Wind Turbine - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Offshore wind farm using 5MW

turbines REpower 5M in the North

Sea off the coast of Belgium.

Wind turbineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind, also called windenergy, into mechanical energy; a process known as wind power. If the mechanical energyis used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind turbine or wind powerplant. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain orpumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump. Similarly, it may be referredto as a wind charger when used for charging batteries.

The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today'swind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. Thesmallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power onboats; while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly importantsource of wind power-produced commercial electricity.

Contents

1 History2 Resources

3 Efficiency3.1 Theoretical power captured by a wind turbine3.2 Practical wind turbine power

4 Types4.1 Horizontal axis4.2 Vertical axis design

5 Design and construction5.1 Unconventional designs

6 Wind turbines on public display7 Small wind turbines

8 Wind turbine spacing9 Accidents10 Records11 Horizontal axis wind turbines12 See also

13 References

14 Further reading15 External links

History

Main article: History of wind power

Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) as early as 200 B.C.[1] The windwheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the

first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.[2][3] However, the first known practical windmills were built in Sistan, aregion between Afghanistan and Iran, from the 7th century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical

driveshafts with rectangular blades.[4] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used

to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[5]

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James Blyth's electricity-generating

wind turbine, photographed in 1891

The first megawatt-capacity wind

turbine in the USA, in 1941 Vermont

The first automatically operated wind

turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by

Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet

(18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6

metric tonnes) and powered a 12 kW

generator.[8]

Windmills first appeared in Europe during the middle ages. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th

centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190.[6] By the 14th century,Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta.

The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to

light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland.[7] Some months later American inventor Charles F Brush built the first automatically

operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.[7] Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the

United Kingdom[7] electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in

countries with widely scattered populations.[6]

In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such aspumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. Thelargest machines were on 24-metre (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-metre (75 ft)diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in theUS from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers

were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.[9] By the1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United Stateswhere distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel wascheap, and the generators were placed atopprefabricated open steel lattice towers.

A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis windgenerators was in service at Yalta, SovietUkraine in the USSR in 1931. This was a100 kW generator on a 30-metre (98 ft) tower,connected to the local 6.3 kV distributionsystem. It was reported to have an annualcapacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different

from current wind machines.[10] In the fall of1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine wassynchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. TheSmith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100hours before suffering a critical failure. The unitwas not repaired because of shortage ofmaterials during the war.

The first utility grid-connected wind turbine tooperate in the UK was built by John Brown &

Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands.[7][11]

As of 2012, Danish company Vestas is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer.

Resources

Main article: Wind power

A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD) It is a calculation of themean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground.Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for aparticular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Metres". In the United States, the results of the abovecalculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred to as "NREL CLASS".The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square metre or less at 50m altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square m). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas,

although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.[12]

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The three primary types:VAWT

Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT

Darrieus as they appear in operation

Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class IV, with A or B referring to the

turbulence.[13]

Class Avg Wind Speed (m/s) Turbulence

IA 10 18%

IB 10 16%

IIA 8.5 18%

IIB 8.5 16%

IIIA 7.5 18%

IIIB 7.5 16%

IVA 6 18%

IVB 6 16%

Efficiency

Theoretical power captured by a wind turbine

Total wind power could be captured only if the wind velocity is reduced to zero. In a realistic wind turbine this is impossible, as thecaptured air must also leave the turbine. A relation between the input and output wind velocity must be considered. Using the concept

of streamtube, the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine is 59% of the total theoretical wind power[14] (see:Betz' law).

Practical wind turbine power

Further insufficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the powerdelivered by a wind turbine. The basic relation that the turbine power is (approximately) proportional to the third power of velocityremains.

Types

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both

older and more common.[15]

Horizontal axis

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator atthe top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by asimple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servomotor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker

rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[16]

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are madestiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distancein front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additionalmechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces theirswept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs areof upwind design.

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Components of a horizontal axis wind

turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and

brake assembly) being lifted into

position

A turbine blade convoy passing

through Edenfield, UK

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A vertical axis Twisted

Savonius type turbine.

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind bycomputer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, whichcontribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40metres (66 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades rotate at 10 to 22

revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 metres per second (300 ft/s).[17][18] A gear box iscommonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Somemodels operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state powerconverter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high windspeeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.

Vertical axis design

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Keyadvantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to beeffective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for example whenintegrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with theconsequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower powercoefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hencethe highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on thedrive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of

analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.[19]

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drivefrom the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility formaintenance.

When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and thiscan double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower isapproximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy andminimum wind turbulence. It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment

are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,[20][21] noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequatelyresist the additional stress.

Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan it uses the ground effect. Vertical axisturbines of this type have been tried for many years: a large unit producing up to 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill

in 1980s:[22] the device is mentioned in Dr. Moshe Dan Hirsch's 1990 report, which decided the Israeli energy department

investments and support in the next 20 years.[citation needed] The Magenn WindKite blimp uses this configuration as well, chosen

because of the ease of running.[citation needed]

Design and construction

Main article: Wind turbine design

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine theoptimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.

Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into threecomponents:

The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy tolow speed rotational energy.

