.Does not include corporate or workplace crime, victimless crime or crimes against people under age of 16.

Now includes a section on domestic violence, but interviews are usually with male head of household.

Now includes a section on domestic violence, but interviews are usually with male head of household.

So it still underestimates the real rate of crime.So it still underestimates the real rate of crime.


Weaknesses of Victim StudiesWeaknesses of Victim StudiesRelying on people's memory is a problem as recollections may be incorrect or biased. Relying on people's memory is a problem as recollections may be incorrect or biased.

Sometimes people put crimes into the wrong categories. Sometimes people put crimes into the wrong categories.

Surveys exclude white-collar crimes such as fraud and corporate crime: these become effectively 'invisible crimes'.Surveys exclude white-collar crimes such as fraud and corporate crime: these become effectively 'invisible crimes'.

People will not report 'victimless crimes' such as drug taking, or prostitution. People will not report 'victimless crimes' such as drug taking, or prostitution.

There is an under-reporting of personal attack, domestic violence and sexual crimes, despite anonymity. (Note: the media sensitising issues can encourage people to report).

There is an under-reporting of personal attack, domestic violence and sexual crimes, despite anonymity. (Note: the media sensitising issues can encourage people to report).


Self-Report StudiesSelf-Report Studies

These ask people to honestly confess to crimes they have committed over a period of time.

These ask people to honestly confess to crimes they have committed over a period of time.

They can be an important way of getting a better picture of some crimes like drug-use.

They can be an important way of getting a better picture of some crimes like drug-use.

Anne Campbell gave a self-report study to young females and found they had almost as high a crime rate as young males.

Anne Campbell gave a self-report study to young females and found they had almost as high a crime rate as young males.

However, Steven Box argued that if petty crime was removed then the male-female ratio was closer to the official one: 5:1.However, Steven Box argued that if petty crime was removed then the male-female ratio was closer to the official one: 5:1.


Weaknesses of Self-Report StudiesWeaknesses of Self-Report Studies

Steven Box (1971) argues self-report studies suffer from issues of validity, representativeness and relevance:Steven Box (1971) argues self-report studies suffer from issues of validity, representativeness and relevance:

‘Validity’: are they true to life? Respondents can forget, play-down or exaggerate the extent of criminal activity they have been involved in.

‘Validity’: are they true to life? Respondents can forget, play-down or exaggerate the extent of criminal activity they have been involved in.

‘Representativeness’. Since most self-report studies are on young people, they rarely include professional or managerial adults.

‘Representativeness’. Since most self-report studies are on young people, they rarely include professional or managerial adults.

‘Relevance': the majority of crimes reported are trivial.‘Relevance': the majority of crimes reported are trivial.


Statistical Explosion in a Risk Society

Ulrich Beck (1995, pictured left) coined the term ‘risk society’ to refer to the shared knowledge of contemporary risks, including rising crime.

Ulrich Beck (1995, pictured left) coined the term ‘risk society’ to refer to the shared knowledge of contemporary risks, including rising crime.

Mike Maguire (2002) notes how we are bombarded with data not just from the Home Office but researchers, agencies and even victims. This adds to our knowledge and fear of crime.

Mike Maguire (2002) notes how we are bombarded with data not just from the Home Office but researchers, agencies and even victims. This adds to our knowledge and fear of crime.

Garland (2001) argues in late modernity we have lost confidence in governments. This explains why when officially the crime rate is falling, many people believe it is still rising.

Garland (2001) argues in late modernity we have lost confidence in governments. This explains why when officially the crime rate is falling, many people believe it is still rising.


Fear of CrimeFear of Crime


Fear of CrimeAge: Not only do elderly people fear crime but both males and females under 25 report the highest levels of fear for most types of crime.

Age: Not only do elderly people fear crime but both males and females under 25 report the highest levels of fear for most types of crime.

Gender: Women are almost 3 times as likely to fear physical attack than men.

Gender: Women are almost 3 times as likely to fear physical attack than men.

Ethnicity: People from minority ethnic backgrounds fear crime more than the majority White population.

Ethnicity: People from minority ethnic backgrounds fear crime more than the majority White population.


Fear of Crime of the Over-60s

Percentage aged 60 or over feeling 'very' unsafe when walking alone at night, 2004/05 (Source: ONS website www.statistics.gov.uk/)


Fear of CrimeFear of Crime Finding by the Islington Crime Survey (1995) and shared by Left Realism is that there is a real fear of crime amongst the public.

Finding by the Islington Crime Survey (1995) and shared by Left Realism is that there is a real fear of crime amongst the public.

The group most likely to be a victim of violence is young males. In 88% of cases they know their attacker.

The group most likely to be a victim of violence is young males. In 88% of cases they know their attacker.

Ironically, deprived inner-city areas and sink housing estates have the highest levels of crime. Such people who are victims of burglary stand a high risk of repeat victimisation.

Ironically, deprived inner-city areas and sink housing estates have the highest levels of crime. Such people who are victims of burglary stand a high risk of repeat victimisation.


Reflective QuestionsReflective Questions

In Chapter 1 we saw how crime is a social construction stemming from Governments changing laws in response to cultural changes and influence of powerful groups.

In Chapter 1 we saw how crime is a social construction stemming from Governments changing laws in response to cultural changes and influence of powerful groups.

1. Why does this make comparing crime rates and trends difficult over time?

Most judicial systems reward people if they plead guilty. In the USA this is quite open and known as plea bargaining.

Most judicial systems reward people if they plead guilty. In the USA this is quite open and known as plea bargaining.

2. What impact might this have on the seriousness of crimes admitted to and solved?


End of PresentationEnd of Presentation

WJEC A2 Unit 4, Crime and Deviance Week 2: Measuring Crime How to navigate this Slide Show: Either: Click the screen icon below far right for the ‘Slide.

Documents

victim of crime

crime statistics

crime trend

fear of crime

real rate of crime

underrecording of crime

lower crime rates

official crime rate