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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM SILVERMAN TRANSCRIBED NOTES (CHAPTER
7F)
Common complaints
loss of consciousness
seizure
developmental delay
developmental regression
weakness of parts of the body
unsteady gait
limping
clumsiness
involuntary movements
floppiness
headache Less common
loss of vision
loss of hearing
vertigo EXAMPLES OF HISTORY TAKING LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS
coma
Onset - sudden, gradual
Trauma - intracranial hemorrhage
LOC at once - severe Intracranial hemorrhage
LOC at lucid interval -middle meningeal bleeding
With headache and vomiting before coma- encephalitis, tumor
With fever before coma-encephalitis, meningitis
Preceding illness - DM, SLE, Sickle cell drug ingestion
SEIZURE nature of involuntary movement? confine to one body? how
many attacks? - assess severity, seriousness
GRAND MAL PETIT MAL
tonic-clonic
attack come all at once
< 5 minutes < 10 - 20 seconds
loss of consciousness attack (convulsion)
brief loss of consciousness
loss of balance and fall does not lose balance
loss of bowel and bladder control
loss of bowel and bladder control (rare)
sleep for few hours and appears dazed
After attack momentarily confused, lip smacking and chewing
precipitated by light
MYOCLONIC
sudden, single/repetitive muscle contraction
very brief and momentary movement is so violent that the patient
is thrown off the chair or bed
lip smacking/chewing movement after attack
precipitated by startle response
PSYCHOMOTOR ATTACK
complex, purposeful act
less than 2 minutes
perform coordinated acts but is amnestic
may have lip smacking or chewing movement FOCAL MOTOR SEIZURE
with march
start in one area of the body and march with definite
sequence
AKINETIC SEIZURE
very brief, momentary
sudden loss of tone and patient collapse to floor PHYSICAL EXAM
OF SENSORIUM Appearance Normal components include:
awareness
position and spontaneous movement of the body
responsive to touch and handling activity
orientation Awareness
NORMAL CHILD COMATOSE CHILD RETARDED/BLIND
Alert Responsive
Unresponsive but maybe aware of his
surrounding
Vacant look
some child after head injury and meningitis - aware of the
surrounding but not able to verbalized
NEUROLOGICAL PROFILE
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check on admission and then every 24hours
arousal o verbal o eye opening
pupillary response
eye movement o spontaneous o response to stimuli
corneal response
breathing pattern
motor response
tendon reflex
muscle tone
Severe brain injury no opening at all or open the eyes only in
response to a painful stimuli
Coma exaggerated tendon reflexes
Deeper state of coma o No speech o Flaccid o Absence of reflex o
Roving conjugate and dysconjugate eye
movement o Abnormal accentuation of flexor or extensor
tone
bobbing unusual type of eye movement
Oculocephalic response not done in patient with severe neck
injury
Respiratory pattern only in those patient not in mechanical
ventilator
Response to pain squeeze: o Nailbed o Tendon o Glabella
Primitive response withdrawal to painful stimuli
Body Position
Normal child varying styles o On the side with both UE and LE
partially flexed o On abdomen with face turned on one side
Does not like to be handled, irritable, lies down with eyes
tightly closed, turning head away from light
o Meningitis o Subarachnoid hemorrhage
Opisthotonic with the occiput burrowing into the pillow: o
Severe meningeal irritation o Tetanus
Decerebrate rigidity Decorticating rigidity
lower limbs in full extension lower limbs are in extension
upper limbs in extension at the shoulder and elbow
shoulder in external rotation, but the elbow are flexed
thumb adducted thumb adducted into palm
forearm pronated
Severe hypotonia - pithed frog position. Responsiveness
normal happy or reacts adversely to being handled by strangers
(absent in those with mental retardation and multiple care
takers)
battered afraid of all types of human contact
autistic no eye contact
meningitis, painful condition
does not like to be handled
Activity
Unequal movement of the limbs o Monoplegia o Paraplegia o
Hemiplegia o Painful condition (fracture)
Orientation
Normal can identify right and left on their own body by 6 years
old and another's body by 9 years old.
Altered orientation o Infection o Toxic o Vasculitic diseases of
the brain
Simple questions for orientation: o Where home is? o What day of
the week it is? o What time of the day it is? o When he/she is next
going to have a birthday?
Memory
To test short term memory (simplest) give set of numbers, ask to
repeat them forward and backward
Organic brain syndrome backward repetition is affected
Normal o 6 years old can repeat 5digits forward and
count 3 digits backward o 10 years old can count 6 digits
forward and 4
digits backward
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To test immediate memory - tell a story and have the child
repeat it (will also test attention span, comprehension and
confabulation)
To test intermediate memory give the child the name of flower,
city and food in the beginning of an examination, after varying
interval ask him to repeat the items from memory.
To test long term memory ask his address, telephone number,
birth date and names and ages of siblings
Speech Components of speech to be tested:
Presence or absence of speech (spoken and written)
Quantity of speech age appropriateness
Quality of speech o Volume o Phonation o Articulation o Content
o Rhythm
Examination of the anatomic structures of mouth, pharynx and
larynx
Presence or Absence
May have normal speech but never open his mouth in the presence
of strangers on in doctors office.
Complete and thorough speech exam may not be possible rely on
history and careful observation.
Abnormal o 18 months - failure to speak any word o 3 years -
failure to make meaningful sentences
Mutism - complete absence, may also be evidence of: o Deafness o
Mental retardation o Autism
Quality
Intercostal muscle paralysis o not be able to speak long
sentences without
frequent pauses o no voice or breathy voice o test: take a large
breath and count as many
numbers as possible in one breath; blow out a match held at a
distance of 2-5 inches
Vocal cord is essential for phonation
Aphonia (no voice) may have normal respiration and strong
respiratory muscles but vocal cords do not move normally.
Deafness - monotonous speech without infection.
Central deafness - very high pitched voice
Prepubertal period - normally have high pitched voice
Articulation o needs coordinated movements of:
tongue palate lips
Test: say ka pa ti ka o Ka-comes from the back of the throat o
Pa-produced by the lips o Ti-produced by tongue and palate o If
said fast problem of incoordination
Components of articulation: intelligibility and coordination
o Tested by these words: Methodist Episcopal Round the rugged
rock the ragged
rascal run
Nasal resonance during phonation suggests: o cleft palate o
chronic adenoiditis o palatial paralysis
*if suspected, ask the child to say words ending with NG which
he may not be able to pronounce*
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CRANIAL NERVES OLFACTORY NERVE/CN1
Very difficult, even in adults
Children more difficult
Present common items to each nostril with the other side closed:
o Toothpaste o Oranges o Chewing gum.
Eyes closed and should guess the item from the smell
Infants change of facial expression may be the only clue.
OPTIC NERVE/CN2
Presence or absence of vision o Acuity o Fields o Fundus
Presence of Vision. o simple test to show that a child has
intact
cortical vision is to make a menacing gesture, as if to poke the
eye.
(+) consistent blink Cortical vision
absent before 10 months of age Normal
Inconsistent response (vision is intact, but the interpretation
of vision is impaired
Parietal lobe lesions
Follows a moving light or object intact cortical vision
Acuity
Many tests for visual acuity
Simplest is the illiterate E chart which can be used for
children as young as 3 years
The E test is a good as any other for screening.
Es in the chart are in different directions so that the limbs
are pointing up, down, right, and left.
The chart is fixed at the childs eye level in a well-lit hallway
at a distance of 20 feet from the childs seat
The child asked to show with fingers the direction to which the
limbs of the E are pointing.
Test each eye separately and then both together.
>50% of the letters in each line should be recognized
correctly by the child to get a pass for that line.
Normally: o Children are far-sighted till 6 to 7 years o
Children in the first three grades of school should be
able to read 20/20 or better with each eye.
Compact eye testing machine - electrically projects the charts
in front of the childs visual field is even more accurate and takes
very little space is an office o Titmus Vision Tester
Field of Vision
Tested by a confrontation method till the child is old enough to
cooperate with perimetry.
Some simple methods are: o Use a colorful toy approach the eye
from each
side sequentially. Hemianopsia - if the childs turns to the
object when approached from one side but not the other
o Hemianopsia or Muscle imbalance - the child tilts the head to
read
o Look at a measuring tape when it is being pulled out of its
container fix the eye on the opening in the container from which
the tape comes out do it first with the tape coming out from right
to left and then from left to right.