The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control

electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox,[23] adjustable-speed drive[24] or continuously variable

transmission[25]) component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating

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Components of a horizontal-axis wind

turbine

The corkscrew shaped wind turbine

at Progressive Field in Cleveland,

Ohio

The Nordex N50 wind turbine and

visitor centre of Lamma Winds in

Hong Kong

electricity.The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine

cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.[26]

A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower 80metres (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs 48,000 pounds(22,000 kg). The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs 115,000pounds (52,000 kg). The concrete base for the tower is constructed using 58,000 pounds

(26,000 kg) of reinforcing steel and contains 250 cubic yards (190 m3) of concrete. The

base is 50 ft (15 m) in diameter and 8 ft (2.4 m) thick near the center.[27]

Unconventional designs

Main article: Unconventional wind turbines

One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck,open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located inSwaffham, England. Airborne wind turbines have been investigated many times but have yetto produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunctionwith a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.

Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.[28]

The ram air turbine is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to some aircraft. Whendeployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide powerfor the most essential systems if there is a loss of all on–board electrical

power.[citation needed]

Wind turbines on public display

Main article: Wind turbines on public display

A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing themon public display, either with visitor centers around their bases, or with viewing areas

farther away.[29] The wind turbines themselves are generally of conventional horizontal-axis,three-bladed design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but they also serve theunconventional roles of technology demonstration, public relations, and education.

Australia: Blayney Wind Farm, New South Wales has a viewing area and

interpretive centre; Wattle Point Wind Farm, South Australia has an informationcentreCanada: OPG 7 commemorative turbine is a Vestas V80-1.8MW wind turbine on

the site of the Pickering Nuclear Generating Station; Toronto Hydro - WindSharefeatures a Lagerwey Wind model LW 52 wind turbine at Exhibition PlaceChina: Inner Mongolia's Huitengxile Wind Farm has 14 visitor centers to

accommodate wind power tourists to the remote region[30]

Hong Kong: Lamma Winds has a single Nordex N50/800 kW model with a rotor

diameter of 50m and a nameplate capacity of 800 kWNew Zealand: Brooklyn, Wellington, New Zealand has a 230 kW wind turbineUnited Kingdom: Ecotech Centre, Swaffham, Norfolk; Green Park Business Park

has an Enercon E-70 2 MW wind turbine[31] adjacent to the M4 motorway, billed

as the UK's most visible turbine; Renewable Energy Systems has a Vestas V29 225 kW wind turbine[32] visible from theM25 motorway at its headquarters at Beaufort Court, Kings Langley, Hertfordshire; Scroby Sands wind farm has a visitorcenter at Great Yarmouth open during the tourist season (May–October); Scout Moor Wind Farm "has become a real tourist

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A small Quietrevolution QR5

Gorlov type vertical axis

wind turbine in Bristol,

England. Measuring 3m in

diameter and 5m high, it has

a nameplate rating of 6.5kW

to the grid.

attraction"[33] since its 2008 opening; Whitelee Wind Farm near Glasgow has become the first wind energy project in Scotland

to join the Association of Scottish Visitor Attractions (ASVA).

United States: Dorchester, Massachusetts - Local 103 of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers installed the firstcommercial-scale wind turbine within the City of Boston, a 100 kW unit from Fuhrlaender on a 35-meter tower with rotor

diameter of 21 meters, visible from the John F. Kennedy Library[34]; The Great Lakes Science Center in Cleveland, Ohio has

a reconditioned Vestas V27 wind turbine with a nameplate capacity of 225 kW[35]; Great River Energy's headquarters in

Maple Grove, Minnesota has a NEG Micon M700 wind turbine, visible from Interstate 94[36][37]; Laurel, New York has aNorthern Power Systems 100 kW turbine at the Half Hollow Nursery and private tours of the operating turbine are provided

by Eastern Energy Systems Inc. of Mattituck, New York; Lubbock, Texas has a Vestas V47 at the American Wind PowerCenter; McKinney, Texas has a Wal-Mart store with several sustainability features, including two wind turbines manufactured

by Bergey Windpower, of 1 kW and 50 kW nameplate capacity respectively[38]; Sweetwater, Texas has a 2 MW 60 Hz

DeWind D8.2 prototype wind turbine[39] for training students in the Texas State Technical College wind energy program[40]

Small wind turbines

Main article: Small wind turbine

Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences,telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposesthat require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbinesmay be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. The U.S. Department of Energy'sNational Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than

or equal to 100 kilowatts.[41] Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output,aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.

Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flapsand are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large windturbines are being researched.

Wind turbine spacing

On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is oftenupheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be moreeconomically optimal, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has

been reached by research[42] conducted by Charles Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University,[43]

and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations[44] that takeinto account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entireturbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines maybe placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighbouring turbines

to move in the same direction as they approach one another.[45]

Accidents

Several cases occurred where the housings of wind turbines caught fire. As housings are normally out of the range of standard fireextinguishing equipment, it is nearly impossible to extinguish such fires on older turbine units which lack fire suppression systems. In

several cases one or more blades were damaged or torn away.[46] In 2010 70 mph (110 km/h; 61 kn) storm winds damaged some

blades, prompting blade removal and inspection of all 25 wind turbines in Campo Indian Reservation in the US State of California.[47]

Several wind turbines also collapsed.

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Fuhrländer Wind Turbine

Laasow, among the world's

tallest wind turbines

Place Date TypeNacelleheight

Rotordia.

Yearbuilt

Reason

Damage

andcasualties

Ellenstedt,Germany

October19, 2002

[48]

Schneebergerhof,Germany

December20, 2003

Vestas V80 80 m [48]

Wasco, Oregon,USA

August25, 2007

Siemens

Human error: turbine restarted

while blades were locked inmaximum wind-resistance

mode[49]

1 workerkilled, 1injured

Stobart Mill, UKDecember

30, 2007Vestas 1982 [50]

Hornslet,Denmark

February22, 2008

Nordtank NKT600-180

44.5 m 43 m 1996 Brake failure[51][52]

Searsburg,Vermont, USA

October16, 2008

Zond Z-P40-FS 1997

Rotor blade collided with towerduring strong wind and

destroyed it[53]

Altona, NewYork, USA

March 6,2009

GE Energy

1.5MW[54] Lightning likely [55]

Fenner, New

York, USA

December

27, 2009

GE Energy 1.5

MW[citation needed][56]

Kirtorf, GermanyJune 19,2011

DeWind D-6 68.5 m 62 m 2001

Ayrshire,Scotland

December8, 2011

Vestas V80

2MW[57][58]

Records

Largest capacity

The Enercon E-126 has a rated capacity of 7.58 MW,[59] has an overall height of 198 m(650 ft), a diameter of 126 m (413 ft), and is the world's largest-capacity wind turbine since

its introduction in 2007.[60] At least five companies are working on the development of a10MW turbine.

Largest swept areaThe turbine with the largest swept area is the Siemens SWT-6.0-154, with a diameter of 154

m, giving a total sweep of 18,600 m2[61][62]

TallestThe tallest wind turbines are two standing in Paproć, Poland, 210 meters tall, also

constructed by Fuhrlaender in late 2012. Their axis have the same height as previous tallestturbine, Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, that is 160 meters, but their rotors reach 210against the Laasow's 205 meters. Those three turbines are the only ones in the world taller

than 200 meters.[63][64]

Largest vertical-axisLe Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) named

Éole, which is the world's largest at 110 m.[65] It has a nameplate capacity of 3.8MW.[66]

Most southerly

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Éole, the largest vertical axis

wind turbine, in Cap-Chat,

Quebec

The turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are three Enercon E-33 in Antarctica, powering New Zealand's

Scott Base and the United States' McMurdo Station since December 2009[67][68] although amodified HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the Amundsen-Scott South

Pole Station in 1997 and 1998.[69] In March 2010 CITEDEF designed, built and installed a

wind turbine in Argentine Marambio Base.[70]

Most productiveFour turbines at Rønland wind farm in Denmark share the record for the most productive

wind turbines, with each having generated 63.2 GWh by June 2010[71]

Highest-situatedThe world's highest-situated wind turbine is made by DeWind installed by the Seawind

Group and located in the Andes, Argentina around 4,100 metres (13,500 ft) above sea level.The site uses a type D8.2 - 2000 kW / 50 Hz turbine. This turbine has a new drive trainconcept with a special torque converter (WinDrive) made by Voith and a synchronous

generator. The WKA was put into operation in December 2007 and has supplied the

Veladero mine of Barrick Gold with electricity since then.[72]

Largest floating wind turbineThe world's largest—and also the first operational deep-water large-capacity—floatingwind turbine is the 2.3 MW Hywind currently operating 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) offshore in

220-meter-deep water, southwest of Karmøy, Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a

Siemens 2.3 MW turbine[73][74]

Horizontal axis wind turbines

A list of the different models of wind turbines from the top 10 wind turbine manufacturers by market share:

MW Name ManufacturerMarket

dateOffshore

Swept

area m2

Rotordiameter(meters)