Normally: eye will follow the tape for a short distance as it
comes out and return back to the opening of the tape container.
This is called opticokinetic nystagmus
Hemianopsia - this reflex will be absent in the direction
opposite to the hemianopsia
o Sit and look at the examiners eyes (level with the eyes of the
child two objects are dangled with threads behind the childs head
and are slowly brought forward
Normally, as the peripheral field of the eye catches the object,
the child will move the eye.
Field defect - this occurs consistently in one direction but not
the other
o Look into the examiners eyes, which are placed at the same
level as those of the child examiner takes his hands to the
periphery of the visual field with the index figures extended and
at diagonally opposite positions. He quickly flexes one of the
fingers and the child is asked to show which figure moved. This is
repeated at different points in the perimeter of the field.
o False results can be obtained o Staring at a childs eyes can
frighten him or her.
Fundus
Examined with an ophthalmoscope
Ophthalmoscope: consist of a handle, batteries, and the
ophthalmoscope head.
o Most operate on batteries (3 volts) and are easily
carried.
o Some models (particularly those used by ophthalmologists) can
be connected to electric outlets through a transformer (12
volts).
o Always use fresh batteries to obtain maximum light and good
visualization.
o Head has a rubber guard to prevent scratches to the examiners
glasses if he or she wishes to use the instrument with glasses
on.
Rotary disc on the head has numbers in red on the left side and
numbers in black on the right side of the 0 mark.
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Red numbers minus lenses Neutralize myopia
Black numbers plus lenses Neutralize hyperopia
o One can get 15 to 20 diopters of power through these
discs.
o Plus 8 to 15 lenses to focus on the iris margin and the
lens.
o have devices to give different kinds of beams of light. o the
control is usually on top or behind the
instrument head. o two round apertures (one large, one small), a
slit, a
grid and a red-free filter are usually provided.
large round large pupils
Small round small pupils
Slit convexity and concavity of the retinal lesions *raised or
depressed lesion light from the vertical slit is focused on the
lesion and the adjoining normal retina, there will be a steplike
distortion of the beam *convex (pointing towards the observer) the
lesion is an elevation. *bends away from examinerdefect in the
surface of the retina
Grid measure the size of the vessels
Green filter (red-free light)
*makes the blood vessels stand out as dark stripes *allows
recognition of small aneurysms and hemorrhages *with fresh
batteries, this filter may also help differentiate between:
=melanin (not very black) =old hemorrhage (intense black)
Techniques in using the ophthalmoscope : o Many children and
infants are curious and
eventually will look directly into the light if you have leave
them alone and wait, but if you touch the lid to open the eye,
fight will get tougher
o Younger children are best examined when they are lying down.
Some older children cooperate better if they are sitting up.
o Some children may require anesthesia. If the problem is
significant enough to warrant such a risk, an ophthalmologist
should be looking at the eye
o Dilation of the pupil is necessary for a thorough examination
of the eye, though a satisfactory examination of the optic nerve
head can be accomplished without mydriasis.
Routine: 1 drop of 10% phenylephrine in each eye
For better papillary dilation:
1 year
tropicamide (1%) applied 3x at 10 minute intervals
(+) seizures: 0.5%Tropicamide and 10%neosynephrine applied 2 -3x
over a 10 minute period.
Cyclomedrin used once. Examine after 30 to 40 mins.
(-) seizures: Cyclopentolate 1% solution (once)
dark eyes: add Tropicamide 1 percent solution (once). Examine
after 20 to 30 minutes
Start + 8 show any scars or large deposits in the cornea as
black spots in the midst of the red reflex
+ 10 or + 12, the edge of the iris becomes easily visible. o
determine if clear and round. o Iridocyclitis iris edge will show
fine
serrations, instead of a smooth round contour.
Red reflex occasionally, the normal red reflex is replaced by a
white or yellow reflex, also called the cats eye reflex
White reflex serious eye disease; requires immediate
consultation with an ophthalmologist
o Retinoblastoma o Angiomatosis of the retina o Toxocara canis o
Retrolental fibroplasias o Congenital cataract
One can judge the point of origin of the reflex by changing the
power of the lens.
+ 10 or 12 lens needed to locate the white reflex of a
cataract.
Look at the characteristics, periphery of the fundus move slowly
toward the optic disc by following the vessels note of the
characteristics of the arteries and veins look at the macula.
o fovea is the center of the macula and is located approximately
2 disc diameters temporal
o Major points to look for in the macula are:
Toxoplasmosis pigmented deposits with exudates
Tay Sachs cherry red spot
Important findings to look for in the fundus of children are
related to:
o retintis of congenital infections o degenerative disease o
phakomatosis o optic atrophy o papolledema.
Jet-black deposits of retinitis pigmentosa starts in the
equatorial region, spreading later to the periphery
Yellow- white exudates of congenital syphilis later turns into
pigments all over the fundus.
Also look for retinal exudates which appear as faint clusters or
masses.
Central retinal artery divides into o Superior segments
Temporal branch Nasal branch
o Inferior segments Temporal branch Nasal branch
*has veins corresponding to these four arties
Normally veins are larger than arteries (3.2) and darker.
The vessels have a central stripe which is more prominent in the
arteries.
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The arteries and veins are graceful in their course without too
many curvatures and acute bends
On locations where the arteries and veins cross each other, the
veins pass underneath the arteries.
It is important to be familiar with these normal
characteristics, because in:
hypertensive retinopathy *increase in the reflex stripe along
the arteriole *loss of reflex stripe of the veins on either side of
A-V crossing *narrowing of arterioles
sickle cell disease *increased tortuosity of vessels in black
patients
vasculitis *perivascular sheathing
severe papilledema, hypertension, SLE (better with a red- free
light.)
*hemorrhages along blood vessels *vascular tumors may be
recognized
papilledema *fullness of the veins and loss of venous pulsation
of the optic cup
Optic disc; characterize the following features: o Shape o Size
o Color o Depth o Edge o Vessels
Normally, the disc is round.
Physiological cup o Central portion of the disk o shallow paler
area o vessels fan out o symmetrical; occupies about 30 % of the
disc.
glaucoma *cup extends almost of the periphery and is asymmetric
*vessels are pushed nasally
primary optic atrophy
*entire disc is white *disc margins are clear and the vessel
undisturbed
secondary optic atrophy
*disc is pale (not white) with sheathing of vessels *indistinct
margins
Optic neuritis and papilledema
*margins of the disc get indistinct and the color hyperemic (in
both) *fullness of veins, loss of pulsation of veins and retinal
hemorrhages (in both)
In addition to history, two other useful points in
differentiating these two conditions are:
o decreased visual acuity in neuritis as opposed to usually
normal vision in papilledema
o presence of inflammatory cells in the vitreous seen in optic
neutritis
OCULOMOTOR, TROCHLEAR, ABDUCENT NERVE/ CN 3 4 6
These nerves supply the extraocular muscles and the pupil
Examination of these nerves involves movements of the eyeball
spontaneously and on demand
It is obvious that during the examination one should be
systematically observe the following: 1. Position of the eyes ate
rest; squint 2. Movements of the eyes independently of each other
3. Movements of the eyes together (conjugate) 4. Movements of the
eyes in relation to the head
movements and body movement Appearance of fundus Papilledema
Papillitis Optic Atrophy
Depth Elevated disc Elevated disc Shallow
Physiological cup obliterated
Physiological cup obliterated
Edge Blurred edge Blurred edge Very sharp
Vessels Engorged Engorged Narrow/few
Color No venous pulse No venous pulse Pale to white
Hyperemic Hyperemic
Hemorrhages Hemorrhages
Vision Good; or enlarged blind spot
Poor vision; or loss of central vision
Reduced vision
Also evaluate: o Nystagmus o Double vision o Pupils
Some of the clinical clues to lesions of the third, fourth, and
sixth nerves are:
o ptosis- which is drooping of the evelids o an eye that is
deviated down and out o inability to look outwards o diplopia.