Hubheight

(meters)Geared

8.0

MWV164-8.0 MW Vestas 2015 Q1 x 21,124 164 105 x

7.580

MWE-126 Enercon 2011 - 12,668 127 135 -

6.0MW

SWT-6.0-154Siemens WindPower

2012 both 18,600[75] 154Site-

specific[76] -

6.0MW

SL6000 Sinovel 2011 - 12,868 128 x

5.0

MWSL5000 Sinovel 2010 - 12,868 128 x

5.0

MWG128-5.0 MW Gamesa 2013 x 12,868 128 80-94[77] x

4.5MW

G136-4.5 MW Gamesa 2011[78] - 14,527 136 120[79] x

4.5MW

G128-4.5 MW Gamesa 2012 - 12,868 12881, 120,

140[80] x

4.1

MW4.1-113[81] GE Energy x 9,940[81] 113 -

3.6

MWSWT-3.6-120

Siemens Wind

Power2010 - 11,300 120 90 x

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3.6MW

SWT-3.6-107 Siemens WindPower

2004 both 9,000 107 80 x

3.05

MWE-101 Enercon ? - 8,012 101

99, 135,

149-

3.0MW

UP100DD[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 100 -

3.0MW

UP100DF[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 100 x

3.0MW

SWT-3.0-113[83] Siemens WindPower

? - 10,000 113 79.5-142.5 -

3.0MW

SWT-3.0-108Siemens WindPower

? - 9,150 108 79.5-99.5 -

3.0MW

SWT-3.0-101Siemens WindPower

? - 8,000 101 74.5-99.5 -

3.0

MWV112-3.0 MW[84] Vestas ? - 9,852 112 84, 94, 119 x

3.0

MW

V112-3.0 MW

Offshore[85] Vestas ? x 9,852 112 site specific x

3.0MW

V90-3 MW[86] Vestas 2003 - 6,362 90 80, 90, 105 x

3.0MW

V90-3.0 MWOffshore

Vestas 2003 x 6,362 90 site specific x

3.0MW

E-82 E3, E4 Enercon ? - 5,281 8278, 85, 98,108, 138

-

3.0

MWSCD 3.0 MW[87] Ming Yang ? -

6,644,

7,850

92, 100,

108

75, 85, 90,

100x

3.0

MWSL3000[88] Sinovel 2010 - 10,038.7 113.3 90 x

2.75MW

2.75-103[89] GE Energy ? - 103 85, 98.3 x

2.75MW

2.75-100[89] GE Energy ? - 100 85, 98.3 x

2.6MW

V100-2.6 MW Vestas ? - 7,854 100 x

2.5MW

E-115 Enercon ? - 10,387 115 92.5-149 -

2.5MW

GW 109[90] Goldwind ? - 9,399 109 100 -

2.5

MWGW 106[90] Goldwind ? - 8,824 106 100 -

2.5

MWGW 100[90] Goldwind ? - 7,823 100 100 -

2.5MW

GW 90[90] Goldwind ? - 6,362 90 80 -

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2.5MW

SCD 2.5 MW[87] Ming Yang ? - 6,644,7,850

92, 100,108

75, 85, 90,100

x

2.35MW

E-92 Enercon ? - 6,648 9285, 98,104, 108,138

-

2.3MW

E-82 E2 Enercon ? - 5,281 8278, 85, 98,108, 138

-

2.3

MWE-70[91] Enercon ? - 3,959 71

57, 64, 74,

85, 98, 113-

2.3

MWSWT-2.3-113[92] Siemens Wind

Power ? - 10,000 113 99.5 -

2.3MW

SWT-2.3-108[93] Siemens WindPower

? - 9,144 108 80 x

2.3

MWSWT-2.3-101[94] Siemens Wind

Power ? - 8,000 101 80 x

2.3

MWSWT-2.3-93[95] Siemens Wind

Power ? - 6,800 93 80 x

2.3

MW SWT-2.3-82 VSSiemens Wind

Power ? - 5,300 82.4 80 x

2.25MW

S88 MARK II DFIG

2.25 MW[96] Suzlon 2011 - 6,082 88 80 x

2.1MW

S9X (S95, S97)[97] Suzlon ? -7,085,7,386

95, 97 80, 90, 100 x

2.1MW

S88-2.1 MW[98] Suzlon ? - 6,082 88 80 x

2.0

MWE-82 E2[99] Enercon ? - 5,281 82

78, 85, 98,

108, 138-

2.0MW

G114-2.0 MW Gamesa 2013[100] - 10,207 11493, 120,

140[101] x

2.0MW

G97-2.0 MW Gamesa 2010[102] - 7,390 97 78, 90[103] x

2.0

MWG90-2.0 MW Gamesa 2005[104] - 6,362 90 67, 78, 100 x

2.0MW

G87-2.0 MW Gamesa 2004 - 5,945 8767, 78, 90,

100[105] x

2.0MW

G80-2.0 MW Gamesa 2003 - 5,027 8060, 67, 78,

100[106] x

2.0MW

UP96[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 96.4 x

1.8/2.0MW

V100-1.8/2.0

MW[107] Vestas ? - 7,854 100 80, 95 x

1.8

MWV100-1.8 MW Vestas ? - 100

1.8/2.0Vestas ? - 6,362 90 80-125 x

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MW V90-1.8/2.0 MW[107]

2.0

MWV80-2.0 MW[107] Vestas ? - 5,027 80 60-100 x

1.6

MW1.6-82.5[108] GE Energy 2008 - 5,346 82.5 65, 80, 100 x

1.5MW

1.5-77[109] GE Energy 2004 - 4,657[110] 77 65, 80 x

1.5

MW1.5s[108] GE Energy ? - 3,904[111] 70.5 64.7 x

1.5MW

1.5i[108] GE Energy 1996 - 65 x

1.5MW

GW 87[112] Goldwind ? - 5,890 8770, 75, 85,100

-

1.5MW

GW 82[112] Goldwind ? - 5,324 8270, 75, 85,100

-

1.5MW

GW 77[112] Goldwind ? - 4,654 77 61.5, 85,100

-

1.5MW

GW 70[112] Goldwind ? - 3,850 70 65, 85 -

1.5MW

UP86[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 86.086 x

1.5MW

UP82[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 82.76 x

1.5MW

UP77[82] Guodian UnitedPower

? - 77.36 x

1.5MW

MY 1.5s[113] Ming Yang ? - 5,320 82.665, 70, 75,80

x

1.5

MWMY 1.5se[113] Ming Yang ? - 4,368 77.1

65, 70, 75,

80x

1.5MW

MY 1.5Sh[113] Ming Yang ? - 5,320 82.665, 70, 75,80

x

1.5MW

MY 1.5Su[113] Ming Yang ? - 4,368/5,320 77.1/82.665, 70, 75,80

x

1.5MW

S82-1.5 MW[114] Suzlon ? - 5,281 82 78.5 x

1.5MW

SL1500/70,77,82[115] Sinovel ? -3,892.5,4,657,5,398

70.4, 77.4,82.9

65-100 x

1.25MW

S66-1.25 MW[116] Suzlon ? - 3,421 66 74.5 x

1.25MW

S66-1.25 MW[117] Suzlon ? - 3,421 66 74.5 x

1.25MW

S64-1.25 MW[117] Suzlon ? - 3,217 64 74.5 x

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0.9MW

E-44[118] Enercon ? - 1,521 44 45, 55 -

0.85MW

G58-0.85 MW[119] Gamesa ? - 2,682 5844, 55, 65,74

x

0.85MW

G52-0.85 MW[120] Gamesa ? - 2,214 52 44, 55, 65 x

0.8MW

E-53[121] Enercon ? - 2,198 52.9 60, 73 -

0.8

MWE-48[122] Enercon ? - 1,810 48

50, 55, 60,

76-

0.6MW

S52-600KW[123] Suzlon ? - 2,124 52 75 x

See also

Small wind turbine

Compact wind acceleration turbineEnvironmental effects of wind powerÉolienne BolléeList of wind turbine manufacturersList of wind turbinesWind farm

Wind turbines on public displayWindpumpWindbeltWindmill

References

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(http://apps.carleton.edu/campus/library/digitalcommons/assets/pacp_7.pdf)

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17. ^ Products & Services (http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/specs.htm)

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24. ^ djtreal.com - de beste bron van informatie over djtreal. Deze website is te koop!(http://www.djtreal.com/variable+speed+gearbox+design.html)

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27. ^ http://www.pomeroyiowa.com/windflyer.pdf

28. ^ Spiral Magnus|MECARO|Introducuction to Magnus (http://www.mecaro.jp/eng/introduction.html)

29. ^ Young, Kathryn (2007-08-03). "Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists"(http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=63a5438a-ae99-4b76-9629-b7b59d238932) . EdmontonJournal. http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=63a5438a-ae99-4b76-9629-b7b59d238932. Retrieved2008-09-06.

30. ^ Zhou, Renjie; Yadan Wang (2007-08-14). "Residents of Inner Mongolia Find New Hope in the Desert"(http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5286) . Worldwatch Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5286. Retrieved 2008-11-04.

31. ^ Bolsher, Terry (11 2005). "Green energy" (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5379/is_200511/ai_n21384201) . BNET.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5379/is_200511/ai_n21384201. Retrieved 2008-11-12.

32. ^ "Power from the wind" (http://www.beaufortcourt.com/pdf/BeaufortCourt/WindPower1.pdf) (PDF). Renewable Energy Systems.http://www.beaufortcourt.com/pdf/BeaufortCourt/WindPower1.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-16.

33. ^ "Wind farm is in the frame" (http://www.burytimes.co.uk/news/ramsbottomtottington/3926711.Wind_farm_is_in_the_frame/) .Bury Times. 2008-11-28. http://www.burytimes.co.uk/news/ramsbottomtottington/3926711.Wind_farm_is_in_the_frame/. Retrieved2008-12-12.

34. ^ "Boston's First Wind Turbine Serves as Example" (http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=30153) .RenewableEnergyAccess.com. 2005-05-18. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=30153. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

35. ^ "Wind Turbine Project Q & A" (http://www.glsc.org/press/press.php?id=34) . Great Lakes Science Center. 2006-05-17.http://www.glsc.org/press/press.php?id=34. Retrieved 2008-10-28.

36. ^ "Great River's new headquarters 'LEEDs' by example" (http://www.wapa.gov/ES/pubs/esb/2008/jul/jul081.htm) . Reliable EnergySolutions. http://www.wapa.gov/ES/pubs/esb/2008/jul/jul081.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-01.

37. ^ Levy, Paul (2007-11-27). "An energy model for all to see" (http://www.startribune.com/local/west/11922246.html) . Star Tribune.http://www.startribune.com/local/west/11922246.html. Retrieved 2008-11-02.

38. ^ Broehl, Jesse (2005-07-22). "Wal-Mart Deploys Solar, Wind, Sustainable Design"(http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=34647) . Renewable Energy World.http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/story?id=34647. Retrieved 2008-11-01.

39. ^ "DeWind Plans Wind Turbine Demo Site in Sweetwater, Texas"(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m5CNK/is_2007_Sept_6/ai_n25011477) . BNET Business Network. 2007-09-06.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m5CNK/is_2007_Sept_6/ai_n25011477. Retrieved 2008-11-05.