Position of Examination o Younger children mothers lap facing
the
examiner. o Eyes of the examiner should be at the same level
as the childs. o Covering the eyes can scare the child. o The
child should therefore be examined with
both eyes open before examining with the eyes closed.
o Also, the examiner should use his or her own hand to cover the
eyes of the child rather than use any occlusive device.
o Use of a flashlight or a sparkler toy is bound to make the
child follow with the eye.
Testing for Squint. o With the child looking at the object
directly in
front of the eye look for the reflection of the light from the
surface of the pupils.
o Normally this should be at comparable points, but in the
presence of squint the reflections are at nonconjugate
locations.
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o Strabismus (squint) which is obvious with both eyes open is
called heterotopias.
Esotropia convergent strabismus
Exotropia divergent strabismus
o Tendency for deviation is called phoria.
Esophria tendency to converge
Exophoria tendency to diverge
o Testing for phoria uses the cover uncover test. o Child looks
at an object or light cover one
eye, then the other with a cardboard or with your thumb held in
front of the eye do it slowly and rapidly look at the uncovered eye
always *Phoria - there is definite movement of the uncovered eye on
rapid, alternate covering
o When one eye is covered, if the uncovered eye moves to fix on
the finger, it was originally not looking at the object now if the
covered eye is uncovered (and is found to be moving) to fix on the
object, it was obviously deviating when the other was looking at
the object. This indicates the presence of a tendency (phoria) for
squint.
Independent Eyeball movements. o test for movements of the
eyeball in all
directions by having the child follow a bright light or
sparkler, first with both eyes moving and then one eye at a
time
CN3 *innervates the medial rectus, superior and inferior recti,
inferior oblique, levator palpebrae superioris, and the papillary
constrictors
Paralysis ptosis, papillary dilatation, and loss of all
movements except lateral deviations and downward movement with the
eyes in abduction
CN PARALYSIS
CN 4 (superior oblique muscles)
tested by looking for slight upward deviation of the eye in
abducted position because the inferior oblique is dominating
CN 6 paralysis of abduction (lateral movement) of the eye
o To test for recti and oblique muscles, one must
test the eyes in either abduction or adduction.
abduction adduction
*superior rectus acts as an elevator *inferior rectus as
depressor
*superior oblique is a depressor *inferior oblique is an
elevator
o In midline position all these muscles have a rotator
component.
Paralysis of each individual eye muscle M N Deviation of Eyeball
Diplopia Present
When Looking Direction of Image
IR III Outward (external squint) Toward nose Vertical
SR III Downward and inward Upward and outward Oblique
IR III Upward and inward Downward and outward Oblique
IO III Downward and outward Upward and inward Oblique
SO IV Upward and outward Downward and inward Oblique
LR VI Inward (Internal squint) Toward temple Vertical
Conjugate eyeball movement
*corticulo-bulbar irritative lesion on the opposite side
*destructive lesion on the same side
*conjugate deviation of the eyes (both eyes moving parallel) at
rest with gaze directed to one side
*frontomesencephalic pathway
*test for conjugate eye movement on command is absent
*head injury conjugate deviation at rest and inability to
produce conjugate movement on command
*Parinaud syndrome inability to get superior conjugate movement;
denotes a lesion in the corpora quadrigemina
Eyeball and head movements. o Movement of the eye as the
position of the
head is changed. o With the eyelids held open, the head is
rotated
from side to side. o Positive dolls eye reflex (oculocephalic
reflex) is
said to be present if there is conjugate deviation of the eyes
in a direction opposite to the direction of movement of the head
(head rotated toward right, eyes deviating to left).
o Such a reflex is absent in a normal, awake person but may be
present in patients with coma.
Double vision (Diplopia) o definable compliant in older
children, but
younger children and infants may not able to explain
o In the presence of diplopia (particularly of recent onset) the
infant may refuse to open the eye and may lie down with the eyes
buried or
he/she may rotate the head to one side (sixth nerve)
tilt the head (third, fourth nerve) o With both eyes open child
look at a finger or
pencil held around the periphery of the field of vision, first
to the patients right. *Find out whether two images are seen. A
false image appears in the direction toward which the paralyzed
muscle usually pulls.
o Repeat the test with the object to the left of the patient, up
and down
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o A simpler method is to do the cover-uncover test (as in
testing for squint) in right, left, up, down, and oblique
positions.
o Any deviation of the uncovered eye in any of these positions
is likely to be associated with diplopia.
This test does not require the childs response.
Pupils. In evaluating the pupils the points to be looked for are
:
(1) Size (2) Shape (3) equality between both sides (4) response
to light on the same side (5) response to light on the opposite
side (6) response to pain (7) response to accommodation.
o Afferent fibers involved in the light reflex leave the other
fibers along the optic tract
before the fibers reach the lateral geniculate body and go to
the pretectal region.
o Afferent fibers involved in accommodation reflex course toward
the superior colliculi.
o Afferent fibers for papillary control through parasympathetic
and sympathetic
fibers. o Pupillary constrictors arise in the Edinger
Westphal
nucles and medial nucleus of the third cranial nerve and course
along the third nerve to the ciliary muscles.
o Pupilary dilators originate from the cervical sympathetic
ganglion and course along the internal carotid artery.
o Both parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers course through the
ciliary ganglion and short ciliary nerves
o Small pupils are common in black children o Difficult to see
the small dark pupil in the center of a
dark iris. o A trick which one of the authors has used is to
cover
the flashlight with yellow cellophane paper and shine the yellow
light at an angel.
Very small pupils *normal *head injury *deep coma *drug
toxicity
Horner syndrome *small pupil *ptosis *enophthalmos *lack of
sweating on the ipsilateral side of the face
Large pupils *third nerve paralysis *fear *anxiety (sympathetic
overactivity) certain stages of coma
Ipsilateral hippocampal herniation
fixed dilated pupil without reaction to light in a comatose
child
Unequal pupil (can be normal)
may be due to: *small pupil on one side -local use of drugs
-Horner syndrome -irritative lesion of CN3 *large pupil on one side
-drugs applied locally -Byrne response of pain to one extremity -
complete paralysis of the third nerve on one side *aniridia on one
side
Reaction to light is tested by having the child looking away
from the major source of the light in the room and shining a
flashlight on the pupil.
Normally the pupil reacts quickly.
At the same time , the opposite pupil also contracts (consensual
light response).
To the test the accommodation reflex, the child is asked to look
at as distant object a finger is held close to his or her nose and
the child asked to focus on the finger
Normally the eyes should converge and the pupils constrict in
attempting to look at a close object.
For the ciliospinal reflex the skin of the neck is pinched this
should cause dilation of the pupil
In Byrne reflex, pinching one lower extremity cause dilation of
the pupils on the opposite side.
The interpretation of the reflexes described above is as
follows:
Lesions of the optic nerve close to the eyeball
(-) Loss of direct pupillary response on one side (-) Loss of
consensual response on the other side (+)Retention of accommodation
reflex
Lesions past the point where pupillary fibers leave the optic
tract
homonymous hemianopsia without loss of pupillary response
Lesions close to the edinger westphal nucleus or ciliary
ganglion (Argyll Robertson pupils)
(-) loss of direct and consensual response on the same side
(+)retention of accommodation reflex
Lesions of the oculomotor nerve
Absolute paralysis of the pupil on one side
third nerve palsy ptosis on one side in which pupil will be
dilated
horner syndrome the pupil will be small
seventh nerve palsy appearance of ptosis may be spurious because
of widening of the palpebral fissure on the opposite side
myasthenia bilateral ptosis
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TRIGEMINAL NERVE/CN5
motor and sensory
3 divisions o Ophthalmic: sensory o Maxillary: sensory o
Mandibular: sensory and motor
MAJOR BRANCHES OF THE TRIGEMINAL NERVE AND THEIR FUNCTIONAL
SIGNIFICANCE
BRANCH SENSORY SUPPLY
MOTOR SUPPLY
DISABILITY IF CUT
Ophthalmic
Conjunctiva (except lower lid) Lacrimal gland Medial part of the
skin of nose up to its tip Upper eyelids Forehead and scalp, to the
vertex
None Loss of corneal reflex Trophic changes in eye Loss of
sensation in areas described under Sensory Supply
Maxillary Cheek, front of temple, lower lids and conjunctiva,
side of the nose, upper lip, upper teeth, mucous membrane of nose,
upper pharynx, root of mouth, soft palate
None Loss of sensation in areas described under Sensory Supply
Loss of palatal reflex
Mandibular
Lower part of face Lower lip Tongue, lower teeth and part of ear
Salivary glands
Muscles of mastication
Paralysis of masticators Loss of sensation in areas described
under Sensory Supply
Check Motor component by: o Clenching the teeth palpate the
masseter and
temporalis muscles o Ask to open and close the mouth o If one
side is paralyzed, the jaw will be deviated
to the non paralyzed side when mouth is open Check somatic
sensory:
o Sensory innervations of the face
o Touch Cotton ball or soft tissue paper, a safety
pin or ball head pin, and a metal tube for hot and cold
water
Childs eyes should be closed as the examiner touches the skin
gently, going from one area to another in an organized fashion.