40. ^ Block, Ben (2008-07-24). "In Windy West Texas, An Economic Boom" (http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/008271.html) .http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/008271.html. Retrieved 2008-11-05.

41. ^ Small Wind (http://www.nrel.gov/wind/smallwind/) , U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website

42. ^ J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2011), Wind Energy(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/we.469/full) doi:10.1002/we.469 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fwe.469)

43. ^ Optimal spacing for wind turbines (http://gazette.jhu.edu/2011/01/18/new-study-yields-better-turbine-spacing-for-large-wind-farms/)

44. ^ M. Calaf, C. Meneveau and J. Meyers, "Large Eddy Simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" (2010),Phys. Fluids 22, 015110 (http://link.aip.org/link/?PHFLE6/22/015110/1/)

45. ^ Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbinearrays (2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104 (http://jrse.aip.org/resource/1/jrsebh/v3/i4/p043104_s1/)

46. ^ WindByte.co.uk website (http://www.windbyte.co.uk/safety.html)

47. ^ Windstorm damage (http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2010/jan/13/damaging-blow/) , SignOnSanDiego.com website

a b Umfaller im Windpark Ellenstedt in der Nähe von Vechta (http://mitglied.multimania.de/WilfriedHeck/ellenst.htm)

3/4/13 Wind turbine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine 15/17

48. a b Umfaller im Windpark Ellenstedt in der Nähe von Vechta (http://mitglied.multimania.de/WilfriedHeck/ellenst.htm)

49. ^ Oregon OSHA releases findings in wind turbine collapse(http://www.cbs.state.or.us/external/osha/admin/newsrelease/2008/nr2008_05.pdf)

50. ^ "Probe into wind turbine collapse" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cumbria/7168275.stm) .http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cumbria/7168275.stm.

51. ^ Ron's Log: Wind Energy (http://ronslog.typepad.com/ronslog/2008/02/wind-energy.html)

52. ^ Nordtank (Vestas) wind system fail and crashes. - YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqEccgR0q-o)

53. ^ Strong wind destroys Searsburg wind turbine : Rutland Herald Online (http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081015/NEWS04/810150400/1004/NEWS03)

54. ^ [1] (http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/17/turbine-collapses-wiring-blamed/)

55. ^ Lightning Possible Cause of Turbine Fire | WXGuard Wind (http://www.wxguardwind.com/lightning-news/lightning-possible-cause-of-turbine-fire/)

56. ^ Better Plan: The Trouble With Industrial Wind Farms in Wisconsin - Today's Special Feature - 12/28/09 UPDATE on yesterday'sturbine collapse: Another One Bites the Dust: What ... (http://betterplan.squarespace.com/todays-special/2009/12/27/122809-update-on-yesterdays-turbine-collapse-another-one-bit.html)

57. ^ http://www.infinis.com/our-business/onshore-wind/our-operations/ardrossan/

58. ^ Wind Turbine Explodes Into Flames : Discovery News (http://news.discovery.com/tech/wind-turbine-explodes-111211.html)

59. ^ http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/EN_Produktuebersicht_0710.pdf

60. ^ "New Record: World's Largest Wind Turbine (7+ Megawatts) — MetaEfficient Reviews"(http://www.metaefficient.com/news/new-record-worlds-largest-wind-turbine-7-megawatts.html) . MetaEfficient.com. 2008-02-03.http://www.metaefficient.com/news/new-record-worlds-largest-wind-turbine-7-megawatts.html. Retrieved 2010-04-17.

61. ^ Siemens brochure(http://www.swe.siemens.com/spain/web/es/energy/energias_renovables/eolica/Documents/6MW_direct_drive_offshore_wind_turbine.pdf)

62. ^ Siemens starts field tests of biggest rotor offshore turbine(http://www.rechargenews.com/business_area/innovation/article324789.ece)

63. ^ "FL 2500 Noch mehr Wirtschaftlichkeit" (http://fuhrlaender.de/produkte/index_de.php?produkt_gesucht=1&produkt_name=FL+2500) (in German). Fuhrlaender AG. http://fuhrlaender.de/produkte/index_de.php?produkt_gesucht=1&produkt_name=FL+2500. Retrieved 2009-11-05.

64. ^ "Nowy Tomyśl: powstały najwyższe wiatraki na świecie!" (http://epoznan.pl/news-news-36935-Nowy_Tomysl_powstaly_najwyzsze_wiatraki_na_swiecie) (in Polish). Epoznan. http://epoznan.pl/news-news-36935-Nowy_Tomysl_powstaly_najwyzsze_wiatraki_na_swiecie. Retrieved 2012-12-04.

65. ^ "Visits > Big wind turbine" (http://www.eolecapchat.com/e_1b-grande.html) . http://www.eolecapchat.com/e_1b-grande.html.Retrieved 2010-04-17.

66. ^ "Wind Energy Power Plants in Canada - other provinces" (http://www.industcards.com/wind-canada.htm) . 2010-06-05.http://www.industcards.com/wind-canada.htm. Retrieved 2010-08-24.

67. ^ Antarctica New Zealand (http://www.antarcticanz.govt.nz/scott-base/ross-island-wind-energy)

68. ^ New Zealand Wind Energy Association (http://windenergy.org.nz/nz-wind-farms/operating-wind-farms/ross-island)

69. ^ Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine (http://www.southpolestation.com/trivia/90s/turbine.html) .

70. ^ GENERADOR DE ENERGÍA EÓLICA EN LA ANTÁRTIDA (http://www.mindef.gov.ar/info.asp?Id=1425)

71. ^ "Surpassing Matilda: record-breaking Danish wind turbines" (http://www.energynumbers.info/surpassing-matilda-record-breaking-danish-wind-turbines) . http://www.energynumbers.info/surpassing-matilda-record-breaking-danish-wind-turbines. Retrieved 2010-07-26.

72. ^ Voith | Voith Turbo (http://www.voithturbo.com/vt_en_pua_windrive_project-report_2008.htm)

73. ^ Patel, Prachi (2009-06-22). "Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested" (http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/wind/floating-wind-turbines-to-be-tested) . IEEE Spectrum. http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/wind/floating-wind-turbines-to-be-tested. Retrieved2011-03-07. "will test how the 2.3-megawatt turbine holds up in 220-meter-deep water."

74. ^ Madslien, Jorn (8 September 2009). "Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8235456.stm?ls) .BBC News (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8235456.stm?ls. Retrieved 2011-03-07. "world's first full-scale floating wind turbine"

75. ^ Technical specifications (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/en/power-generation/renewables/wind-power/wind-turbines/swt-6-0-154.htm#content=Technical%20specification)

76. ^ Siemens 6.0 MW Offshore Wind Turbine (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/pool/hq/power-generation/renewables/wind-power/6_MW_Brochure_Jan.2012.pdf)

77. ^ Gamesa 5.0 MW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/recursos/doc/productos-servicios/aerogeneradores/catalogo-offshore-eng.pdf)

78. ^ Gamesa launches its new G136-4.5 MW turbine, designed for low-wind sites(http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/communication/news/gamesa-launches-its-new-g136-45-mw-turbine-designed-for-low-wind-sites.html?idCategoria=0&fechaDesde=&especifica=0&texto=&fechaHasta=)

79. ^ Gamesa G136-4.5 MW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/products-and-services/wind-turbines/productos-y-servicios-aerogeneradores-2catalo.html)

80. ^ Gamesa 4.5 MW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/recursos/doc/productos-servicios/aerogeneradores/catalogo-g10x-45mw-eng.pdf)

81. a b 4.1-113 Offshore Wind Turbine (http://www.ge-

3/4/13 Wind turbine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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81. a b 4.1-113 Offshore Wind Turbine (http://www.ge-energy.com/content/multimedia/_files/downloads/GE%20Offshore%20Wind%204.1-113.pdf)

82. a b c d e f Technical Parameters (http://www.gdupc.com.cn/english/tabid/386/SourceId/1058/InfoID/827/language/zh-CN/Default.aspx)

83. ^ Siemens 3.0 MW Direct Drive Wind Turbines (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/pool/hq/power-generation/wind-power/SWT-3.0_family_EN.pdf)

84. ^ V112-3.0 MW (http://v112.vestas.com/Vestas_V_112_web.pdf)

85. ^ V112-3.0 MW Offshore (http://www.vestas.com/Admin/Public/Download.aspx?file=Files%2fFiler%2fEN%2fBrochures%2fProductbrochure_V112_Offshore_UK.pdf)

86. ^ V90-3.0 (http://www.vestas.com/Admin/Public/Download.aspx?file=Files%2fFiler%2fEN%2fBrochures%2fVestas_V_90-3MW-11-2009-EN.pdf)

87. a b Mingyang Wind Power (http://www.mywind.com.cn/upfile/File/2012/SCD%20Series%20Wind%20Turbine%20Generator.pdf)

88. ^ SL3000 Series Wind Turbine (http://www.zugastek.com/Sinovel/especificacionesSL3000.pdf)

89. a b GE's 2.75 MW Wind Turbines (http://www.ge-energy.com/content/multimedia/_files/downloads/GEA18657B_Wind_2.75_Broch_LR.pdf)

90. a b c d GW 2.5 PMDD Wind Turbine(http://www.goldwindamerica.com/goldwind/cmdocs/Goldwind2.5MWPMDDWindTurbineBrochure.pdf)

91. ^ E-70 / 2,300 kW (http://www.enercon.de/en-en/61.htm)

92. ^ Siemens SWT-2.3-113 (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/pool/hq/power-generation/wind-power/SWT-2.3-113-product-brochure_EN.pdf)

93. ^ Siemens Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-108 (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/pool/hq/power-generation/renewables/wind-power/wind%20turbines/Siemens%20Wind%20Turbine%20SWT-2.3-108_EN.pdf)

94. ^ Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-101 (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/en/power-generation/renewables/wind-power/wind-turbines/swt-2-3-101.htm#content=Technical%20Specification)

95. ^ Wind Turbine SWT-2.3-93 (http://www.energy.siemens.com/us/en/power-generation/renewables/wind-power/wind-turbines/swt-2-3-93.htm#content=Technical%20Specification)