Cover also the perianal area supplied by S2-S4
Child has to indicate whether he felt the touch by saying
now.
Examiner should not give any clues as to whether he is touching
or not. He should not ask, Do you feel? every time he touches.
To test for pain similar approach but with the stimulus being
the tip of a pin.
Child is instructed to respond by saying sharp or dull, instead
of now.
If the child cannot respond verbally, his facial expression and
withdrawal of the limb is used as an indication of intact pain
sensation
o Temperature Two tubes one filled with cold water,
and one filled with hot water (should not be excessively hot or
cold)
The skin is touched first with one tube, then the other,
randomly alternating the sequence
Ask the child to respond spontaneously with hot or cold
depending on the stimulus
o Interpretation: loss of sensation on one side of the
body (hemianesthesia) is rare and may be seen following a head
injury
Hysteria- cutoff point exactly midline True hemianesthesia-
cutoff point is
just lateral to the midline A child in pain because of teething
will
frequently pull the ear because of transmission along the
mandibular portion of the trigeminal nerve
Corneal reflex:
Easiest way is to blow air into the patients eye: blinking
More acceptable: twist a smaller thread out of cotton ball and
touch the cornea with it. Have the child look in one direction and
approach the cornea from the opposite direction (to avoid visual
blink reflex, rather than corneal reflex.) Test both sides.
Jaw reflex:
Open the mouth gently, place a finger at the tip of the mandible
and tap it with a percussion hammer.
Normal: mild contraction of the masseter muscle or maybe
absent
Exaggerated reflex: upper motor lesion above the fifth
nucleus
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FACIAL NERVE/CN7
Almost entirely a motor nerve
Supplies all the muscles of the face and scalp (except levator
palpebrae superioris), platysma and stapedius
Chorda tympani and Facial nerve - supplies taste to the anterior
two-thirds of the tongue.
Autonomic afferent fibers to the lacrimal gland and the
submaxillary and submandibular glands also runs with the facial
nerve
Motor function:
While talking, observe the patients face and the facial
expression.
Unilateral facial paralysis o facial furrows are flattened o
saliva may accumulate on the affected side o palpebral fissure may
be wider on that side o eyeball may roll up under the upper
eyelid
rather than the upper lid moving down on the eyeball
o blinking less forceful on affected side
Unilateral facial weakness o differentiated from weakness of the
depressor
anguli oris, lower part of one half of the face below the angle
of the mouth is involved.
Hufnagel palsy o congenital absence of depressor anguli oris o
only the lower part of of the face below the
angle of the mouth is involved.
Bilateral facial weakness: o Guillain-barre syndrome o various
myopathies o Moebius syndrome
Supranuclear lesions o if voluntary movements are lost but
emotionally
induced movements such as smiling are intact
Nuclear or Peripheral lesions o voluntary and emotional
movements are both
lost
Intranuclear lesion o Movements of lower parts of the face is
lost
Lower motor o Movements of both upper and lower halves are
lost Simple tests to evaluate the motor function of the nerve
are:
Have the child close the eyes as tightly as possible.
Normal Facial paralysis
upper lid will descend upper lid does not close down
some movement of the eyeball upward
eyeball moves upward (bells phenomenon)
lashes buried inward lashes not buried inward
lifting of the corners of the mouth upward
angle of the mouth either does not move at all or moves much
less than on the unaffected side
o Ask the child to whistle o Ask the child to blow up one cheek
and try to
push out air against close lips Easier to push air in paralyzed
cheek
o Ask the child to show the teeth or smile Face is flat on one
side and the pull is
towards the unaffected side. Sensory function (hard to do)
Test of taste over the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
Have the child to put the tongue out as far as possible. Hold
the tip with a moist filter paper dry one half of the tongue with
filter paper place over the anterior two-thirds of the tongue with
an applicator or a small dropper the following substances one at a
time:
o 5% glucose solution (sweet) o 3% nacl (salty) o 1% citric acid
(sour) o 0.1% quinine hydrochloride (bitter)
Drop should be placed carefully. Child should not draw the
tongue in but should indicate the taste with finger clues or
pointing to a set of cards with the names of the tastes written on
them.
After each drop the tongue is thoroughly washed, and the next
taste is tested. Bitter should be the last tested, for obvious
reasons
Taste is lost in lesions along the course of the 7th
nerve from the internal auditory meatus to the place where the
chorda tympani branches off.
Autonomic functions
Recent lesion of the facial nerve o increased lacrimation o
increased salivation
Reflexes Glabellar reflex
elicited by repeated tapping of the glabellar region
Normal: blinking response of the lids 5 to 6 times and then the
response extinguishes
Abnormal: persistent blinking response as long as tapping over
the glabella is continued
Snout reflex
pouting of the lips, when area of the philtrum (upper lip) is
tapped.
Normal: absent in children after first2 months of life
Chvosteks sign: elicited by tapping the facial nerve in front of
the ear - marked contractions and spasm following such tapping
suggest hypocalcemia *Not a reflex but an increased irritability of
nerve fibers to mechanical stimulation
-
AUDITORY
Two components: o Supplying the cochlea: auditory function o
Supplying the semicircular canals for the
equilibrium function
Auditory fibers reach the cochlear nuclei in the pons
Vestibular fibers reach the nuclei in the pons and medulla
From these locations, the secondary tracts decussate partially
and terminate in the inferior colliculi and medial geniculate
bodies and at the cortical center for hearing, which lies in the
temporal lobe
Evaluation of auditory component o Less than 4 yo and retarded
children:
hearing test are complex to administer. o Suspect nerve deafness
if:
Failure to respond to normal sounds (except very loud sound)
Excessive response to visual stimuli Delayed speech Monotonous
voice with normal
motor development o Psychogenic reasons for deafness
Inconsistent response to sounds delayed speech avoiding eye
contact ignoring visual clues unusual body movements
o Retardation Normal but delayed response to
sounds, with normal reaction to visual stimuli
delayed development in all areas o Have the child sit on the
mothers lap
facing the examiner. Use a rustling piece of paper,
rattle, flicking of nails, a small bell or tuning fork (256-512
cps) to make noise. First on one side and then on the other
Observe the childs face as the noise is made
Evidence of intact hearing: Change in expression of the face,
reaction of the pupil and the child turning to the source of
sound.
o In older children, one can use a tuning fork, a watch or
whisper (with the mouth hidden) to make sounds.
Ask if they hear, if theres difference between one ear and the
other
o If theres abnormalities or suspicion do: Tympanometry
Audiogram
Evoke response audiometry (younger infant)
Rinne and Weber test Bone conduction > air conduction:
middle ear problem Bone conduction and air
conduction both decreased(but air conduction is better than bone
conduction): nerve problem
Rinnes test *Tap a tuning fork (256-512 cps) and hold it next to
the ear. If it can be heard place it on the mastoid *If it can be
heard again, compare to which is heard louder and longer. *Normal :
AC > BC *Middle ear disease: BC > AC
Webers test
*Tap a tuning fork, held over the forehead in midline. *Middle
ear disease: sound is heard louder on the affected side. *Loss of
nerve conduction: sound is louder on the unaffected side
o Abnormal sounds
Tinnitus ringing of the ear (salicylate toxicity)
Hyperacusis facial nerve paralysis
Auditory hallucination
SLE and psychosis
o Vestibular function
May have imbalance and nystagmus
Children cannot explain vertigo. *Clues: *Unexplained crying
*Trying to bury the face and not wanting to open the eyes
*Vomiting with a change in posture
o Nystagmus Involuntary movement of the
eyeball which may either be rhythmic or nonrhythmic.