96. ^ S88 MARK II DFIG 2.25 MW (http://suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=43)

97. ^ Introducing the S9X (http://www.suzlon.com/products/l3.aspx?l1=2&l2=44&l3=128)

98. ^ S88-2.1 MW (http://www.suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=9)

99. ^ E-82 E2 / 2,000 kW (http://www.enercon.de/en-en/62.htm)

100. ^ Gamesa launches a new turbine, the G114-2.0 MW: maximum returns for low-wind sites(http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/communication/news/gamesa-launches-a-new-turbine-the-g114-20-mw-maximum-returns-for-low-wind-sites.html?idCategoria=0&fechaDesde=&especifica=0&texto=G114-2.0&fechaHasta=)

101. ^ []

102. ^ Gamesa maintained profitability and sound financial position in a situation of economic weakness and regulatory uncertainty(http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/communication/news/gamesa-maintained-profitability-and-sound-financial-position-in-a-situation-of-economic-weakness-and-regulatory-uncertainty.html?idCategoria=0&fechaDesde=&especifica=0&texto=G97-2.0&fechaHasta=12/31/2011)

103. ^ Gamesa G97-2.0 MW IIIA (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/gamesa-g97-20-mw-iiia-en.html)

104. ^ Gamesa supplies 9 latest generation wind turbines to wind farms in Albacete(http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/communication/news/gamesa-supplies-9-latest-generation-wind-turbines-to-wind-farms-in-albacete.html?idCategoria=0&fechaDesde=&especifica=0&texto=G90-2.0&fechaHasta=12/31/2006)

105. ^ Gamesa G87-2.0 MW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/products-and-services/wind-turbines/catalogue/gamesa-g87-20-mw-en.html)

106. ^ Gamesa G80-2.0 MW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/gamesa-g80-20-mw-en.html)

107. a b c Vestas 2MW (http://nozebra.ipapercms.dk/Vestas/Communication/Productbrochure/2MWTurbineBrochure/2MWMrk7US/)

108. a b c GE's 1.6 MW Wind Turbines (http://www.ge-energy.com/content/multimedia/_files/downloads/GEA18755B_Wind_1.6-82.5_Broch%5Bsp%5D_LR.pdf)

109. ^ GE 1.5-77 Wind Turbines (http://www.ge-energy.com/products_and_services/products/wind_turbines/ge_1.5_77_wind_turbine.jsp)

110. ^ GE 1.5 MW Wind Turbine (http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~moyer/GEOS24705/Readings/GEA14954C15-MW-Broch.pdf)

111. ^ GE1.5 (http://www.cohoctonfree.com/articles/GE%201.5%20brochure.pdf)

112. a b c d GW 1.5 PMDD Wind Turbine(http://www.goldwindamerica.com/goldwind/cmdocs/Goldwind1.5MWPMDDWindTurbineBrochure.pdf)

113. a b c d Mingyang Wind Power(http://www.mywind.com.cn/upfile/File/2012/Mingyang%201.5MW%20Series%20Wind%20Turbine%20Generator.pdf)

114. ^ S82-1.5 MW (http://suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=8)

115. ^ Eternal Power from Sinovel (http://www.soaringwindenergy.com/pdfs/SinovelWind.pdf)

116. ^ S66-1.25 MW (http://www.suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=7)

117. a b S64-1.25 MW (http://suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=6)

118. ^ Enercon Product Overview (http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/ENERCON_PU_en.pdf)

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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine 17/17

118. ^ Enercon Product Overview (http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/ENERCON_PU_en.pdf)

119. ^ Gamesa G58-850 kW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/products-and-services/wind-turbines/catalogue/gamesa-g58-850-kw-en.html)

120. ^ Gamesa G52-850 kW (http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/products-and-services/wind-turbines/catalogue/gamesa-g52-850-kw-en.html)

121. ^ E-53 / 800 kW (http://www.enercon.de/en-en/59.htm)

122. ^ E-48 / 800 kW (http://www.enercon.de/en-en/492.htm)

123. ^ S52-600 kW (http://suzlon.com/products/l2.aspx?l1=2&l2=5)

Further reading

Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition (2001),ISBN 0-471-48997-2

Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875 (http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html) , TeloNet Web Development, Copyright1996–2001David, Macaulay, New Way Things Work, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Copyright 1994–1999, pg.41-42Erich Hau Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Birkhäuser, 2006 ISBN 3-540-24240-6(preview on Google Books)David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering, Second Edition (2009),

ASME Press, ISBN #: 9780791802601

External links

Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb

(https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/mragheb/www/NPRE%20475%20Wind%20Power%20Systems/)Wind Projects (http://www.projectfreepower.com/)Guided tour on wind energy (http://www.windpower.org/en/knowledge/guided_tour.html)Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association (http://www.wwindea.org/)Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic (http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/wind-power-interactive.html)

Airborne Wind Industry Association international (http://www.aweia.org)The Top 10 biggest wind turbines in the world (http://www.windpowermonthly.com/go/worlds_biggest_windturbines/)

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Wind turbines

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