Has a fast and slow component Less frequently symmetrical
Pendular nystagmus - to and fro
oscillations Maybe physiologic or pathologic It may occur at
rest or only on
movement of the eyes may be horizontal or vertical or
rotatory or mixed may be
fine (3mm)
-
Degrees:
1st
degree mild; eye looking toward the direction of the fast
component
2nd
degree moderate nystagmus, seen when the eye is in median
position
3rd
degree severe nystagmus, with eye deviated toward the direction
of the slow component
Test for nystagmus
Ask child to look at the flashlight or a toy held in front of
the eye.
Move the object rather fast, first on one side and then to the
other and ask the child to follow
Move it up and down.
End-point fatigue nystagmus: Keep the flashlight or toy in
extreme positions for a few seconds to see if the nsytagmus
disappears after 5 o 6 beats
Caloric stimulation test
Elicit nystagmus helps identify 8
th nerve
function.
Before the test is done, exclude perforation of the eardrum and
blocking of the external meatus with wax.
Place child in a semireclining position (30:)
Cold water is drawn into a 10ml syringe with polyethylene
tubing. Tubing placed into the external meatus so that the water
when injected will be directed at the tympanic membrane.
Inject water very slowly over a period of 30 seconds and
observe
Normal: this produce slow deviation of the eyes toward the side
of injection with the rapid phase of nystagmus away from the side
of injection
If right vestibular tract is intact and if the right ear is
being stimulated, the eyes will slowly deviate to the right with a
sudden jump toward the left to bring the eye back to neutral. This
response is repetitive, with the eyes again deviating to the right
and jumping back to the left. Lost in vestibular
nerve damage Hard to elicit if there
is brain stem damage
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL, VAGUS AND ACCESSORY
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL (9th
nerve) o sensory fibers for the posterior third of the
tongue o motor fibers for the stylopharyngeus and middle
constrictors of the pharynx
Unilateral paralysis of 9th
nerve: slight flattening of the arch of the palate on the
affected side at rest
VAGUS (10th
nerve) o motor for the soft palate, pharynx and larynx o
parasympathetic portion supplies the
respiratory, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems
ACCESSORY (11th
nerve) o carries motor fibers only to the SCM and to the
trapezius muscles.
Lesions of the 9th
and 10th
nerves
denervation of the larynx and vocal cords (recurrent laryngeal
nerve paralysis)
presence of stridor in the absence of mechanical obstruction
recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis
hoarse voice
aphonia
loss of swallowing reflex with drooling and choking
palatal weakness nasal regurgitation when swallowing liquids
Ineffective cough reflex
Inability to pronounce words such as egg and words ending with
k
Palatal reflex In unilateral paralysis: palate may droop
on the affected side and not move on phonation.
-
Tested by touching the soft palate with tongue blade.
Produces elevation of the soft palate an retraction of the
uvula
9th nerve: sensory 10th nerve: motor
Gag reflex afferent nerve of the 9th nerve and
motor of 10th
nerve Stimulus is produced by touching he
base of the tongue or the pharyngeal wall with a tongue
blade.
Normal: elevation of the pharynx and tongue retractions
Loss of sensation of taste in the posterior 1/3 of the
tongue
11th
nerve supplies the ff: o Trapezius muscle
Ask to shrug the shoulder against resistance upper part of
trapezius
Lie prone arms abducted 90and rotated laterally. Ask to adduct
the scapula against resistance lower part of the trapezius
o SCM Ask to rotate the head on one side when
resistance is applied against this movement at the chin
Torticollis rotation of the chin to a direction opposite to that
direction of rotation of the occiput, should have no head tilting
or spasmodic involuntary movement. Seen in:
athetoid cerebral palsy
hiatus hernia
RA with cervical spine involvement
enlarged lymph node
retropharyngeal abscess
mastoid disease
vocal cord tumors
paralytic torticollis
compensation for visual field cuts and diplopia
HYPOGLOSSAL (12th
nerve)
Pure motor
supplies muscle of tongue and depressor muscles attached to the
hyoid bone.
Look at tongue at rest when mouth is slightly open. o If tongue
is in midline ask the patient to put the
tongue out Unilateral paralysis: deviated on
unaffected side Difficult to interpret if child has facial
weakness
o Hold a pencil vertically from the midline of the nose and
compare the position of the tongue in relation to this midline.
o Ask the child to push against a tongue blade, first on one
side and then on the other.
Look for inequality in power o Look for fasciculation (best seen
under the
surface of the tongue) and wasting MOTOR SYSTEM A. Strength
a. Kinetic - muscle used to move joint thru range against
resistance; strength lost in extrapyramidal conditions
b. Static - muscle is used to keep a joint against the pressure
used by the examiner to move the joint in opposite direction;
strength retained in extrapyramidal conditions
Tests: *In young children, may have to rely on parents history
and observation (unequal moro, poor swinging of one arm while
walking, too much wear on the front of the shoe, resistance to
examination)
a. Anterior Neck Flexor - lift neck off pillow while supine
b. Deltoid - abduct shoulders 90: c. Elbow Flexors (biceps and
brachialis) - flex elbow
against resistance d. Hip Flexors - lie supine with knee flexed.
Child is to
flex thigh against resistance e. Hip Extesnors - climb stairs;
stand up from sitting
position f. Quadriceps - extend knee while sitting at edge
of
table g. Hamstring - flex the knee while lying prone h.
Gastrocnemius - walk on tiptoes
True Muscle Weakness vs. Malingering
True Muscle Weakness Malingering
When resistance is withdrawn to a contracted muscle, there will
be follow through movement
When resistance is withdrawn to a contracted muscle, there will
be no movement
Presence of spontaneous reflex movements (contraction of
latissimus dorsi while coughing)
True Hemiplgia vs. Hysterical Paralysis
1. Patient lying on the back 2. Examiners hands are placed under
the heels of the
patient 3. Patient is asked to lift one leg off the table and
then
the other. 4. When patient lift the paralyzed leg off the
table
-
True Hemiplegia Hysterical Paralysis
Examiner can feel the conterpressure of the nonparalyzed
side
Examiner will NOT feel any conterpressure of the normal leg
because patient is making no effort to lift the leg (Hoover
Sign)
B. Tone testing resistance to passive movements
a. Hypotonia little or no resistance to passive movements,
allowing limbs to be placed in various grotesque positions (exclude
hyperextensible joints as the cause); Myopathies &
Myelomeningocele - Primary muscle disorder; PN lesions; AH
cells
dsx (polio); Cerebellar lesions Akinetic Seizure / Syncope -
sudden and episodic
b. Increased (Hypertonia, Spascticity, Rigidity) c. Normal
C. Spasticity
Spasticity Rigidity
Increased muscle tone with exaggerated DTR
Resistance to passive stretching and normal DTR
Mild to moderate limitation of ROM and possible contracture
Marked limitation of ROM and no persistent contracture
Resistance occurring as soon as the passive range is started,
with intermittent jerky yielding (Clasp-knife Type)
Uniform resistance throughout the range but allows a full or
nearly full range (like bending a metallic pipe, Lead-pipe
Type)
Pattern and Course Voluntary Movmts in Cerebral Palsy 1.
EXTENSOR SYNERGY
- when child is asked to extend great toe against resistance,
the lower limb may adduct the hip and extend knee at the table
2. FLEXOR SYNERGY - when the child is asked to open fingers,
shoulder
adduct, elbow flexes, wrist flexes and pronates
Spastic Cerebral Palsy Athetoid-EPS (Dyskinetic) CP
- exaggerated stretch reflex
- clonus - arm flexors and leg
extensors - contractures occur
early
- more of continuous resistance to passive stretch
- no clonus - extensors throughout - contracture occur later
Hypertonic - Increased muscle tone; reflex spasm muscles due
to
pain - Spasm of hip flexors due to Synovitis of hip and in
Iliopsoas Abscess - Spasm of cervical muscles in Meningeal
Irritation - Must rule out disease of the muscle itself
D. COORDINATION Poor Coordination:
- Steadying upper arm against the chest while trying to carry
put hand activity
- Frequent falls - Dropping objects - Bumping into furnitures -
Poor penmanship - Clumsiness
Proper Coordination: - Strong muscle - Agonist and antagonist
shoulf act together - Proprioceptive impulse from muscles anf
joints
should be received by cerebellum and cortex - Intact body
orientation
Tests: 1. Finger-Nose Test patient touches the nose with the
finger, then touches the tip of the finger of the examiner held
in space then touches nose again Cerebellar lesion:
Intention Tremor appears when attempting the test but subsides
at rest
Dysmetria inability to coordinate for distance
Past pointing consistently missing the examiners finger on the
same side
Chorea: coordination is normal, but periodically interrupted by
involuntary movements
2. Rapid Alternating Movement can be done starting 5 y/o -
Repeatedly pronate and supinate the forearm by
slapping the thigh with the palm and back of the hand
alternately, or
- Repeatedly touch the tip of the index finger with the tip of
the thumb as fast as possible, or
- Repeatedly do tapping movements of the forefoot of the patient
against examiners palm held close to the foot
- Dysdiadokinesia inability to perform RAM (Cerebellar Lesion
and Spasticity)
3. Rebound Test of Holmes patient flexes elbow against
resistance by examiner, then examiner suddenly withdraw resistance,
if arm flexes uncontrollably and may even hit the face (Cerebellar
Lesion)
4. Maintenance of Posture extend arms in front with fingers
slightly separated to see if posture is maintained (Chorea,
Athetosis, Tremor can be recognized)
5. Others: run, climb stairs, ride a cycle, tie shoes,
write,
and draw person.
-
E. INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS 1. Tic purposeless, repetitive
- Not interfere with ADL - Disappear during sleep - Gets worse
while others are watching - Eye muscles, facial muscles, upper limb
muscles
2. Fasciculation / Fibrillation occur in individual muscle fiber
and cannot be seen by naked eye - Rapid twitching movement of
bundles of fibers
which leave a furrow on skin over muscles - Dysfunction of AH
cell: Polio and Werdnig-
Hoffmann disease (best to look at tongue) 3. Chorea purposeless
non repetitive movements
- Aggravated by activity and stress - With hypotonia and poor
coordination in activities - May run into objects and hurt
themselves
4. Myoclonus intermittent contractions of a single muscle or
groups of muscle resulting in quick jerky motion of a limb - Worse
by voluntary activity and stress - Brainstem Lesion and Reticular
Formation
5. Athetosis slow, rhythmic movements of extremities and face -
Brought on by voluntary activity and emotional
stimuli - Limbs take characteristic postures - Distal >
proximal muscles
6. Dystonia fluctuations in tone - Involvement of proximal
muscles of extremities
resulting in strange postures and torsion spasm - Worse with
resistance - Disappears in sleep
7. Tremor rapid oscillatory movements present at rest or
elicited by asking child to extend arms in front - Essential Tremor
and Wilson Disease
F. Muscle Mass
Wasting / Atrophy Lower motor neuron disease Proximal wasting
Myopathies Distal wasting Peripheral Neuritis Wasting from early
childhood smaller/shorter limb
Hypertrophy excess use (paraplegic walk with crutches)
- Myotonia, Congenital Hemihypertrophy - Pseudohypertrophy of
gastrocnemius
Duchenne Muscle Dystrophy
SENSORY SYSTEM - Very difficult to examine in children; even if
child
cooperates he may be correct 50% of the time by chance A.
Superficial Sensory
- Touch, Pain, Temperature: hot/cold - Needs cotton ball or soft
tissue paper, safety pin or
ball head pin, metal tube for hot and cold water
Method: Touch 1. Childs eyes should be closed 2. Touch the skin
gently going from one area of the
body to the other in an organized fashion (neck shoulder outer
aspect of upper arm outer aspect of forearm outer aspect of palm
inner aspect of palm inner aspect of forarm) complete this one side
then go to opposite side
3. Child has to indicate whether he felt the touch by saying
now. Examiner should not give clues by asking Do you feel?
Pain 1. Similar approach but using tip of pin 2. Child is
instructed to respond by sayin g sharp or
dull everytime he feels the sensation. Facial expression and
withdrawal of limb indicates intact pain sensation if cannot
respond verbally.
Temperature 1. Similar approach using 2 tubes filled with hot
and
cold water 2. Skin is touch randomly alternating the sequence 3.
Asking the child saying hot or cold Interpretation: Head Injury
loss of sensation to one side of the body (hemianesthesia) Hysteria
cutoff is exactly at the midline True Hemianesthesia cutoff is just
lateral to the midline Spinal Cord Injury level of anesthesia has
to be remembered in relation to injured vertebrae since number of
vertebra does not correspond to the spinal cord segment.
Vertebra Spinal Segment
C1 C1
C7 C8
T10 T11
T12 L3
L1 End of cord
Anesthesia 1. Go from above downward, then from below upward
Incomplete Cord Lesion loss of sensation is higher at below to
upward test than from above downward Myelomeningocele level is
never strictly defined; patchy anf uneven between halves of the
body Syringomyelia loss of sensation for pain and temperature with
retention of sense of touch, position sense, and vibration sense in
upper limb Transverse Myelitis, Peripheral Neuritis, Reflex
Sympathetic Dystrophy, Herpes Zoster hyperesthesia
B. Deep Sensory - Sensation originate from deeper structures
(muscles,
tendon, joints) - Vibration sense is included - Hard to
perform
-
- Impulses originate from muscle spindles and other endings in
the muscles and tendons
- Some travel along the spinocerebellar tract to cerebellum
- Others constitute the afferent arc of the stretch reflex
- Others travel through posterior column and medial lemniscus to
the thalamus to parietal lobe
Tendon reflex tests the peripheral arc of this system Sense of
position tests the spinocerebellar tract Special tests for
proprioception tests the entire system Method: Proprioception 1.
Explain and demonstrate the procedure with eyed
open 2. With closed eyes, examiner passively move toes up
and down and suddenly stop holding the lateral aspect
3. Child should be able to say whether to is up or down Other
tests: a. Touch the tips of corresponding fingers of both
hands in space with eyes closed b. Arrange finger of one hand in
space in varying
position with eyes closed and ask to put the finger of opposite
hand in the same position
Vibration 1. Using a tuning for 128 Hz, place over various
bony
prominences, sometimes with vibratio sonetiems without
2. Ask If he feels the vibration or not Interpretation:
Posterior Column lesions loss of proprioception and vibration
(Spinocerebellar Ataxia) Cortical Sensory
Subjects for testing include: o Stereognosis o Two-point
discrimination o Texture o Weight discrimination
Stereognosis is tested by: o at the bedside by asking the child
to close his
eyes and placing in his hands common objects, such as an a coin,
a key, or blocks, (from the Denver kit), and asking him to name the
object.
o For more precise testing, one has to use standard geometric
shapes, such as cubes and spheres
Discrimination of two points is tested by: o using a paper clip
or hairpin, the patient must
first understand with the eyes open what one and two mean
o done with the eyes closed o touching the patient with one or
two points
should be done at random
o both points should touch simultaneously when testing is done
for two points.
o The distance between the two points should be: narrow in
fingertips (2 mm) wider (20 mm) in forehead.
Textures (a test for extinction) can be tested using silk, wool,
and plastic.
o the child is asked to close the eyes and the examiner touches
two parts of the body: both cheeks, both hands, one hand and one
cheek, one hand and one foot simultaneously and with equal
pressure.
o the child is asked to name or point to the areas that were
touched.
o if the child recognizes that the cheek was touched but does
not recognize the hand was touched (+) Extinction of distal
stimulus
Interpretation:
Parietal lobe syndromes *Loss of stereognosis and of two-point
discrimination * Extinction of distal stimulus
REFLEXES
Reflexes can be grouped under four headings: o Superficial
Plantar Cremasteric Abdominal Anocutaneous Palmar
o Deep o Development (infantile automatisms) o Autonomic
SUPERFICIAL REFLEXES Plantar Reflex (Babinski)
The reflex are runs through the tibial nerve to the spinal cord
(L4-S1).
o The sole of the foot is stimulated by pressing along the
plantar surface of the foot with a blunt instrument (handle of the
reflex hammer, key,end of a ball- point pen)
o Start near the heel and carry the stimulus over to the base of
the metatarsals, ending near the ball of the great toe.
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*Plantar flexion of great toe *Other toes also flex and adduct.
*In ticklish ones, the entire leg may be withdrawn
*Dorsiflexion of the great toe with fanning of other toes
pyramid lesion *may be dorsiflexion of the ankle and withdrawal of
the entire extremity
In abnormal response: o Do Babinski by stimulating other areas o
The afferent area has enlarged.
-
Some of the other stimuli which may elicit a Babinski
response:
Method of:
Oppenheim pressing firmly with thumb and stroking along the
anterior border of the tibia.
Gordon squeezing the calf
Gonda flexing and twisting any toe
Bing stroking the big toe along the lateral side
Babinski is considered positive, if the great toe dorsiflexes
with or without fanning of the other toes.
Cremasteric Reflex
Only in males by scratching the upper medial aspect of the thigh
with a blunt instrument.
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*Contraction of the cremasteric muscle with elevation of the
scrotum on the same side.
*lost in lesions above L-2
Abdominal Reflex
elicited by stroking the four quadrants of the abdominal wall
with a blunt instrument (key or ball-point pen)
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*Contraction of the abdominal wall at the stimulated quadrant
*Movement of the umbilicus toward the quadrant stimulated.
*lost pyramidal lesion above T-8.
Anocutaneous Reflex
Stimulation of the perianal skin by a pinprick.
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*Contraction of the external anal sphincter indrawing of anal
opening.
Lost lesions involving S-2, S-3, and S-4.
Palmomental Reflex
By scratching or tapping the thenar eminence of hand.
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*No movements in the face *Contraction of the mentalis and
orbiculars oris muscles on the ipsilateral side. *Indicates
bilateral frontal lobe lesion
Hoffmans Sign
hand is held at the wrist, palm down and hanging loosely
tip of the middle finger is grasped with the examiners thumb and
index finger.
nail of the middle finger is given a snap with the examiners
thumb.
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE
*No movement of the patients thumb.
*thumb on the same side flexes and adducts into the palm *all
the other fingers also flex *indicates pyramidal lesion above
C-7.
DEEP REFLEXES Biceps Reflex (C5,C6)
arm is held with the elbow in flexion and supported by one hand
of the examiner.
thumb of the supporting hand is held over the insertion of the
biceps
tendon and the thumb is tapped with a reflex hammer
Normal Response o flexion of the biceps, with or without flexion
at
the elbow Triceps (C6-C8)
arm flexed 90 at the elbow, the forearm is supported by the
examiner.
sharp tap over the triceps tendon
Normal Response: o contraction of the triceps, with or without
elbow
extension Brachioradialis (C5-C6)
patients arm between pronation and supination and the forearm
supported by the examiner
styloid of radius is tapped
Normal response o flexion of forearm and supination.
Knee Jerk (L2-L4)
There are various positions in which to test knee jerks: o
Patient may sit at the edge of the table with the
knees hanging free and loose o Patient lying supine, the knees
are supported by
the examiners hand, relaxed and flexed to 30 or 40
o In newborns, flexing the knee and placing the foot flat over
the examiners abdomen.
Tapping the patellar tendon with a reflex hammer procedures
visible contraction of the quadriceps.
Response is extension at the knee (sometimes hard to elicit)
o divert the childs attention by talking about some subject of
interest to the child.
o augment this reflex by asking the child to hook the fingers
and then to pull the fingers apart (Jendrassiks maneuver)
o closing the eyes tightly Ankle Jerk (S1-S2)
The best position is for the patient to be prone with the knee
flexed 90 hold the toes down firmly tap the tendoachilles
Another position: patient lying supine, hip flexed and
externally rotated, and the knee flexed with the foot lying over
the anterior aspect of the other press firmly against the sole of
the foot to dorsiflex the ankle and tap the tendoachilles.
-
NORMAL RESPONSE ABNORMAL RESPONSE (all DTRs)
*Plantar flexion *Pyramidal lesions - exaggerated response is
seen with spasticity *Myopathies - decreased deep tendon reflexes
*Peripheral nerve lesions - absent reflexes
Clonus
characterized by rapid movements of a particular joint due to
alternating contractions of agonists and antagonists
if present caused by sudden stretching of a tendon (such as
tendoachilles) and maintaining the stretch.
Ankle clonus is elicted as follows: o patient in the supine
position, the knee is flexed
by the examiner. o forefoot is held by the other hand and
dorsiflexed with a quick ,movement and the position
maintained.
o If (+) foot will go through plantar flexion-dorsiflexion
movements repeatedly.
o Cerebral palsy - elicited just by the ball of the foot
touching the floor, thus making it impossible for them to walk.
Patellar clonus is elicited using the following method: o
patient is in supine position with the knee in
extension o superior border of the patella is held by the
examiner and quickly pushed toward the foot (caudal) and
held.
o If (+) patella will move up and down repeatedly
(caudal-cephalic movement).
The significance of clonus is the same as marked hyperreflexia,
indicating impairment of higher control, and is seen in pyramidal
lesions
fewer than three of four beats of the ankle and knee can be
normal tense and hold their muscles tight.
Signs of Meningeal Irritation
Brudzinski sign - patient supine and flat, if passive flexing of
the neck causes the knees to flex and rise from the table
Kernig sign - patient supine, the hips are flexed to about 90
and the knees then passively extended.
(+) if the knees cannot be fully extended NEURODEVELOPMENTAL
REFLEXES
All children go through neurodevelopmental reflexes before they
take the characteristic human form of bipedal walking.
Various kinds of body righting and balancing (automatic)
reflexes help to keep the balance by walking
Mediated at the different levels: o Spinal cord o Brain stem o
Midbrain o Cortical
They evolve from the caudal toward the cephalic level of
control.
Timing of Developmental Reflexes
Spinal cord reflexes are present immediately after birth and
disappear within 1 to 2 months.
Brain-stem reflexes start appearing at about the 2nd
week of life and should disappear by the 6
th month.
Spinal cord and brain stem reflexes are primitive reflexes and
should disappear by 6 months
Persistence of these reflexes after this time brain damage in
utero or in early life
After normal progression reappear in cerebral insults: o head
injury o meningitis o anoxia (drowning)
If spinal cord reflexes and brain stem reflexes are dominant
cannot walk/ crawl (lie supine in various positions)
TABLE 7F-7. DEVELOPMENTAL REFLEXES
Reflex Mediated at
Group A Flexor withdrawal Extensor thrust Crossed extensor
Spinal cord level
Group B Asymmetric tonic neck Symmetric tonic neck Positive
supporting Tonic labyrinthine
Brain stem level
Group C Neck correcting body Labyrinthine right reflex Optical
righting reflex
Midbrain
Group D Various balancing reflexes Cortical/cerebellar
Group E Automatic movt reaction Moro reflex
Stretch receptor of the neck
Group F Parachute reflex Landau reflex
Semicircular canals
Midbrain reflexes start appearing at 4th
month but become suppressed by cortical influences after 2 years
of age.
o Abnormal persistence after 2 years of age: Cerebral palsy/
insult can crawl easily walking is difficult without protective
devices Those who do not develop the
midbrain reflexes may not be able to walk at all, except on all
fours.
Absence of cortical reflexes beyond 2 years is abnormal though
it is not incompatible with walking.
o These are balancing reflexes and contribute to safety in
walking.
Spinal Cord Reflexes (3) Flexor Withdrawal
Pinch the sole of the foot (without tickling) with the child
supine, head in neutral position, and legs in extension.
Response: Dorsiflexion of the foot with uncontrolled flexion at
the knee is positive response.
The avoidance response of older normal children is considered a
negative reaction.
-
Extensor Thrust
Patient supine, stimulate sole of foot of flexed leg by pinching
the sole.
Response: A nondeliberate extension with adduction is considered
a positive reaction.
Crossed Extensor
Patient supine and both lower limbs in extension, stroke the
plantar aspect of the foot.
Response: Flexion followed by extension and adduction of the
opposite lower limb.
REFLEX NORMAL ABNORMAL
Flexor Withdrawal
*Up to 2 months *avoidance in older children
*Persistence or reappearance after 2 months
Extensor Thrust
*Up to 2 months *Response persisting or recurring after 2
months
Crossed Extensor
*Up to 2 months *Response after 2 months
Brain Stem Reflexes (4) Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex
Supine position and arms and legs extended turn the head to one
side.
Response: Extension and stiffening of arms and legs on the side
toward which the face is turned, together with flexion of arms and
legs on the opposite side (occiput side)
Symmetric Tonic Neck Reflex
Support the child prone on the thighs of the examiner who is
seated on a chair.
Passively flex the neck; after observing the response of the
arms and legs to passive flexion, extend the neck.
Response: When the neck is flexed, arms flex and legs extend.
When the neck is extended, arms extend and legs flex.
Positive Supporting Reaction
Pick up the child by the axilla and bounce several times so that
the feet touch the floor.
Response: When the feet are in contact with the floor, hold the
child in a vertical position. Look for increase of adductor and
extensor tone in the legs and ability of the child to bear weight.
Look for sustained position in plantar flexion with adduction.
Positive supportive reaction reappears at 6 months in
preparation for walking but not with significant adduction or
plantar flexion.
Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex
Examine the tone of flexors and extensors of arms and legs with
the child in prone and supine position and the head in midline.
Response: Flexor tone dominates when the patient is prone and
extensor tone dominates when the patient is supine.
REFLEX NORMAL ABNORMAL
Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex
*Up to 4-6 months *After 6 months
Symmetric Tonic Neck Reflex
*Up to 4-6 months *After 6 months
Positive Supporting Reaction
*birth up to 2 or 3 months
*Sustained plantar flexion w/ increased tone of adductors after
4 months
Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex
*Up to 4 months *After 4 months
Midbrain Reflexes (3) Neck on Body Correcting Reflex
Patient lying supine, turn the head toward one side.
Response: Positive neck righting reaction is rotation of the
body non-segmentally in the same direction.
. Labyrinthine Righting Reflexes
With the child blindfolded, support the child in space in a
prone position.
Repeat the same test by suspending the child in space in a
supine position.
Next, hold the child by the pelvis in the vertical position and
tilt the body to one side and then the othe
Response: Positive response for the four positions are as
follows:
o With the child prone or supine, the head rises to normal
position with the face vertical and the mouth horizontal.
o With the child in vertical position, the head tilts back to
neutral position with the face vertical and the mouth
horizontal.
Optical Righting Reflex
The same way as described for the labyrinthine righting reflex
and is interpreted the same way, but here the eyes are open
REFLEX NORMAL ABNORMAL
Neck on Body Correcting Reflex
*non-segmental: birth up to 2 months *mature segmental rotation
of the thorax followed by the pelvis appears after 2 months.
*non-segmental: after 6 months *absence of segmental 6
months
Labyrinthine Righting Reflexes/ Optical Righting Reflexes
*(+) prone position after 2 months of age throughout life *(+)
other positions come on by 6 to 9 months *They are suppressed by
cortical influences after 2 years
*(-) after 2 months in prone position *(-) other positions
between 6 months and 2 years.
-
Cerebral Cortical and Cerebellar Reflexes
These reflexes test the balancing ability of the child and are
influenced by the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
With the child sitting or standing, first push the child to one
side (taking care the child does not fall to the opposite side in
case these reflexes are not developed) ; then, to the other
side.
Response: If the child is sitting, the arm on the side toward
which he is falling extends, fingers open, and the neck corrects so
that the head is brought to neutral position. If the child is
standing, the same response is seen. In addition, the knee on the
side toward which the child is falling flexes, the opposite knee
extends and tries to cross over toward the direction of the
momentum.
Now, with the child standing and held by the axilla, gently push
the child forward and then backward. If the child is pushed
forward, the neck extends to bring the head to neutral and the
child takes forward steps to catch up with gravity; if the child is
pushed back, the neck flexes and the child takes backward
steps.
What is normal? o Positive response as described above for
balance in sitting position should appear by 6 to 8 months of
age.
o Reflexes for balance in standing position should appear by 12
to 15 months of age.
What is abnormal? o Absence of balancing reflexes for sitting
after 8
months of age and absence of balancing reflexes for standing
after 15 months of age are abnormal; asymmetric responses are also
abnormal.
Automatic Movement Reactions (3) Moro Reflex
Produce a sudden noise away from the visual field of the
infant.
Another method: support the child in the semi sitting position
and suddenly drop the upper part of the body. The upper part of the
body is caught by the examiners hand before hitting the table
(without of course hurting or dropping the child hard on to the
examining table).
Response: Sudden extension and abduction at the shoulders
quickly followed by flexion at the shoulder and the elbow in a
movement like an embrace. The fingers open during this reflex.
Parachute Response
Hold the child by the waist and tilt the child forward as if to
be dropped on the face.
Response: extension and abduction of the upper limbs with
extension of the fingers as if to break a fall.
Landau reflex
Suspend the child in space (carefully) in a prone position by
supporting the thorax
Response: Neck spontaneously extends with some stiffening of the
back and lower extremities.
REFLEX NORMAL ABNORMAL
Moro *Newborns up to 4 months
*After 4 months
Parachute *After 6 to 8 months *Absence after 8 months
*Unilateral
Landau *Between 6 months and 2 years
*Failure to develop by 10 to 12 months
Significance and Uses of the Neurodevelopment Reflexes in
Pediatric Practice: 1. Abnormal response in these categories
suggest brain
damage (e.g.,cerebral palsy, post- head injury, and post-
meningitis).
2. Persistence of reflexes mediated by the brain stem and spinal
cord after 4 to 6 months of age signifies brain damage.
3. Delay in the appearance of reflexes mediated at the midbrain
and cortical level after the appropriate age signifies brain
damage.
4. Asymmetric response (such as lack of parachute response on
one side and unilateral Moro ) signify hemiplegia.
5. These reflexes may mature at a slower pace in children with
cerebral palsy (e.g., Landau reflex may not appear until age
2).
6. Older children with head injury and infectious brain insult
lose their advanced reflexes and regress to spinal cord and brain
stem level soon after the cerebral insult. They then develop
through the various stages during the recovery period.
7. These reflexes are useful as indicators of prognosis in
walking for children with cerebral palsy. For example, strong
asymmetric tonic reflex, crossed- extensor reflex and Moro together
with absence of parachute response give poor prognosis for
walking.
8. These reflexes can be useful in physical therapy. For
example, rolling an infant over a large beach ball will elicit a
parachute response, if present. This will help open a spastic
adducted thumb, since opening of the palm and extension of fingers
is part of this response. The child with severe persistent tonic
labyrinthine reflex may get equinus deformity if he is allowed to
remain in the supine position most of the day, because extensor
tone is increased in a supine position in the presence of active
tonic labyrinthine reflex. If this child is treated in a prone
position most of the day, flexor tone is accentuated as part of the
same reflex.
ASSOCIATED MOVEMENTS
A normal child has freely swinging arms during walking. o
Pyramidal or extrapyramidal disease, this
movement is lost.
A paralyzed upper arm also does not move and swing normally
during walking.
The other major associated movement is the mirror movement that
occurs when the child attempts rapid, repetitive activity with one
hand or foot. This may elicit a spontaneous movement of the
corresponding part of the
-
opposite limb until 5 to 6 years of age. After this age, mirror
movements indicate cerebral disease, such as cerebral palsy.
AUTONOMIC REFLEXES
The two areas of importance, other than the vital signs, are
skin and sphincters.
The two most important points to observe in the skin are: (1)
vasomotor instability and color changes associated with severe
pain, as in reflex sympathetic dystrophy, (2) lack of sweating, as
in Horner syndrome.
Anal sphincter is first observed to see whether the opening is
normal and contracted or patulous
A rectal examination will tell us about sphincter tone.
Anocutaneous reflex o pricking the perianal skin by a pin o
Normal response: brisk contraction of the
external sphincter.
Bladder cannot be adequately examined clinically one relies on
the history.
o History of dribbling o lack of awareness of full bladder o
lack of desire to void o inability to hold urine
*should make one suspicious of neurogenic bladder.
In the presence of bowel and bladder sphincter problems, the
motor and sensory systems should be examined carefully to rule out
lesions of spinal cord:
o Myelomeningocele o Lipomeningocele
__________________________________________________ ESGUERRA,
WINSTON L. 3F